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colonialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Socio-cultural_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socio-cultural_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Socio-cultural evolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socio-cultural_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Antiquity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Medieval </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Modern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Contemporary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Impact </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impact subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Economy,_trade_and_commerce" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy,_trade_and_commerce"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Economy, trade and commerce </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy,_trade_and_commerce-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_and_indentured_servitude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_and_indentured_servitude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Slavery and indentured servitude </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_and_indentured_servitude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_innovation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_innovation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Military innovation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_innovation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 End of empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-independence_population_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-independence_population_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Post-independence population movement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-independence_population_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Introduced_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Introduced_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Introduced diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Introduced_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Countering_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Countering_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6.1 Countering disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Countering_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Botany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Botany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Botany </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Botany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Geography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ocean_and_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ocean_and_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Ocean and space </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ocean_and_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Versus_imperialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Versus_imperialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Versus imperialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Versus_imperialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marxism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marxism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Marxism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marxism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberalism_and_capitalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberalism_and_capitalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Liberalism and capitalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberalism_and_capitalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Race_and_gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Race_and_gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Race and gender </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Race_and_gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Othering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Othering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Othering </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Othering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-colonialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-colonialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Post-colonialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-colonialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Colonistics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Migrations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 17 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 18 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 19.1 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 20 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Colonialism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 125 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-125" aria-hidden="true" > 125 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialismus" title="Kolonialismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kolonialismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="استعمارية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="استعمارية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismo" title="Colonialismo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Colonialismo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismu" title="Colonialismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Colonialismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kol%C3%B3nia_%C3%B1embopoguy" title="Kolónia ñembopoguy – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kolónia ñembopoguy" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonializm" title="Kolonializm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kolonializm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="ایستعمار – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایستعمار" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="উপনিবেশবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উপনিবেশবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%CC%8Dt-b%C3%AEn-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Si̍t-bîn-chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Si̍t-bîn-chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колониализм – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Колониализм" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Каланіялізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каланіялізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Каляніялізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Каляніялізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Колониализъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Колониализъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonijalizam" title="Kolonijalizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kolonijalizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevadennouriezh" title="Trevadennouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Trevadennouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колониализм – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Колониализм" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialisme" title="Colonialisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Colonialisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialismus" title="Kolonialismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kolonialismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ny mw-list-item"><a href="https://ny.