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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_politicization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_politicization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Government politicization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government_politicization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government politicization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government_politicization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soviet_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Soviet Union</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-George_W._Bush_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#George_W._Bush_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>George W. Bush administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-George_W._Bush_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surgeon_General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surgeon_General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1.1</span> <span>Surgeon General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surgeon_General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_and_Drug_Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_and_Drug_Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1.2</span> <span>Food and Drug Administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_and_Drug_Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_Department_of_the_Interior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_Department_of_the_Interior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1.3</span> <span>United States Department of the Interior</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_Department_of_the_Interior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1.4</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waxman_report" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waxman_report"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1.5</span> <span>Waxman report</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waxman_report-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1.6</span> <span>Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Oversight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Oversight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1.7</span> <span>United States House Science Subcommittee on Oversight</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Oversight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_Trump_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Trump_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>First Trump administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Trump_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2.1</span> <span>Policy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate_change_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate_change_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2.2</span> <span>Climate change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate_change_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2.3</span> <span>Health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biden_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biden_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Biden administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biden_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_studies_of_the_politics_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_studies_of_the_politics_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Scholarly studies of the politics of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_studies_of_the_politics_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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<div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Politicization of science</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polititzaci%C3%B3_de_la_ci%C3%A8ncia" title="Politització de la ciència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Politització de la ciència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politizace_v%C4%9Bdy" title="Politizace vědy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Politizace vědy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politizaci%C3%B3n_de_la_ciencia" title="Politización de la ciencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Politización de la ciencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zientziaren_politizazioa" title="Zientziaren politizazioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zientziaren politizazioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="سیاسی‌سازی علم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیاسی‌سازی علم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politisation_de_la_science" title="Politisation de la science – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Politisation de la science" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="विज्ञान का राजनीतीकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विज्ञान का राजनीतीकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politisasi_sains" title="Politisasi sains – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Politisasi sains" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2" title="פוליטיזציה של המדע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוליטיזציה של המדע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politiza%C3%A7%C3%A3o_da_ci%C3%AAncia" title="Politização da ciência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Politização da ciência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tieteen_politisoituminen" title="Tieteen politisoituminen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tieteen politisoituminen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%8C%96" title="科學政治化 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="科學政治化" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9061470#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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.ambox .mbox-text-span{display:list-item;line-height:1.5em;list-style-type:disc}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .multiple-issues-text>.mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-image,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-imageright,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .ambox .mbox-empty-cell,.mw-parser-output .compact-ambox .hide-when-compact{display:none}</style><table class="box-Multiple_issues plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-multiple_issues compact-ambox" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span"><div class="multiple-issues-text mw-collapsible"><b>This article has multiple issues.</b> Please help <b><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Politicization_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Politicization of science">improve it</a></b> or discuss these issues on the <b><a href="/wiki/Talk:Politicization_of_science" title="Talk:Politicization of science">talk page</a></b>. <small><i>(<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove these messages</a>)</i></small> <div class="mw-collapsible-content"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this article <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit">improve this article</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Politicization_of_science" title="Talk:Politicization of science">talk page</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_wizard" title="Wikipedia:Article wizard">create a new article</a>, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/60px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/80px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>politicization of science</b> for political gain occurs when <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Advocacy_group" title="Advocacy group">advocacy groups</a> use legal or economic pressure to influence the findings of scientific research or the way it is disseminated, reported or interpreted. The politicization of science may also negatively affect <a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">academic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific freedom">scientific freedom</a>, and as a result it is considered <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboo</a> to mix politics with science. Historically, groups have conducted various campaigns to promote their interests in defiance of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a>, and in an effort to manipulate <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-discovery_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-discovery-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AAAS_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAAS-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nejm_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nejm-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many factors can act as facets of the politicization of science. These can range, for example, from <a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">populist</a> <a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">anti-intellectualism</a> and perceived threats to religious belief to <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernist</a> <a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">subjectivism</a>, fear for business interests, institutional academic ideological biases or potentially implicit bias amongst scientific researchers.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Politicization occurs as scientific information is presented with emphasis on the uncertainty associated with the interpretation of scientific evidence. The emphasis capitalizes on the lack of consensus, which influences the way the studies are perceived.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chris_Mooney_(journalist)" title="Chris Mooney (journalist)">Chris Mooney</a> describes how this point is sometimes intentionally ignored as a part an "Orwellian tactic." Organizations and politicians seek to disclaim all discussion on some issues as 'the more probable conclusion is still uncertain' as opposed to 'conclusions are most scientifically likely'<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in order to further discredit scientific studies. </p><p>Tactics such as shifting conversation, failing to acknowledge facts, and capitalizing on doubt of scientific consensus have been used to gain more attention for views that have been undermined by scientific evidence. "<a href="/wiki/Merchants_of_Doubt" title="Merchants of Doubt">Merchants of Doubt</a>," ideology-based interest groups that claim expertise on scientific issues, have run successful "disinformation campaigns" in which they highlight the inherent uncertainty of science to cast doubt on scientific issues such as human-caused climate change, even though the scientific community has reached virtual consensus that humans play a role in climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>William R. Freudenburg and colleagues have written about politicization of science as a rhetorical technique and states that it is an attempt to shift the burden of proof in an argument.<sup id="cite_ref-William_F_2008_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-William_F_2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He offers the example of <a href="/wiki/Cigarette_lobbyists" class="mw-redirect" title="Cigarette lobbyists">cigarette lobbyists</a> opposing laws that would discourage smoking. The lobbyists trivialize evidence as uncertain, emphasizing lack of conclusion. Freudenberg concludes that politicians and lobby groups are too often able to make "successful efforts to argue for full 'scientific certainty' before a regulation can be said to be 'justified' and maintain that what is needed is a balanced approach that carefully considers the risks of both Type 1 and Type 2 errors in a situation while noting that scientific conclusions are always tentative.