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Monitoring and planning </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Monitoring_and_planning-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Monitoring and planning subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Monitoring_and_planning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forest_inventory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_inventory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Forest inventory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_inventory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wildlife_considerations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wildlife_considerations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Wildlife considerations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wildlife_considerations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management_intensity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management_intensity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Management intensity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Management_intensity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Monitoring </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change_on_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_climate_change_on_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Effects of climate change on forests </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_climate_change_on_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_for_creating_or_recreating_forests" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_for_creating_or_recreating_forests"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Methods for creating or recreating forests </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methods_for_creating_or_recreating_forests-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Methods for creating or recreating forests subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Methods_for_creating_or_recreating_forests-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tree_breeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tree_breeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Tree breeding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tree_breeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tree_planting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tree_planting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Tree planting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tree_planting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Reforestation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forest_restoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_restoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Forest restoration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_restoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Afforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Afforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Afforestation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Afforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Types </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Types subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plantation_forestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plantation_forestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Plantation forestry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plantation_forestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silviculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silviculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Silviculture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silviculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bamboo_forestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bamboo_forestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Bamboo forestry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bamboo_forestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hardwood_timber_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hardwood_timber_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Hardwood timber production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hardwood_timber_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_forestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_forestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Energy forestry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_forestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_farming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_farming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Forest farming </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_farming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sustainable_forest_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainable_forest_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Sustainable forest management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sustainable_forest_management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sustainable forest management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sustainable_forest_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Definition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criteria_and_indicators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criteria_and_indicators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Criteria and indicators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criteria_and_indicators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecosystem_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecosystem_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Ecosystem approach </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecosystem_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecoforestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecoforestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Ecoforestry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecoforestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continuous_cover_forestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continuous_cover_forestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.2 Continuous cover forestry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continuous_cover_forestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mycoforestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mycoforestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.3 Mycoforestry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mycoforestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Assisted_natural_regeneration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Assisted_natural_regeneration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.3.1 Assisted natural regeneration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Assisted_natural_regeneration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_harvesting_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_harvesting_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.4 Alternative harvesting methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_harvesting_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preserving_forest_genetic_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preserving_forest_genetic_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.5 Preserving forest genetic resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preserving_forest_genetic_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Problems </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Problems-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Problems subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Problems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wildfires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wildfires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Wildfires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wildfires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Forest degradation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Deforestation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deforestation_and_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deforestation_and_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Deforestation and climate change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deforestation_and_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Checkerboarding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Checkerboarding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Checkerboarding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Checkerboarding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unsustainable_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unsustainable_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Unsustainable practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unsustainable_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clear-cutting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clear-cutting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.1 Clear-cutting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clear-cutting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Even-aged_timber_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Even-aged_timber_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.2 Even-aged timber management </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Even-aged_timber_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Illegal_logging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illegal_logging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5.3 Illegal logging </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illegal_logging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Certification_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Certification_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Certification systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Certification_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_governance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_governance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Forest governance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forest_governance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Forest governance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Forest_governance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Community_forestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Community_forestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Community forestry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Community_forestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forestry_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forestry_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Forestry law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forestry_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation_of_deforestation_and_climate_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation_of_deforestation_and_climate_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Mitigation of deforestation and climate change </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mitigation_of_deforestation_and_climate_change-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mitigation of deforestation and climate change subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mitigation_of_deforestation_and_climate_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Forest_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Forest protection </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tropical_rainforest_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tropical_rainforest_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.1 Tropical rainforest conservation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tropical_rainforest_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Proforestation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Increasing_Forest_and_Community_Resilience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increasing_Forest_and_Community_Resilience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.1 Increasing Forest and Community Resilience </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increasing_Forest_and_Community_Resilience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Workers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Workers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Workers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Workers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-13th_to_16th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#13th_to_16th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 13th to 16th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-13th_to_16th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanization_in_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanization_in_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Mechanization in 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanization_in_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forest_conservation_and_early_globalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forest_conservation_and_early_globalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Forest conservation and early globalization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Forest_conservation_and_early_globalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.4 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.5 Journals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_input_and_awareness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_input_and_awareness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 Public input and awareness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_input_and_awareness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 By region </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle By region subsection </button> <ul id="toc-By_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Developing_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developing_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Developing world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developing_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 European Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Great_Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.3 Great Britain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.4 America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.4.1 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.4.2 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.5 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.5.1 Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indonesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indonesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.5.2 Indonesia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indonesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.6 Africa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Congo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.6.1 Congo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kenya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kenya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.6.2 Kenya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kenya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84" title="مدیریت جنگل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مدیریت جنگل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Am%C3%A9nagement_forestier" title="Aménagement forestier – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Aménagement forestier" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%BC%EB%A6%BC%EA%B2%BD%EC%98%81%ED%95%99" title="삼림경영학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="삼림경영학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Անտառաշինություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Անտառաշինություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manajemen_hutan" title="Manajemen hutan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Manajemen hutan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C5%A1kotvarka" 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title="د ځنګلونو مدیریت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ځنګلونو مدیریت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urz%C4%85dzanie_lasu" title="Urządzanie lasu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Urządzanie lasu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manejo_florestal" title="Manejo florestal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Manejo florestal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospodarjenje_z_gozdom" title="Gospodarjenje z gozdom – 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Great_outdoors_06.jpg/220px-Great_outdoors_06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Great_outdoors_06.jpg/330px-Great_outdoors_06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Great_outdoors_06.jpg/440px-Great_outdoors_06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>Sustainable forest management balances local socioeconomic, cultural, and ecological needs and constraints.</figcaption></figure> Forest management is a <a href="/wiki/Topic_outline_of_forestry#Branches_of_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Topic outline of forestry">branch</a> of <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as <a href="#Silviculture">silviculture</a>, <a href="#Forest_protection">forest protection</a>, and <a href="#Forest_regulation">forest regulation</a>. This includes management for timber, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outdoor_recreation" title="Outdoor recreation">recreation</a>, urban values, <a href="/wiki/Watershed_management" title="Watershed management">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a>, inland and nearshore fisheries, <a href="/wiki/Forest_product" title="Forest product">wood products</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">plant genetic resources</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Nontimber_forest_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Nontimber forest products">forest resource values</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">timber</a> extraction, <a href="#Afforestation">planting</a> and <a href="#Reforestation">replanting</a> of different <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">species</a>, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing <a href="#Wildfires">fire</a>. Many tools like remote sensing, <a href="/wiki/GIS" class="mw-redirect" title="GIS">GIS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">photogrammetry</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> modelling have been developed to improve <a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">forest inventory</a> and management planning.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Scientific research plays a crucial role in helping forest management. For example, <a href="/wiki/Climate_modeling" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate modeling">climate modeling</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Anderegg_Wu_Acil_et_al_2022-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Windisch_Davin_Seneviratne_2021-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benedek_&_Fertő_2013-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> research,<a href="#cite_note-Zhang_&_Wei_2021-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Prevedello_Winck_Weber_et_al_2019-9">[9]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> research,<a href="#cite_note-Windisch_Davin_Seneviratne_2021-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anderegg_Wu_Acil_et_al_20226-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Portmann_Beyerle_Davin_et_al_2022-11">[11]</a> GIS applications,<a href="#cite_note-Zhang_&_Wei_20215-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-AbdulBaqi2022-13">[13]</a> and long-term monitoring<a href="#cite_note-Benedek_&_Fertő_2013-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Prevedello_Winck_Weber_et_al_20195-14">[14]</a> help assess and improve forest management, ensuring its effectiveness and success. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Role_of_forests">Role of forests</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Role of forests">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forest</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> is a natural system that can supply different products and services. Forests supply water, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigate climate change</a>, provide habitats for wildlife including many pollinators which are essential for sustainable food production, provide timber and fuelwood, serve as a source of non-wood forest products including food and medicine, and contribute to rural livelihoods.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Forests include market and non-market products. Marketable products include goods that have a market price. <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">Timber</a> is the main one, with prices that range from a few hundred dollars per thousand <a href="/wiki/Board_foot" title="Board foot">board feet</a> (MBF) to several thousand dollars for a <a href="/wiki/Wood_veneer" title="Wood veneer">veneer</a> log. Others include grazing and fodder, specialty crops such as mushrooms or berries, usage fees for recreation or hunting, and <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(energy)" title="Biomass (energy)">biomass</a> for <a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a> production. Forests also provide some non-market values which have no current market price. Examples of non-market goods would be improving water quality, air quality, aesthetics, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>. The working of this system is influenced by the natural environment: climate, topography, soil, etc., and also by human activity. The actions of humans in forests constitute forest management.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In developed societies, this management tends to be elaborated and planned in order to achieve the objectives that are considered desirable.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aims">Aims</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Aims">edit</a>]</div> Some forests have been and are managed to obtain traditional forest products such as firewood, fiber for paper, and timber, with little thinking for other products and services. Nevertheless, as a result of the progression of environmental awareness, management of forests for multiple use is becoming more common.<a href="#cite_note-Young-17">[17]</a> Forests provide a variety of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>: cleaning the air, accumulating carbon, filtering water, and reducing flooding and erosion.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Forests are the most biodiverse land-based ecosystem, and provide habitat for a vast array of animals, birds, plants and other life. They can provide food and material and also opportunities for recreation and education. Research has found that forest plantations “may result in reduced diversity and abundance of pollinators compared with natural forests that have greater structural and plant species diversity.”<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monitoring_and_planning">Monitoring and planning</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Monitoring and planning">edit</a>]</div> Foresters develop and implement forest management plans relying on mapped resources, <a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">inventories</a> showing an area's <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topographical</a> features as well as its distribution of trees (by species) and other plant covers. Plans also include landowner objectives, roads, <a href="/wiki/Culvert" title="Culvert">culverts</a>, proximity to human habitation, water features and hydrological conditions, and soil information. Forest management plans typically include recommended <a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">silvicultural</a> treatments and a timetable for their implementation. Application of digital maps in Geographic Information systems (GIS) that extracts and integrates different information about forest terrains, <a href="/wiki/Soil_type" title="Soil type">soil type</a> and tree covers, etc. using, e.g. laser scanning enhances forest management plans in modern systems.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Forest management plans include recommendations to achieve the landowner's objectives and desired future conditions for the property subject to ecological, financial, logistical (e.g. access to resources), and other constraints. On some properties, plans focus on producing quality wood products for processing or sale. Hence, tree species, quantity, and form, all central to the value of harvested products quality and quantity, tend to be important components of silvicultural plans. Good management plans include consideration of future conditions of the stand after any recommended harvests treatments, including future treatments (particularly in intermediate stand treatments), and plans for natural or artificial regeneration after final harvests. The objectives of <a href="/wiki/Landowner" class="mw-redirect" title="Landowner">landowners</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leasehold_estate" title="Leasehold estate">leaseholders</a> influence plans for harvest and subsequent site treatment. In Britain, plans featuring "good forestry practice" must always consider the needs of other stakeholders such as nearby communities or rural residents living within or adjacent to woodland areas. Foresters consider tree felling and environmental legislation when developing plans. Plans instruct the sustainable harvesting and replacement of trees.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> They indicate whether road building or other forest engineering operations are required. <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> and forest leaders are also trying to understand how the <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">climate change legislation</a> will affect what they do. The information gathered will provide the data that will determine the role of agriculture and forestry in a new climate change regulatory system.<a href="#cite_note-galegroup1-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forest_inventory">Forest inventory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Forest inventory">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">Forest inventory</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forest_inventory&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">Forest inventory</a> is the systematic collection of data and forest information for assessment or analysis. An estimate of the value and possible uses of <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a> is an important part of the broader information required to <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustain ecosystems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Forest_inventory_Moores_et_al-23">[23]</a> When taking forest inventory the following are important things to measure and note: species, <a href="/wiki/Diameter_at_breast_height" title="Diameter at breast height">diameter at breast height</a> (DBH), height, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Site_quality_(forestry)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Site quality (forestry) (page does not exist)">site quality</a>, age, and defects. From the data collected one can calculate the number of trees per acre, the <a href="/wiki/Basal_area" title="Basal area">basal area</a>, the volume of trees in an area, and the value of the timber. Inventories can be done for other reasons than just calculating the value. A forest can be cruised to visually assess timber and determine potential <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">fire hazards</a> and the risk of fire.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The results of this type of inventory can be used in preventive actions and also awareness. Wildlife surveys can be undertaken in conjunction with timber inventory to determine the number and type of wildlife within a forest. The aim of the statistical forest inventory is to provide comprehensive information about the state and dynamics of forests for strategic and management planning. Merely looking at the forest for assessment is called <a href="/wiki/Sukachev_Institute_of_Forest#Recently" title="Sukachev Institute of Forest">taxation</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wildlife_considerations">Wildlife considerations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wildlife considerations">edit</a>]</div> The abundance and diversity of birds, mammals, amphibians and other wildlife are affected by strategies and types of forest management.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Forests are important because they provide these species with food, space and water.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Forest management is also important as it helps in conservation and utilization of the forest resources.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Approximately 50 million hectares (or 24%) of European forest land is protected for biodiversity and landscape protection. Forests allocated for soil, water, and other ecosystem services encompass around 72 million hectares (32% of European forest area).<a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Over 90% of the world's forests regenerate organically, and more than half are covered by forest management plans or equivalents.