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitsamunda" title="Chitsamunda – Nyanja" lang="ny" hreflang="ny" data-title="Chitsamunda" data-language-autonym="Chi-Chewa" data-language-local-name="Nyanja" class="interlanguage-link-target">Chi-Chewa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trefedigaethrwydd" title="Trefedigaethrwydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Trefedigaethrwydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialismus" title="Kolonialismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kolonialismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialism" title="Kolonialism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kolonialism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αποικιοκρατία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αποικιοκρατία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismo" title="Colonialismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Colonialismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koloniismo" title="Koloniismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Koloniismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialismo" title="Kolonialismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kolonialismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="استعمار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="استعمار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upniweswaad" title="Upniweswaad – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Upniweswaad" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialisme" title="Colonialisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Colonialisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coil%C3%ADneachas" title="Coilíneachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Coilíneachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismo" title="Colonialismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Colonialismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9D%EB%AF%BC%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="식민주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="식민주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Գաղութացում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գաղութացում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="उपनिवेशवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उपनिवेशवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonijalizam" title="Kolonijalizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kolonijalizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koloniismo" title="Koloniismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Koloniismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialismo" title="Kolonialismo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kolonialismo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BDlendustefna" title="Nýlendustefna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Nýlendustefna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismo" title="Colonialismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Colonialismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="קולוניאליזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קולוניאליזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колониализм – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Колониализм" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="კოლონიალიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კოლონიალიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%88%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Отаршылдық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Отаршылдық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevesigoleth" title="Trevesigoleth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Trevesigoleth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukoloni" title="Ukoloni – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ukoloni" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonyalism" title="Kolonyalism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Kolonyalism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonyal%C3%AEzm" title="Kolonyalîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kolonyalîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колониализм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Колониализм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Colonialism" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismus" title="Colonialismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Colonialismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koloni%C4%81lisms" title="Koloniālisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Koloniālisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialissem" title="Kolonialissem – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kolonialissem" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonializmas" title="Kolonializmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kolonializmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Colonialism" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyarmatos%C3%ADt%C3%A1s" title="Gyarmatosítás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gyarmatosítás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Колонијализам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Колонијализам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9A" title="കോളനിവാഴ്ച – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കോളനിവാഴ്ച" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="वसाहतवाद – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वसाहतवाद" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="კოლონიალიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კოლონიალიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="استعمار – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="استعمار" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Колоничлол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Колоничлол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6" title="उपनिवेश – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="उपनिवेश" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A4%8D%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="植民地主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="植民地主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колониализм – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Колониализм" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialisme" title="Kolonialisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kolonialisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialisme" title="Colonialisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Colonialisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustamlakachilik" title="Mustamlakachilik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mustamlakachilik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਬਸਤੀਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਸਤੀਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85" title="نو آبادیاتی نظام – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نو آبادیاتی نظام" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialismo" title="Kolonialismo – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Kolonialismo" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%9A%DA%A9%DB%90%D9%84%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="ښکېلاک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ښکېلاک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Colonialism" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialismus" title="Kolonialismus – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kolonialismus" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonializm" title="Kolonializm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kolonializm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismo" title="Colonialismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Colonialismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonializm" title="Kolonializm – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Kolonializm" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Colonialism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialissem" title="Colonialissem – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Colonialissem" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колоніалізм – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Колоніалізм" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колониализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Колониализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колониализм – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Колониализм" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismu" title="Colonialismu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Colonialismu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonioalismus" title="Kolonioalismus – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Kolonioalismus" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonializmi" title="Kolonializmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kolonializmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culunialismu" title="Culunialismu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Culunialismu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%A7%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BA" title="යටත්විජිතවාදය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යටත්විජිතවාදය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Colonialism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%BA%DA%AA%D9%8A%D8%AA" title="بيٺڪيت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="بيٺڪيت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kubusa_ngemakholonisi" title="Kubusa ngemakholonisi – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Kubusa