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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#False_scientific_dissent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>False scientific dissent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-False_scientific_dissent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_modern_public_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_modern_public_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effect on modern public policies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_modern_public_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Dissent from scientific consensus</div> <p><b>Scientific dissent</b> is <a href="/wiki/Dissent" title="Dissent">dissent</a> from <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a>. Disagreements can be useful for finding problems in underlying assumptions, methodologies, and reasoning, as well as for generating and testing new ways of tackling the unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-immki_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immki-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In modern times, with the increased role of science on the society and the <a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">politicization of science</a>, a new aspect gained prominence: effects of scientific dissent on public policies.<sup id="cite_ref-immki_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immki-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scientific dissent is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">denialism</a>, which is a deliberate rejection of scientific consensus usually for commercial or ideological reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dissent_as_part_of_scientific_inquiry">Dissent as part of scientific inquiry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_dissent&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Dissent as part of scientific inquiry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">Scientific consensus</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Miriam_Solomon" title="Miriam Solomon">Miriam Solomon</a> in her book <i>Social Empiricism</i> argues that scientific dissent is the normal state of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific inquiry</a>, rather than a conflict situation that needs resolution. She argues that disagreements of individual scientists about the proper direction of research are not cause for concern, because scientific rationality must be assessed at the level of the scientific community.<sup id="cite_ref-se2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-se2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As long as all theories being pursued yield some unique empirical successes, Solomon argues that their pursuit is worthwhile and even consistent with the common view that science aims at truth.<sup id="cite_ref-se1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-se1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Solomon's view, competing scientific theories can even be inconsistent with one another while each containing some degree of truth.<sup id="cite_ref-se1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-se1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Empirical evidence may not be sufficient to distinguish between competing theories, and successful theories often have core assumptions that are incorrect.<sup id="cite_ref-se1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-se1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_scientific_dissent">Historical scientific dissent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_dissent&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Historical scientific dissent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of famous scientists have been sceptical of what were, or came to be, mainstream scientific positions. For example, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a> famously declared in 1897: "I don't believe that atoms exist!"<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Ostwald" title="Wilhelm Ostwald">Wilhelm Ostwald</a> expressed a similar scepticism about atoms, but changed his mind in 1908.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Peptic_ulcer" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptic ulcer">peptic ulcers</a> were believed to be caused by stress and dietary factors. The physicians <a href="/wiki/Robin_Warren" title="Robin Warren">Robin Warren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a> showed in 1982 that the bacterium <i><a href="/wiki/Helicobacter_pylori" title="Helicobacter pylori">Helicobacter pylori</a></i> was responsible, but the medical community was slow to make appropriate changes in ulcer treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suppressed_dissent">Suppressed dissent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_dissent&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Suppressed dissent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scientific debate is a healthy and necessary part of science, but scientific debate may collide with power dynamics within the academic world.<sup id="cite_ref-Delborne_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delborne-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suppression of legitimate scientific debate can be considered as a breach of academic integrity.<sup id="cite_ref-Delborne_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delborne-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of suppression include journal editors rejecting a paper for political reasons prior to peer-review, refusing access to data for research which might draw negative conclusions about the safety of some commercial product, and putting pressure on a university to fire a dissenting researcher.<sup id="cite_ref-Delborne_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Delborne-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="False_scientific_dissent">False scientific dissent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_dissent&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: False scientific dissent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Manufactured_controversy" title="Manufactured controversy">Manufactured controversy</a></div> <p>In modern times proponents of <a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">science denialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">conspiracy theories</a> often try to disguise their viewpoints as "scientific dissent" to take an advantage of the benefit of doubt. Such cases are typically recognized by lack of crucial elements of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific approach">scientific approach</a>: insufficient evidence base, lack of rigor and control, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-assci_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-assci-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Lack of discussion of claims coming from <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe science</a> may be presented as suppression by <a href="/wiki/Mainstream_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainstream science">mainstream science</a>. This was described as "manufacturing dissent" and discussed in the context of <a href="/wiki/Neo-creationism" title="Neo-creationism">neo-creationism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the introduction to <i>Creating Scientific Controversies</i>, David Harker summarizes the history of how the tobacco industry worked towards manufacturing a controversy regarding the <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco" title="Health effects of tobacco">health effects of tobacco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In what is sometimes known as the "<a href="/wiki/Galileo_gambit" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo gambit">Galileo gambit</a>", pseudoscientists will sometimes compare themselves to Galileo, arguing that opposition from established scientists is actually a point in favour of their ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul_Van_Bendegem" title="Jean Paul Van Bendegem">Jean Paul Van Bendegem</a> writes that "No doubt the most famous example of mistaken analogy is the abuse of Galileo Galilei's case resulting in his conviction by the Holy Inquisition. The basic strategy consists of equating Galileo with the poor astrologer or parapsychologist and equating the Inquisition with the scientific establishment."