<sup id="cite_ref-William_F_2008_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-William_F_2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Politicization_by_advocacy_groups">Politicization by advocacy groups</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Politicization by advocacy groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A political tactic, sometimes used to delay the implementation of legislation to control potentially harmful activities, is the "Scientific Certainty Argumentation Method" (SCAM). In many cases, there is a degree of uncertainty in scientific findings and this can be exploited to delay action, perhaps for many years, by demanding more "certainty" before action is taken.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="global_warming"></span><span class="anchor" id="Global_warming"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change">Climate change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Global_warming_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming controversy">Global warming controversy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/I%27m_not_a_scientist" title="I'm not a scientist">I'm not a scientist</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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style="width:188px;max-width:188px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:139px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg/186px-202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="186" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg/279px-202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg/372px-202303_Global_warming_caused_by_human_activities_-_Gallup_survey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democrats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> have long differed in views of climate change, with the gap widening in the late 2010s,<sup id="cite_ref-PewSurvey_2020_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PewSurvey_2020-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Democrats three times more likely to view it as human-caused.<sup id="cite_ref-Gallup_20230420_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gallup_20230420-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:250px;max-width:250px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:139px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg/248px-2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="248" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg/372px-2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg/496px-2021_Survey_on_existence_of_global_warming_and_responsibility_for_climate_change_-_bar_chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The sharp divide over the existence of and responsibility for global warming and climate change falls largely along political lines.<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_20211026_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian_20211026-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, 60% of Americans surveyed said oil and gas companies were "completely or mostly responsible" for climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_20211026_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian_20211026-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:226px;max-width:226px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:140px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg/224px-20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg.png" decoding="async" width="224" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg/336px-20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg/448px-20220301_Opinions_by_political_party_-_Climate_change_causation_-_Action_for_carbon_neutral_2050_-_Pew_Research.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="750" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Opinion about human causation of climate change increased substantially with education among Democrats, but not among Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-Pew_20220301_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pew_20220301-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, opinions favoring becoming carbon neutral declined substantially with age among Republicans, but not among Democrats.<sup id="cite_ref-Pew_20220301_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pew_20220301-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:140px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg/210px-20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="210" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg/315px-20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg/420px-20220831_Climate_change_is_a_%22major_threat%22_to_my_country_-_Pew_survey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">National political divides on the seriousness of climate change consistently correlate with political ideology, with right-wing opinion being more negative.<sup id="cite_ref-Pew_20220831_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pew_20220831-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Both mainstream climatologists and their critics have accused each other of politicizing the science behind <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. There is a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_opinion_on_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific opinion on climate change">scientific consensus that global surface temperatures have increased</a> in recent decades and that the trend is caused primarily by human-induced <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">emissions of greenhouse gases</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OreskesBeyondTheIvoryTower_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OreskesBeyondTheIvoryTower-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AmericasClimateChoices-2010-SciPanel_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmericasClimateChoices-2010-SciPanel-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USNAS-2008-ClimateChoices_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USNAS-2008-ClimateChoices-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1991, a US corporate coalition including the <a href="/wiki/National_Coal_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="National Coal Association">National Coal Association</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Western_Fuels_Association" title="Western Fuels Association">Western Fuels Association</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edison_Electrical_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Edison Electrical Institute">Edison Electrical Institute</a> created a <a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">public relations</a> organization called the "<a href="/wiki/Information_Council_on_the_Environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Information Council on the Environment">Information Council on the Environment</a>" (ICE). ICE launched a $500,000 advertising campaign to, in ICE's own words, "reposition global warming as theory (not fact)." Critics of industry groups have charged that the claims about a global warming controversy are part of a deliberate effort to reduce the impact any international treaty, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>, might have on their business interests.<sup id="cite_ref-earthisland_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-earthisland-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2006, <i>Guardian</i> columnist <a href="/wiki/George_Monbiot" title="George Monbiot">George Monbiot</a> reported that according to data found in official Exxon documents, 124 organizations have taken money from ExxonMobil or worked closely with those that have, and that "These organizations take a consistent line on climate change: that the science is contradictory, the scientists are split, environmentalists are charlatans, liars or lunatics, and if governments took action to prevent global warming, they would be endangering the global economy for no good reason. The findings these organisations dislike are labelled '<a href="/wiki/Junk_science" title="Junk science">junk science</a>'. The findings they welcome are labelled 'sound science'."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-pacinist_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pacinist-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "selective use of data", <a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking_(fallacy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherry picking (fallacy)">cherry picking</a>, is identified as a notable form of scientific abuse by the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Institute" title="Pacific Institute">Pacific Institute</a>, an organization created to provide independent research and policy analysis on issues at the intersection of development, environment, and security.<sup id="cite_ref-pacinst2_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pacinst2-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligent_design">Intelligent design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Intelligent design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teach_the_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Teach the controversy">Teach the controversy</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design_movement" title="Intelligent design movement">intelligent design movement</a> associated with the <a href="/wiki/Discovery_Institute" title="Discovery Institute">Discovery Institute</a>, attempts to "defeat [the] <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> <a href="/wiki/World_view" class="mw-redirect" title="World view">world view</a>" represented by the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> in favor of "a science consonant with <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theistic</a> convictions".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Discovery Institute portrays evolution as a "theory in crisis" with scientists criticizing evolution and that "fairness" and "equal time" requires educating students about "the controversy." </p><p>A cornerstone of modern scientific biological theory is that all forms of life on Earth are related by common descent with modification.<sup id="cite_ref-NAS_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAS-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While many valid criticisms to the theory of evolution have existed throughout time, often certain ideological proponents seek to expand the scope of these disagreements in order to draw doubt onto the entire theory. For example, in the United States, there is a legal precedent of those who sought to discredit the teaching of evolution in classrooms by emphasizing so-called flaws in the theory of evolution or disagreements within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the mainstream scientific community about the validity of the main pillars of theory of evolution at this time. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is thus not primarily a scientific one.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 2005 ruling in the Dover trial, <i><a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a></i>, where the claims of intelligent design proponents were considered by a <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal courts">United States federal court</a> concluded that intelligent design is not science, that it "cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents", and concluded that the school district's promotion of it therefore violated the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause_of_the_First_Amendment" class="mw-redirect" title="Establishment Clause of the First Amendment">Establishment Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tobacco_and_cancer">Tobacco and cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tobacco and cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Surgeon_General%27s_warning_cigarettes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Surgeon_General%27s_warning_cigarettes.jpg/240px-Surgeon_General%27s_warning_cigarettes.