ngemakholonisi" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target">SiSwati</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonializmus" title="Kolonializmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kolonializmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonializem" title="Kolonializem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kolonializem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gumeysi" title="Gumeysi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Gumeysi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%84%DB%86%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%B5%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="کۆلۆنیاڵیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆلۆنیاڵیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Колонијализам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Колонијализам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonijalizam" title="Kolonijalizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kolonijalizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialismi" title="Kolonialismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kolonialismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonialism" title="Kolonialism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kolonialism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonyalismo" title="Kolonyalismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kolonyalismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="குடியேற்றவியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குடியேற்றவியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колониализм – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Колониализм" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1" title="ลัทธิอาณานิคม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ลัทธิอาณานิคม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B6m%C3%BCrgecilik" title="Sömürgecilik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sömürgecilik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Колоніалізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Колоніалізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85" title="نو آبادیاتی نظام – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نو آبادیاتی نظام" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cigminzcujyi" title="Cigminzcujyi – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Cigminzcujyi" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_th%E1%BB%B1c_d%C3%A2n" title="Chủ nghĩa thực dân – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chủ nghĩa thực dân" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colnijhaedje" title="Colnijhaedje – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Colnijhaedje" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonyalismo" title="Kolonyalismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kolonyalismo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="殖民主义 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="殖民主义" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="קאלאניאליזם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאלאניאליזם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="殖民主義 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="殖民主義" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koloniyalizm" title="Koloniyalizm – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Koloniyalizm" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuoluon%C4%93l%C4%97zmos" title="Kuoluonēlėzmos – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Kuoluonēlėzmos" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="殖民主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="殖民主义" data-language-autonym="中文" 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Colonialism" title="Special:EditPage/Colonialism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Colonialism%22">"Colonialism"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Colonialism%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Colonialism%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Colonialism%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Colonialism%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Colonialism%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (April 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg/330px-De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg" decoding="async" width="330" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg/495px-De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg/660px-De_handelsloge_van_de_VOC_in_Hougly_in_Bengalen_Rijksmuseum_SK-A-4282.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5972" data-file-height="3808" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Factory_(trading_post)" title="Factory (trading post)">factory</a> <a href="/wiki/Entrep%C3%B4t" title="Entrepôt">entrepôt</a>, a basic example of colonialism illustrating its different elements, hierarchies and impact on the land and people (the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch</a> <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">V.O.C.</a> factory in <a href="/wiki/Hugli-Chuchura" title="Hugli-Chuchura">Hugli-Chuchura</a>, Bengal, in 1665)</figcaption></figure> Colonialism is the exploitation <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">of people</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">of resources</a> by a foreign group.<a href="#cite_note-Oster-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Webster-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Collins-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanford-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Colonizers monopolize political power and hold conquered societies and their people to be inferior to their conquerors in legal, administrative, social, cultural, or biological terms.<a href="#cite_note-:3-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-7">[7]</a> While frequently advanced as an <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialist</a> regime, colonialism can also take the form of <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a>, whereby colonial settlers invade and occupy territory to permanently <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">replace an existing society</a> with that of the colonizers, possibly <a href="/wiki/Colonialism_and_genocide" title="Colonialism and genocide">towards a genocide</a> of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">native populations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jacobs_2009_p.-9">[9]</a> Colonialism developed as a concept describing <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> <a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">colonial empires</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern era</a>, which spread globally from the 15th century to the mid-20th century, spanning 35% of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s land by 1800 and peaking at 84% by the beginning of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> European colonialism employed <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chartered_company" title="Chartered company">chartered companies</a>, and established <a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_power" title="Coloniality of power">coloniality</a>, which keeps the colonized socio-economically <a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">othered</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">subaltern</a> through modern <a href="/wiki/Biopolitics" title="Biopolitics">biopolitics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">sexuality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">gender</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">race</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">disability</a> and <a href="/wiki/Class_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Class politics">class</a>, among others, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">intersectional</a> violence and <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">discrimination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stoler_1995_p.-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Abay_Soldatic_d999-12">[12]</a> Colonialism has been justified with beliefs of having a <a href="/wiki/Civilizing_mission" title="Civilizing mission">civilizing mission</a> to cultivate land and life, based on beliefs of entitlement and superiority, historically often rooted in the belief of a <a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Christian mission</a>. Because of this broad impact different instances of colonialism have been identified from around the world and in history, starting with when <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> was developed by developing <a href="/wiki/Colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonies">colonies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metropole" title="Metropole">metropoles</a>, the base colonial separation and characteristic.<a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a>, which started in the 18th century, gradually led to the independence of colonies in waves, with a particular large wave of decolonizations happening in the <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_II" title="Aftermath of World War II">aftermath of World War II</a> between 1945 and 1975.