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effect_on_modern_public_policies">Effect on modern public policies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_dissent&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Effect on modern public policies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></div> <p>Views which disagree with <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a> may have an adverse effect on the perception of science by general public and affect decision making in various policies. When prominently promoted without due proportion, dissenting views can create an impression of uncertainty to laypeople.<sup id="cite_ref-immki_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immki-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-assci_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-assci-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common examples of such situation include <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming controversy">global warming controversy</a> and issues of <a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">genetically modified organisms</a>. Therefore, scientists treat scientific dissent as problematic when it may have a significant impact on public and policy-making, and try to mitigate it.<sup id="cite_ref-immki_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immki-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-maju_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maju-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inmaculada de Melo-Martín and Kristen Intemann criticize three major strategies in battling allegedly dangerous scientific dissent: masking the dissent, silencing the dissent, and discrediting the dissenters.<sup id="cite_ref-immki_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immki-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melo-Martin and Intermann argue that these strategies come from a misdiagnosis: the real problem is not dissent, but public scientific illiteracy. Rather than focusing on dissent, scientists must concentrate on educating the general public, so that people could make educated opinions and recognize false claims and invalid arguments. They further argue that silencing dissent rather than promoting literacy incurs the risk of undermining the public trust in science.<sup id="cite_ref-immki_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-immki-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sheila_Jasanoff" title="Sheila Jasanoff">Sheila Jasanoff</a>, in the context of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, mentions a common argument that public opinion is poorly informed because <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry" title="Petroleum industry">petroleum industry</a> manufactures uncertainties and the media exaggerate the dissent, but argues that it is insufficient for the understanding of the problem. She writes that studies of scientific controversies show that credibility of science depend not only on strong scientific consensus, but also on the persuasive power of those who speak for science, especially in the situations of controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_dissent&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_dissent" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppression of dissent">Suppression of dissent</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_dissent&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-immki-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-immki_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-immki_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-immki_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-immki_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-immki_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-immki_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">de Melo‐Martín, I. and Intemann, K. (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://embor.embopress.org/content/14/3/231.short">"Scientific dissent and public policy"</a>. <i>EMBO Reports</i>, <b>14</b> (3): 231–235. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fembor.2013.8">10.1038/embor.2013.8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiethelm,_Pascal2009" class="citation journal cs1">Diethelm, Pascal (2009). "Denialism: what is it and how should scientists respond?". <i>The European Journal of Public Health</i>. <b>19</b> (1): 2–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Feurpub%2Fckn139">10.1093/eurpub/ckn139</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19158101">19158101</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+European+Journal+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Denialism%3A+what+is+it+and+how+should+scientists+respond%3F&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-4&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Feurpub%2Fckn139&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19158101&rft.au=Diethelm%2C+Pascal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+dissent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-se2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-se2_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWylie2008" class="citation journal cs1">Wylie, Alison (2008). "A More Social Epistemology: Decision Vectors, Epistemic Fairness, and Consensus in Solomon's Social Empiricism". <i>Perspectives on Science</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 237–240. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fposc.2008.16.3.237">10.1162/posc.2008.16.3.237</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57565947">57565947</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Science&rft.atitle=A+More+Social+Epistemology%3A+Decision+Vectors%2C+Epistemic+Fairness%2C+and+Consensus+in+Solomon%27s+Social+Empiricism&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=237-240&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fposc.2008.16.3.237&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57565947%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wylie&rft.aufirst=Alison&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+dissent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-se1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-se1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-se1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-se1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmaus2005" class="citation journal cs1">Schmaus, W. 