<a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:108-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Management_intensity">Management intensity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Management intensity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proportion_of_forest_area_with_long-term_management_plans,_by_region,_2020.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Proportion_of_forest_area_with_long-term_management_plans%2C_by_region%2C_2020.svg/220px-Proportion_of_forest_area_with_long-term_management_plans%2C_by_region%2C_2020.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Proportion_of_forest_area_with_long-term_management_plans%2C_by_region%2C_2020.svg/330px-Proportion_of_forest_area_with_long-term_management_plans%2C_by_region%2C_2020.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Proportion_of_forest_area_with_long-term_management_plans%2C_by_region%2C_2020.svg/440px-Proportion_of_forest_area_with_long-term_management_plans%2C_by_region%2C_2020.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="238" /></a><figcaption>Proportion of forest area with long-term management plans, by region, 2020<a href="#cite_note-auto1-31">[31]</a></figcaption></figure> Forest management varies in intensity from a leave alone, natural situation to a highly intensive regime with silvicultural interventions. Forest Management is generally increased in intensity to achieve either economic criteria (increased timber yields, <a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber forest products</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a>) or ecological criteria (species recovery, fostering of rare species, carbon sequestration).<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Most of the forests in Europe have management plans; on the other hand, management plans exist for less than 25 percent of forests in Africa and less than 20 percent in South America. The area of forest under management plans is increasing in all regions – globally, it has increased by 233 million ha since 2000, reaching 2.05 billion ha in 2020.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monitoring">Monitoring</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Monitoring">edit</a>]</div> Long-term monitoring studies are conducted to track forest dynamics over extended periods.<a href="#cite_note-Prevedello_Winck_Weber_et_al_2019-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benedek_&_Fertő_2013-7">[7]</a> These studies involve monitoring factors such as tree growth, mortality rates, and species composition. By observing forest changes over time, scientists can assess the health of forests and their responses to environmental shifts. Long-term monitoring is invaluable for informing sustainable forest management practices.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang_&_Wei_2021-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anderegg_Wu_Acil_et_al_2022-5">[5]</a> Scientific research employs <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing technologies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">geographic information systems</a> (GIS) to monitor changes in forest cover, deforestation rates, and forest health over time.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang_&_Wei_2021-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-AbdulBaqi2022-13">[13]</a> These tools provide valuable data for forest assessments and support evidence-based decision making in forest management and conservation. By remotely monitoring forest changes, scientists can respond more effectively to threats and challenges facing forests.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang_&_Wei_2021-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-AbdulBaqi2022-13">[13]</a> Researchers conduct <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> assessments to gain insights into the diversity and distribution of plant and animal species in various forest ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-Prevedello_Winck_Weber_et_al_2019-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhang_&_Wei_2021-8">[8]</a> These studies are essential for identifying areas of high conservation value and understanding the ecological importance of different habitats. By studying biodiversity patterns, scientists can recommend targeted approaches to forest management that protect and promote the richness of forest life.<a href="#cite_note-Windisch_Davin_Seneviratne_2021-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anderegg_Wu_Acil_et_al_2022-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Prevedello_Winck_Weber_et_al_2019-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Portmann_Beyerle_Davin_et_al_2022-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_climate_change_on_forests">Effects of climate change on forests</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Effects of climate change on forests">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Effects of climate change on biomes</a></div> Research explores the specific <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems</a>, including extreme heat and drought events.<a href="#cite_note-Prevedello_Winck_Weber_et_al_2019-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anderegg_Wu_Acil_et_al_2022-5">[5]</a> Understanding these effects is vital for developing <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptive strategies</a> to mitigate climate change impacts on forests. By recognizing the vulnerabilities of forests to changing climatic conditions, scientists can implement conservation methods that enhance their resilience.<a href="#cite_note-Portmann_Beyerle_Davin_et_al_2022-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Windisch_Davin_Seneviratne_2021-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anderegg_Wu_Acil_et_al_20222-33">[33]</a> Scientific research plays a crucial role in forest management by utilizing <a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">climate modeling</a> to project future <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">climate scenarios</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Anderegg_Wu_Acil_et_al_2022-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Benedek_&_Fertő_2013-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Windisch_Davin_Seneviratne_2021-6">[6]</a> These models help scientists understand potential changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events, enabling them to assess the impact of these changes on forest ecosystems. By predicting climate trends, researchers can develop more effective strategies for forest management and conservation.<a href="#cite_note-Zhang_&_Wei_2021-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Anderegg_Wu_Acil_et_al_2022-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Windisch_Davin_Seneviratne_2021-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods_for_creating_or_recreating_forests">Methods for creating or recreating forests</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Methods for creating or recreating forests">edit</a>]</div> The term forestation is sometimes used as an umbrella term to include <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>. Both of those are processes for establishing and nurturing <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> on lands that either previously had forest cover or were subjected to <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> or degradation.<a href="#cite_note-Prevedello_Winck_Weber_et_al_2019-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tree_breeding">Tree breeding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Tree breeding">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Tree_breeding" title="Tree breeding">Tree breeding</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tree_breeding&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Tree_breeding" title="Tree breeding">Tree breeding</a> is the application of genetic, reproductive biology and economics principles to the genetic improvement and management of forest trees. In contrast to the selective breeding of livestock, arable crops, and horticultural flowers over the last few centuries, the breeding of trees, with the exception of fruit trees, is a relatively recent occurrence. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Grafts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Grafts.jpg/220px-Grafts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Grafts.jpg/330px-Grafts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Grafts.jpg/440px-Grafts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Pinus radiata grafts in preparation for the establishment of a seed orchard in New Zealand</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isolation_bags.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Isolation_bags.jpg/220px-Isolation_bags.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Isolation_bags.jpg/330px-Isolation_bags.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Isolation_bags.jpg/440px-Isolation_bags.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Isolation bags for controlled pollination in a Pinus radiata seed orchard.</figcaption></figure> A typical forest tree breeding program starts with selection of superior <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotypes</a> (plus trees)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] in a natural or planted forest, often based on growth rate, tree form and site adaptation traits. This application of <a href="/wiki/Selection_methods_in_plant_breeding_based_on_mode_of_reproduction#Mass_selection" title="Selection methods in plant breeding based on mode of reproduction">mass selection</a> improves the mean performance of the forest. Offspring is obtained from selected trees and grown in test plantations that act as genetic trials. Based on such tests the best genotypes among the parents can be selected. Selected trees are typically propagated either by seeds or by <a href="/wiki/Grafting" title="Grafting">grafting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seed_orchard" title="Seed orchard">seed orchards</a> are established when the preferred output is improved seed. Alternatively, the best genotypes can be directly propagated by cuttings or <a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">in-vitro</a> methods and used directly in clonal plantations. The first system is frequently used for pines and other conifers, while the second is typical in some broadleaves (poplars, eucalypts and others). The objectives of a tree breeding program range from yield improvement and adaptation to particular conditions, to pest- and disease-resistance, wood properties, etc. Currently,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] tree breeding is starting to take advantage of the fast development in plant genetics and genomics.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tree_planting">Tree planting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Tree planting">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">Tree planting</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tree_planting&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_planting_-_geograph.org.uk_-_389349.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tree_planting_-_geograph.org.uk_-_389349.jpg/220px-Tree_planting_-_geograph.org.uk_-_389349.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tree_planting_-_geograph.org.uk_-_389349.jpg/330px-Tree_planting_-_geograph.org.uk_-_389349.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Tree_planting_-_geograph.org.uk_-_389349.jpg/440px-Tree_planting_-_geograph.org.uk_-_389349.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Tree planting is an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a>. In each plastic tube, a hardwood tree has been planted.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_planting_Ghana_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Tree_planting_Ghana_2.jpg/220px-Tree_planting_Ghana_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Tree_planting_Ghana_2.jpg/330px-Tree_planting_Ghana_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Tree_planting_Ghana_2.jpg/440px-Tree_planting_Ghana_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Tree planting in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">Tree planting</a> is the process of <a href="/wiki/Transplanting" title="Transplanting">transplanting</a> tree <a href="/wiki/Seedling" title="Seedling">seedlings</a>, generally for <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">land reclamation</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Landscaping" title="Landscaping">landscaping</a> purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger <a href="/wiki/Trees" class="mw-redirect" title="Trees">trees</a> in <a href="/wiki/Arboriculture" title="Arboriculture">arboriculture</a> and from the lower-cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>. Trees contribute to their environment over long periods of time by improving air quality, climate amelioration, conserving water, preserving soil, and supporting wildlife. During the process of photosynthesis, trees take in <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and produce <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. Because trees remove <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide from the air</a> as they grow, tree planting can be used to help <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">limit climate change</a>. <a href="/wiki/Desert_greening" title="Desert greening">Desert greening</a> projects are also motivated by improved biodiversity and reclamation of natural water systems, as well as improved economic and social welfare due to an increased number of jobs in farming and forestry.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reforestation">Reforestation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reforestation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reforestation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reforestation_6_year.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Reforestation_6_year.JPG/220px-Reforestation_6_year.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Reforestation_6_year.JPG/330px-Reforestation_6_year.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Reforestation_6_year.JPG/440px-Reforestation_6_year.JPG 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="333" /></a><figcaption>A forest, six years after reforestation efforts in <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Replanting_a_burned_area_on_the_Idaho_Panhandle_NF_(39730798234).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Replanting_a_burned_area_on_the_Idaho_Panhandle_NF_%2839730798234%29.jpg/220px-Replanting_a_burned_area_on_the_Idaho_Panhandle_NF_%2839730798234%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="391" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Replanting_a_burned_area_on_the_Idaho_Panhandle_NF_%2839730798234%29.jpg/330px-Replanting_a_burned_area_on_the_Idaho_Panhandle_NF_%2839730798234%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Replanting_a_burned_area_on_the_Idaho_Panhandle_NF_%2839730798234%29.jpg/440px-Replanting_a_burned_area_on_the_Idaho_Panhandle_NF_%2839730798234%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Reforestation in progress: Direct-sowing of seed in a burned area (after a <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfire</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Idaho_Panhandle_National_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Idaho Panhandle National Forest">Idaho Panhandle National Forest</a>, United States.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> is the practice of restoring previously existing <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woodland" title="Woodland">woodlands</a> that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">clearcutting</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a>. Three important purposes of reforestation programs are for <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">harvesting of wood</a>, for <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>, and for <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> restoration purposes. One method of reforestation is to establish <a href="/wiki/Tree_plantation" title="Tree plantation">tree plantations</a>, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3% of the global forest area and 45% of the total area of planted forests.<a href="#cite_note-Reforestation_GFRA2020-34">[34]</a> Globally, planted forests increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015.<a href="#cite_note-Reforestation_Payn,_T._2015-35">[35]</a> Plantation forests made up 280 million ha (<a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">hectare</a>) in 2015, an increase of about 40 million ha in the previous ten years.<a href="#cite_note-Reforestation_:8-36">[36]</a> Of the planted forests worldwide, 18% of that area consists of exotic or introduced species while the rest consist of species native to the country where they are planted.<a href="#cite_note-Reforestation_:6-37">[37]</a> There are limitations and challenges with reforestation projects, especially if they are in the form of tree plantations. Firstly, there can be competition with other land uses and displacement risk. Secondly, tree plantations are often <a href="/wiki/Monoculture" title="Monoculture">monocultures</a> which comes with a set of disadvantages, for example <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>. Lastly, there is also the problem that <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">stored carbon</a> is released at some point. The effects of reforestation will be farther in the future than those of <a href="/wiki/Proforestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Proforestation">proforestation</a> (the conservation of intact forests).<a href="#cite_note-Reforestation_:9-38">[38]</a> Instead of planting entirely new areas, it might be better to reconnect forested areas and restore the edges of forest. This protects their mature core and makes them more resilient and longer-lasting.<a href="#cite_note-Reforestation_:11-39">[39]</a> It takes much longer − several decades − for the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> benefits of reforestation to become similar to those from mature trees in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a>. Therefore, reducing deforestation is usually more beneficial for climate change mitigation than is reforestation.<a href="#cite_note-Reforestation_:107-40">[40]</a> Many countries carry out reforestation programs. For example, in China, the Three Northern Protected Forest Development Program – informally known as the "<a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall</a>" – was launched in 1978 and scheduled to last until 2050. It aims to eventually plant nearly 90 million acres of new forest in a 2,800-mile stretch of northern China.<a href="#cite_note-Reforestation_:122-41">[41]</a> Such programs often blur the boundaries between reforestation and <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a> (the latter being the establishment of a forest in an area where there was no forest before).</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Forest_restoration">Forest restoration</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Forest restoration">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">Forest restoration</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forest_restoration&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Degraded_land_ready_for_forest_restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Degraded_land_ready_for_forest_restoration.jpg/320px-Degraded_land_ready_for_forest_restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Degraded_land_ready_for_forest_restoration.jpg/480px-Degraded_land_ready_for_forest_restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Degraded_land_ready_for_forest_restoration.jpg/640px-Degraded_land_ready_for_forest_restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="10204" data-file-height="6802" /></a><figcaption>In the 1980s, conservation organizations warned that, once destroyed, tropical forests could never be restored. Thirty years of restoration research now challenge this: a) This site in Doi Suthep-Pui National Park, N. Thailand was deforested, over-cultivated and then burnt. The black tree stump was one of the original forest trees. Local people teamed up with scientists to repair their watershed.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1_year_after_planting_framework_tree_species.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/1_year_after_planting_framework_tree_species.jpg/320px-1_year_after_planting_framework_tree_species.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/1_year_after_planting_framework_tree_species.jpg/480px-1_year_after_planting_framework_tree_species.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/1_year_after_planting_framework_tree_species.jpg/640px-1_year_after_planting_framework_tree_species.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7202" data-file-height="4802" /></a><figcaption>b) Fire prevention, nurturing natural regeneration and planting framework tree species resulted in trees growing above the weed canopy within a year.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:12_year_old_restoration_plot_Doi_Suthep-Pui_National_Park_N._Thailand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/12_year_old_restoration_plot_Doi_Suthep-Pui_National_Park_N._Thailand.jpg/320px-12_year_old_restoration_plot_Doi_Suthep-Pui_National_Park_N._Thailand.jpg" decoding="async" width="320" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/12_year_old_restoration_plot_Doi_Suthep-Pui_National_Park_N._Thailand.jpg/480px-12_year_old_restoration_plot_Doi_Suthep-Pui_National_Park_N._Thailand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/12_year_old_restoration_plot_Doi_Suthep-Pui_National_Park_N._Thailand.jpg/640px-12_year_old_restoration_plot_Doi_Suthep-Pui_National_Park_N._Thailand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3334" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>c) After 12 years, the restored forest overwhelmed the black tree stump.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">Forest restoration</a> is defined as "actions to re-instate ecological processes, which accelerate recovery of forest structure, ecological functioning and biodiversity levels towards those typical of <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession#Climax_community" title="Ecological succession">climax forest</a>",<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> i.e. the end-stage of natural forest <a href="/wiki/Secondary_succession" title="Secondary succession">succession</a>. Climax forests are relatively stable ecosystems that have developed the maximum biomass, structural complexity and species diversity that are possible within the limits imposed by climate and soil and without continued disturbance from humans <a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">(more explanation here)</a>. Climax forest is therefore the target ecosystem, which defines the ultimate aim of forest restoration. Since climate is a major factor that determines climax forest composition, global <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> may result in changing restoration aims.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Additionally, the potential impacts of climate change on restoration goals must be taken into account, as changes in temperature and precipitation patterns may alter the composition and distribution of climax forests.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> Forest restoration is a specialized form of <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>, but it differs from conventional tree plantations in that its primary goals are <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> recovery and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environmental protection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Forest_restoration_Lamb-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Forest_restoration_Stanturf-46">[46]</a> Forest and landscape restoration (FLR) is defined as a process that aims to regain ecological functionality and enhance human well-being in <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforested</a> or <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">degraded landscapes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Forest_restoration_:0-47">[47]</a> FLR has been developed as a response to the growing degradation and loss of forest and land, which resulted in declined biodiversity and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Forest_restoration_:0-47">[47]</a> Effective FLR will support the achievement of the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Forest_restoration_:0-47">[47]</a> The <a href="/wiki/UN_Decade_on_Ecosystem_Restoration" title="UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration">United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030)</a> provides the opportunity to restore hundreds of millions of hectares of degraded forests and other ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-Forest_restoration_:0-47">[47]</a> Successful ecosystem restoration requires a fundamental understanding of the ecological characteristics of the component species, together with knowledge of how they assemble, interact and function as communities<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Afforestation">Afforestation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Afforestation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afforestation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_afforestation_looking_into_Rand_Wood_-_geograph.org.uk_-_329908.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/New_afforestation_looking_into_Rand_Wood_-_geograph.org.uk_-_329908.jpg/280px-New_afforestation_looking_into_Rand_Wood_-_geograph.org.uk_-_329908.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/New_afforestation_looking_into_Rand_Wood_-_geograph.org.uk_-_329908.jpg/420px-New_afforestation_looking_into_Rand_Wood_-_geograph.org.uk_-_329908.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/New_afforestation_looking_into_Rand_Wood_-_geograph.org.uk_-_329908.jpg/560px-New_afforestation_looking_into_Rand_Wood_-_geograph.org.uk_-_329908.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>An afforestation project in Rand Wood, <a href="/wiki/Lincolnshire" title="Lincolnshire">Lincolnshire</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> (this patch was open ground before)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a> is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no recent tree cover.<a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_FAO-2018-49">[49]</a> There are three types of afforestation: natural <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regeneration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">agroforestry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tree_plantation" title="Tree plantation">tree plantations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_Lark-2023-50">[50]</a> Afforestation has many benefits. In the context of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, afforestation can be helpful for <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> through the route of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>. Afforestation can also improve the local climate through increased rainfall and by being a barrier against high winds. The additional trees can also prevent or reduce <a href="/wiki/Topsoil_erosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Topsoil erosion">topsoil erosion</a> (from water and wind), floods and landslides. Finally, additional trees can be a <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> for wildlife, and provide employment and wood products.<a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_Lark-2023-50">[50]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Annual-afforestation_(OWID_0067).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Annual-afforestation_%28OWID_0067%29.png/250px-Annual-afforestation_%28OWID_0067%29.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Annual-afforestation_%28OWID_0067%29.png/375px-Annual-afforestation_%28OWID_0067%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Annual-afforestation_%28OWID_0067%29.png/500px-Annual-afforestation_%28OWID_0067%29.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Annual afforestation in 2015</figcaption></figure> In comparison, <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> means re-establishing forest that have either been cut down or lost due to natural causes, such as fire, storm, etc. Nowadays, the boundaries between afforestation and reforestation projects can be blurred as it may not be so clear what was there before, at what point in time. An essential aspect of successful afforestation efforts lies in the careful selection of tree species that are well-suited to the local climate and soil conditions. By choosing appropriate species, afforested areas can better withstand the impacts of climate change.<a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_Windisch_Davin_Seneviratne_2021-51">[51]</a> Earth offers enough room to plant an additional 0.9 billion ha of tree canopy cover.<a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_Bastin-2019-52">[52]</a> Planting and protecting them would sequester 205 billion tons of carbon<a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_Bastin-2019-52">[52]</a> which is about 20 years of current global carbon emissions.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> This level of sequestration would represent about 25% of the atmosphere's current carbon pool.<a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_Bastin-2019-52">[52]</a> However, there has been debate about whether afforestation is beneficial for the sustainable use of natural resources,<a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_:02-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_Dasgupta-2021-55">[55]</a> with some researchers pointing out that tree planting is not the only way to enhance climate mitigation and CO2 capture.