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Colonialism has a <a href="/wiki/Persistence_studies" title="Persistence studies">persistent impact</a> on a wide range of modern outcomes, as scholars have shown that variations in colonial institutions can account for variations in <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>,<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">regime types</a>,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_capacity" title="State capacity">state capacity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Some academics have used the term <a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">neocolonialism</a> to describe the continuation or imposition of elements of colonial rule through indirect means in the contemporary period.<a href="#cite_note-:22-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-23">[23]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Colony#Etymology" title="Colony">Colony § Etymology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Colonization#Etymology" title="Colonization">Colonization § Etymology</a></div> Colonialism is <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymologically</a> rooted in the Latin word "<a href="/wiki/Colonus_(person)" title="Colonus (person)">Colonus</a>", which was used to describe tenant farmers in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-4">[4]</a> The coloni sharecroppers started as tenants of landlords, but as the system evolved they became permanently indebted to the landowner and trapped in servitude. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_East_offering_its_riches_to_Britannia_-_Roma_Spiridone,_1778_-_BL_Foster_245.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/The_East_offering_its_riches_to_Britannia_-_Roma_Spiridone%2C_1778_-_BL_Foster_245.jpg/220px-The_East_offering_its_riches_to_Britannia_-_Roma_Spiridone%2C_1778_-_BL_Foster_245.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/The_East_offering_its_riches_to_Britannia_-_Roma_Spiridone%2C_1778_-_BL_Foster_245.jpg/330px-The_East_offering_its_riches_to_Britannia_-_Roma_Spiridone%2C_1778_-_BL_Foster_245.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/The_East_offering_its_riches_to_Britannia_-_Roma_Spiridone%2C_1778_-_BL_Foster_245.jpg/440px-The_East_offering_its_riches_to_Britannia_-_Roma_Spiridone%2C_1778_-_BL_Foster_245.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2204" data-file-height="1632" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_East_Offering_its_Riches_to_Britannia" title="The East Offering its Riches to Britannia">The East Offering its Riches to Britannia</a>, painted by <a href="/wiki/Spiridione_Roma" title="Spiridione Roma">Spiridione Roma</a> for the boardroom of the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> </figcaption></figure> The earliest uses of colonialism referred to plantations that men emigrated to and settled.<a href="#cite_note-:1-24">[24]</a> The term expanded its meaning in the early 20th century to primarily refer to European imperial expansion and the imperial subjection of Asian and African peoples.<a href="#cite_note-:1-24">[24]</a> <a href="/wiki/Collins_English_Dictionary" title="Collins English Dictionary">Collins English Dictionary</a> defines colonialism as "the practice by which a powerful country directly controls less powerful countries and uses their resources to increase its own power and wealth".<a href="#cite_note-Collins-3">[3]</a> Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary defines colonialism as "the system or policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories".<a href="#cite_note-Webster-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a> Dictionary offers four definitions, including "something characteristic of a colony" and "control by one power over a dependent area or people".<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> uses the term "to describe the process of European settlement and political control over the rest of the world, including the Americas, Australia, and parts of Africa and Asia". It discusses the distinction between colonialism, <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conquest" title="Conquest">conquest</a> and states that "[t]he difficulty of defining colonialism stems from the fact that the term is often used as a synonym for imperialism. Both colonialism and imperialism were forms of conquest that were expected to benefit Europe economically and strategically," and continues "given the difficulty of consistently distinguishing between the two terms, this entry will use colonialism broadly to refer to the project of European political domination from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries that ended with the national liberation movements of the 1960s".<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-4">[4]</a> In his preface to <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Osterhammel" title="Jürgen Osterhammel">Jürgen Osterhammel</a>'s Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Roger Tignor says "For Osterhammel, the essence of colonialism is the existence of colonies, which are by definition governed differently from other territories such as protectorates or informal spheres of influence."<a href="#cite_note-Oster-1">[1]</a> In the book, Osterhammel asks, "How can 'colonialism' be defined independently from 'colony?'"<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> He settles on a three-sentence definition: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Colonialism is a relationship between an indigenous (or forcibly imported) majority and a minority of foreign invaders. The fundamental decisions affecting the lives of the colonised people are made and implemented by the colonial rulers in pursuit of interests that are often defined in a distant metropolis. Rejecting cultural compromises with the colonised population, the colonisers are convinced of their own superiority and their ordained mandate to rule.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> </blockquote>According to Julian Go, "Colonialism refers to the direct political control of a society and its people by a foreign ruling state... The ruling state monopolizes political power and keeps the subordinated society and its people in a legally inferior position."<a href="#cite_note-:3-6">[6]</a> He also writes, "colonialism depends first and foremost upon the declaration of sovereignty and/or territorial seizure by a core state over another territory and its inhabitants who are classified as inferior subjects rather than equal citizens."<a href="#cite_note-:4-7">[7]</a> According to David Strang, decolonization is achieved through the attainment of sovereign statehood with de jure recognition by the international community or through full incorporation into an existing sovereign state.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_colonialism">Types of colonialism</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Rijsttafel_TMnr_60053682.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Rijsttafel_TMnr_60053682.jpg/220px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Rijsttafel_TMnr_60053682.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Rijsttafel_TMnr_60053682.jpg/330px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Rijsttafel_TMnr_60053682.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Rijsttafel_TMnr_60053682.jpg/440px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Rijsttafel_TMnr_60053682.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="674" /></a><figcaption>Dutch family in <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, 1927</figcaption></figure> The Times once quipped that there were three types of colonial empire: "The English, which consists in making colonies with colonists; the German, which collects colonists without colonies; the French, which sets up colonies without colonists."<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Modern studies of colonialism have often distinguished between various overlapping categories of colonialism, broadly classified into four types: <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Exploitation colonialism">exploitation colonialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surrogate_Colonialism" title="Surrogate Colonialism">surrogate colonialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Internal_colonialism" title="Internal colonialism">internal colonialism</a>. Some historians have identified other forms of colonialism, including national and trade forms.<a href="#cite_note-Healy-2014-30">[30]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a> involves large-scale <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a> by <a href="/wiki/Settler" title="Settler">settlers</a> to colonies, often motivated by religious, political, or economic reasons. This form of colonialism aims largely to supplant prior existing populations with a settler one, and involves large number of settlers emigrating to colonies for the purpose of establishing settlements.