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Surgeon_General%27s_warning_cigarettes.jpg/360px-Surgeon_General%27s_warning_cigarettes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Surgeon_General%27s_warning_cigarettes.jpg/480px-Surgeon_General%27s_warning_cigarettes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A cigarette carton warns about the health risks of smoking. Public awareness was delayed by a SCAM (Scientific Certainty Argumentation Method).<sup id="cite_ref-SCAMs_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCAMs-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>By the mid-1950s there was a scientific consensus that smoking promotes lung cancer, but the <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_industry" title="Tobacco industry">tobacco industry</a> fought the findings, both in the public eye and within the scientific community. Tobacco companies funded <a href="/wiki/Think_tank" title="Think tank">think tanks</a> and lobbying groups, started health reassurance campaigns, ran advertisements in medical journals, and researched alternate explanations for lung cancer, such as <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a> and even pet birds. Denying the case against tobacco was "closed," they called for more research as a tactic to delay regulation.<sup id="cite_ref-physorg_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physorg-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Horgan, notes a rhetoric tactic that has been used by tobacco companies. It is summarized in a line that appeared in a confidential memo from a tobacco company, in 1969, when they sought to cast doubt on evidence that supports smoking causes cancer. It read, "Doubt is our product since it is the best means of competing with the 'body of fact' that exists in the mind of the general public. It is also the means of establishing a controversy."<sup id="cite_ref-HorganReview_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HorganReview-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DoubtIs_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DoubtIs-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eugenics">Eugenics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Eugenics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> under <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> was well known for <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> programs which attempted to maintain a "pure" German race through a series of programs that ran under the banner of <a href="/wiki/Racial_hygiene" title="Racial hygiene">racial hygiene</a>. The Nazis manipulated scientific research in Germany, by forcing some scholars to emigrate, and by allocating funding for research based on ideological rather than scientific merit.<sup id="cite_ref-DeichmannDunlap1999_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeichmannDunlap1999-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2012)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the early 20th century, Eugenics enjoyed substantial international support, from leading politicians and scientists. The First International Congress of Eugenics in 1912 was supported by many prominent persons, including its president <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Darwin" title="Leonard Darwin">Leonard Darwin</a>, the son of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>; honorary vice-president <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, then First Lord of the Admiralty and future Prime Minister of the United Kingdom; <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Forel" title="Auguste Forel">Auguste Forel</a>, famous Swiss pathologist; <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a>, the inventor of the telephone; among other prominent people.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The level of support for eugenics research by the Nazis prompted an American eugenics advocate to seek an expansion of the American program, with the complaint that "the Germans are beating us at our own game".<sup id="cite_ref-Lynn2001_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lynn2001-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was a strong connection between American and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_eugenics" title="Nazi eugenics">Nazi eugenics</a> research. Nazis based their eugenics program on the United States' programs of forced <a href="/wiki/Sterilisation_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sterilisation (medicine)">sterilization</a>, especially on the eugenics laws that had been enacted in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_justice">Social justice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Social justice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some critics argue that science has been politicized by <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> advocates.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David Randall, director of research at the politically conservative advocacy group the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Scholars" title="National Association of Scholars">National Association of Scholars</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-nyt-sept-2008_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt-sept-2008-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DPost_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DPost-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> said that the emphasis on pursuing social justice and political activism "threatens the very definition of science as primarily a search for truth".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 2021, <i>The New York Times</i> reported a rise in calls for "citational justice" within academic communities, which the article defines as an effort by professors and graduate students "to cite more Black, Latino, Asian and Native American scholars and in some cases refuse to acknowledge in footnotes the research of those who hold distasteful views."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some researchers have defended these efforts against the charge of politicization, arguing that science has always been inherently political.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_politicization">Government politicization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Government politicization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Politicization_of_science" title="Talk:Politicization of science">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_Union">Soviet Union</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Soviet Union"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, scientific research was under strict political control. A number of research areas were declared "<a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">bourgeois pseudoscience</a>" and forbidden. This has led to significant setbacks for the Soviet science, notably in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> due to ban on <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see "<a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a>") and in <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, which drastically influenced the Soviet economy and technology.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The General Social Survey (GSS) of 1974 recorded that conservatives had the highest rates of trust in science between the three major political demographics: conservatives, liberals, and moderates. This study was repeated annually between 1972 and 1994, and biannually from 1994 until 2010. In 2010, when the same study was repeated, conservatives' trust rates had decreased from 49% to 38%, moderates' trust rates from 45% to 40%, and liberals' trust rates staying relatively stable, rising slightly from 48% to 50%.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study by Gordon Gauchat, which investigates time trends in the public trust of science in the United States, suggests that the increase of distrust of conservatives can be attributed to two cultural shifts. The first was during the post-<a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a> era when the <a href="/wiki/New_Right" title="New Right">New Right</a> emerged, and the second during the <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">G.W. Bush</a> era when the NR intensified and conservatives commenced the "war on science". </p><p>Barack Obama and other politicians, since Bush's presidency, have expressed their concerns with the politicization of science in both the public and government sphere. In 2011, during his State of the Union speech, Obama discussed his dissatisfaction of the relationships between organized science, private economic interests, and the government. </p><p>A 2024 analysis found that 100 U.S. Representatives and 23 U.S. Senators—23% of the 535 members of Congress—were climate change deniers.<sup id="cite_ref-AmerProgress_20240718_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmerProgress_20240718-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All were Republicans.<sup id="cite_ref-AmerProgress_20240718_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AmerProgress_20240718-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="George_W._Bush_administration">George W. Bush administration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: George W. Bush administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2004, The <i><a href="/wiki/Denver_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Denver Post">Denver Post</a></i> reported that the <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Bush administration">George W. Bush administration</a> "has installed more than 100 top officials who were once lobbyists, attorneys or spokespeople for the industries they oversee." At least 20 of these former industry advocates helped their agencies write, shape or push for policy shifts that benefit their former industries. "They knew which changes to make because they had pushed for them as industry advocates."<sup id="cite_ref-denver_post_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-denver_post-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Also in 2004, the scientific <a href="/wiki/Advocacy" title="Advocacy">advocacy</a> group <a href="/wiki/Union_of_Concerned_Scientists" title="Union of Concerned Scientists">Union of Concerned Scientists</a> issued a report, <i>Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science</i><sup id="cite_ref-americanprogress_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-americanprogress-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ucsintegrity_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucsintegrity-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which charged the following: </p><blockquote><p>A growing number of scientists, policy makers, and technical specialists both inside and outside the government allege that the current Bush administration has suppressed or distorted the scientific analyses of federal agencies to bring these results in line with administration policy. In addition, these experts contend that irregularities in the appointment of scientific advisors and advisory panels are threatening to upset the legally mandated balance of these bodies.