<a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_:02-54">[54]</a> Non-forest areas, such as <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grasslands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savannas</a>, also benefit the biosphere and humanity, and they need a different management strategy - they are not supposed to be forests.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Afforestation critics argue that ecosystems without trees are not necessarily degraded, and many of them can store carbon as they are; for example, savannas and <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a> store carbon underground.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Carbon sequestration estimates in these areas often do not include the total amount of carbon reductions in soils and slowing tree growth over time. Afforestation can also negatively affect <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> by increasing <a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">fragmentation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">edge effects</a> on the habitat outside the planted area.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Afforestation_:1-62">[62]</a> Australia, Canada, China, India, Israel, United States and Europe have afforestation programs to increase <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> in forests and in some cases to reduce <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plantation_forestry">Plantation forestry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Plantation forestry">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Tree_plantation" title="Tree plantation">Tree plantation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tree_plantation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pinus_taeda_plantation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Pinus_taeda_plantation.jpg/220px-Pinus_taeda_plantation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Pinus_taeda_plantation.jpg/330px-Pinus_taeda_plantation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Pinus_taeda_plantation.jpg/440px-Pinus_taeda_plantation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pine</a> plantation in the United States</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Tree_plantation" title="Tree plantation">tree plantation, forest plantation</a>, plantation forest, timber plantation or tree farm is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a monoculture forest. The term tree farm also is used to refer to <a href="/wiki/Plant_nursery" title="Plant nursery">tree nurseries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Christmas tree farm">Christmas tree farms</a>. Plantation forestry can produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities (for example, the <a href="/wiki/Forestry_Commission" title="Forestry Commission">Forestry Commission</a> in Britain) and/or the paper and wood industries and other private landowners (such as <a href="/wiki/Weyerhaeuser" title="Weyerhaeuser">Weyerhaeuser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rayonier" title="Rayonier">Rayonier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Pacific_Industries" title="Sierra Pacific Industries">Sierra Pacific Industries</a> in the United States or <a href="/wiki/Asia_Pulp_%26_Paper" title="Asia Pulp & Paper">Asia Pulp & Paper</a> in Indonesia). <a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree" title="Christmas tree">Christmas trees</a> are often grown on plantations, and in southern and southeastern Asia, <a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a> plantations have recently replaced the natural forest.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silvtrees.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Silvtrees.jpg/220px-Silvtrees.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Silvtrees.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="301" data-file-height="190" /></a><figcaption>A plantation of <a href="/wiki/Coast_Douglas-fir" class="mw-redirect" title="Coast Douglas-fir">Douglas-fir</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a></figcaption></figure> Industrial plantations are actively managed for the commercial production of forest products. Industrial plantations are usually large-scale. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species. These species can be exotic or indigenous. The plants used for the plantation are often genetically altered for desired traits such as growth and resistance to pests and diseases in general and specific traits, for example in the case of timber species, volumic wood production and stem straightness. <a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">Forest genetic resources</a> are the basis for genetic alteration. Selected individuals grown in <a href="/wiki/Seed_orchard" title="Seed orchard">seed orchards</a> are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a tree plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. While forests managed for wood production commonly yield between 1 and 3 cubic meters per hectare per year, plantations of fast-growing species commonly yield between 20 and 30 cubic meters or more per hectare annually; a <a href="/wiki/Grand_Fir" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand Fir">Grand Fir</a> plantation in <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> has a growth rate of 34 cubic meters per hectare per year,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Pine" class="mw-redirect" title="Monterey Pine">Monterey Pine</a> plantations in southern <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> can yield up to 40 cubic meters per hectare per year.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, it is estimated that they supplied about 35% of the world's roundwood.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The highest share of plantation forest is in South America, where this forest type represents 99 percent of the total planted-forest area and 2 percent of the total forest area. The lowest share of plantation forest is in Europe, where it represents 6 percent of the planted forest estate and 0.4 percent of the total forest area. Globally, 44 percent of plantation forests are composed mainly of introduced species. There are large differences between regions: for example, plantation forests in North and Central America mostly comprise native species and those in South America consist almost entirely of introduced species.<a href="#cite_note-Tree_plantation_GFRA2020-66">[66]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silviculture">Silviculture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Silviculture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silviculture&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a> is the practice of controlling the growth, composition/structure, as well as quality of <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> to meet values and needs, specifically <a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">timber</a> production. The name comes from the Latin silvi- ('forest') and culture ('growing'). The study of forests and woods is termed <a href="/wiki/Silvology" class="mw-redirect" title="Silvology">silvology</a>. Silviculture also focuses on making sure that the treatment(s) of <a href="/wiki/Stand_level_modelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Stand level modelling">forest stands</a> are used to conserve and improve their productivity.<a href="#cite_note-Silviculture_Practice-67">[67]</a> Generally, silviculture is the science and art of growing and cultivating forest [crops], based on a knowledge of silvics .The study of the life-history and general characteristics of forest trees and stands, with particular reference to local/regional factors.<a href="#cite_note-Silviculture_ford-68">[68]</a> The focus of silviculture is the control, establishment and management of forest stands. The distinction between <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> and silviculture is that silviculture is applied at the <a href="/wiki/Stand_level_modelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Stand level modelling">stand-level</a>, while forestry is a broader concept. <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">Adaptive management</a> is common in silviculture, while forestry can include natural/conserved land without stand-level management and treatments being applied.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bamboo_forestry">Bamboo forestry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bamboo forestry">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo cultivation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bamboo_cultivation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_Bamboo_Product_Innovation_Lab_(12319080523).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/African_Bamboo_Product_Innovation_Lab_%2812319080523%29.jpg/220px-African_Bamboo_Product_Innovation_Lab_%2812319080523%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/African_Bamboo_Product_Innovation_Lab_%2812319080523%29.jpg/330px-African_Bamboo_Product_Innovation_Lab_%2812319080523%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/African_Bamboo_Product_Innovation_Lab_%2812319080523%29.jpg/440px-African_Bamboo_Product_Innovation_Lab_%2812319080523%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>African Bamboo Product Innovation Lab where bamboo farming techniques and industrial uses are tested inside the company's facility in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Bamboo_cultivation" title="Bamboo cultivation">Bamboo forestry</a> (also known as bamboo farming, cultivation, agriculture or agroforestry) is a cultivation and raw material industry that provides the raw materials for the broader <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> industry, worth over 72 billion dollars globally in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-Bamboo_cultivation_:0-69">[69]</a> Historically a dominant raw material in South and South East Asia, the global bamboo industry has significantly grown in recent decades in part because of the high sustainability of bamboo as compared to other biomass cultivation strategies, such as traditional timber <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>. For example, as of 2016, the U.S. Fiber corporation Resource Fiber is contracting farmers in the United States for bamboo cultivation.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bamboo_cultivation_:0-69">[69]</a> Or in 2009, <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Industrial_Development_Organization" title="United Nations Industrial Development Organization">United Nations Industrial Development Organization</a> published guidelines for cultivation of bamboo in semi-arid climates in Ethiopia and Kenya.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Because bamboo can grow on otherwise <a href="/wiki/Marginal_land" title="Marginal land">marginal land</a>, bamboo can be profitably cultivated in many degraded lands.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Moreover, because of the rapid growth, bamboo is an effective <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> crop, absorbing between 100 and 400 tonnes of carbon per hectare (40–160 tonnes per acre).<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In 1997, an international intergovernmental organization was established to promote the development of bamboo cultivation, the <a href="/wiki/International_Bamboo_and_Rattan_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation">International Bamboo and Rattan Organisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Bamboo is harvested from both cultivated and wild stands, and some of the larger bamboos, particularly species in the genus <a href="/wiki/Phyllostachys" title="Phyllostachys">Phyllostachys</a>, are known as "timber bamboos". Bamboo is typically harvested as a source material for construction, food, crafts and other manufactured goods.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Bamboo cultivation in South, South East Asia and East Asia stretches back thousands of years. One practice, in South Korea, has been designated as a <a href="/wiki/Globally_Important_Agricultural_Heritage_Systems" title="Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems">Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hardwood_timber_production">Hardwood timber production</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Hardwood timber production">edit</a>]</div> Hardwood timber production is the process of managing stands of <a href="/wiki/Deciduous" title="Deciduous">deciduous</a> trees to maximize woody output. The production process is not linear because other factors must be considered, including marketable and non-marketable goods, financial benefits, management practices, and the environmental implications, of those management practices.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a> The more biodiverse the hardwood-forest ecosystem, the more challenges and opportunities its managers face. Managers aim for sustainable forest management to keep their cash crop renewing itself, using <a href="/wiki/Silvicultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Silvicultural">silvicultural</a> practices that include growing, selling, controlling insects and most diseases, providing manure, applying herbicide treatments, and thinning.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a> But management can also harm the ecosystem; for example, machinery used in a timber harvest can compact the soil, stress the root system, reduce tree growth, lengthen the time needed for a stand to mature to harvestability. Machinery can also damage the <a href="/wiki/Understory" title="Understory">understory</a>, disturbing wildlife habitat and prevent regeneration.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_forestry">Energy forestry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Energy forestry">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Energy_forestry" title="Energy forestry">Energy forestry</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Energy_forestry&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Energy_forestry" title="Energy forestry">Energy forestry</a> is a form of forestry in which a fast-growing species of tree or woody shrub is grown specifically to provide <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> or <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> for heating or power generation. The two forms of energy forestry are <a href="/wiki/Short_rotation_coppice" title="Short rotation coppice">short rotation coppice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Short_rotation_forestry" title="Short rotation forestry">short rotation forestry</a>: <ul><li>Short rotation <a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">coppice</a> may include tree crops of <a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">poplar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">willow</a> or eucalyptus, grown for two to five years before harvest.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a></li> <li>Short rotation forestry are crops of <a href="/wiki/Alder" title="Alder">alder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ash_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash tree">ash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>, eucalyptus, poplar, and <a href="/wiki/Sycamore" title="Sycamore">sycamore</a>, grown for eight to twenty years before harvest.</li></ul></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forest_farming">Forest farming</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Forest farming">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">Agroforestry</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agroforestry&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agroforesterie_(ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner)(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg/220px-Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg/330px-Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg/440px-Agroforesterie_%28ma%C3%AFs_et_ch%C3%A2taigner%29%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>Alley cropping of <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sweet_chestnut" title="Sweet chestnut">sweet chestnut</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dordogne" title="Dordogne">Dordogne</a>, France </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Faidherbia_albida.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Faidherbia_albida.JPG/220px-Faidherbia_albida.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Faidherbia_albida.JPG/330px-Faidherbia_albida.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Faidherbia_albida.JPG/440px-Faidherbia_albida.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1136" data-file-height="852" /></a><figcaption>Maize grown under <a href="/wiki/Faidherbia_albida" class="mw-redirect" title="Faidherbia albida">Faidherbia albida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Borassus_akeassii" title="Borassus akeassii">Borassus akeassii</a> near <a href="/wiki/Banfora" title="Banfora">Banfora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burkina_Faso" title="Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a> </figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">Agroforestry</a> (also known as agro-sylviculture or forest farming) is a <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a> management system that integrates <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a> with <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crops</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a>. It combines <a href="/wiki/Agricultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural">agricultural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> technologies. As a <a href="/wiki/Polyculture" title="Polyculture">polyculture</a> system, an agroforestry system can produce timber and <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a> products, <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">nuts</a>, other <a href="/wiki/Edible_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Edible plant">edible plant</a> products, <a href="/wiki/Edible_mushroom" title="Edible mushroom">edible mushrooms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicinal plant">medicinal plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ornamental_plant" title="Ornamental plant">ornamental plants</a>, animals and <a href="/wiki/Animal_product" title="Animal product">animal products</a>, and other products from both domesticated and wild species.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Agroforestry can be practiced for economic, environmental, and social benefits, and can be part of <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable</a> agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-Agroforestry_aftaweb-81">[81]</a> Apart from production, benefits from agroforestry include improved farm productivity,<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> healthier environments, reduction of risk for farmers,<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> beauty and aesthetics, increased farm profits, reduced soil erosion, creating wildlife habitat, less pollution, managing animal waste, increased biodiversity, improved soil structure, and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>. Agroforestry practices are especially prevalent in the tropics, especially in subsistence <a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">smallholdings</a> areas, with particular importance in sub-Saharan Africa. Due to its multiple benefits, for instance in <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">nutrient cycle</a> benefits and potential for mitigating droughts, it has been adopted in the USA and Europe. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg/220px-Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg/330px-Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg/440px-Agroforestry_contour_planting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Contour planting integrated with animal grazing on Taylor's Run farm, Australia</figcaption></figure></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sustainable_forest_management">Sustainable forest management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sustainable forest management">edit</a>]</div> Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the management of forests according to the principles of <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">sustainable development</a>. Sustainable forest management must keep a balance between the three main pillars: <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">ecological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">socio-cultural</a>. The goal of sustainable forestry is to allow for a balance to be found between making use of trees while maintaining natural patterns of disturbance and regeneration.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The forestry industry <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigates climate change</a> by boosting <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon storage</a> in growing trees and soils and improving the sustainable supply of <a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">renewable raw materials</a> via sustainable forest management.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Successfully achieving sustainable forest management will provide integrated benefits to all, ranging from safeguarding local livelihoods to protecting biodiversity and ecosystems provided by forests, reducing <a href="/wiki/Rural_poverty" title="Rural poverty">rural poverty</a> and mitigating some of the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Forest conservation is essential to stop <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Sustainable forest management also helps with <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">climate change adaptation</a> by increasing forest ecosystems' resistance to future climatic hazards and lowering the danger of additional <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a> by repairing and stabilizing soils and boosting their water-retention capacity.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> It contributes to the provision of a wide range of vital <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> and biodiversity conservation, such as <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">wildlife habitats</a>, recreational amenity values, and a variety of <a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber forest products</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:109-91">[91]</a> Conservation of biodiversity is the major management aim in around 13% of the world's forests, while preservation of soil and water resources is the primary management goal in more than 30%.<a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:108-30">[30]</a> Feeding humanity and conserving and sustainably using ecosystems are complementary and closely interdependent goals. Forests supply water, mitigate climate change and provide habitats for many pollinators, which are essential for sustainable food production. It is estimated that 75 percent of the world's leading food crops, representing 35 percent of global food production, benefit from animal pollination for fruit, vegetable or seed production.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The "<a href="/wiki/Forest_Principles" title="Forest Principles">Forest Principles</a>" adopted at the <a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit" title="Earth Summit">Earth Summit</a> (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 captured the general international understanding of <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable</a> forest management at that time. A number of sets of <a href="/wiki/Criteria_%26_Indicators_of_Sustainable_Forest_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Criteria & Indicators of Sustainable Forest Management">criteria and indicators</a> have since been developed to evaluate the achievement of SFM at the global, regional, country and management unit level. These were all attempts to codify and provide for assessment of the degree to which the broader objectives of sustainable forest management are being achieved in practice. In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> adopted the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Forum_on_Forests#Non-Legally_Binding_Instrument_on_All_Types_of_Forests" title="United Nations Forum on Forests">Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests</a>. The instrument was the first of its kind that reflected the strong international commitment to promote implementation of sustainable forest management through a new approach bringing all stakeholders together.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goal_15" title="Sustainable Development Goal 15">Sustainable Development Goal 15</a> is also a global initiative aimed at promoting the implementation of sustainable forest management.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition">Definition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> A definition of SFM was developed by the <a href="/wiki/Ministerial_Conference_on_the_Protection_of_Forests_in_Europe" title="Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe">Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe</a> (FOREST EUROPE) and has since been adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO).<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> It defines sustainable forest management as: <blockquote>The stewardship and use of <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> and forest lands in a way, and at a rate, that maintains their biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, vitality and their potential to fulfill, now and in the future, relevant ecological, economic and social functions, at local, national, and global levels, and that does not cause damage to other ecosystems.</blockquote> In simpler terms, the concept can be described as the attainment of balance: balance between society's increasing demands for forest products and benefits, and the preservation of forest health and diversity. This balance is critical to the survival of forests, and to the prosperity of forest-dependent communities.<a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:109-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> For forest managers, sustainably managing a particular forest tract means determining, in a tangible way, how to use it today to ensure similar benefits, health and productivity in the future. Forest managers must assess and integrate a wide array of sometimes conflicting factors: commercial and non-commercial values, environmental considerations, community needs,<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> even global impact to produce sound forest plans. In most cases, forest managers develop their forest plans in consultation with citizens, businesses, organizations and other interested parties in and around the forest tract being managed. The tools and visualization have been recently evolving for better management practices.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, at the request of Member States, developed and launched the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/sustainable-forest-management/toolbox/sfm-home/en/">Sustainable Forest Management Toolbox</a> in 2014, an online collection of tools, best practices and examples of their application to support countries implementing sustainable forest management.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Because forests and societies are in constant flux, the desired outcome of sustainable forest management is not a fixed one. What constitutes a sustainably managed forest will change over time as values held by the public change.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criteria_and_indicators">Criteria and indicators</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Criteria and indicators">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg/220px-Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg/330px-Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg/440px-Deforestation_central_Europe_-_Rodungen_Mitteleuropa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5568" data-file-height="3712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, 2020. France is the most deforested country in Europe, with only 15% of the native vegetation remaining.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sugarcane_Deforestation,_Bolivia,_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg/220px-Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg/330px-Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg/440px-Sugarcane_Deforestation%2C_Bolivia%2C_2016-06-15_by_Planet_Labs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5270" data-file-height="3953" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criteria_and_indicators_of_sustainable_forest_management" title="Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management">Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management</a></div> Criteria and indicators are tools which can be used to conceptualise, evaluate and implement sustainable forest management.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Criteria define and characterize the essential elements, as well as a set of conditions or processes, by which sustainable forest management may be assessed. Periodically measured indicators reveal the direction of change with respect to each criterion.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management are widely used and many countries produce national reports that assess their progress toward sustainable forest management. There are nine international and regional criteria and indicators initiatives, which collectively involve more than 150 countries.