<a href="#cite_note-Healy-2014-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>, and (<a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">controversially</a>) <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, are examples of nations created or expanded in their contemporary form by settler colonization.<a href="#cite_note-:0-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Exploitation colonialism">Exploitation colonialism</a> involves fewer colonists and focuses on the exploitation of natural resources or labour to the benefit of the <a href="/wiki/Metropole" title="Metropole">metropole</a>. This form consists of <a href="/wiki/Trading_post" title="Trading post">trading posts</a> as well as larger colonies where colonists would constitute much of the political and economic administration. The European <a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">colonization of Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">Asia</a> was largely conducted under the auspices of exploitation colonialism.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a></li> <li>Surrogate colonialism involves a settlement project supported by a colonial power, in which most of the settlers do not come from the same ethnic group as the ruling power, as it has been (controversially) argued was the case of <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Liberia" title="Colony of Liberia">Colony of Liberia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_colonialism" title="Internal colonialism">Internal colonialism</a> is a notion of uneven structural power between areas of a <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>. The source of exploitation comes from within the state. This is demonstrated in the way control and exploitation may pass from people from the colonizing country to an immigrant population within a newly independent country.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hakewill,_A_Picturesque_Tour_of_the_Island_of_Jamaica,_Plate_04.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hakewill%2C_A_Picturesque_Tour_of_the_Island_of_Jamaica%2C_Plate_04.jpg/220px-Hakewill%2C_A_Picturesque_Tour_of_the_Island_of_Jamaica%2C_Plate_04.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hakewill%2C_A_Picturesque_Tour_of_the_Island_of_Jamaica%2C_Plate_04.jpg/330px-Hakewill%2C_A_Picturesque_Tour_of_the_Island_of_Jamaica%2C_Plate_04.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Hakewill%2C_A_Picturesque_Tour_of_the_Island_of_Jamaica%2C_Plate_04.jpg/440px-Hakewill%2C_A_Picturesque_Tour_of_the_Island_of_Jamaica%2C_Plate_04.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2505" data-file-height="1663" /></a><figcaption>Harbour Street, <a href="/wiki/Kingston,_Jamaica" title="Kingston, Jamaica">Kingston, Jamaica</a>, c. 1820</figcaption></figure></li> <li>National colonialism is a process involving elements of both settler and internal colonialism, in which nation-building and colonization are symbiotically connected, with the colonial regime seeking to remake the colonized peoples into their own cultural and political image. The goal is to integrate them into the state, but only as reflections of the state's preferred culture. The <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China in Taiwan</a> is the archetypal example of a national-colonialist society.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a></li> <li>Trade colonialism involves the undertaking of colonialist ventures in support of trade opportunities for merchants. This form of colonialism was most prominent in 19th-century Asia, where previously <a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">isolationist</a> states were forced to open their ports to Western powers. Examples of this include the <a href="/wiki/Opium_Wars" title="Opium Wars">Opium Wars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bakumatsu" title="Bakumatsu">opening of Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Socio-cultural_evolution">Socio-cultural evolution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_power" title="Coloniality of power">Coloniality of power</a></div> When colonists settled in pre-populated areas, the societies and cultures of the people in those areas permanently changed. Colonial practices directly and indirectly forced the colonized peoples to abandon their traditional cultures. For example, European colonizers in the United States implemented the <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">residential schools</a> program to force native children to assimilate into the hegemonic culture. <a href="/wiki/Cultural_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural colonialism">Cultural colonialism</a> gave rise to culturally and ethnically mixed populations such as the <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizos</a> of the Americas, as well as racially divided populations such as those found in <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Southern_Rhodesia" title="Southern Rhodesia">Southern Rhodesia</a>. In fact, everywhere where colonial powers established a consistent and continued presence, hybrid communities existed. Notable examples in Asia include the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Burmese_people" title="Anglo-Burmese people">Anglo-Burmese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Indian" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Indian">Anglo-Indian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burgher_people" title="Burgher people">Burgher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Singaporean" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian Singaporean">Eurasian Singaporean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filipino_mestizo" class="mw-redirect" title="Filipino mestizo">Filipino mestizo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kristang_people" title="Kristang people">Kristang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Macanese_people" title="Macanese people">Macanese peoples</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>) the vast majority of "Dutch" settlers were in fact Eurasians known as <a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">Indo-Europeans</a>, formally belonging to the European legal class in the colony.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:American_Progress_(John_Gast_painting).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/American_Progress_%28John_Gast_painting%29.jpg/300px-American_Progress_%28John_Gast_painting%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/American_Progress_%28John_Gast_painting%29.jpg/450px-American_Progress_%28John_Gast_painting%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/American_Progress_%28John_Gast_painting%29.jpg/600px-American_Progress_%28John_Gast_painting%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4815" data-file-height="3584" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/American_Progress" title="American Progress">American Progress</a> (1872) by <a href="/wiki/John_Gast_(painter)" title="John Gast (painter)">John Gast</a> is an allegorical representation of the idea of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a>. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a>, a personification of the United States, leads settler civilization westward, bringing light, stringing <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraph</a> wire, holding a book,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> and highlighting different stages of economic activity and evolving forms of transportation,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> while on the left, displacing <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a> from their homeland</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">History of colonialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonies" title="List of colonies">List of colonies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Western_colonialism" title="Chronology of Western colonialism">Chronology of Western colonialism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity">Antiquity</h3></div> Activity that could be called colonialism has a long history, starting at least as early as the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptians</a>. <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies in antiquity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> had an enterprising maritime trading-culture that spread across the Mediterranean from 1550 BC to 300 BC; later the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persian Empire</a> and various <a href="/wiki/Greek_colonisation" title="Greek colonisation">Greek city-states</a> continued on this line of setting up colonies. The Romans would soon follow, setting up <a href="/wiki/Colonia_(Roman)" title="Colonia (Roman)">coloniae</a> throughout the Mediterranean, in North Africa, and in Western Asia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval">Medieval</h3></div> Beginning in the 7th century, <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> colonized a substantial portion of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Asia and Europe. From the 9th century <a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Vikings</a> (<a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a>) such as <a href="/wiki/Leif_Erikson" title="Leif Erikson">Leif Erikson</a> established <a href="/wiki/Viking_expansion" title="Viking expansion">colonies</a> in Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Greenland, North America, present-day Russia and Ukraine, France (Normandy) and Sicily.