</p></blockquote><p> A petition, signed on February 18, 2004, by more than 9,000 scientists, including 49 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_laureates" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel laureates">Nobel laureates</a> and 63 <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> recipients,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed the report. The petition stated: </p><blockquote><p>When scientific knowledge has been found to be in conflict with its political goals, the administration has often manipulated the process through which science enters into its decisions. This has been done by placing people who are professionally unqualified or who have clear conflicts of interest in official posts and on scientific advisory committees; by disbanding existing advisory committees; by censoring and suppressing reports by the government's own scientists; and by simply not seeking independent scientific advice. Other administrations have, on occasion, engaged in such practices, but not so systematically nor on so wide a front. Furthermore, in advocating policies that are not scientifically sound, the administration has sometimes misrepresented scientific knowledge and misled the public about the implications of its policies.</p></blockquote> <p>The same year, Francesca Grifo, executive director of the Union of Concerned Scientists' Scientific Integrity Program, stated "We have reports that stay in draft form and don't get out to the public. We have reports that are changed. We have reports that are ignored and overwritten."<sup id="cite_ref-npr_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npr-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to criticisms, President Bush in 2006 unveiled a campaign in his <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address</a> to promote scientific research and education to ensure American competitiveness in the world, vowing to "double the federal commitment to the most critical basic research programs in the physical sciences over the next 10 years."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Surgeon_General">Surgeon General</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Surgeon General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Richard_Carmona" title="Richard Carmona">Richard Carmona</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">surgeon general</a> appointed by President George W. Bush, publicly accused the administration in July 2007 of political interference and muzzling him on key issues like <a href="/wiki/Embryonic_stem_cell_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic stem cell research">embryonic stem cell research</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>"Anything that doesn't fit into the political appointees' ideological, theological or political agenda is often ignored, marginalized or simply buried," Carmona testified.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although he did not make personal accusations, the <i><a href="/wiki/Washington_Post" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Post">Washington Post</a></i> reported on July 29 that the official who blocked at least one of Carmona's reports was <a href="/wiki/William_R._Steiger" title="William R. Steiger">William R. Steiger</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Post29_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Post29-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Food_and_Drug_Administration">Food and Drug Administration</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Food and Drug Administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In July 2006 the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) released survey results that demonstrate pervasive political influence of science at the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA).<sup id="cite_ref-ucsfda_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucsfda-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of the 997 FDA scientists who responded to the survey, nearly one fifth (18 percent) said that they "have been asked, for non-scientific reasons, to inappropriately exclude or alter technical information or their conclusions in a FDA scientific document." This is the third survey Union of Concerned Scientists has conducted to examine inappropriate interference with science at federal agencies. </p><p>The Department of Health and Human Services also conducted a survey addressing the same topic which generated similar findings.<sup id="cite_ref-usatoday_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usatoday-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <i><a href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</a></i>, a survey of Food and Drug Administration scientists by <a href="/wiki/Public_Employees_for_Environmental_Responsibility" title="Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility">Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility</a> and the Union of Concerned Scientists found that many scientists have been pressured to approve or reject new drugs despite their scientific findings concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-usatoday_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usatoday-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2006, the Union of Concerned Scientists released survey results that they said "demonstrate pervasive political influence of science" at the Food and Drug Administration.<sup id="cite_ref-ucsfda_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucsfda-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ucsfda2_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ucsfda2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="United_States_Department_of_the_Interior">United States Department of the Interior</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: United States Department of the Interior"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Julie_A._MacDonald" title="Julie A. MacDonald">Julie A. MacDonald</a></div> <p>On May 1, 2007, deputy assistant secretary at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior" title="United States Department of the Interior">United States Department of the Interior</a> <a href="/wiki/Julie_A._MacDonald" title="Julie A. MacDonald">Julie MacDonald</a> resigned after the Interior Department Inspector General, Honorable Earl E. Devaney, reported that MacDonald broke federal rules by giving non-public, internal government documents to oil industry and property rights groups, and manipulated scientific findings to favor Bush policy goals and assist land developers.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On November 29, 2007, another report by Devaney found that MacDonald could have also benefitted financially from a decision she was involved with to remove the <a href="/wiki/Sacramento_splittail" title="Sacramento splittail">Sacramento splittail</a> fish from the federal endangered species list.<sup id="cite_ref-ensnov29_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ensnov29-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>MacDonald's conduct violated the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a> (CFR) under <a href="/wiki/5_C.F.R." class="mw-redirect" title="5 C.F.R.">5 C.F.R.</a> § 2635.703, Use of nonpublic information, and 5 C.F.R. § 2635.101, Basic obligation of public service.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> MacDonald resigned a week before a House congressional oversight committee was to hold a hearing on accusations that she had "violated the Endangered Species Act, censored science and mistreated staff of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service."<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20070501_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20070501-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Climate_change_2">Climate change</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In December 2007, the <i><a href="/wiki/Christian_Science_Monitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Science Monitor">Christian Science Monitor</a></i> reported that at least since 2003, and especially after <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a>, the George W. Bush administration broadly attempted to control which <a href="/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists" title="List of climate scientists">climate scientists</a> could speak with reporters, as well as edited scientists' congressional testimony on <a href="/wiki/Climate_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate science">climate science</a> and key legal opinions.<sup id="cite_ref-csm_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csm-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those who have studied organizations that set up to delay action and manufacture uncertainty about the well-established scientific consensus have divided their tactics into three steps: first, deny that there is a problem, second, make the case that there are benefits involved, and, third, insist that there is nothing that can be done.<sup id="cite_ref-goodforyou_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goodforyou-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a study, "The legitimacy of environmental scientists in the public sphere" by Gordon Gauchat, Timothy O'Brien, and Oriol Mirosa, the researchers conclude that attitudes about environmental scientists as policy advisers are highly politicized. Their results demonstrate that, to be perceived by the public as a reputable policy advisor, the public's perception of their integrity and understanding weigh more strongly than their agreement with scientific consensus. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Waxman_report">Waxman report</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Waxman report"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In August 2003, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, Democratic Congressman <a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Waxman" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry A. Waxman">Henry A. Waxman</a> and the staff of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Committee_on_Government_Reform" class="mw-redirect" title="United States House Committee on Government Reform">Government Reform Committee</a> released a report concluding that the administration of George W. Bush had politicized science and <a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">sex education</a>. The report accuses the administration of modifying performance measures for abstinence-based programs to make them look more effective. The report also found that the Bush administration had appointed Dr. Joseph McIlhaney, a prominent advocate of abstinence-only program, to the Advisory Committee to the director of the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Centers for Disease Control">Centers for Disease Control</a>. According to the report, information about comprehensive sex education was removed from the CDC's website.<sup id="cite_ref-waxmanreport_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waxmanreport-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other issues considered for removal included <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">agricultural pollution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Arctic National Wildlife Refuge">Arctic National Wildlife Refuge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>; the report found that a <a href="/wiki/National_Cancer_Institute" title="National Cancer Institute">National Cancer Institute</a> website has been changed to reflect the administration view that there may be a risk of breast cancer associated with <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-waxmanreport_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waxmanreport-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-waxmanpage_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waxmanpage-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The website was updated after protests and now holds that no such risk has been found in recent, well-designed studies.