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Three of the more advanced initiatives are those of the Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called the <a href="/wiki/Montr%C3%A9al_Process" title="Montréal Process">Montréal Process</a>),<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ministerial_Conference_on_the_Protection_of_Forests_in_Europe" title="Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe">Forest Europe</a>,<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Tropical_Timber_Organization" title="International Tropical Timber Organization">International Tropical Timber Organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Countries who are members of the same initiative usually agree to produce reports at the same time and using the same indicators. Within countries, at the management unit level, efforts have also been directed at developing local level criteria and indicators of sustainable forest management. The <a href="/wiki/Center_for_International_Forestry_Research" title="Center for International Forestry Research">Center for International Forestry Research</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Model_Forest_Network&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Model Forest Network (page does not exist)">International Model Forest Network</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> and researchers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia" title="University of British Columbia">University of British Columbia</a> have developed a number of tools and techniques to help forest-dependent communities develop their own local level criteria and indicators.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Criteria and Indicators also form the basis of third-party forest certification programs such as the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Standards_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Standards Association">Canadian Standards Association</a>'s<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_Forest_Management_Standards&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sustainable Forest Management Standards (page does not exist)">Sustainable Forest Management Standards</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative" title="Sustainable Forestry Initiative">Sustainable Forestry Initiative</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> There appears to be growing international consensus on the key elements of sustainable forest management. Seven common thematic areas of sustainable forest management have emerged based on the criteria of the nine ongoing regional and international criteria and indicators initiatives. The seven thematic areas are: <ul><li>Extent of forest resources</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological diversity">Biological diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest health">Forest health</a> and vitality</li> <li>Productive functions of forest resources</li> <li>Protective functions of forest resources</li> <li>Socio-economic functions</li> <li>Legal, policy and institutional framework.</li></ul> This consensus on common thematic areas (or criteria) effectively provides a common and implicit definition of sustainable forest management. The seven thematic areas were acknowledged by the international forest community at the fourth session of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Forum_on_Forests" title="United Nations Forum on Forests">United Nations Forum on Forests</a> and the 16th session of the Committee on Forestry.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> These thematic areas have since been enshrined in the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Forum_on_Forests#Non-Legally_Binding_Instrument_on_All_Types_of_Forests" title="United Nations Forum on Forests">Non-Legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests</a> as a reference framework for sustainable forest management to help achieve the purpose of the instrument.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 2012, the Montréal Process, Forest Europe, the International Tropical Timber Organization, and the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization_of_the_United_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations</a>, acknowledging the seven thematic areas, endorsed a joint statement of collaboration to improve global forest-related data collection and reporting and avoiding the proliferation of monitoring requirements and associated reporting burdens.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Sustainable forestry operations must also adhere to the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>'s 18 criteria on human and social rights. <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a>, health and well-being and community consultation are examples of such rights.<a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto2-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecosystem_approach">Ecosystem approach</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ecosystem approach">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_approach" title="Ecosystem approach">ecosystem approach</a> has been prominent on the agenda of the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> (CBD) since 1995. The <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">CBD</a> definition of the Ecosystem Approach and a set of principles for its application were developed at an expert meeting in <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a> in 1995, known as the Malawi Principles.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The definition, 12 principles and 5 points of "operational guidance" were adopted by the fifth Conference of Parties (COP5) in 2000. The <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">CBD</a> definition is as follows: <blockquote>The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way. Application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the three objectives of the Convention. An ecosystem approach is based on the application of appropriate scientific methodologies focused on levels of biological organization, which encompasses the essential structures, processes, functions and interactions among organisms and their environment. It recognizes that humans, with their <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">cultural diversity</a>, are an integral component of many ecosystems.</blockquote> Sustainable forest management was recognized by parties to the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> in 2004 (Decision VII/11 of COP7) to be a concrete means of applying the Ecosystem Approach to forest ecosystems. The two concepts, sustainable forest management and the ecosystem approach, aim at promoting conservation and management practices which are environmentally, socially and economically sustainable, and which generate and maintain benefits for both present and future generations. In Europe, the MCPFE and the Council for the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy (PEBLDS) jointly recognized sustainable forest management to be consistent with the Ecosystem Approach in 2006.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methods">Methods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Methods">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Ecoforestry">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ecoforestry&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Ecoforestry" title="Ecoforestry">Ecoforestry</a> has been defined as selection <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> or <a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">restoration</a> forestry. The main idea of ecoforestry is to maintain or restore the <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> to standards where the forest may still be harvested for products on a sustainable basis.<a href="#cite_note-Ecoforestry_Rastogi2-120">[120]</a> Ecoforestry is <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> that emphasizes <a href="/wiki/Holistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Holistic">holistic</a> practices which strive to protect and restore <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> rather than maximize <a href="/wiki/Productivity_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Productivity (economics)">economic productivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ecoforestry_Hammond1-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a> of the forest also comes with uncertainties. There are other factors that may affect the forest furthermore than that of the harvesting. There are internal conditions such as effects of soil <a href="/wiki/Compaction_(geology)" title="Compaction (geology)">compaction</a>, tree damage, disease, fire, and blow down that also directly affect the ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-Ecoforestry_Copland3-122">[122]</a> These factors have to be taken into account when determining the sustainability of a forest. If these factors are added to the harvesting and production that comes out of the forest, then the forest will become less likely to survive, and will then become less sustainable.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Since the forest is considered an ecosystem, it is dependent on all of the living and non-living factors within itself. This is a major part of why the forest needs to be sustainable before it is harvested. For example, a tree, by way of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, converts sunlight to sugars for respiration to keep the tree alive. The remains of the converted sugars is left in roots for consumption by the organisms surrounding the tree in the habitat. This shows the productivity of an ecosystem with its inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-Ecoforestry_Drengson4-123">[123]</a> Productivity within the ecosystem cannot come to fruition unless the forest is sustainable enough to be harvested. If most individual organisms of the ecosystem vanish, the ecosystem itself is at risk. Once that happens, there is no longer any forest to harvest from. The overall productivity of a system can be found in an equation where the <a href="/wiki/Net_Primary_Production" class="mw-redirect" title="Net Primary Production">Net Primary Production</a>, or NPP, is equal to the <a href="/wiki/Gross_Primary_Production" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross Primary Production">Gross Primary Production</a>, or GPP, minus the <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Respiration</a>, or R. The formula is the NPP = GPP - R.<a href="#cite_note-Ecoforestry_Drengson4-123">[123]</a> The NPP is the overall efficiency of the plants in the ecosystem. Through having a constant efficiency in NPP, the ecosystem is then more sustainable. The GPP refers to the rate of energy stored by photosynthesis in plants. The R refers to the maintenance and reproduction of plants from the energy expended.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Ecoforestry has many principles within the existence of itself. It covers sustainable development and the fair harvesting of the organisms living within the forest ecosystem. There have been many proposals of principles outlined for ecoforestry. They are covered over books, articles, and environmental agencies. All of the principles relate to the idea that in ecoforestry, less should be harvested, and diversity must be managed. Through harvesting less, there is enough biomass left in the forest, so that the forest may stay healthy and still stay maintained. It will grow at a sustainable level annually, and thus it will be able to still be harvested the following year. Through management of the diversity, species may cohabitate in an ecosystem where the forest may feed off of other species in its growth and production.<a href="#cite_note-Ecoforestry_Rastogi2-120">[120]</a> The Principles of Ecoforestry may be found below.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Continuous_cover_forestry">Continuous cover forestry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Continuous cover forestry">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Continuous_cover_forestry" title="Continuous cover forestry">Continuous cover forestry</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Continuous_cover_forestry&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Continuous_Cover_Forestry_in_the_Lake_District,_Cumbria,_England.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="CCF, continuous cover forestry, silviculture, Douglas fir, sustainable forest management, forest ecology, Cumbria, Lake District, England" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Continuous_Cover_Forestry_in_the_Lake_District%2C_Cumbria%2C_England.jpeg/220px-Continuous_Cover_Forestry_in_the_Lake_District%2C_Cumbria%2C_England.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Continuous_Cover_Forestry_in_the_Lake_District%2C_Cumbria%2C_England.jpeg/330px-Continuous_Cover_Forestry_in_the_Lake_District%2C_Cumbria%2C_England.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Continuous_Cover_Forestry_in_the_Lake_District%2C_Cumbria%2C_England.jpeg/440px-Continuous_Cover_Forestry_in_the_Lake_District%2C_Cumbria%2C_England.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="759" /></a><figcaption>85-year-old stand of <a href="/wiki/Douglas_fir" title="Douglas fir">Douglas fir</a> in the process of transformation to a continuous cover forest</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Continuous_cover_forestry" title="Continuous cover forestry">Continuous cover forestry</a> (commonly referred to as "CCF") is an approach to the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">sustainable management</a> of <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> whereby forest stands are maintained in a permanently irregular structure, which is created and sustained through the selection and <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">harvesting</a> of individual trees.<a href="#cite_note-Continuous_cover_forestry_:0-124">[124]</a> The term "continuous cover forestry" does not equate exactly to any one particular <a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">silvicultural system</a>, but is typified by <a href="/wiki/Selection_cutting" title="Selection cutting">selection systems</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Coppice" class="mw-redirect" title="Coppice">coppice with standards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silviculture#Silvicultural_systems" title="Silviculture">Reiniger's target diameter harvesting</a> are also continuous cover forestry. Different existing forest stands may require different silvicultural interventions to achieve a continuously productive irregular structure. Crucially, <a href="/wiki/Clear-felling" class="mw-redirect" title="Clear-felling">clearcutting</a> and other rotational forest management systems are avoided.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Mycoforestry">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Mycoforestry" title="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mycoforestry&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amanita_praecox_86186.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Amanita_praecox_86186.jpg/260px-Amanita_praecox_86186.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Amanita_praecox_86186.jpg/390px-Amanita_praecox_86186.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Amanita_praecox_86186.jpg/520px-Amanita_praecox_86186.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Amanita" title="Amanita">Amanita</a> species are <a href="/wiki/Ectomycorrhiza" title="Ectomycorrhiza">ectomycorrhizal</a> with many trees.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Mycoforestry" title="Mycoforestry">Mycoforestry</a> is an ecological forest management system implemented to enhance <a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">forest ecosystems</a> and plant communities, by introducing the <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">mycorrhizal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saprotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotroph">saprotrophic</a> <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>. Mycoforestry is considered a type of <a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">permaculture</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> and can be implemented as a beneficial component of an <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">agroforestry</a> system. It can enhance the yields of tree crops and produce <a href="/wiki/Edible_mushroom" title="Edible mushroom">edible mushrooms</a>, an economically valuable product. By integrating plant-fungal associations into a forestry management system, native forests can be preserved, wood waste can be recycled back into the ecosystem, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> can be increased, planted restoration sites are enhanced, and the sustainability of forest ecosystems are improved.<a href="#cite_note-Mycoforestry_stamets-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Mycoforestry is an alternative to the practice of <a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">clearcutting</a>, which removes dead wood from forests, thereby diminishing nutrient availability and reducing soil depth.<a href="#cite_note-Mycoforestry_dahlgren-128">[128]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Assisted_natural_regeneration">Assisted natural regeneration</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Assisted natural regeneration">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Assisted_natural_regeneration" title="Assisted natural regeneration">Assisted natural regeneration</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Assisted_natural_regeneration&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deer_fence_and_gate_on_the_Tubeg_track_-_geograph.org.uk_-_827863.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Deer_fence_and_gate_on_the_Tubeg_track_-_geograph.org.uk_-_827863.jpg/220px-Deer_fence_and_gate_on_the_Tubeg_track_-_geograph.org.uk_-_827863.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Deer_fence_and_gate_on_the_Tubeg_track_-_geograph.org.uk_-_827863.jpg/330px-Deer_fence_and_gate_on_the_Tubeg_track_-_geograph.org.uk_-_827863.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Deer_fence_and_gate_on_the_Tubeg_track_-_geograph.org.uk_-_827863.jpg/440px-Deer_fence_and_gate_on_the_Tubeg_track_-_geograph.org.uk_-_827863.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Deer fence and gate on the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tubeg_track&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tubeg track (page does not exist)">Tubeg track</a>. This part of the south side of <a href="/wiki/Loch_Assynt" title="Loch Assynt">Loch Assynt</a> has been fenced off to assist natural regeneration of the tree cover. So far, there are few trees showing, despite the OS mapping showing this as a wooded area.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Assisted_natural_regeneration" title="Assisted natural regeneration">Assisted natural regeneration</a> (ANR) (also termed managed regrowth) is the human protection and preservation of natural tree seedlings in forested areas. Seedlings are, in particular, protected from undergrowth and extremely flammable plants such as <a href="/wiki/Imperata" title="Imperata">Imperata</a> grass. Though there is no formal definition or methodology, the overall goal of ANR is to create and improve forest productivity. It typically involves the reduction or removal of barriers to natural regeneration such as <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">soil degradation</a>, competition with weeds, grasses or other vegetation, and protection against disturbances, which can all interfere with growth.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In addition to protection efforts, new trees are planted when needed or wanted (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Enrichment_planting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enrichment planting (page does not exist)">enrichment planting</a>). With ANR, forests grow faster than they would naturally, resulting in a significant contribution to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> efforts. It also serves as a cheaper alternative to <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> due to decreased nursery needs. The most effective way to implement ANR is very site-specific, and many nations provide guidebooks on how to select and maintain an ANR project.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alternative_harvesting_methods">Alternative harvesting methods</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Alternative harvesting methods">edit</a>]</div> Reduced impact logging (RIL) is a sustainable forestry method as it decreases the forest and canopy damages by approximately 75% compared to the conventional logging methods.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Additionally, a 120-year regression model found that RIL would have a significantly higher <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> in 30 years ("18.3 m3 ha−1") in relation to conventional logging ("14.0 m3 ha−1").<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Furthermore, it is essential that RIL should be practiced as soon as possible to improve reforestation in the future. For instance, a study concluded that logging would have to reduce by 40% in Brazil if the current logging measures stay of "6 trees/hectare with a 30-year cutting cycle" stay in place. This would be to ensure that future ground biomass to have regeneration of the original ground biomass prior to harvesting.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Preserving_forest_genetic_resources">Preserving forest genetic resources</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Preserving forest genetic resources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></div> Appropriate use and long-term conservation of <a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">forest genetic resources</a> (FGR) is a part of sustainable forest management.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> In particular when it comes to the adaptation of <a href="/wiki/Forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Forests">forests</a> and forest management to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a> ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Genetic diversity in forests also contributes to tree vitality and to the <a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">resilience</a> towards pests and diseases. Furthermore, FGR has a crucial role in maintaining forest biological diversity at both species and <a href="/wiki/Forest_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest ecosystem">ecosystem</a> levels.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Selecting carefully the <a href="/wiki/Forest_reproductive_material" title="Forest reproductive material">forest reproductive material</a> with emphasis on getting a high genetic diversity rather than aiming at producing a uniform stand of trees, is essential for sustainable use of FGR. Considering the <a href="/wiki/Provenance" title="Provenance">provenance</a> is crucial as well. For example, in relation to climate change, local material may not have the genetic diversity or <a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">phenotypic plasticity</a> to guarantee good performance under changed conditions. A different <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> from further away, which may have experienced <a href="/wiki/Selection_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection (biology)">selection</a> under conditions more like those forecast for the site to be <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforested</a>, might represent a more suitable seed source.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Problems">Problems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Problems">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wildfires">Wildfires</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Wildfires">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wildfire&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Burnout_ops_on_Mangum_Fire_McCall_Smokejumpers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Burnout_ops_on_Mangum_Fire_McCall_Smokejumpers.jpg/300px-Burnout_ops_on_Mangum_Fire_McCall_Smokejumpers.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Burnout_ops_on_Mangum_Fire_McCall_Smokejumpers.jpg/450px-Burnout_ops_on_Mangum_Fire_McCall_Smokejumpers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Burnout_ops_on_Mangum_Fire_McCall_Smokejumpers.jpg/600px-Burnout_ops_on_Mangum_Fire_McCall_Smokejumpers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption>Wildfire burning in the <a href="/wiki/Kaibab_National_Forest" title="Kaibab National Forest">Kaibab National Forest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>, United States, in 2020. The <a href="/wiki/Mangum_Fire" title="Mangum Fire">Mangum Fire</a> burned more than 70,000 acres (280 km2) of <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a>.</figcaption></figure> Naturally occurring wildfires can have beneficial effects on those <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> that have evolved with fire.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wildfire_:22-141">[141]</a> In fact, many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-Wildfire_NOVA222-142">[142]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forest_degradation">Forest degradation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Forest degradation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">Forest degradation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forest_degradation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lahnberge_Wald.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lahnberge_Wald.jpg/310px-Lahnberge_Wald.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lahnberge_Wald.jpg/465px-Lahnberge_Wald.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Lahnberge_Wald.jpg/620px-Lahnberge_Wald.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Degraded forest in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lahnberge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lahnberge (page does not exist)">Lahnberge</a>, Germany: the soil is being washed out due to lack of vegetal cover, some trees are losing ground and they appear to be sick (photo by Andreas Trepte).</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">Forest degradation</a> is a process in which the biological wealth of a forest area is permanently diminished by some factor or by a combination of factors. "This does not involve a reduction of the forest area, but rather a quality decrease in its condition." The forest is still there, but with fewer trees, or less species of trees, plants or animals, or some of them affected by plagues.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> This degradation makes the forest less valuable and may lead to <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>. Forest degradation is a type of the more general issue of <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a>. Deforestation and forest degradation continue to take place at alarming rates, which contributes significantly to the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">loss of biodiversity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deforestation">Deforestation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Deforestation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deforestation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea,_Julho-2016_(29399454651).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg/220px-Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg/330px-Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg/440px-Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest" title="Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest">Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest</a> in Brazil's <a href="/wiki/Maranh%C3%A3o" title="Maranhão">Maranhão</a> state, 2016</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg/220px-Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg/330px-Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg/440px-Riau_palm_oil_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in Riau province, Sumatra, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> to make way for an <a href="/wiki/Oil_palm" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil palm">oil palm</a> plantation in 2007.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg/220px-Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg/330px-Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg/440px-Hillside_deforestation_in_Rio_de_Janeiro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2544" data-file-height="1696" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in the city of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil's <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a> state, 2009</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> or stand of trees from land that is then <a href="/wiki/Land_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Land conversion">converted</a> to non-forest use.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to <a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">farms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">ranches</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a> use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a> at present.