<a href="#cite_note-Page_Sonnenburg_2003_p._421-48">[48]</a> In the 9th century a new wave of <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> colonisation began, with competitors such as the <a href="/wiki/Stato_da_M%C3%A0r" title="Stato da Màr">Venetians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genoese_colonies" title="Genoese colonies">Genovese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfians</a> infiltrating the wealthy previously <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> or <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman">Eastern Roman</a> islands and lands. European <a href="/wiki/Crusaders" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusaders">Crusaders</a> set up colonial regimes in <a href="/wiki/Outremer" class="mw-redirect" title="Outremer">Outremer</a> (in <a href="/wiki/The_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="The Levant">the Levant</a>, 1097–1291) and in the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic littoral</a> (12th century onwards). <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> began to dominate <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> and reached its greatest nominal colonial extent at the conclusion of the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> in 1204, with the declaration of the <a href="/wiki/Partitio_terrarum_imperii_Romaniae" title="Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae">acquisition of three octaves</a> of the Byzantine Empire.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/300px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/450px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png/600px-Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1303" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Iberian Union</a> of Spain and Portugal between 1580 and 1640</figcaption></figure> The European early modern period began with the Turkish colonization of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brice:Turkish_colonization_of_Anatolia:BJRL-1955-50">[50]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Colonialism#Dubious" title="Talk:Colonialism">discuss</a>] After the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> in 1453, the sea routes discovered by Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Prince_Henry_the_Navigator" title="Prince Henry the Navigator">Prince Henry the Navigator</a> (1394–1460) became central to <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>, and helped fuel the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-51">[51]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> encountered the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in 1492 through sea travel and built <a href="/wiki/Trading_post" title="Trading post">trading posts</a> or conquered large extents of land. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> divided the areas of these "new" lands between the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> in 1494.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-51">[51]</a> The 17th century saw the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English overseas possessions</a>, which later became the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>. It also saw the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish overseas colonies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish overseas colonies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> A first wave of <a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">separatism</a> started with the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> (1775–1783), initiating the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire#Rise_of_the_"Second"_British_Empire_(1783–1815)" title="British Empire">Rise of the "Second" British Empire</a> (1783–1815).<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> largely collapsed in the Americas with the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a> (1808–1833). Empire-builders established several new colonies after this time, including in the <a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German colonial empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian colonial empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Melvin_E._Page_2003-54">[54]</a> Starting with the end of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> European authors such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a>, <a href="/wiki/August_von_Kotzebue" title="August von Kotzebue">August von Kotzebue</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_von_Kleist" title="Heinrich von Kleist">Heinrich von Kleist</a> prolifically published so as to conjure up sympathy for the oppressed native peoples and the slaves of the new world, thereby starting the idealization of native humans.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonisation_1800.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Colonisation_1800.png/300px-Colonisation_1800.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Colonisation_1800.png/450px-Colonisation_1800.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Colonisation_1800.png/600px-Colonisation_1800.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Map of colonial empires in 1800</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> existed at the same time but did not expand over oceans. Rather, these empires expanded through the conquest of neighbouring territories. There was, though, some <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">Russian colonization of North America</a> across the Bering Strait. From the 1860s onwards the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a> modelled itself on European colonial empires and expanded its territories in the Pacific and on the Asian mainland. The <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Empire of Brazil</a> fought for hegemony in South America. The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> gained overseas territories after the 1898 <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a>, hence, the coining of the term "<a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American imperialism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> In the late 19th century, many European powers became involved in the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Melvin_E._Page_2003-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Colonization_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Colonization_Map.jpg/300px-The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Colonization_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Colonization_Map.jpg/450px-The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Colonization_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Colonization_Map.jpg/600px-The_Harmsworth_atlas_and_Gazetter_1908_Colonization_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2621" data-file-height="1478" /></a><figcaption>The Harmsworth atlas and Gazetter 1908 European colonization map</figcaption></figure> The world's colonial population at the outbreak of the First World War (1914) – a high point for colonialism – totalled about 560 million people, of whom 70% lived in British possessions, 10% in French possessions, 9% in Dutch possessions, 4% in Japanese possessions, 2% in German possessions, 2% in American possessions, 3% in Portuguese possessions, 1% in Belgian possessions and 0.5% in Italian possessions. The domestic domains of the colonial powers had a total population of about 370 million people.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Outside Europe, few areas had remained without coming under formal colonial tutorship – and even <a href="/wiki/Rattanakosin_Kingdom_(1782%E2%80%931932)" title="Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)">Siam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nepal" title="Kingdom of Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Afghanistan" title="Emirate of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Persia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Abyssinia</a> had felt varying degrees of Western colonial-style influence – <a href="/wiki/Concessions_and_leases_in_international_relations" title="Concessions and leases in international relations">concessions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Unequal treaty">unequal treaties</a>, <a href="/wiki/Extraterritoriality" title="Extraterritoriality">extraterritoriality</a> and the like. Asking whether colonies paid, economic historian <a href="/wiki/Grover_Clark" title="Grover Clark">Grover Clark</a> (1891–1938) argues an emphatic "No!" He reports that in every case the support cost, especially the military system necessary to support and defend colonies, outran the total trade they produced. Apart from the British Empire, they did not provide favoured destinations for the immigration of surplus metropole populations.