<sup id="cite_ref-waxmanreport_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waxmanreport-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Abortion–breast_cancer_hypothesis"><span id="Abortion.E2.80.93breast_cancer_hypothesis"></span>Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abortion%E2%80%93breast_cancer_hypothesis" title="Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis">Abortion–breast cancer hypothesis</a></div> <p>The abortion-breast cancer hypothesis is the belief that induced abortions increase the risk of developing breast cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-RUSSO_505_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RUSSO_505-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This belief is in contrast to the scientific consensus that there is no evidence suggesting that abortions can cause breast cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rcog_2000_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rcog_2000-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oversight_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oversight-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the scientific community rejecting the hypothesis, many <a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-abortion">anti-abortion</a> advocates continue to argue that a link between abortions and breast cancer exists, in an effort to influence public policy and opinion to further restrict abortions and discourage women from having abortions.<sup id="cite_ref-JASEN_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JASEN-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While historically a controversial hypothesis, the debate now is almost entirely political rather than scientific.<sup id="cite_ref-JASEN_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JASEN-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most notable example of the politicization of this topic was the modification of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) fact sheet by the George W. Bush administration from concluding no link to a more ambiguous assessment regarding the abortion-breast cancer hypothesis,<sup id="cite_ref-oversight_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oversight-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> despite the NCI's scientifically based assessment to the contrary.<sup id="cite_ref-NCI_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCI-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Oversight">United States House Science Subcommittee on Oversight</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: United States House Science Subcommittee on Oversight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In January 2007, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/House_Committee_on_Science,_Space_and_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="House Committee on Science, Space and Technology">House Committee on Science, Space and Technology</a> announced the formation of a new subcommittee, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Science_Subcommittee_on_Oversight" class="mw-redirect" title="United States House Science Subcommittee on Oversight">Science Subcommittee on Oversight</a>, which handles investigative and oversight activities on matters covering the committee's entire jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The subcommittee has authority to look into a whole range of important issues, particularly those concerning manipulation of scientific data at Federal agencies. </p><p>In an interview, subcommittee chairman Rep. Brad Miller pledged to investigate scientific integrity concerns under the Bush Administration. Miller noted that there were multiple reports in the media of the Bush Administration's manipulation of science to advance his political agenda, corrupt advisory panels, and minimize scientific research with federal funds. Miller, as part of the House Committee of Science and Technology, collected evidence of interference with scientific integrity by Bush's political appointees. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Trump_administration">First Trump administration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: First Trump administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_interference_with_science_agencies_by_the_first_Trump_administration" title="Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration">Political interference with science agencies by the first Trump administration</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Policy">Policy</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Policy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Trump administration marginalized the role of science in policy making, halted numerous research projects, and saw the departure of scientists who said their work was marginalized or suppressed.<sup id="cite_ref-:61_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:61-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the first administration since 1941 not to name a <a href="/wiki/Science_Advisor_to_the_President" title="Science Advisor to the President">Science Advisor to the President</a>. In July 2018, Trump nominated meteorologist <a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Droegemeier" title="Kelvin Droegemeier">Kelvin Droegemeier</a> for the position, and Droegemeier was confirmed by the Senate on January 2, 2019, the final day of the <a href="/wiki/115th_United_States_Congress" title="115th United States Congress">115th United States Congress</a>. He was sworn in by Vice President <a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Mike Pence</a> on February 11, 2019. While preparing for talks with <a href="/wiki/Kim_Jong-un" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Jong-un">Kim Jong-un</a>, the White House did so without the assistance of a White House science adviser or senior counselor trained in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>. The position of chief scientist in the State Department or the Department of Agriculture was not filled. The administration nominated <a href="/wiki/Sam_Clovis" title="Sam Clovis">Sam Clovis</a> to be chief scientist in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a>, but he had no scientific background and the White House later withdrew the nomination. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior" title="United States Department of the Interior">United States Department of the Interior</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> disbanded advisory committees.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Climate_change_3">Climate change</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Climate change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:33%; border-width: 1px; font-size: 100%; color: #202122;background-color: #fafafa;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #fafafa; color: #202060;">Global warming</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p><span class="nowrap">   </span><span style="font-family:Times New Roman;font-size:12pt;">The people that gave you global warming are the same people that gave you ObamaCare!</span> </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">Tweet of Donald Trump<br />Nov. 23, 2013<sup id="cite_ref-Vox_20170601_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vox_20170601-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>The issue of politicized science surfaced during the <a href="/wiki/2016_United_States_presidential_election" title="2016 United States presidential election">2016 United States presidential campaign</a> by then Republican candidate <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>. Trump stated his intention to strip <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>'s Earth Science division of its funding, a move that "would mean the elimination of NASA's world-renowned research into temperature, ice, clouds and other climate phenomena".<sup id="cite_ref-milman-2016_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milman-2016-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequently, the Trump administration successfully nominated <a href="/wiki/Jim_Bridenstine" title="Jim Bridenstine">Jim Bridenstine</a>, who had no background in science and rejected the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">scientific consensus on climate change</a>, to lead NASA.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the Trump administration, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">Department of Energy</a> prohibited the use of the term "<a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In March 2020 <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> reported that an official at the Interior Department has repeatedly inserted climate change-denying language into the agency's scientific reports, such as those that affect water and mineral rights.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Health">Health</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 2020 <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a>, the Trump administration replaced career public affairs staff at the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">Department of Health and Human Services</a> with political appointees, including <a href="/wiki/Michael_Caputo" title="Michael Caputo">Michael Caputo</a>, who interfered with weekly <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control</a> scientific reports and attempted to silence the government's most senior infectious disease expert, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Fauci" title="Anthony Fauci">Anthony Fauci</a>, "sowing distrust of the FDA at a time when health leaders desperately need people to accept a vaccine in order to create the immunity necessary to defeat the novel coronavirus."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One day after President Donald Trump noted that he might dismiss an FDA proposal to improve standards for emergency use of a coronavirus vaccine, the Presidents of the <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Academies</a> of Sciences and Medicine issued a statement expressing alarm at political interference in science during a pandemic, "particularly the overriding of evidence and advice from public health officials and derision of government scientists".<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The administration reportedly sent a list to the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> on words that the agency was prohibited from using in its official communications, including "<a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based research">evidence-based</a>", "science-based", "<a href="/wiki/Vulnerability" title="Vulnerability">vulnerable</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Entitlement_(psychology)" title="Entitlement (psychology)">entitlement</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">diversity</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-:49_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:49-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Director of the CDC denied these reports.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated32_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated32-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Biden_administration">Biden administration</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Biden administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As part of an effort to "refresh and reinvigorate our national science and technology strategy," President-elect <a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> announced, before taking office, that he will elevate the role of Director of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Science_and_Technology_Policy" title="Office of Science and Technology Policy">Office of Science and Technology Policy</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">cabinet</a> level position.