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> This is one-third less than the <a href="/wiki/Forest_cover" title="Forest cover">forest cover</a> before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Between 15 million to 18 million <a href="/wiki/Hectares" class="mw-redirect" title="Hectares">hectares</a> of forest, an area the size of <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a>, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_:0-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_:1-150">[150]</a> In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical <a href="/wiki/Primary_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary forests">primary forests</a>. These are areas of mature <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a> that are especially important for <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon storage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_Guy-2020-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_:2-152">[152]</a> The direct cause of most deforestation is agriculture by far.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_UNFCC-2007-153">[153]</a> More than 80% of deforestation was attributed to agriculture in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_ScienceDaily-2018-154">[154]</a> Forests are being converted to plantations for <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> and various other popular products.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_WWF-2020-155">[155]</a> Livestock <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a> also drives deforestation. Further drivers are the <a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">wood industry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a>), <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a> are another cause via the increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">deforestation and climate change</a>). Deforestation results in <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">habitat destruction</a> which in turn leads to <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>. Deforestation also leads to <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a> of animals and plants, changes to the local climate, and displacement of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous people</a> who live in forests. Deforested regions often also suffer from other environmental problems such as <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>. Another problem is that deforestation reduces the uptake of carbon dioxide (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>) from the atmosphere. This reduces the potential of forests to assist with <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>. The role of forests in capturing and storing carbon and mitigating climate change is also important for the agricultural sector.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_FAO_&_UNEP-2020-156">[156]</a> The reason for this linkage is because the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">effects of climate change on agriculture</a> pose new risks to global <a href="/wiki/Food_system" title="Food system">food systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_FAO_&_UNEP-2020-156">[156]</a> Since 1990, it is estimated that some <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(area)#108_to_1014_square_metres" title="Orders of magnitude (area)">420 million hectares</a> of forest have been lost through <a href="/wiki/Land_conversion" class="mw-redirect" title="Land conversion">conversion</a> to other <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land uses</a>, although the rate of deforestation has decreased over the past three decades. Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year, down from 16 million hectares per year in the 1990s. The area of primary forest worldwide has decreased by over 80 million hectares since 1990. More than 100 million hectares of forests are adversely affected by forest fires, pests, diseases, <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a> and adverse weather events.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deforestation_and_climate_change">Deforestation and climate change</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Deforestation and climate change">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deforestation_and_climate_change&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deforestation-emissions-in-trade-%E2%80%93-Sankey-01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Deforestation-emissions-in-trade-%E2%80%93-Sankey-01.png/340px-Deforestation-emissions-in-trade-%E2%80%93-Sankey-01.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="390" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Deforestation-emissions-in-trade-%E2%80%93-Sankey-01.png/510px-Deforestation-emissions-in-trade-%E2%80%93-Sankey-01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Deforestation-emissions-in-trade-%E2%80%93-Sankey-01.png/680px-Deforestation-emissions-in-trade-%E2%80%93-Sankey-01.png 2x" data-file-width="1493" data-file-height="1714" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> – given as the annual average between 2010 and 2014 – was responsible for 2.6 billion tonnes of CO2 per year. That was 6.5% of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">global CO2 emissions</a>. </figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> is a primary <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Causes of global warming">contributor to climate change</a>,<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> affects the health of forests.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> <a href="/wiki/Land_use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use change">Land use change</a>, especially in the form of deforestation, is the second largest source of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide emissions">carbon dioxide emissions</a> from human activities, after the burning of <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_and_climate_change_:3-162">[162]</a> <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a> are emitted from deforestation during the burning of forest <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">decomposition</a> of remaining plant material and <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">soil carbon</a>. Global models and national greenhouse gas inventories give similar results for deforestation emissions.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_and_climate_change_:3-162">[162]</a> As of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit">[update]</a>, deforestation is responsible for about 11% of global <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Carbon emissions from tropical deforestation are accelerating.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> When forests grow they are a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sink</a> and therefore have potential to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">mitigate the effects of climate change</a>. Some of the <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a>, such as more <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a>,<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> invasive species, and more <a href="/wiki/Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">extreme weather</a> events can lead to more forest loss.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_and_climate_change_:4-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The relationship between deforestation and climate change is one of a positive (amplifying) <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">climate feedback</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> The more trees that are removed equals larger effects of climate change which, in turn, results in the loss of more trees.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Forests cover 31% of the land area on Earth. Every year, 75,700 square kilometers (18.7 million acres) of the forest is lost.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_and_climate_change_WWF-171">[171]</a> There was a 12% increase in the loss of primary <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a> from 2019 to 2020.<a href="#cite_note-Deforestation_and_climate_change_:10-172">[172]</a> Deforestation has many causes and drivers. Examples include agricultural <a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">clearcutting</a>, livestock <a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">grazing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a> for timber, and <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfires</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Checkerboarding">Checkerboarding</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Checkerboarding">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Checkerboarding_(land)" title="Checkerboarding (land)">Checkerboarding (land)</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Checkerboarding_(land)&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sr-sj-natmon-bluebound.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Sr-sj-natmon-bluebound.jpg/220px-Sr-sj-natmon-bluebound.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Sr-sj-natmon-bluebound.jpg/330px-Sr-sj-natmon-bluebound.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Sr-sj-natmon-bluebound.jpg/440px-Sr-sj-natmon-bluebound.jpg 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="897" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa_and_San_Jacinto_Mountains_National_Monument" title="Santa Rosa and San Jacinto Mountains National Monument">Santa Rosa and San Jacinto Mountains National Monument</a> showing examples of checkerboarding</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Checkerboarding_(land)" title="Checkerboarding (land)">Checkerboarding</a> refers to the intermingling of land ownership between two or more owners resulting in a <a href="/wiki/Checkerboard" title="Checkerboard">checkerboard</a> pattern. Checkerboarding is prevalent in the <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Canada" title="Western Canada">Western Canada</a> because of extensive use in railroad grants for <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">western expansion</a>, although it had its beginnings in the canal land grant era.<a href="#cite_note-Checkerboarding_(land)_draffan-173">[173]</a></div></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Checkerboard_forest_in_Idaho.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Checkerboard_forest_in_Idaho.jpg/250px-Checkerboard_forest_in_Idaho.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Checkerboard_forest_in_Idaho.jpg/375px-Checkerboard_forest_in_Idaho.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Checkerboard_forest_in_Idaho.jpg/500px-Checkerboard_forest_in_Idaho.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3280" /></a><figcaption>Checkerboard pattern alongside the Priest River in northern Idaho</figcaption></figure> Checkerboarding can create problems for access and ecological management. It is one of the major causes of <a href="/wiki/Inholding" title="Inholding">inholdings</a> within the boundaries of <a href="/wiki/National_forest_(United_States)" title="National forest (United States)">national forests</a>. As is the case in northwestern <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, checkerboarding has resulted in issues with managing national forest land.<a href="#cite_note-poli-174">[174]</a> Checkerboarding was previously applied to these areas during the period of western expansion, and they are now commercial forest land. Conflicting policies establishing the rights of the private owners of this land have caused some difficulties in the local hardwood timber production economy. While relieving this land from its checkerboard ownership structure could benefit the timber production economy of the region, checkerboards can allow government to extend good forestry practices over intermingled private lands, by demonstration or applying pressure via economy of scale or the right of access.<a href="#cite_note-ballaine-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unsustainable_practices">Unsustainable practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Unsustainable practices">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Clear-cutting">Clear-cutting</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Clear-cutting">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">Clearcutting</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Clearcutting&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lewis_and_Clark_River_2148s.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Lewis_and_Clark_River_2148s.JPG/290px-Lewis_and_Clark_River_2148s.JPG" decoding="async" width="290" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Lewis_and_Clark_River_2148s.JPG/435px-Lewis_and_Clark_River_2148s.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Lewis_and_Clark_River_2148s.JPG/580px-Lewis_and_Clark_River_2148s.JPG 2x" data-file-width="6623" data-file-height="2827" /></a><figcaption>After a century of clearcutting, this forest, near the source of the <a href="/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_River" title="Lewis and Clark River">Lewis and Clark River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Clatsop_County,_Oregon" title="Clatsop County, Oregon">Clatsop County, Oregon</a>, is a patchwork. In each patch, most of the trees are the same age.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clearcutting_Drawing.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Clearcutting_Drawing.svg/220px-Clearcutting_Drawing.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Clearcutting_Drawing.svg/330px-Clearcutting_Drawing.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Clearcutting_Drawing.svg/440px-Clearcutting_Drawing.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>A forest before and after clearcutting</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">Clearcutting</a>, clearfelling or clearcut logging is a <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>/<a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a> practice in which most or all trees in an area are uniformly cut down. Along with <a href="/wiki/Shelterwood_cutting" title="Shelterwood cutting">shelterwood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seed_tree" title="Seed tree">seed tree harvests</a>, it is used by <a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">foresters</a> to create certain types of forest <a href="/wiki/Ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a> and to promote select species<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> that require an abundance of sunlight or grow in large, even-age <a href="/wiki/Stand_level_modelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Stand level modelling">stands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Clearcutting_Dovetail-177">[177]</a> Logging companies and forest-worker unions in some countries support the practice for scientific, safety and economic reasons, while detractors consider it a form of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> that <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">destroys natural habitats</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">contributes to climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Environmentalists, traditional owners, local residents and others have regularly campaigned against clearcutting, including through the use of blockades and nonviolent direct action.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Clearcutting is the most economically efficient method of logging.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It also may create detrimental side effects, such as the loss of <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a>, the costs of which are intensely debated by economic, environmental and other interests. In addition to the purpose of harvesting wood, clearcutting is used to <a href="/wiki/Land_development#Conversion_to_farmland" title="Land development">create land for farming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Clearcutting_environmentalgovernance.org-181">[181]</a> Ultimately, the effects of clearcutting on the land will depend on how well or poorly the forest is managed,<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> and whether it is converted to non-forest land uses after clearcuts.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> While deforestation of both <a href="/wiki/Temperate_forest" title="Temperate forest">temperate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a> through clearcutting has received considerable media attention in recent years, the other large forests of the world, such as the <a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">taiga</a>, also known as boreal forests, are also under threat of rapid development. In Russia, North America and Scandinavia, creating <a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">protected areas</a> and granting long-term leases to tend and regenerate trees—thus maximizing future harvests—are among the means used to limit the harmful effects of clearcutting.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> Long-term studies of clearcut forests, such as studies of the <a href="/wiki/Pasoh_Forest_Reserve" title="Pasoh Forest Reserve">Pasoh Rainforest</a> in Malaysia, are also important in providing insights into the conservation of forest resources worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Even-aged_timber_management">Even-aged timber management</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Even-aged timber management">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Even-aged_timber_management#Wildlife_considerations" title="Even-aged timber management">Even-aged timber management § Wildlife considerations</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Even-aged_timber_management&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> Ecological analysis indicates that even aged timber management can produce inferior outcomes for wildlife <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> and abundance.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Some species thrive on uneven or natural forest tree distribution. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Wild_turkey" title="Wild turkey">wild turkey</a> thrives when uneven heights and canopy variations exist and its numbers are diminished by even aged timber management.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Illegal_logging">Illegal logging</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Illegal logging">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Illegal_logging&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a> is the harvest, transportation, purchase, or sale of <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a> in violation of <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">laws</a>. The harvesting procedure itself may be illegal, including using <a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">corrupt</a> means to gain access to forests; extraction without permission, or from a protected area; the cutting down of <a href="/wiki/Protected_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected species">protected species</a>; or the extraction of timber in excess of agreed limits. Illegal logging is a driving force for a number of environmental issues such as <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> which can drive larger-scale environmental crises such as <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>. Illegality may also occur during transport, such as illegal processing and export (through <a href="/wiki/Smuggling" title="Smuggling">fraudulent declaration to customs</a>); the <a href="/wiki/Tax_avoidance" title="Tax avoidance">avoidance of taxes</a> and other charges, and fraudulent certification.<a href="#cite_note-Illegal_logging_Guardian82415-188">[188]</a> These acts are often referred to as "wood laundering".<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Illegal logging is driven by a number of economic forces, such as demand for raw materials, <a href="/wiki/Land_grabbing" title="Land grabbing">land grabbing</a> and demand for <a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">pasture</a> for cattle. Regulation and prevention can happen at both the supply size, with better enforcement of environmental protections, and at the demand side, such as an increasing regulation of trade as part of the international <a href="/wiki/Lumber_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Lumber industry">lumber industry</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Certification_systems">Certification systems</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Certification systems">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Certified_wood" title="Certified wood">Certified wood</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Certified_wood" title="Certified wood">Forest certification</a> is a globally recognized system for encouraging sustainable forest management and assuring that forest-based goods are derived from sustainably managed forests.<a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:110-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> This is a voluntary procedure in which an impartial third-party organization evaluates the quality of forest management and output against a set of criteria established by a governmental or commercial certification agency.<a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-:110-190">[190]</a> Growing <a href="/wiki/Environmental_awareness" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental awareness">environmental awareness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consumer_demand" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer demand">consumer demand</a> for more socially responsible businesses helped third-party forest <a href="/wiki/Certification" title="Certification">certification</a> emerge in the 1990s as a credible tool for communicating the environmental and social performance of forest operations. There are many potential users of certification, including: forest managers, scientists, policy makers, investors, environmental advocates, business consumers of wood and paper, and individuals.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] With third-party <a href="/wiki/Certified_wood" title="Certified wood">forest certification</a>, an independent <a href="/wiki/Standards_organization" title="Standards organization">standards setting organization (SSO)</a> develops <a href="/wiki/Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">standards</a> of good forest management, and independent auditors issue certificates to forest operations that comply with those <a href="/wiki/Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">standards</a>. Forest certification verifies that forests are well-managed – as defined by a particular <a href="/wiki/Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">standard</a> – and chain-of-custody certification tracks wood and paper products from the certified forest through processing to the point of sale.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] This rise of certification led to the emergence of several different systems throughout the world. As a result, there is no single accepted forest management <a href="/wiki/International_standard" title="International standard">international standard</a> worldwide. <a href="/wiki/ISO" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO">ISO</a> members<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> rejected a proposal for a forestry management system as requirements standard, with a consensus that a management system for certification would not be effective. Instead ISO members voted for a chain of custody of wood and wood-based products with ISO 38200 published in 2018. Without an <a href="/wiki/International_standard" title="International standard">international standard</a> each system takes a somewhat different approach with scheme owners defining <a href="/wiki/Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">private standards</a> for sustainable forest management. In its 2009–2010 Forest Products Annual Market Review United Nations Economic Commission for Europe/Food and Agriculture Organization stated: "Over the years, many of the issues that previously divided the (certification) systems have become much less distinct. The largest certification systems now generally have the same structural programmatic requirements."<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Third-party forest certification is an important tool for those seeking to ensure that the paper and wood products they purchase and use come from forests that are well-managed and legally harvested. Incorporating third-party certification into forest product procurement practices can be a centerpiece for comprehensive wood and paper policies that include factors such as the protection of sensitive forest values, thoughtful material selection and efficient use of products.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forest_Stewardship_Council_Logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Forest_Stewardship_Council_Logo.svg/195px-Forest_Stewardship_Council_Logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="195" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Forest_Stewardship_Council_Logo.svg/293px-Forest_Stewardship_Council_Logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Forest_Stewardship_Council_Logo.svg/390px-Forest_Stewardship_Council_Logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1169" data-file-height="1216" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Forest_Stewardship_Council" title="Forest Stewardship Council">Forest Stewardship Council</a> is one of many <a href="/wiki/Forest_certification" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest certification">forest certification</a> programs.</figcaption></figure> Without a single <a href="/wiki/International_standard" title="International standard">international standard</a>, there are a proliferation of <a href="/wiki/Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">private standards</a>,<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> with more than fifty scheme owners offering certification worldwide, addressing the diversity of forest types and tenures. Globally, the two largest umbrella certification programs are: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Programme_for_the_Endorsement_of_Forest_Certification" title="Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification">Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification</a> (PEFC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_Stewardship_Council" title="Forest Stewardship Council">Forest Stewardship Council</a> (FSC)</li></ul> The Forest Stewardship Council's Policy on Conversion states that land areas converted from natural forests to round <a href="/wiki/Wood_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood production">wood production</a> after November 1994 are ineligible for Forest Stewardship Council certification.<a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> The area of forest certified worldwide is growing slowly. PEFC is the world's largest forest certification system, with more than two-thirds of the total global certified area certified to its Sustainability Benchmarks.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> In 2021, PEFC issued a position statement<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> defending their use of <a href="/wiki/Technical_standard" title="Technical standard">private standards</a> in response to the Destruction: Certified report from <a href="/wiki/Greenpeace" title="Greenpeace">Greenpeace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> In North America, there are three certification standards endorsed by PEFC – the Sustainable Forestry Initiative,<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> the Canadian Standards Association's Sustainable Forest Management Standard,<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> and the American Tree Farm System.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> SFI is the world's largest single forest certification standard by area.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> FSC has five standards in North America – one in the United States<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> and four in Canada.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> While certification is intended as a tool to enhance forest management practices throughout the world, to date most certified forestry operations are located in Europe and North America. A significant barrier for many forest managers in <a href="/wiki/Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> is that they lack the capacity to undergo a certification audit and maintain operations to a certification standard.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forest_governance">Forest governance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Forest governance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richea_pandanifolia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Richea_pandanifolia.jpg/220px-Richea_pandanifolia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Richea_pandanifolia.jpg/330px-Richea_pandanifolia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Richea_pandanifolia.jpg/440px-Richea_pandanifolia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="1296" /></a><figcaption>Pandani (<a href="/wiki/Richea_pandanifolia" title="Richea pandanifolia">Richea pandanifolia</a>) near Lake Dobson, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Field_National_Park" title="Mount Field National Park">Mount Field National Park</a>, Tasmania, Australia</figcaption></figure> Although a majority of forests continue to be owned formally by government, the effectiveness of forest governance is increasingly independent of formal ownership.<a href="#cite_note-agrawal2008-208">[208]</a> Since neo-liberal ideology in the 1980s and the emanation of the <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> challenges, evidence that the state is failing to effectively manage environmental resources has emerged.