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The question of whether colonies paid is a complicated one when recognizing the multiplicity of interests involved. In some cases colonial powers paid a lot in military costs while private investors pocketed the benefits. In other cases the colonial powers managed to move the burden of administrative costs to the colonies themselves by imposing taxes.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG/300px-World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG" decoding="async" width="300" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG/450px-World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG/600px-World_1914_empires_colonies_territory.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1522" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Map of colonial and land-based empires throughout the world in 1914</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonialism_in_1945_updated_legend.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Colonialism_in_1945_updated_legend.png/300px-Colonialism_in_1945_updated_legend.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Colonialism_in_1945_updated_legend.png/450px-Colonialism_in_1945_updated_legend.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Colonialism_in_1945_updated_legend.png/600px-Colonialism_in_1945_updated_legend.png 2x" data-file-width="1554" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption>Imperial powers in 1945</figcaption></figure> After <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> (1914–1918), the victorious <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> divided up the German colonial empire and much of the Ottoman Empire between themselves as <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandates</a>, grouping these territories into three classes according to how quickly it was deemed that they could prepare for independence. The empires of Russia and Austria collapsed in 1917–1918,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a> started.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> set up short-lived colonial systems (<a href="/wiki/Reichskommissariat" title="Reichskommissariat">Reichskommissariate</a>, <a href="/wiki/General_Government" title="General Government">Generalgouvernement</a>) in Eastern Europe in the early 1940s. In the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> (1939–1945), <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Decolonisation">decolonisation</a> progressed rapidly. The tumultuous upheaval of the war significantly weakened the major colonial powers, and they quickly lost control of colonies such as Singapore, India, and Libya.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> In addition, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> shows support for decolonisation in its 1945 <a href="/wiki/Chapter_I_of_the_United_Nations_Charter" title="Chapter I of the United Nations Charter">charter</a>. In 1960, the UN issued the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Granting_of_Independence_to_Colonial_Countries_and_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples">Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples</a>, which affirmed its stance (though notably, colonial empires such as France, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States abstained).<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The word "<a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">neocolonialism</a>" originated from <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> in 1956,<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> to refer to a variety of contexts since the decolonisation that took place after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Generally it does not refer to a type of direct colonisation – rather to colonialism or colonial-style exploitation by other means. Specifically, neocolonialism may refer to the theory that former or existing economic relationships, such as the <a href="/wiki/General_Agreement_on_Tariffs_and_Trade" title="General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade">General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Central_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Central American Free Trade Agreement">Central American Free Trade Agreement</a>, or the operations of companies (such as <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Royal Dutch Shell</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei</a>) fostered by former colonial powers were or are used to maintain control of former colonies and dependencies after the colonial independence movements of the post–World War II period.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> The term "neocolonialism" became popular in ex-colonies in the late 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary">Contemporary</h3></div> While colonies of contiguous empires<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> have been historically excluded, they can be seen as colonies.<a href="#cite_note-Gilmartin2009-68">[68]</a> Contemporary expansion of colonies is seen by some in case of <a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Russian imperialism</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Chinese imperialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-70">[70]</a> There is also ongoing debate in academia about <a href="/wiki/Zionism_as_settler_colonialism" title="Zionism as settler colonialism">Zionism as settler colonialism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact">Impact</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonization#Colonial_actions_and_their_impacts" class="mw-redirect" title="Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization">Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization § Colonial actions and their impacts</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Satterfield_cartoon_about_brutalities_committed_by_Western_nations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Satterfield_cartoon_about_brutalities_committed_by_Western_nations.jpg/220px-Satterfield_cartoon_about_brutalities_committed_by_Western_nations.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Satterfield_cartoon_about_brutalities_committed_by_Western_nations.jpg/330px-Satterfield_cartoon_about_brutalities_committed_by_Western_nations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Satterfield_cartoon_about_brutalities_committed_by_Western_nations.jpg/440px-Satterfield_cartoon_about_brutalities_committed_by_Western_nations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1864" data-file-height="2294" /></a><figcaption>A 1904 cartoon by <a href="/wiki/Bob_Satterfield_(cartoonist)" title="Bob Satterfield (cartoonist)">Bob Satterfield</a> about the brutality committed by Western nations: the personifications of England, the United States, and Germany carrying spears topped by the severed heads of Tibet, the Philippines, and Southwest Africa respectively. The caption describes this as "The advance guard of civilization".</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB%2C_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv/220px--Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB%2C_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="109" data-mwtitle="Nieuws_uit_Indonesië,_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB,_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/56/Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB%2C_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv/Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB%2C_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB%2C_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/56/Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB%2C_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv/Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB%2C_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/56/Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB%2C_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv/Nieuws_uit_Indonesi%C3%AB%2C_het_werk_van_de_Nederlandse_dienst_voor_Volksgezondheid_Weeknummer_46-21_-_Open_Beelden_-_16742.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video><figcaption>The Dutch Public Health Service provides medical care for the natives of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>, May 1946.