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biden's removal of <a href="/wiki/Betsy_Weatherhead" title="Betsy Weatherhead">Betsy Weatherhead</a> from her role as director of the <a href="/wiki/National_Climate_Assessment" title="National Climate Assessment">National Climate Assessment</a> has been criticized as being politically motivated.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scholarly_studies_of_the_politics_of_science">Scholarly studies of the politics of science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Scholarly studies of the politics of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The politicization of science is a subset of a broader topic, the politics of science, which has been studied by scholars in a variety of fields, including most notably <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Technology_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and Technology Studies">Science and Technology Studies</a>; <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>; political science; and the sociology of science, knowledge, and technology. Increasingly in recent decades, these fields have examined the process through which science and technology are shaped. Some of the scholarly work in this area is reviewed in <i>The Handbook of Science & Technology Studies</i> (1995, 2008), a collection of literature reviews published by the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Social_Studies_of_Science" title="Society for Social Studies of Science">Society for Social Studies of Science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is an annual award for books relevant to the politics of science given by the Society for Social Studies of Science called the <a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson_Prize_(academic_book_prize)" title="Rachel Carson Prize (academic book prize)">Rachel Carson Prize</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a> – Attitudes that reject science and the scientific method</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_mathematics_pedagogy" title="Critical mathematics pedagogy">Critical mathematics pedagogy</a> – Liberation-focused math education</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a> – Person's choice to deny psychologically uncomfortable truth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_Institute_intelligent_design_campaigns" title="Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns">Discovery Institute intelligent design campaigns</a> – Campaigns which seek to promote intelligent design creationism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">Framing (social sciences)</a> – Effect of how information is presented on perception</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibson%27s_law" title="Gibson's law">Gibson's law</a> – Every PhD has an equal and opposite PhD</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governmental_impact_on_science_during_World_War_II" title="Governmental impact on science during World War II">Governmental impact on science during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Global_Drug_Policy_and_Practice" title="Journal of Global Drug Policy and Practice">Journal of Global Drug Policy and Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_evolution_hearings" title="Kansas evolution hearings">Kansas evolution hearings</a> – 2005 Board of Education hearings in Kansas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_the_politics_of_science" title="List of books about the politics of science">List of books about the politics of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scholarly_publishing_stings" title="List of scholarly publishing stings">List of scholarly publishing stings</a> – List of nonsense papers that were accepted by an academic journal or conference</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy-based_evidence_making" title="Policy-based evidence making">Policy-based evidence making</a> – Commissioning of research in order to support a policy which has already been decided upon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic" title="Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic">Political impact of the COVID-19 pandemic</a> – Impact of COVID-19 on political systems</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Republican_War_on_Science" title="The Republican War on Science"><i>The Republican War on Science</i></a> – 2005 book by Chris Mooney</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_by_press_conference" title="Science by press conference">Science by press conference</a> – Aspect of science news</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">Scientific dissent</a> – Dissent from scientific consensus</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">Scientific misconduct</a> – Violation of codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in scientific research</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientists_and_Engineers_for_America" title="Scientists and Engineers for America">Scientists and Engineers for America</a> – Professional advocacy organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin (propaganda)</a> – Form of propaganda in public relations and politics</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-discovery-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-discovery_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.discovery.org/a/2445/">"Evolution or design debate heats up"</a>. <i>Discovery Institute</i>. December 1, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Discovery+Institute&rft.atitle=Evolution+or+design+debate+heats+up&rft.date=2004-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.discovery.org%2Fa%2F2445%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAAS-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAAS_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Some bills seek to discredit evolution by emphasizing so-called "flaws" in the theory of evolution or "disagreements" within the scientific community. Others insist that teachers have absolute freedom within their classrooms and cannot be disciplined for teaching non-scientific "alternatives" to evolution. A number of bills require that students be taught to "critically analyze" evolution or to understand "the controversy." But there is no significant controversy within the scientific community about the validity of the theory of evolution. The current controversy surrounding the teaching of evolution is not a scientific one." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120204044657/https://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf">"AAAS Statement on the Teaching of Evolution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>. 16 February 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AAAS+Statement+on+the+Teaching+of+Evolution&rft.pub=American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science&rft.date=2006-02-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaas.org%2Fnews%2Freleases%2F2006%2Fpdf%2F0219boardstatement.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nejm-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nejm_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/21/2277">Intelligent Judging – Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom</a> George J. Annas, <a href="/wiki/New_England_Journal_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="New England Journal of Medicine">New England Journal of Medicine</a>, Volume 354:2277–2281 May 25, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldberg2017" class="citation journal cs1">Goldberg, Jeanne (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180816182350/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues">"The Politicization of Scientific Issues: Looking through Galileo's Lens or through the Imaginary Looking Glass"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>. <b>41</b> (5): 34–39. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/si/show/politicization_of_scientific_issues">the original</a> on 2018-08-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=The+Politicization+of+Scientific+Issues%3A+Looking+through+Galileo%27s+Lens+or+through+the+Imaginary+Looking+Glass&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=34-39&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Goldberg&rft.aufirst=Jeanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fpoliticization_of_scientific_issues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolsenDruckman2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bolsen, Toby; <a href="/wiki/James_N._Druckman" class="mw-redirect" title="James N. 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"Counteracting the Politicization of Science". <i>Journal of Communication</i> (65): 746.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Communication&rft.atitle=Counteracting+the+Politicization+of+Science&rft.issue=65&rft.pages=746&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Bolsen&rft.aufirst=Toby&rft.au=Druckman%2C+James+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorgan2005" class="citation news cs1">Horgan, John (2005-12-18). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/18/books/review/political-science.html">"The Republican War on Science"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Republican+War+on+Science&rft.date=2005-12-18&rft.aulast=Horgan&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F12%2F18%2Fbooks%2Freview%2Fpolitical-science.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvan_der_LindenLeiserowitzRosenthalMaibach2017" class="citation journal cs1">van der Linden, Sander; Leiserowitz, Anthony; Rosenthal, Seth; Maibach, Edward (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6607159">"Inoculating the Public against Misinformation about Climate Change"</a>. <i>Global Challenges</i>. <b>1</b> (2): 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fgch2.201600008">10.1002/gch2.201600008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6607159">6607159</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31565263">31565263</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Challenges&rft.atitle=Inoculating+the+Public+against+Misinformation+about+Climate+Change&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6607159%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31565263&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fgch2.201600008&rft.aulast=van+der+Linden&rft.aufirst=Sander&rft.au=Leiserowitz%2C+Anthony&rft.au=Rosenthal%2C+Seth&rft.au=Maibach%2C+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6607159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-William_F_2008-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-William_F_2008_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-William_F_2008_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreudenbergGramlingDavidson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Freudenberg, William R.; Gramling, Robert; Davidson, Debra J. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x">"Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt"</a>. <i>Sociological Inquiry</i>. <b>78</b> (1): 2–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x">10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Scientific+Certainty+Argumentation+Methods+%28SCAMs%29%3A+Science+and+the+Politics+of+Doubt&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-38&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x&rft.aulast=Freudenberg&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rft.au=Gramling%2C+Robert&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Debra+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreudenburgGramlingDavidson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Freudenburg, William R.; Gramling, Robert; Davidson, Debra J. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x">"Scientific Certainty Argumentation Methods (SCAMs): Science and the Politics of Doubt"</a>. <i>Sociological Inquiry</i>. <b>78</b>: 2–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x">10.1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00219.x</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Inquiry&rft.atitle=Scientific+Certainty+Argumentation+Methods+%28SCAMs%29%3A+Science+and+the+Politics+of+Doubt&rft.volume=78&rft.pages=2-38&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x&rft.aulast=Freudenburg&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rft.au=Gramling%2C+Robert&rft.au=Davidson%2C+Debra+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fj.1475-682X.2008.00219.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PewSurvey_2020-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PewSurvey_2020_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/02/13/as-economic-concerns-recede-environmental-protection-rises-on-the-publics-policy-agenda/">"As Economic Concerns Recede, Environmental Protection Rises on the Public's Policy Agenda / Partisan gap on dealing with climate change gets even wider"</a>. <i>PewResearch.org</i>. Pew Research Center. 13 February 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210116155958/https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2020/02/13/as-economic-concerns-recede-environmental-protection-rises-on-the-publics-policy-agenda/">Archived</a> from the original on 16 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PewResearch.org&rft.atitle=As+Economic+Concerns+Recede%2C+Environmental+Protection+Rises+on+the+Public%27s+Policy+Agenda+%2F+Partisan+gap+on+dealing+with+climate+change+gets+even+wider&rft.date=2020-02-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fpolitics%2F2020%2F02%2F13%2Fas-economic-concerns-recede-environmental-protection-rises-on-the-publics-policy-agenda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span> (Discontinuity resulted from survey changing in 2015 from reciting "global warming" to "climate change".)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gallup_20230420-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gallup_20230420_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaad2023" class="citation web cs1">Saad, Lydia (20 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.gallup.com/poll/474542/steady-six-say-global-warming-effects-begun.aspx">"A Steady Six in 10 Say Global Warming's Effects Have Begun"</a>. 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Note: ±4% margin of error.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Revealed%3A+60%25+of+Americans+say+oil+firms+are+to+blame+for+the+climate+crisis&rft.date=2021-10-26&rft.aulast=McGreal&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fenvironment%2F2021%2Foct%2F26%2Fclimate-change-poll-oil-gas-companies-environment&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pew_20220301-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pew_20220301_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pew_20220301_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTysonFunkKennedy2022" class="citation web cs1">Tyson, Alec; Funk, Cary; Kennedy, Brian (1 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/03/01/carbon-neutral-2050-appendix/">"Americans Largely Favor U.S. Taking Steps To Become Carbon Neutral by 2050 / Appendix (Detailed charts and tables)"</a>. <i>Pew Research</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220418220503/https://www.pewresearch.org/science/2022/03/01/carbon-neutral-2050-appendix/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pew+Research&rft.atitle=Americans+Largely+Favor+U.S.+Taking+Steps+To+Become+Carbon+Neutral+by+2050+%2F+Appendix+%28Detailed+charts+and+tables%29&rft.date=2022-03-01&rft.aulast=Tyson&rft.aufirst=Alec&rft.au=Funk%2C+Cary&rft.au=Kennedy%2C+Brian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Fscience%2F2022%2F03%2F01%2Fcarbon-neutral-2050-appendix%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pew_20220831-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pew_20220831_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoushterFaganGubbala2022" class="citation web cs1">Poushter, Jacob; Fagan, Moira; Gubbala, Sneha (31 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/08/31/climate-change-remains-top-global-threat-across-19-country-survey/">"Climate Change Remains Top Global Threat Across 19-Country Survey"</a>. <i>pewresearch.org</i>. 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Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-14588-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-14588-6"><bdi>978-0-309-14588-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advancing+the+Science+of+Climate+Change&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-309-14588-6&rft.au=America%27s+Climate+Choices%3A+Panel+on+Advancing+the+Science+of+Climate+Change%3B+National+Research+Council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Frecord_id%3D12782&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USNAS-2008-ClimateChoices-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USNAS-2008-ClimateChoices_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190711224937/https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1048006.pdf">"Understanding and Responding to Climate Change"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">United States National Academy of Sciences</a>. 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb1048006.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+and+Responding+to+Climate+Change&rft.pub=United+States+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nrcs.usda.gov%2FInternet%2FFSE_DOCUMENTS%2Fstelprdb1048006.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-earthisland-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-earthisland_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+PR+plot+to+overheat+the+earth.-a020556371">"The PR Plot to Overheat the Earth"</a>. 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+PR+Plot+to+Overheat+the+Earth&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FThe%2BPR%2Bplot%2Bto%2Boverheat%2Bthe%2Bearth.-a020556371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://environment.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,,1875762,00.html?gusrc=rss&feed=1">The Denial Industry</a> The Guardian, September 19, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pacinist-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pacinist_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_H._Gleick2007" class="citation web cs1">Peter H. Gleick (8 March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pacinst.org/topics/integrity_of_science/case_studies/selective_use_climate_update.pdf">"The Political and Selective Use of Data: Cherry-Picking Climate Information in the White House"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Pacific Institute</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Institute&rft.atitle=The+Political+and+Selective+Use+of+Data%3A+Cherry-Picking+Climate+Information+in+the+White+House&rft.date=2007-03-08&rft.au=Peter+H.+Gleick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pacinst.org%2Ftopics%2Fintegrity_of_science%2Fcase_studies%2Fselective_use_climate_update.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pacinst2-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pacinst2_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pacinst.org/our-priorities/">"Our Priorities"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Our+Priorities&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpacinst.org%2Four-priorities%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ncse.com/files/pub/creationism/The_Wedge_Strategy.pdf">"Wedge Document"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Discovery Institute. 1999.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wedge+Document&rft.pub=Discovery+Institute&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fncse.com%2Ffiles%2Fpub%2Fcreationism%2FThe_Wedge_Strategy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span> – cited in Handley P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&program=CSC-News&id=2445">Evolution or design debate heats up.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110311170638/http://www.antievolution.org/features/wedge.pdf">Archived</a> 2011-03-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>The Times of Oman</i>, 7 March 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NAS-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NAS_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Academy_of_Science_Institute_of_Medicine2008" class="citation book cs1">National Academy of Science Institute of Medicine (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780309105866"><i>Science, Evolution, and Creationism</i></a>. National Academy Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-10586-6"><bdi>978-0-309-10586-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Evolution%2C+and+Creationism&rft.pub=National+Academy+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-309-10586-6&rft.au=National+Academy+of+Science+Institute+of+Medicine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780309105866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120204044657/https://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf">"AAAS Statement on the Teaching of Evolution"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a>. 16 February 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2006/pdf/0219boardstatement.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AAAS+Statement+on+the+Teaching+of+Evolution&rft.pub=American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science&rft.date=2006-02-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aaas.org%2Fnews%2Freleases%2F2006%2Fpdf%2F0219boardstatement.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"That this controversy is one largely manufactured by the proponents of creationism and intelligent design may not matter, and as long as the controversy is taught in classes on current affairs, politics, or religion, and not in science classes, neither scientists nor citizens should be concerned." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/354/21/2277">Intelligent Judging – Evolution in the Classroom and the Courtroom</a> George J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Former+Bush+surgeon+general+says+he+was+muzzled&rft.date=2007-07-10&rft.aulast=Dunham&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FpoliticsNews%2FidUSN1034212120070710&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150623162918/https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-08-05-science-politics_N.htm">"Science vs. politics gets down and dirty"</a>. USA Today. 7 August 2007. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-08-05-science-politics_N.htm">the original</a> on 23 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Science+vs.+politics+gets+down+and+dirty&rft.pub=USA+Today&rft.date=2007-08-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Ftech%2Fscience%2F2007-08-05-science-politics_N.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span> Note: archive.org backup has much better formatting than live URL</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Post29-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Post29_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/07/28/AR2007072801420.html?nav=hcmodule">Bush Aide Blocked Report</a>, Christopher Lee and Marc Kaufman, The Washington Post, July 29, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ucsfda-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ucsfda_59-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ucsfda_59-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucsusa.org/about/news">"Media Center | Union of Concerned Scientists"</a>. <i>www.ucsusa.