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Neo-liberal" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-liberal">neo-liberal</a> regimes in the developing countries, the role of the state has diminished and the <a href="/wiki/Market_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Market forces">market forces</a> have increasingly taken over the dominant socio-economic role.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> The shifting of natural resource management responsibilities from central to state and local governments, where this is occurring, is usually a part of broader decentralization process.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> The development of National Forest Funds is one way to address the issue of financing sustainable forest management.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> National forest funds (NFFs) are dedicated financing mechanisms managed by public institutions designed to support the conservation and sustainable use of forest resources.<a href="#cite_note-auto-213">[213]</a> As of 2014, there are 70 NFFs operating globally.<a href="#cite_note-auto-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Community_forestry">Community forestry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Community forestry">edit</a>]</div> Community-based forest management (CBFM) is a scheme that links governmental forest agencies and the local community in efforts to regenerate degraded forests, reforest deforested areas, and decrease carbon emissions that contribute to climate change. This partnership is done with the intent of not only repairing damage to the environment but also providing economic and social benefits to the affected area.<a href="#cite_note-:06-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> In principle, the benefits for the local community involvement in the management and protection of their forests would be to provide employment and to supplement income from both the wage labor and additional agriculture which would then strength the entire local economy while improving environmental conditions and mitigating climate change. Therefore, implementing a CBFM system can provide rural development while mitigating climate change and sustaining biodiversity within the region. It is important to engage the local community members, many of which are indigenous since presumably, they would have a deeper knowledge of the local ecosystems as well as the life cycles of those ecosystems over time. Their involvement also helps to ensure that their cultural practices remain intact.<a href="#cite_note-:06-214">[214]</a> <div class="error">Section 'Overview' not found</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forestry_law">Forestry law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Forestry law">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">Forestry law</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forestry_law&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> Forestry laws govern activities in designated forest lands, most commonly with respect to forest management and timber harvesting.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Forestry laws generally adopt management policies for public forest resources, such as multiple use and sustained yield.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> Forest management is split between private and public management, with public forests being sovereign property of the State. Forestry laws are now considered an international affair.<a href="#cite_note-Forestry_law_:2-219">[219]</a> <a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> Governmental agencies are generally responsible for planning and implementing forestry laws on public forest lands, and may be involved in forest inventory, planning, and conservation, and oversight of timber sales.<a href="#cite_note-Forestry_law_:1-221">[221]</a> Forestry laws are also dependent on social and economic contexts of the region in which they are implemented.<a href="#cite_note-Forestry_law_:4-222">[222]</a> The development of scientific forestry management is based on the precise measurement of the distribution and volume of wood in a given parcel, the systematic felling of trees, and their replacement by standard, carefully aligned rows of mono-cultural plantations that could be harvested at set times.<a href="#cite_note-Forestry_law_r1-223">[223]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation_of_deforestation_and_climate_change">Mitigation of deforestation and climate change</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Mitigation of deforestation and climate change">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UNREDDandFCPFcountries.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/UNREDDandFCPFcountries.svg/400px-UNREDDandFCPFcountries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/UNREDDandFCPFcountries.svg/600px-UNREDDandFCPFcountries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/UNREDDandFCPFcountries.svg/800px-UNREDDandFCPFcountries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption> Countries participating in the UNREDD program and/or Forest Carbon Partnership Facility. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  UN-REDD participants</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Forest Carbon Partnership Facility participants</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  participants in both</div> </figcaption></figure><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></div>Scientific studies investigate the ability of forests to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>). Through such analysis, researchers can quantify the carbon stocks present in different types of forests and assess their effectiveness as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a>. Understanding the capacity of forests to sequester carbon is crucial for <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a> efforts.<a href="#cite_note-Anderegg_Wu_Acil_et_al_2022-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Windisch_Davin_Seneviratne_2021-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Portmann_Beyerle_Davin_et_al_2022-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forest_protection">Forest protection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Forest protection">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">Forest protection</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forest_protection&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forest_protection_in_LT.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Forest_protection_in_LT.JPG/220px-Forest_protection_in_LT.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Forest_protection_in_LT.JPG/330px-Forest_protection_in_LT.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Forest_protection_in_LT.JPG/440px-Forest_protection_in_LT.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4861" data-file-height="2631" /></a><figcaption>Forest security in <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">Forest protection</a> is a branch of forestry which is concerned with the preservation or improvement of a <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> and prevention and control of damage to forest by natural or man made causes like <a href="/wiki/Forest_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fire">forest fires</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_pest" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant pest">plant pests</a>, and adverse climatic conditions (<a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a>). Forest protection also has a legal status and rather than protection from only people damaging the forests is seen to be broader and include <a href="/wiki/Forest_pathology" title="Forest pathology">forest pathology</a> too. Due to the different emphases there exist widely different methods forest protection. In German-speaking countries, forest protection would focus on the biotic and abiotic factors that are non-crime related. A <a href="/wiki/Protected_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected forest">protected forest</a> is not the same as a <a href="/wiki/Protection_forest" title="Protection forest">protection forest</a>. These terms can lead to some confusion in English, although they are clearer in other languages. As a result, reading English literature can be problematic for non-experts due to localization and conflation of meanings. The types of man-induced abuse that forest protection seeks to prevent include: <ul><li>Aggressive or unsustainable <a href="/wiki/Intensive_farming" title="Intensive farming">intensive farming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Pollution</a> of the forest soil</li> <li>Expanding city development caused by <a href="/wiki/Population_explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Population explosion">population explosion</a> and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul> There is considerable debate over the effectiveness of forest protection methods. Enforcement of laws regarding purchased forest land is weak or non-existent in most parts of the world. In the increasingly dangerous South America, home of major <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforests</a>, officials of the <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> <a href="/wiki/IBAMA" class="mw-redirect" title="IBAMA">National Agency for the Environment</a> (IBAMA) have recently been shot during their routine duties.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tropical_rainforest_conservation">Tropical rainforest conservation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Tropical rainforest conservation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest_conservation" title="Tropical rainforest conservation">Tropical rainforest conservation</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tropical_rainforest_conservation&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tropical_rainforest_Agumbe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Tropical_rainforest_Agumbe.jpg/220px-Tropical_rainforest_Agumbe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Tropical_rainforest_Agumbe.jpg/330px-Tropical_rainforest_Agumbe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Tropical_rainforest_Agumbe.jpg/440px-Tropical_rainforest_Agumbe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Tropical rainforest in Agumbe, India</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecuadorian_Amazon_rain_forest,_looking_toward_the_Andes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Ecuadorian_Amazon_rain_forest%2C_looking_toward_the_Andes.jpg/220px-Ecuadorian_Amazon_rain_forest%2C_looking_toward_the_Andes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Ecuadorian_Amazon_rain_forest%2C_looking_toward_the_Andes.jpg/330px-Ecuadorian_Amazon_rain_forest%2C_looking_toward_the_Andes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Ecuadorian_Amazon_rain_forest%2C_looking_toward_the_Andes.jpg/440px-Ecuadorian_Amazon_rain_forest%2C_looking_toward_the_Andes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2896" data-file-height="1936" /></a><figcaption>Amazon rainforest</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tropical_wet_forests.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Tropical_wet_forests.svg/220px-Tropical_wet_forests.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Tropical_wet_forests.svg/330px-Tropical_wet_forests.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Tropical_wet_forests.svg/440px-Tropical_wet_forests.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="523" /></a><figcaption>Tropical rainforest map</figcaption></figure> Building blocks for <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest_conservation" title="Tropical rainforest conservation">tropical rainforest conservation</a> include <a href="/wiki/Ecotourism" title="Ecotourism">ecotourism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_rehabilitation" title="Wildlife rehabilitation">rehabilitation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">restoration</a> are common practices in certain areas to try to increase <a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">tropical rainforest</a> density. By communicating with the local people living in, and around, the rainforest, conservationists can learn more about what might allow them to best focus their efforts.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">Rainforests</a> are globally important to sustainability and preservation of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. Although they may vary in location and inhabited species of plants and animals, they remain important worldwide for their abundance of <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resources</a> and for the <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>. It is important to take into consideration the differing species and the biodiversity that exists across different rainforest types in order to accurately implement methods of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proforestation">Proforestation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Proforestation">edit</a>]</div> Proforestation is the practice of protecting existing natural <a href="/wiki/Forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Forests">forests</a> to foster continuous growth, carbon accumulation, and structural complexity.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-10_rules-228">[228]</a> It is recognized as an important forest based strategy for addressing the global crises in <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10_rules-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> <a href="/wiki/Forest_restoration" title="Forest restoration">Forest restoration</a> can be a strategy for <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-230">[230]</a>: 37  Proforestation complements other forest-based solutions like <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> and improved forest management. Allowing proforestation in some secondary forests will increase their accumulated carbon and biodiversity over time. Strategies for proforestation include <a href="/wiki/Rewilding_(conservation_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rewilding (conservation biology)">rewilding</a>,<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> such as reintroducing <a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">apex predators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a> as, for example, predators keep the population of herbivores in check (which reduce the <a href="/wiki/Biosequestration" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosequestration">biomass of vegetation</a>). Another strategy is establishing <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">wildlife corridors</a> connecting isolated protected areas.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA2-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> Proforestation refers specifically to enabling continuous forest growth uninterrupted by active management or timber harvesting, a term coined by scientists <a href="/wiki/William_Moomaw" title="William Moomaw">William Moomaw</a>, Susan Masino, and Edward Faison.<a href="#cite_note-e360.yale.edu-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-227">[227]</a> Proforestation differs from <a href="/wiki/Agroforestry" title="Agroforestry">agroforestry</a> or the cultivation of forest <a href="/wiki/Plantations" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantations">plantations</a>, the latter consisting of similarly aged trees of just one or two species. Plantations can be an efficient source of wood but often come at the expense of natural forests and cultivate little habitat for biodiversity, such as dead and fallen trees or understory plants. Further, once factoring in emissions from clearing the land and the decay of plantation waste and products at the end of their often brief lifecycles (e.g. paper products), plantations sequester 40 times less carbon than natural forests.<a href="#cite_note-nature.com-235">[235]</a> Proforestation is specifically recommended in “World Scientists’ Warning of a Climate Emergency, as a means to “quickly curtail <a href="/wiki/Habitat_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat loss">habitat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>” and protect “high carbon stores” and areas “with the capacity to rapidly sequester carbon.”<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Increasing_Forest_and_Community_Resilience">Increasing Forest and Community Resilience</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Increasing Forest and Community Resilience">edit</a>]</div> 1.6 billion people worldwide depend on forests for their livelihoods, including 300-350 million (half of whom are Indigenous peoples) who live near or within “dense forests” and depend almost entirely on these ecosystems for their survival.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-237">[237]</a> Rural households in Asia, Africa, and Latin America also depend on forests for about a quarter of their total incomes, with about half of this in the form of food, fodder, energy, building materials and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-237">[237]</a> Proforestation can protect full native biodiversity and support the forests and other land types that provide resources we need. For example, research has found that old growth and complex forests are more resistant to the effects of climate change. One study found that taller trees had increased drought resistance, being able to capture and retain water better, due to their deeper root system and larger biomass. This means that even in dry conditions, these trees continued to photosynthesize at a higher rate than smaller trees.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> Further, old-growth forests have been shown to be more resistant to fires compared to young forests with trees that have thinner bark and with more fuel available for increasing temperatures and fire damage.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> Proforestation can help to reduce fire risks to forests and the surrounding communities. They can also help absorb water and prevent flooding to surrounding communities.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-237">[237]</a> Considering the variety of ecosystem services complex forests provide, sustaining healthy forests means adjacent communities will be better off as well. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Workers">Workers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Workers">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">Forester</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forester&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanpablotregua.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Sanpablotregua.JPG/220px-Sanpablotregua.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Sanpablotregua.JPG/330px-Sanpablotregua.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Sanpablotregua.JPG/440px-Sanpablotregua.JPG 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="492" /></a><figcaption>Foresters of <a href="/wiki/Southern_University_of_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern University of Chile">Southern University of Chile</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Valdivian_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Valdivian forest">Valdivian forests</a> of San Pablo de Tregua, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>.</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">forester</a> is a person who practises forest management and <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a>, the science, art, and profession of managing <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forests</a>. Foresters engage in a broad range of activities including <a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">ecological restoration</a> and management of <a href="/wiki/Protected_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected forest">protected areas</a>. Foresters manage forests to provide a variety of objectives including direct extraction of <a href="/wiki/Forest_product" title="Forest product">raw material</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outdoor_recreation" title="Outdoor recreation">outdoor recreation</a>, conservation, hunting and aesthetics. Emerging management practices include managing forestlands for <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> and air quality. Foresters work for the <a href="/wiki/Timber_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber industry">timber industry</a>, government agencies, <a href="/wiki/Conservation_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation group">conservation groups</a>, local authorities, <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban</a> parks boards, citizens' associations, and private <a href="/wiki/Landowner" class="mw-redirect" title="Landowner">landowners</a>. The forestry profession includes a wide diversity of jobs, with educational requirements ranging from college bachelor's degrees to PhDs for highly specialized work. Industrial foresters plan forest regeneration starting with careful harvesting. Urban foresters manage trees in <a href="/wiki/Urban_green_space" title="Urban green space">urban green spaces</a>. Foresters work in <a href="/wiki/Plant_nursery" title="Plant nursery">tree nurseries</a> growing <a href="/wiki/Seedling" title="Seedling">seedlings</a> for woodland creation or regeneration projects. Foresters improve tree <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>. Forest engineers develop new building systems. Professional foresters <a href="/wiki/Timber_cruise" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber cruise">measure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Growth_and_yield_modelling" title="Growth and yield modelling">model</a> the growth of forests with tools like <a href="/wiki/GIS" class="mw-redirect" title="GIS">geographic information systems</a>. Foresters may combat <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insect</a> infestation, disease, forest and <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grassland</a> <a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">wildfire</a>, but increasingly allow these natural aspects of forest <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> to run their course when the likelihood of <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemics</a> or risk of life or property are low. Increasingly, foresters participate in wildlife <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation</a> planning and <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">watershed</a> protection. Foresters have been mainly concerned with timber management, especially <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>, forests at prime conditions, and fire control.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">preindustrial age</a> has been dubbed by <a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Werner Sombart</a> and others as the 'wooden age', as timber and firewood were the basic resources for energy, construction and housing. The development of modern forestry is closely connected with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, the economy as a science and varying notions of land use and property.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> Roman <a href="/wiki/Latifundium" title="Latifundium">Latifundiae</a>, large agricultural estates, were quite successful in maintaining the large supply of wood that was necessary for the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-yale-241">[241]</a> Large <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestations</a> came with the decline of the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-yale-241">[241]</a> However already in the 5th century, <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a> in the then Byzantine <a href="/wiki/Romagna" title="Romagna">Romagna</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Adriatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adriatic">Adriatic</a> coast, were able to establish <a href="/wiki/Stone_pine" title="Stone pine">stone pine</a> plantations to provide <a href="/wiki/Firewood" title="Firewood">fuelwood</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pine_nut" title="Pine nut">food</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pines-242">[242]</a> This was the beginning of the massive forest mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a> in his 1308 poem <a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pines-242">[242]</a> Similar sustainable formal forestry practices were developed by the <a href="/wiki/Visigoths" title="Visigoths">Visigoths</a> in the 7th century when, faced with the ever-increasing shortage of wood, they instituted a code concerned with the preservation of <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pine</a> forests.<a href="#cite_note-Pines-242">[242]</a> The use and management of many forest resources has a long history in China as well, dating back to the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> and taking place under the landowning <a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">gentry</a>. A similar approach was used in Japan. It was also later written about by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> Chinese scholar <a href="/wiki/Xu_Guangqi" title="Xu Guangqi">Xu Guangqi</a> (1562–1633). In Europe, land usage rights in medieval and early modern times allowed different users to access forests and pastures. <a href="/wiki/Plant_litter" title="Plant litter">Plant litter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Resin_extraction" title="Resin extraction">resin extraction</a> were important, as <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitch (resin)</a> was essential for the <a href="/wiki/Caulking" class="mw-redirect" title="Caulking">caulking</a> of ships, falking and hunting rights, firewood and building, timber gathering in <a href="/wiki/Wood_pastures" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood pastures">wood pastures</a>, and grazing animals in forests. The notion of "<a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">commons</a>" (German "Allmende") refers to the underlying traditional legal term of <a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">common land</a>. The idea of enclosed private property came about during modern times. However, most hunting rights were retained by members of the nobility which preserved the right of the nobility to access and use common land for recreation, like <a href="/wiki/Fox_hunting" title="Fox hunting">fox hunting</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="13th_to_16th_century">13th to 16th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: 13th to 16th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forstarbeiten_in_%C3%96sterreich.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Forstarbeiten_in_%C3%96sterreich.JPG/220px-Forstarbeiten_in_%C3%96sterreich.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Forstarbeiten_in_%C3%96sterreich.JPG/330px-Forstarbeiten_in_%C3%96sterreich.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Forstarbeiten_in_%C3%96sterreich.JPG/440px-Forstarbeiten_in_%C3%96sterreich.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Forestry work in Austria</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gewinnung_von_Schnittreisig.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Gewinnung_von_Schnittreisig.jpg/220px-Gewinnung_von_Schnittreisig.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Gewinnung_von_Schnittreisig.jpg/330px-Gewinnung_von_Schnittreisig.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Gewinnung_von_Schnittreisig.jpg/440px-Gewinnung_von_Schnittreisig.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="3190" /></a><figcaption>Exploitation of brushwood at the <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldner_Steinr%C3%BCck" class="extiw" title="de:Goldner Steinrück">Golden Steinrueck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vogelsberg_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogelsberg Mountains">Vogelsberg</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Carl_von_Carlowitz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Hans_Carl_von_Carlowitz.jpg/220px-Hans_Carl_von_Carlowitz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Hans_Carl_von_Carlowitz.jpg/330px-Hans_Carl_von_Carlowitz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Hans_Carl_von_Carlowitz.jpg/440px-Hans_Carl_von_Carlowitz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hans_Carl_von_Carlowitz" title="Hans Carl von Carlowitz">Hans Carl von Carlowitz</a>, German miner</figcaption></figure> Systematic management of forests for a <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_yield" title="Sustainable yield">sustainable yield</a> of timber began in <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> in the 13th century when <a href="/wiki/Afonso_III_of_Portugal" title="Afonso III of Portugal">King Afonso III</a> planted the Pinhal do Rei (King's Pine Forest) near <a href="/wiki/Leiria" title="Leiria">Leiria</a> to prevent coastal erosion and <a href="/wiki/Soil_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil degradation">soil degradation</a>, and as a sustainable source for timber used in naval construction.<a href="#cite_note-Livermore2004-243">[243]</a> His successor <a href="/wiki/Denis,_King_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Denis, King of Portugal">King Denis of Portugal</a> continued the practice and the forest exists still today.