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"Book Review: What's So Social about Social Knowledge?". <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i>. <b>35</b> (1): 98–125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0048393104271927">10.1177/0048393104271927</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0048-3931">0048-3931</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143968901">143968901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+the+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=Book+Review%3A+What%27s+So+Social+about+Social+Knowledge%3F&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=98-125&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143968901%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0048-3931&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0048393104271927&rft.aulast=Schmaus&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+dissent" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John T. Blackmore, <i>Ernst Mach; His Work, Life, and Influence</i>, University of California Press, 1972, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ZY9qjB34PMC&pg=PA206">p. 206</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Jo Nye, <i>Molecular Reality: A perspective on the Scientific Work of Jean Perrin</i>, Macdonald, 1972, p. 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/ulcer/history.htm">"History of Ulcer Diagnosis and Treatment"</a>. CDC<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Springer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789812870971" title="Special:BookSources/9789812870971">9789812870971</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-assci-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-assci_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-assci_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asianscientist.com/2014/04/features/keeping-modern-myths-conspiracy-theories-bay-2014/">"Keeping Modern Myths And Conspiracy Theories At Bay"</a>, April 7, 2014, <i>Asian Scientist Magazine</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew J. Brauer, Daniel R. Brumbaugh, "Biology Remystified: The Scientific Claims of the New Creationists," in: <i>Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives</i>, MIT Press, 2001, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0262661241" title="Special:BookSources/0262661241">0262661241</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=re4SXiklicAC&pg=PA322">pp. 322, 323</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Harker, <i>Creating Scientific Controversies: Uncertainty and Bias in Science and Society</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1107069610" title="Special:BookSources/1107069610">1107069610</a>, Cambridge University Press, 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel T. Willingham, <i>When Can You Trust the Experts?: How to Tell Good Science from Bad in Education</i>, Wiley, 2012, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1118233271" title="Special:BookSources/1118233271">1118233271</a>, Chapter 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael D. Gordin, <i>The Pseudoscience Wars: Immanuel Velikovsky and the Birth of the Modern Fringe</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2012, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226304434" title="Special:BookSources/0226304434">0226304434</a>, Chapter 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean Paul Van Bendegem, "Argumentation and Pseudoscience The Case for an Ethics of Argumentation," In Massimo Pigliucci & Maarten Boudry (eds.), <i>Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem</i>, University of Chicago Press, 2013, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/022605182X" title="Special:BookSources/022605182X">022605182X</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pc4OAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA298">p. 298</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-maju-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-maju_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aklin, M. and Urpelainen, J. (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901113002141">"Perceptions of scientific dissent undermine public support for environmental policy"</a>. <i>Environmental Science & Policy</i>, <b>38</b>: 173–177. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.envsci.2013.10.006">10.1016/j.envsci.2013.10.006</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sheila Jasanoff, "Cosmopolitan Knowledge: <a href="/wiki/Climate_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate Science">Climate Science</a> and Global Civic <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a>", in: <i>The Oxford Handbook of Climate Change and Society</i>, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0199566607" title="Special:BookSources/0199566607">0199566607</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_references">Further references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_dissent&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em"> <ul><li>Bechler, Z. (1974) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org/rec/BECNO">"Newton's 1672 optical controversies: a study in the grammar of scientific dissent"</a> In: Yehuda Elkana and Samuel Sambursky (eds), <i>The Interaction Between Science and Philosophy</i>. Humanities Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780391002555" title="Special:BookSources/9780391002555">9780391002555</a>.</li> <li>Delborne, J.A. (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sss.sagepub.com/content/38/4/509.full.pdf+html">"Transgenes and transgressions: Scientific dissent as heterogeneous practice"</a>. <i>Social Studies of Science</i>, <b>38</b> (4): 509–541. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0306312708089716">10.1177/0306312708089716</a></li> <li>Intemann, K. and de Melo-Martín, I. (2014) "Are there limits to scientists’ obligations to seek and engage dissenters?". <i>Synthese</i>, <b>191</b> (12): 2751–2765. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-014-0414-5">10.1007/s11229-014-0414-5</a></li> <li>Martin, B. (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=551678734035816;res=IELFSC">"Enabling scientific dissent"</a>. <i>New Doctor</i>, (88): 2–5.</li> <li>Martin, B. (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publications.rzsnsw.org.au/doi/pdf/10.7882/FS.2012.053">"Breaking the siege: guidelines for struggle in science"</a>. In: P. Banks, D. Lunney and C. Dickman (eds) <i>Science Under Siege: Zoology Under Threat</i>, pp. 164–170.</li> <li>Maguire, R. (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160901132858/http://hwj.oxfordjournals.org/content/63/1/113.short">"Scientific dissent amid the United Kingdom government's nuclear weapons programme"</a>. <i>History Workshop Journal</i>, <b>63</b> (1): 113–135).</li> <li>Shulman, S (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cy72HYeP-GAC&q=%22science+suppression%22"><i>Undermining Science: Suppression and Distortion in the Bush Administration</i></a> University of California Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520256262" title="Special:BookSources/9780520256262">9780520256262</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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