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ucsusa.org&rft.atitle=Media+Center+%26%23124%3B+Union+of+Concerned+Scientists&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucsusa.org%2Fabout%2Fnews&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-usatoday-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-usatoday_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-usatoday_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmit2004" class="citation news cs1">Schmit, Julie (December 17, 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2004-12-16-fda-survey-usat_x.htm">"FDA scientists question safety"</a>. <i>USA Today</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 22,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=FDA+scientists+question+safety&rft.date=2004-12-17&rft.aulast=Schmit&rft.aufirst=Julie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fhealth%2F2004-12-16-fda-survey-usat_x.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ucsfda2-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ucsfda2_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160425224905/http://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/legacy/assets/documents/scientific_integrity/Scientific-Integrity-at-Risk-FDA.pdf">"Scientific Integrity at Risk: The Food and Drug Administration"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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AP. 1 May 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interior+Dept.+official+quits+ahead+of+hearing&rft.pub=AP&rft.date=2007-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2Fwbna18422404&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-csm-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-csm_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csmonitor.com/2007/1212/p03s03-uspo.html">"Study finds White House manipulation on climate science"</a>. <i>Christian Science Monitor</i>. 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August 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.house.gov/reform/min/politicsandscience/">the original</a> on 7 December 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Science%3A+Investigating+the+Bush+Administration%27s+Promotion+of+Ideology+Over+Science&rft.date=2003-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.house.gov%2Freform%2Fmin%2Fpoliticsandscience%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RUSSO_505-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RUSSO_505_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRusso_J,_Russo_I1980" class="citation journal cs1">Russo J, Russo I (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1903536">"Susceptibility of the mammary gland to carcinogenesis. 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The explanation for these epidemiological findings is not known, but the parallelism between the DMBA-induced rat mammary carcinoma model and the human situation is striking. [...] Abortion would interrupt this process, leaving in the gland undifferentiated structures like those observed in the rat mammary gland, which could render the gland again susceptible to carcinogenesis."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WHO_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071214064635/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs240/en/index.html">"Induced abortion does not increase breast cancer risk"</a>. <i>who.int (WHO)</i>. 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May 4, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AP+News&rft.atitle=Republicans+ask+why+White+House+removed+climate+scientist&rft.date=2021-05-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fpolitics-science-climate-climate-change-environment-and-nature-27e8f788b654cfc4c4967add6d136748&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoiAdragna2021" class="citation news cs1">Choi, Matthew; Adragna, Anthony (2021-05-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/newsletters/morning-energy/2021/05/04/biofuels-want-in-on-the-action-795059">"Biofuels want in on the action"</a>. <i>Politico</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Politico&rft.atitle=Biofuels+want+in+on+the+action&rft.date=2021-05-04&rft.aulast=Choi&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft.au=Adragna%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politico.com%2Fnewsletters%2Fmorning-energy%2F2021%2F05%2F04%2Fbiofuels-want-in-on-the-action-795059&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2021" class="citation news cs1">Lucas, Fred (May 14, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.foxnews.com/politics/house-gop-answers-biden-white-house-climate-official-ouster">"House GOP seeks answers on Biden White House's ouster of climate official"</a>. <i>Fox News</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fox+News&rft.atitle=House+GOP+seeks+answers+on+Biden+White+House%27s+ouster+of+climate+official&rft.date=2021-05-14&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.foxnews.com%2Fpolitics%2Fhouse-gop-answers-biden-white-house-climate-official-ouster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Handbook of Science & Technology Studies</i>, Second Edition, Sage Publications (1995)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Handbook of Science & Technology Studies</i>, Third Edition, MIT Press (2008)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shawn_Lawrence_Otto" title="Shawn Lawrence Otto">Shawn Lawrence Otto</a>, <i>Fool Me Twice: Fighting The Assault On Science In America</i>, Rodale Books, 2011, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60529-217-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60529-217-5">978-1-60529-217-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Rose" title="Steven Rose">Steven Rose</a>, "Pissing in the Snow" (review of Audra J. Wolfe, <i>Freedom's Laboratory: The Cold War Struggle for the Soul of Science</i>, Johns Hopkins, January 2019, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2673-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4214-2673-0">978-1-4214-2673-0</a>, 302 pp.), <i><a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a></i>, vol. 41, no. 14 (18 July 2019), pp. 31–33.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://integrityofscience.org/">Integrity of Science</a> initiative of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Institute" title="Pacific Institute">Pacific Institute</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2007-08-05-science-politics_N.htm">Science vs. politics gets down and dirty</a> – <i><a href="/wiki/USA_Today" title="USA Today">USA Today</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/04-10-08.html">Politicized Science: Science as Public Relations</a> <a href="/wiki/Skeptic_(U.S._magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic (U.S. magazine)"><i>Skeptic</i></a> (2004).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowen2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mark_Bowen_(writer)" title="Mark Bowen (writer)">Bowen, Mark</a> (2008). <a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen"><i>Censoring Science: Inside the Political Attack on Dr. James Hansen and the Truth of Global Warming</i></a>. New York: Dutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-525-95014-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-525-95014-1"><bdi>978-0-525-95014-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Censoring+Science%3A+Inside+the+Political+Attack+on+Dr.+James+Hansen+and+the+Truth+of+Global+Warming&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dutton&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-525-95014-1&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=Mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APoliticization+of+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Politicization of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> Portals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Category:Science and technology studies">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_associations" title="Category:Science and technology studies associations">Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_journals" title="Category:Science and technology studies journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_scholars" title="Category:Science and technology studies scholars">Scholars</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lysenkoism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lysenkoism" title="Template:Lysenkoism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lysenkoism" title="Template talk:Lysenkoism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lysenkoism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lysenkoism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lysenkoism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lysenkoism" title="Lysenkoism">Lysenkoism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lysenkoists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trofim_Lysenko" title="Trofim Lysenko">Trofim Lysenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._D._Bernal" title="J. D. Bernal">J. D. Bernal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VASKhNIL" title="VASKhNIL">VASKhNIL</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dissidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wac%C5%82aw_Gajewski" title="Wacław Gajewski">Wacław Gajewski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgii_Karpechenko" title="Georgii Karpechenko">Georgii Karpechenko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhores_Medvedev" title="Zhores Medvedev">Zhores Medvedev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgii_Nadson" title="Georgii Nadson">Georgii Nadson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Stubbe" title="Hans Stubbe">Hans Stubbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan_Jiazhen" title="Tan Jiazhen">Tan Jiazhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Vavilov" title="Nikolai Vavilov">Nikolai Vavilov</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritability" title="Heritability">Heritability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">Hybridization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance_of_acquired_characteristics" class="mw-redirect" title="Inheritance of acquired characteristics">Inheritance of acquired characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernalization" title="Vernalization">Vernalization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet policies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience" title="Bourgeois pseudoscience">Bourgeois pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivization_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Collectivization in the Soviet Union">Collectivization in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavlovian_session" title="Pavlovian session">Pavlovian session</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppressed_research_in_the_Soviet_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppressed research in the Soviet Union">Suppressed research in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Politicization of science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&oldid=1259242436">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Politicization_of_science&oldid=1259242436</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Discovery_Institute_campaigns" title="Category:Discovery Institute campaigns">Discovery Institute campaigns</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_by_issue" title="Category:Politics by issue">Politics by issue</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:George_W._Bush_administration_controversies" title="Category:George W. 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