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> Forest management also flourished in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_forest_in_Central_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the forest in Central Europe">German</a> states in the 14th century, e.g. in <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg" title="Nuremberg">Nuremberg</a>,<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> and in 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> Typically, a forest was divided into specific sections and mapped; the harvest of timber was planned with an eye to regeneration. As <a href="/wiki/Timber_rafting" title="Timber rafting">timber rafting</a> allowed for connecting large continental forests, as in south western Germany, via Main, Neckar, Danube and Rhine with the coastal cities and states, early modern forestry and remote trading were closely connected. Large firs in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were <a href="/wiki/Timber_trade" title="Timber trade">traded</a> to the Dutch ship yards. Large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m in width and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens and livestock stables.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> Timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe and is still of importance in Finland. Starting with the 16th century, enhanced world <a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime trade">maritime trade</a>, a boom in housing construction in Europe, and the success and further <a href="/wiki/Berggeschrey" title="Berggeschrey">Berggeschrey</a> (rushes) of the mining industry increased timber consumption sharply. The notion of 'Nachhaltigkeit', <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainability</a> in forestry, is closely connected to the work of <a href="/wiki/Hans_Carl_von_Carlowitz" title="Hans Carl von Carlowitz">Hans Carl von Carlowitz</a> (1645–1714), a mining administrator in <a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>. His book Sylvicultura oeconomica, oder haußwirthliche Nachricht und Naturmäßige Anweisung zur wilden Baum-Zucht (1713) was the first comprehensive treatise about sustainable yield forestry.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> In the UK, and, to an extent, in continental Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a> movement and the <a href="/wiki/Highland_Clearances" title="Highland Clearances">Clearances</a> favored strictly enclosed private property.<a href="#cite_note-Rad-249">[249]</a> The Agrarian reformers, early economic writers and scientists tried to get rid of the traditional commons.<a href="#cite_note-rad1-250">[250]</a> At the time, an alleged <a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of the commons</a> together with fears of a <a href="/wiki/Holznot" title="Holznot">Holznot</a>, an imminent wood shortage played a watershed role in the controversies about cooperative land use patterns.<a href="#cite_note-ws-251">[251]</a> The practice of establishing tree plantations in the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a> was promoted by <a href="/wiki/John_Evelyn" title="John Evelyn">John Evelyn</a>, though it had already acquired some popularity. <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>'s minister <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert" title="Jean-Baptiste Colbert">Jean-Baptiste Colbert</a>'s oak <a href="/wiki/Forest_of_Tron%C3%A7ais" title="Forest of Tronçais">Forest of Tronçais</a>, planted for the future use of the <a href="/wiki/French_Navy" title="French Navy">French Navy</a>, matured as expected in the mid-19th century: "Colbert had thought of everything except the steamship," <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a> observed.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> Colbert's vision of forestry management was encoded in the <a href="/wiki/French_forestry_ordinance_of_1669" title="French forestry ordinance of 1669">French forestry Ordinance of 1669</a>, which proved to be an influential management system throughout Europe.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> In parallel, schools of forestry were established beginning in the late 18th century in <a href="/wiki/Hesse" title="Hesse">Hesse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and elsewhere in Europe. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanization_in_19th_century">Mechanization in 19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Mechanization in 19th century">edit</a>]</div> Forestry mechanization was always in close connection to metal working and the development of mechanical tools to cut and transport timber to its destination.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> Rafting belongs to the earliest means of transport. Steel saws came up in the 15th century. The 19th century widely increased the availability of steel for <a href="/wiki/Whipsaw" title="Whipsaw">whipsaws</a> and introduced <a href="/wiki/Forest_railway" title="Forest railway">forest railways</a> and railways in general for transport and as forestry customer. Further human induced changes, however, came since World War II, respectively in line with the "1950s syndrome".<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> The first portable chainsaw was invented in <a href="/wiki/Chainsaw#History" title="Chainsaw">1918 in Canada</a>, but large impact of mechanization in forestry started after World War II.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> Forestry <a href="/wiki/Harvester_(forestry)" title="Harvester (forestry)">harvesters</a> are among the most recent developments. Although drones, <a href="/wiki/Aerial_Forest_Protection_Service_(Russia)" title="Aerial Forest Protection Service (Russia)">planes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory#Tools_used_in_inventory" title="Forest inventory">laser scanning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landsat_5#Mission_history" title="Landsat 5">satellites</a> and robots also play a part in forestry. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forest_conservation_and_early_globalization">Forest conservation and early globalization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Forest conservation and early globalization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Forest_conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest conservation">forest conservation</a></div> Starting from the 1750s modern <a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_forestry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scientific forestry (page does not exist)">scientific forestry</a> was developed in France and the German speaking countries in the context of <a href="/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history">natural history</a> scholarship and state administration inspired by <a href="/wiki/Physiocracy" title="Physiocracy">physiocracy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cameralism" title="Cameralism">cameralism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> Its main traits were centralized management by professional foresters, the adherence to <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_yield" title="Sustainable yield">sustainable yield</a> concepts with a bias towards fuelwood and timber production, artificial afforestation, and a critical view of pastoral and agricultural uses of forests.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, forest preservation programs were established in <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and Europe. Many foresters were either from continental Europe (like <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Brandis" title="Dietrich Brandis">Sir Dietrich Brandis</a>), or educated there (like <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a>). Sir <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Brandis" title="Dietrich Brandis">Dietrich Brandis</a> is considered the father of tropical forestry, European concepts and practices had to be adapted in tropical and semi-arid climate zones. The development of <a href="/wiki/Plantation" title="Plantation">plantation</a> forestry was one of the (controversial) answers to the specific challenges in the tropical colonies. The enactment and evolution of <a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">forest laws</a> and binding regulations occurred in most Western nations in the 20th century in response to growing conservation concerns and the increasing technological capacity of <a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">logging</a> companies. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tropical_forestry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tropical forestry (page does not exist)">Tropical forestry</a> is a separate branch of forestry which deals mainly with equatorial forests that yield woods such as <a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="21st_century">21st century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> A strong body of <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> exists regarding the management of <a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">forest ecosystems</a> and the genetic improvement of <a href="/wiki/Tree_breeding" title="Tree breeding">tree species and varieties</a>. Forestry studies also include the development of better methods for the planting, protecting, <a href="/wiki/Thinning" title="Thinning">thinning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">controlled burning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Felling" title="Felling">felling</a>, extracting, and processing of <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a>. One of the applications of modern forestry is <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>, in which trees are planted and tended in a given area.<ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><a href="/wiki/File:A_deciduous_beech_forest_in_Slovenia.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A deciduous beech forest in Slovenia"><img alt="A deciduous beech forest in Slovenia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/A_deciduous_beech_forest_in_Slovenia.jpg/240px-A_deciduous_beech_forest_in_Slovenia.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/A_deciduous_beech_forest_in_Slovenia.jpg/361px-A_deciduous_beech_forest_in_Slovenia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/A_deciduous_beech_forest_in_Slovenia.jpg/481px-A_deciduous_beech_forest_in_Slovenia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="361" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A deciduous <a href="/wiki/Beech" title="Beech">beech</a> forest in <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Laser_guided_cutting_of_wood_inside_modern_woodmill.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A modern sawmill"><img alt="A modern sawmill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Laser_guided_cutting_of_wood_inside_modern_woodmill.jpg/270px-Laser_guided_cutting_of_wood_inside_modern_woodmill.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Laser_guided_cutting_of_wood_inside_modern_woodmill.jpg/405px-Laser_guided_cutting_of_wood_inside_modern_woodmill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Laser_guided_cutting_of_wood_inside_modern_woodmill.jpg/540px-Laser_guided_cutting_of_wood_inside_modern_woodmill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A modern <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmill</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 145.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 143.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Employment_In_Agriculture,_Forestry_And_Fishing_By_Region.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A comparison of employment In agriculture, forestry and fishing by region"><img alt="A comparison of employment In agriculture, forestry and fishing by region" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Employment_In_Agriculture%2C_Forestry_And_Fishing_By_Region.svg/215px-Employment_In_Agriculture%2C_Forestry_And_Fishing_By_Region.svg.png" decoding="async" width="144" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Employment_In_Agriculture%2C_Forestry_And_Fishing_By_Region.svg/323px-Employment_In_Agriculture%2C_Forestry_And_Fishing_By_Region.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Employment_In_Agriculture%2C_Forestry_And_Fishing_By_Region.svg/431px-Employment_In_Agriculture%2C_Forestry_And_Fishing_By_Region.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="428" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A comparison of employment In agriculture, forestry and fishing by region</div> </li> </ul>Trees provide numerous environmental, social and economic benefits for people.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> In many regions, the <a href="/wiki/Forest_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest industry">forest industry</a> is of major ecological, economic, and social importance, with the United States producing more <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a> than any other country in the world.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Third-party <a href="/wiki/Certification" title="Certification">certification</a> systems that provide independent verification of sound forest <a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">stewardship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">sustainable forestry</a> have become commonplace in many areas since the 1990s. These certification systems developed as a response to criticism of some forestry practices, particularly deforestation in less-developed regions along with concerns over resource management in the <a href="/wiki/Developed_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed world">developed world</a>. Sustainable forestry operations must also adhere to the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization's</a> 18 criteria on <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human</a> and social rights. <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a>, health and well-being and community consultation are examples of mentioned rights.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-:107-27">[27]</a> In topographically severe forested terrain, proper forestry is important for the prevention or minimization of serious soil <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a>. In areas with a high potential for landslides, forests can <a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">stabilize soils</a> and prevent property damage or loss, human injury, or loss of life. Global production of roundwood rose from 3.5 billion m³ in 2000 to 4 billion m³ in 2021. In 2021, wood fuel was the main product with a 49 percent share of the total (2 billion m³), followed by coniferous industrial roundwood with 30 percent (1.2 billion m³) and non-coniferous industrial roundwood with 21 percent (0.9 billion m³). Asia and the Americas are the two main producing regions, accounting for 29 and 28 percent of the total roundwood production, respectively; Africa and Europe have similar shares of 20–21 percent, while Oceania produces the remaining 2 percent.<a href="#cite_note-:2-261">[261]</a> Many lower- and middle-income countries rely on wood for energy purposes (notably cooking). The largest producers are all in these income groups and have large populations with a high reliance on wood for energy: in 2021, India ranked first with 300 million m³ (15 percent of total production), followed by China with 156 million m3 and Brazil with 129 million m³ (8 percent and 7 percent of global production).<a href="#cite_note-:2-261">[261]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journals">Journals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Journals">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sylwan" title="Sylwan">Sylwan</a> first published in 1820<a href="#cite_note-RPonline-262">[262]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schweizerische_Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Forstwesen" title="Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Forstwesen">Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Forstwesen</a> first published in 1850.<a href="#cite_note-RPonline-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erd%C3%A9szeti_Lapok&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erdészeti Lapok (page does not exist)">Erdészeti Lapok</a> first published in 1862. (Hungary, 1862–present)<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Indian_Forester" title="The Indian Forester">The Indian Forester</a> first published in 1875.<a href="#cite_note-RPonline-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%A0umarski_list" title="Šumarski list">Šumarski list</a> (Forestry Review, Croatia) was published in 1877 by <a href="/wiki/Croatian_Forestry_Society" title="Croatian Forestry Society">Croatian Forestry Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RPonline-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montes_(journal)" title="Montes (journal)">Montes</a> (Forestry, Spain) first published in 1877.<a href="#cite_note-RPonline-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revista_p%C4%83durilor" title="Revista pădurilor">Revista pădurilor</a> (Journal of Forests, Romania, 1881–1882; 1886–present), the oldest extant magazine in Romania<a href="#cite_note-RPonline-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-125years-268">[268]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestry Quarterly">Forestry Quarterly</a>, first published in 1902 by the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_New_York_State_College_of_Forestry" title="History of the New York State College of Forestry">New York State College of Forestry</a>.</li> <li>Šumarstvo<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> (Forestry, Serbia) first published in 1948 by the Ministry of Forestry of Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, and since 1951 by Organ of Society of Forestry Engineers and Technicians of the Republic of Serbia (succeeding the former Šumarski glasnik published from 1907 to 1921)<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_input_and_awareness">Public input and awareness</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Public input and awareness">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amazonie_deforestation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Amazonie_deforestation.jpg/230px-Amazonie_deforestation.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Amazonie_deforestation.jpg/345px-Amazonie_deforestation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Amazonie_deforestation.jpg/460px-Amazonie_deforestation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="778" data-file-height="618" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> and increased road-building in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Rainforest" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon Rainforest">Amazon Rainforest</a> are a significant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild areas, increased resource extraction and further threats to <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>.</figcaption></figure> There has been increased public awareness of natural resource policy, including forest management.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Public concern regarding forest management may have shifted from the extraction of timber for economic development, to maintaining the flow of the range of ecosystem services provided by forests, including provision of habitat for <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a>, protecting <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">watershed</a> management, and opportunities for <a href="/wiki/Recreation" title="Recreation">recreation</a>. Increased environmental awareness may contribute to an increased public mistrust of forest management professionals.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> But it can also lead to greater understanding about what professionals do for forests for nature conservation and ecological services. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_region">By region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: By region">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developing_world">Developing world</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Developing world">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></div> In December 2007, at the Climate Change Conference in <a href="/wiki/Bali" title="Bali">Bali</a>, the issue of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> in the developing world in particular was raised and discussed. The foundations of a new incentive mechanism for encouraging sustainable forest management measures was therefore laid in hopes of reducing world deforestation rates. This mechanism was formalized and adopted as REDD in November 2010 at the Climate Change Conference in Cancun by UNFCCC COP 16. Developing countries who are signatories of the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">CBD</a> were encouraged to take measure to implement REDD activities in the hope of becoming more active contributors of global efforts aimed at the mitigation greenhouse gas, as deforestation and forest degradation account for roughly 15% of total global greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> The REDD activities are formally tasked with "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation; and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing countries". REDD+ works in 3 phases. The first phase consists of developing viable strategies, while the second phase begins work on technology development and technology transfer to the developing countries taking part in REDD+ activities. The last phase measures and reports the implementation of the action taken.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> In 2021 the LEAF coalition was created, aiming to provide 1 billion dollars to countries that will protect their tropical and subtropical forests.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: European Union">edit</a>]</div> In 2022 the <a href="/wiki/European_Parliament" title="European Parliament">European parliament</a> approved a bill aiming to stop the import linked with deforestation. The bill may cause to Brazil, for example, to stop deforestation for agricultural production and begun to "increase productivity on existing agricultural land".<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> The legislation was adopted with some changes by the <a href="/wiki/European_Council" title="European Council">European Council</a> in May 2023 and is expected to enter into force several weeks after. The bill requires companies who want to import certain types of products to the European Union to prove the production of those commodities is not linked to areas deforested after 31 of December 2020. It prohibits also import of products linked with <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a> abuse. The list of products includes: <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cocoa_bean" title="Cocoa bean">cocoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soybean" title="Soybean">soy</a>. Some derivatives of those products are also included: <a href="/wiki/Chocolate" title="Chocolate">chocolate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Furniture" title="Furniture">furniture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">printed paper</a> and several palm oil based derivates.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Great_Britain">Great Britain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Great Britain">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Forestry_Commission" title="Forestry Commission">Forestry Commission</a> was founded in 1919 to restore forests to Great Britain after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War 1</a>. The commission regulates both private and public forests, as well as manages private forests. Agricultural land was bought and transformed, totalling 35% of the British woodland area having been possessed at one point in time<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="America">America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: America">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> Canada's significant contribution to global sustainable forest management with its 166 million hectares of forest land independently certified as sustainably managed, representing 40% of the world's certified forests, which is more than any other country.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> Approximately 94% of Canada's forest land is publicly owned. Sustainable forest management strategies aim to reconcile various immediate demands while ensuring that forests continue to provide benefits for future generations.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> The province of <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> has its own sustainable forest management measures in place. A little less than half of all the publicly owned forests of <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> are managed forests, required by The Crown Forest Sustainability Act to be managed sustainably. Sustainable management is often done by forest companies who are granted Sustainable Forest Licenses which are valid for 20 years. The main goal of Ontario's sustainable forest management measures is to ensure that the forest are kept healthy and productive, conserving biodiversity, all whilst supporting communities and forest industry jobs. All management strategies and plans are highly regulated, arranged to last for a 10-year period, and follow the strict guidelines of the Forest Management Planning Manual. Alongside public sustainable forest management, the government of Ontario encourages sustainable forest management of Ontario's private forests as well through incentives.<a href="#cite_note-:0-281">[281]</a> So far, 44% of Ontario's crown forests are managed.<a href="#cite_note-:0-281">[281]</a> In order for logging to begin, the forestry companies must present a plan to the government who will then communicate to the public, First Nations and other industries in order to protect forest values. The plan must include strategies on how the forest values will be protected, assessing the state of the forest and whether it is capable of recovering from human activity, and presenting strategies on regeneration. After the harvest begins, the government monitors if the company is complying within the planned restrictions and also monitors the health of the ecosystem<a href="#cite_note-Canada-282">[282]</a> (soil depletion and erosion, water contamination, wildlife...). Failure to comply may result in fines, suspensions, removal of harvesting rights, confiscation of harvested timber and possible imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-Canada-282">[282]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> In the beginning of the year 2020 the "Save the Redwoods League" after a successful crowdfunding campaign bought " Alder Creek" a piece of land 583 acres large, with 483 big Sequoia trees including the 5th largest tree in the world. The organizations plan to make there forest thinning<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> that is a controversial operation<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a><div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Forest_conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Forest conservation in the United States">Forest conservation in the United States</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Forest_conservation_in_the_United_States&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yosemite_National_Park_(California,_USA),_Mariposa_Grove_of_Giant_Sequoias_--_2012_--_4595.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Yosemite_National_Park_%28California%2C_USA%29%2C_Mariposa_Grove_of_Giant_Sequoias_--_2012_--_4595.jpg/220px-Yosemite_National_Park_%28California%2C_USA%29%2C_Mariposa_Grove_of_Giant_Sequoias_--_2012_--_4595.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Yosemite_National_Park_%28California%2C_USA%29%2C_Mariposa_Grove_of_Giant_Sequoias_--_2012_--_4595.jpg/330px-Yosemite_National_Park_%28California%2C_USA%29%2C_Mariposa_Grove_of_Giant_Sequoias_--_2012_--_4595.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Yosemite_National_Park_%28California%2C_USA%29%2C_Mariposa_Grove_of_Giant_Sequoias_--_2012_--_4595.jpg/440px-Yosemite_National_Park_%28California%2C_USA%29%2C_Mariposa_Grove_of_Giant_Sequoias_--_2012_--_4595.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mariposa_Grove" title="Mariposa Grove">Mariposa Grove</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sequoiadendron_giganteum" title="Sequoiadendron giganteum">Giant Sequoias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yosemite_National_Park" title="Yosemite National Park">Yosemite National Park</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Forest_conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest conservation">Forest conservation</a> is the practice of <a href="/wiki/Planning" title="Planning">planning</a> and maintaining forested areas for the benefit and sustainability of <a href="/wiki/Future_generations" title="Future generations">future generations</a>. Forest conservation involves the upkeep of the natural resources within a forest that are beneficial for both humans and the <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>. Forests provide <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a> with a suitable <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> for living which allows the ecosystem to be biodiverse and benefit other natural processes. Forests also filter <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and prevent <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">runoff</a> keeping water safe for human consumption.<a href="#cite_note-Forest_conservation_in_the_United_States_Montgomery-285">[285]</a> There are many types of forests to consider and various techniques to preserve them. Of the types of forests in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, they each face specific threats. But, there are various techniques to implement that will protect and preserve them. Different types of forests have adapted throughout history, allowing them to thrive in specific habitats. Forests in the United States can be categorized into three main forest biomes, they are boreal, temperate, or sub-tropical based on the location and climate of the forest. Each of these biomes faces various threats of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, urban development,<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> <a href="/wiki/Soil_compaction" title="Soil compaction">soil compaction</a>, species extinction, unmanaged recreational use, <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>, or any combination of these threats. But there are many techniques that can be implemented for forest conservation efforts.<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> This includes methods such as <a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>, selective logging,<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> <a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">controlled burns</a>, wildland fire use, laws and policies,<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> advocacy groups, and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management_area" title="Wildlife management area">wildlife management areas</a>. Additionally, multiple United States government programs support forest conservation efforts.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia">Russia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</a>]</div> In 2019 after severe wildfires and public pressure the Russian government decided to take a number of measures for more effective forest management, what is considered as a big victory for the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">Environmental movement</a><a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indonesia">Indonesia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Indonesia">edit</a>]</div> In August 2019, a court in Indonesia stopped the construction of a dam that could heavily hurt forests and villagers in the area<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> In 2020 the rate of <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Indonesia" title="Deforestation in Indonesia">deforestation in Indonesia</a> was the slowest since 1990. It was 75% lower than in 2019. This is because the government stopped issuing new licences to cut forests, including for palm oil plantations. The falling price of palm oil facilitated making it. Very wet weather reduced wildfires what also contributed to the achievement.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Africa">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Congo">Congo</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Congo">edit</a>]</div> In August 2021 <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> removed the <a href="/wiki/Salonga_National_Park" title="Salonga National Park">Salonga National Park</a> from its list of threatened sites. Forbidding oil drilling, reducing poaching played crucial role in the achievement. The event is considered as a big win to <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> as the Salonga forest is the biggest protected rainforest in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kenya">Kenya</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Kenya">edit</a>]</div> In accordance with Article 10 of the Kenyan Constitution, which mandates the incorporation of sustainable development into all laws and decisions regarding public policy, including forest conservation and management. Kenya responds to continued deforestation, forest degradation, and forest encroachment, which results in conversion of land uses to settlement and agriculture, by taking action.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">Coppicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest farming">Forest farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">Forest inventory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_plans" title="Forest plans">Forest plans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_forestry" title="Outline of forestry">Outline of forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_land_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable land management">Sustainable land management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Forest_conservation" title="Category:Forest conservation">Category:Forest conservation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/library/documents/glossary/Glossary.pdf">"Glossary of Forestry Terms in British Columbia"</a> (PDF). 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Ecology and Society. 12 (2): 18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5751%2FES-02170-120218">10.5751/ES-02170-120218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+and+Society&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Old-growth+Forests+in+Frequent-fire+Landscapes&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=18&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5751%2FES-02170-120218&rft.aulast=Binkley&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Sisk%2C+Tom&rft.au=Chambers%2C+Carol&rft.au=Springer%2C+Judy&rft.au=Block%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fs.fed.us%2Frm%2Fpubs_other%2Frmrs_2007_binkley_d001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> compare Joachim Radkau Wood: A History, 2011 </li> <li id="cite_note-yale-241">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yale_241-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-yale_241-1">b</a> The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History, by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thomas_Grove" title="Alfred Thomas Grove">Alfred Thomas Grove</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Rackham" title="Oliver Rackham">Oliver Rackham</a>, Yale University Press, 2003, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300100556">review at Yale university press</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006140735/http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300100556">Archived</a> 2014-10-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_interdisciplinary_history/v032/32.3fagan.pdfThe">Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History (review) </a><a href="/wiki/Brian_M._Fagan" title="Brian M. Fagan">Brian M. Fagan</a>, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Volume 32, Number 3, Winter 2002, pp. 454-455 | <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006073018/https://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=%2Fjournals%2Fjournal_of_interdisciplinary_history%2Fv032%2F32.3fagan.pdfThe">Archived</a> 2014-10-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pines-242">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pines_242-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pines_242-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pines_242-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFT._MirovHasbrouck1976" class="citation book cs1">T. Mirov, Nicholas; Hasbrouck, Jean (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofpines00ntmi/page/111">"6"</a>. The story of pines. Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofpines00ntmi/page/111">111</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35462-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35462-4"><bdi>978-0-253-35462-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=6&rft.btitle=The+story+of+pines&rft.place=Bloomington+and+London&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-253-35462-4&rft.aulast=T.+Mirov&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft.au=Hasbrouck%2C+Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoryofpines00ntmi%2Fpage%2F111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Livermore2004-243"><a href="#cite_ref-Livermore2004_243-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH._V._Livermore2004" class="citation book cs1">H. V. Livermore (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7Cd0bKhByz8C&pg=PA15">Portugal: A Traveller's History</a>. Boydell Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-063-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-063-4"><bdi>978-1-84383-063-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171211144023/https://books.google.com/books?id=7Cd0bKhByz8C&pg=PA15&lpg=PA15">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Portugal%3A+A+Traveller%27s+History&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-84383-063-4&rft.au=H.+V.+Livermore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7Cd0bKhByz8C%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191210135748/http://www2.icnf.pt/portal/florestas/gf/pgf/publicitacoes/encerradas/dcnf-centr/pgf-mn-leiria">"PGF - Mata Nacional de Leiria — ICNF"</a>. www.icnf.pt. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icnf.pt/portal/florestas/gf/pgf/publicitacoes/drf-centro/2011/pgf-mn-leiria">the original</a> on 2019-12-10. Retrieved 2017-10-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.icnf.pt&rft.atitle=PGF+-+Mata+Nacional+de+Leiria+%E2%80%94+ICNF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icnf.pt%2Fportal%2Fflorestas%2Fgf%2Fpgf%2Fpublicitacoes%2Fdrf-centro%2F2011%2Fpgf-mn-leiria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButtinger2013" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Buttinger, Sabine (2013). "Idee der Nachhaltigkeit" [The Idea of Sustainability]. <a href="/wiki/Damals" title="Damals">Damals</a> (in German). 45 (4): 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Damals&rft.atitle=Idee+der+Nachhaltigkeit&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=8&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Buttinger&rft.aufirst=Sabine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110628224026/http://www.pref.nara.jp/nara/kaido/eg/syugen/d5_trad/trad1.htm">"Forestry in Yashino"</a>. City of <a href="/wiki/Nara,_Nara" class="mw-redirect" title="Nara, Nara">Nara, Nara</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pref.nara.jp/nara/kaido/eg/syugen/d5_trad/trad1.htm">the original</a> on 2011-06-28. Retrieved 2010-10-12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Forestry+in+Yashino&rft.pub=City+of+Nara%2C+Nara&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pref.nara.jp%2Fnara%2Fkaido%2Feg%2Fsyugen%2Fd5_trad%2Ftrad1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141129034645/http://www.dilibri.de/rlb/content/pageview/607408/">"Abbildungen der verschiedenen Gattungen von Fahrzeugen, wie man sie auf dem Rheine sieht / von H. Herman"</a>. www.dilibri.de. October 3, 1820. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dilibri.de/rlb/content/pageview/607408/">the original</a> on November 29, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dilibri.de&rft.atitle=Abbildungen+der+verschiedenen+Gattungen+von+Fahrzeugen%2C+wie+man+sie+auf+dem+Rheine+sieht+%2F+von+H.+Herman&rft.date=1820-10-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dilibri.de%2Frlb%2Fcontent%2Fpageview%2F607408%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDangel2016" class="citation book cs1">Dangel, Ulrich (2016-12-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dP-xDQAAQBAJ&q=first+comprehensive+treatise+about+forestry&pg=PA30">Turning Point in Timber Construction: A New Economy</a>. Birkhäuser. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-0356-0863-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-0356-0863-2"><bdi>978-3-0356-0863-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turning+Point+in+Timber+Construction%3A+A+New+Economy&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft.date=2016-12-05&rft.isbn=978-3-0356-0863-2&rft.aulast=Dangel&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdP-xDQAAQBAJ%26q%3Dfirst%2Bcomprehensive%2Btreatise%2Babout%2Bforestry%26pg%3DPA30&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rad-249"><a href="#cite_ref-Rad_249-0">^</a> Radkau, Joachim. Nature and Power. A Global History of the Environment. Cambridge University Press. 2008. </li> <li id="cite_note-rad1-250"><a href="#cite_ref-rad1_250-0">^</a> Nature and Power, A Global History of the Environment, by Joachim Radkau, 2008, p. 72 </li> <li id="cite_note-ws-251"><a href="#cite_ref-ws_251-0">^</a> The end of the commons as a watershed' The Age of Ecology, Joachim Radkau, John Wiley & Sons, 03.04.2014,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] p. 15 ff </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraudel1979" class="citation book cs1">Braudel, Fernand (1979). The Wheels of Commerce: Civilization and Capitalism: 15th-18th Century (Volume II). University of California Press. p. 240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08115-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-08115-4"><bdi>978-0-520-08115-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wheels+of+Commerce%3A+Civilization+and+Capitalism%3A+15th-18th+Century+%28Volume+II%29&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-520-08115-4&rft.aulast=Braudel&rft.aufirst=Fernand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Kohler, Yann & Tissot, Wilfried. (2013). Integration of Nature Protection in Forest Policy in France - INTEGRATE Country Report. </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundbergSilversides1988" class="citation book cs1">Sundberg, B.; Silversides, C. R. (1988-04-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PiRffqqUcIQC&dq=Forestry+mechanization+was+always+in+close+connection+to+metal+working+and+the+development+of+mechanical+tools+to+cut+and+transport+timber+to+its+destination.&pg=PA1">Operational Efficiency in Forestry: Vol. 1: Analysis</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-247-3683-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-247-3683-6"><bdi>978-90-247-3683-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Operational+Efficiency+in+Forestry%3A+Vol.+1%3A+Analysis&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=1988-04-30&rft.isbn=978-90-247-3683-6&rft.aulast=Sundberg&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Silversides%2C+C.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPiRffqqUcIQC%26dq%3DForestry%2Bmechanization%2Bwas%2Balways%2Bin%2Bclose%2Bconnection%2Bto%2Bmetal%2Bworking%2Band%2Bthe%2Bdevelopment%2Bof%2Bmechanical%2Btools%2Bto%2Bcut%2Band%2Btransport%2Btimber%2Bto%2Bits%2Bdestination.%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Christian Pfister (Hrsg.), Das 1950er Syndrom: Der Weg in die Konsumgesellschaft, Bern 1995 </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilversides1984" class="citation journal cs1">Silversides, C. R. (1984-08-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5558%2Ftfc60231-4">"Mechanized Forestry, World War II to the Present"</a>. The Forestry Chronicle. 60 (4): 231–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5558%2Ftfc60231-4">10.5558/tfc60231-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0015-7546">0015-7546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Forestry+Chronicle&rft.atitle=Mechanized+Forestry%2C+World+War+II+to+the+Present&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=231-235&rft.date=1984-08-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5558%2Ftfc60231-4&rft.issn=0015-7546&rft.aulast=Silversides&rft.aufirst=C.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.5558%252Ftfc60231-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOosthoekHölzl2018" class="citation book cs1">Oosthoek, K. Jan; Hölzl, Richard (2018-02-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6UItDwAAQBAJ&dq=Starting+from+the+1750s+modern+scientific+forestry+was+developed+in+France+and+the+German+speaking+countries+in+the+context+of+natural+history+scholarship+and+state+administration+inspired+by+physiocracy+and+cameralism.&pg=PA15">Managing Northern Europe's Forests: Histories from the Age of Improvement to the Age of Ecology</a>. Berghahn Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-601-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78533-601-0"><bdi>978-1-78533-601-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Managing+Northern+Europe%27s+Forests%3A+Histories+from+the+Age+of+Improvement+to+the+Age+of+Ecology&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft.isbn=978-1-78533-601-0&rft.aulast=Oosthoek&rft.aufirst=K.+Jan&rft.au=H%C3%B6lzl%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6UItDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DStarting%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2B1750s%2Bmodern%2Bscientific%2Bforestry%2Bwas%2Bdeveloped%2Bin%2BFrance%2Band%2Bthe%2BGerman%2Bspeaking%2Bcountries%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bcontext%2Bof%2Bnatural%2Bhistory%2Bscholarship%2Band%2Bstate%2Badministration%2Binspired%2Bby%2Bphysiocracy%2Band%2Bcameralism.%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AForest+management" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHölzl2010" class="citation journal cs1">Hölzl, Richard (2010-12-01). 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Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/3/CA8753EN/CA8753EN.pdf">Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings</a>, FAO, FAO. <a href="/wiki/File:Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/12px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/18px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg/24px-Definition_of_Free_Cultural_Works_logo_notext.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="219" data-file-height="218" /></a> This article incorporates text from a <a href="/wiki/Free_content" title="Free content">free content</a> work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (<a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_State_of_the_World%E2%80%99s_Forests_2020._In_brief.pdf">license statement/permission</a>). Text taken from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8985en">The State of the World’s Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief</a>, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Forest_management&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/40px-Scholia_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/60px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/80px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="104" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia" class="extiw" title="d:Wikidata:Scholia">Scholia</a> has a profile for <a href="https://iw.toolforge.org/scholia/Q372561" class="extiw" title="toolforge:scholia/Q372561">forest management (Q372561)</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vox.com/videos/24152620/uruguay-fingerprint-forestry">Why does this forest look like a fingerprint? We set out to solve why a forest in the middle of Uruguay looked like that — and wound up discovering something much bigger.   Vox</a> – explores issues surrounding commercial monoculture forest management and its impact upon the economy, previously existing habitats, wildlife, and people.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2022-07-20/california-forests-are-vanishing-as-wildfires-worsen">California fires are so severe some forests might vanish forever   LA Times</a> – a serious forest management issue, in which industrial forest management practices are increasing high-severity fire risk.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osupress.oregonstate.edu/blog/checkerboard-effect">The checkerboard effect   OSU Press</a> – explores how the effects of forest management decisions can last for centuries, and the value of forest history in understanding current forest management problems.</li> <li><a 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title="Trillion Tree Campaign">Trillion Tree Campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certified_wood" title="Certified wood">Forest certification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm#American_Tree_Farm_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">ATFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CarbonFix_Standard" title="CarbonFix Standard">CFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_Stewardship_Council#Standards,_certification_and_accreditation" title="Forest Stewardship Council">FSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programme_for_the_Endorsement_of_Forest_Certification" title="Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification">PEFC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Forestry_Initiative" title="Sustainable Forestry Initiative">SFI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainforest_Alliance#Sustainable_forestry_certification" title="Rainforest Alliance">SmartWood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_Carbon_Code" title="Woodland Carbon Code">Woodland Carbon Code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forestation">Forestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_formally_designated_forests" title="List of types of formally designated forests">Formally designated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_and_yield_modelling" title="Growth and yield modelling">Growth and yield modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_tree" title="Genetically modified tree">GM trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I-Tree" title="I-Tree">i-Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">Silviculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Sustainable management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Tree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_allometry" title="Tree allometry">allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_breeding" title="Tree breeding">breeding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_measurement" title="Tree measurement">Tree measurement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_crown_measurement" title="Tree crown measurement">crown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_girth_measurement" title="Tree girth measurement">girth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_height_measurement" title="Tree height measurement">height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_volume_measurement" title="Tree volume measurement">volume</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environmental topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain#Forests_and_other_vegetation" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearcutting" title="Clearcutting">Clearcutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">Forest degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_fragmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fragmentation">Forest fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_forest" title="Ghost forest">Ghost forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(Africa)" title="Great Green Wall (Africa)">Great Green Wall (Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Green_Wall_(China)" title="Great Green Wall (China)">Great Green Wall (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_grading" title="High grading">High grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timber_mafia" title="Timber mafia">timber mafia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species#Forestry" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilding_conifer" title="Wilding conifer">wilding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Tree_Initiative" title="Million Tree Initiative">Million Tree Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">REDD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">Shifting cultivation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chitemene" title="Chitemene">chitemene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slash-and-char" title="Slash-and-char">slash-and-char</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svedjebruk" class="mw-redirect" title="Svedjebruk">svedjebruk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_recycling" title="Timber recycling">Timber recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipko_movement" title="Chipko movement">Tree hugging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest_inequity" title="Urban forest inequity">Urban forest inequity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wood_industry" title="Wood industry">Industries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coppicing" title="Coppicing">Coppicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest farming">Forest farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_gardening" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest gardening">Forest gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging" title="Logging">Logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumber" title="Lumber">lumber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry" title="Pulp and paper industry">pulp and paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmilling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_product" title="Forest product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charcoal" title="Charcoal">charcoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayon" title="Rayon">rayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">rubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanbark" title="Tanbark">tanbark</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_railway" title="Forest railway">Rail transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree farm">Tree farm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_cultivation" title="Christmas tree cultivation">Christmas trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineered_wood" title="Engineered wood">engineered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_fuel" title="Wood fuel">fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spruce-pine-fir" title="Spruce-pine-fir">spruce-pine-fir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodworking" title="Woodworking">Woodworking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_woodworking" title="Green woodworking">green woodworking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forester" title="Forester">Forester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arborist" title="Arborist">Arborist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_bucking" title="Log bucking">Bucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choker_setter" title="Choker setter">Choker setter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_ecology" title="Forest ecology">Ecologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felling" title="Felling">Feller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildland_firefighter" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildland firefighter">Firefighter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handcrew" title="Handcrew">handcrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interagency_hotshot_crew" class="mw-redirect" title="Interagency hotshot crew">hotshot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_lookout" title="Fire lookout">lookout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smokejumper" title="Smokejumper">smokejumper</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_driving" title="Log driving">River driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logging_truck" title="Logging truck">Truck driver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_scaler" title="Log scaler">Log scaler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumberjack" title="Lumberjack">Lumberjack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Park_ranger" title="Park ranger">Ranger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resin_extraction" title="Resin extraction">Resin tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubber_tapping" title="Rubber tapping">Rubber tapper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_weaver" title="Shingle weaver">Shingle weaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_inventory" title="Forest inventory">Timber cruiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_planting" title="Tree planting">Tree planter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_processing" title="Wood processing">Wood process engineer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Forestry" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Forestry">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences portal</a></li> <li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/24px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/16px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/24px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/16px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/24px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/32px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Plants" title="Portal:Plants">Plants portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_template.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/16px-Tree_template.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/24px-Tree_template.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/32px-Tree_template.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Trees" title="Portal:Trees">Trees portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Forestry" title="Category:Forestry">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_forestry" title="Outline of forestry">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link 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.portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_template.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/19px-Tree_template.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/29px-Tree_template.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Tree_template.svg/38px-Tree_template.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Trees" title="Portal:Trees">Trees</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/21px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/42px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/21px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/42px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/19px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/29px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/38px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a 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