</figcaption></figure> The impacts of colonisation are immense and pervasive.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Various effects, both immediate and protracted, include the spread of virulent <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">unequal social relations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detribalization" title="Detribalization">detribalization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">exploitation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enslavement" class="mw-redirect" title="Enslavement">enslavement</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine#Modern_medicine" title="History of medicine">medical advances</a>, the creation of new institutions, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa#Abolition" title="Slavery in Africa">abolitionism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy,_Paul_E._2012-72">[72]</a> improved infrastructure,<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> and technological progress.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Colonial practices also spur the spread of conquerors' languages, literature and cultural institutions, while endangering or obliterating those of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous</a> peoples. The cultures of the colonised peoples can also have a powerful influence on the imperial country.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> With respect to international borders, Britain and France traced close to 40% of the entire length of the world's international boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economy,_trade_and_commerce">Economy, trade and commerce</h3></div> Economic expansion, sometimes described as the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_surplus" title="Colonial surplus">colonial surplus</a>, has accompanied imperial expansion since ancient times.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Greek trade networks spread throughout the Mediterranean region while Roman trade expanded with the primary goal of directing tribute from the colonised areas towards the Roman metropole. According to <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a>, by the time of emperor <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, up to 120 Roman ships would set sail every year from <a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a> to India.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> With the development of trade routes under the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><a href="/wiki/Gujari" class="mw-redirect" title="Gujari">Gujari</a> Hindus, Syrian Muslims, Jews, Armenians, Christians from south and central Europe operated trading routes that supplied Persian and Arab horses to the armies of all three empires, Mocha coffee to <a href="/wiki/Delhi" title="Delhi">Delhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Belgrade" title="Belgrade">Belgrade</a>, Persian silk to India and <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> </blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png/330px-16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png/495px-16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png/660px-16th_century_Portuguese_Spanish_trade_routes.png 2x" data-file-width="2835" data-file-height="1188" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese discoveries">Portuguese trade routes</a> (blue) and the rival <a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila-Acapulco galleons</a> trade routes (white) established in 1568</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec civilisation">Aztec civilisation</a> developed into an extensive empire that, much like the Roman Empire, had the goal of exacting tribute from the conquered colonial areas. For the Aztecs, a significant tribute was the acquisition of sacrificial victims for their religious rituals.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> On the other hand, European colonial empires sometimes attempted to channel, restrict and impede trade involving their colonies, funneling activity through the metropole and taxing accordingly. Despite the general trend of economic expansion, the economic performance of former European colonies varies significantly. In "Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-run Growth", economists <a href="/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu" title="Daron Acemoglu">Daron Acemoglu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Johnson_(economist)" title="Simon Johnson (economist)">Simon Johnson</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_A._Robinson_(Harvard_University)" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Robinson (Harvard University)">James A. Robinson</a> compare the economic influences of the European colonists on different colonies and study what could explain the huge discrepancies in previous European colonies, for example, between West African colonies like <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Institutions-80">[80]</a> According to the paper, economic institutions are the determinant of the colonial success because they determine their financial performance and order for the distribution of resources. At the same time, these institutions are also consequences of political institutions – especially how <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> and <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> political power is allocated. To explain the different colonial cases, we thus need to look first into the political institutions that shaped the economic institutions.<a href="#cite_note-Institutions-80">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Castro,_Lorenzo_-_A_Dutch_East-Indiaman_off_Hoorn_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/A_Castro%2C_Lorenzo_-_A_Dutch_East-Indiaman_off_Hoorn_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-A_Castro%2C_Lorenzo_-_A_Dutch_East-Indiaman_off_Hoorn_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/A_Castro%2C_Lorenzo_-_A_Dutch_East-Indiaman_off_Hoorn_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-A_Castro%2C_Lorenzo_-_A_Dutch_East-Indiaman_off_Hoorn_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/A_Castro%2C_Lorenzo_-_A_Dutch_East-Indiaman_off_Hoorn_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/440px-A_Castro%2C_Lorenzo_-_A_Dutch_East-Indiaman_off_Hoorn_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2501" data-file-height="2098" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a> was the first-ever <a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">multinational corporation</a>, financed by shares that established the <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam_Stock_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Amsterdam Stock Exchange">first modern stock exchange</a>.</figcaption></figure> For example, one interesting observation is "the Reversal of Fortune" – the less developed civilisations in 1500, like North America, Australia, and New Zealand, are now much richer than those countries who used to be in the prosperous civilisations in 1500 before the colonists came, like the Mughals in India and the Incas in the Americas. One explanation offered by the paper focuses on the political institutions of the various colonies: it was less likely for European colonists to introduce economic institutions where they could benefit quickly from the extraction of resources in the area. Therefore, given a more developed civilisation and denser population, European colonists would rather keep the existing economic systems than introduce an entirely new system; while in places with little to extract, European colonists would rather establish new economic institutions to protect their interests. Political institutions thus gave rise to different types of economic systems, which determined the colonial economic performance.<a href="#cite_note-Institutions-80">[80]</a> European colonisation and development also changed gendered systems of power already in place around the world. In many pre-colonialist areas, women maintained power, prestige, or authority through reproductive or agricultural control. For example, in certain parts of sub-Saharan Africa[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_(geographic_names)" title="Wikipedia:Naming conventions (geographic names)">where?</a>] women maintained farmland in which they had usage rights. While men would make political and communal decisions for a community, the women would control the village's food supply or their individual family's land. This allowed women to achieve power and autonomy, even in patrilineal and patriarchal societies.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> Through the rise of European colonialism came a large push for development and industrialisation of most economic systems. When working to improve productivity, Europeans focused mostly on male workers. Foreign aid arrived in the form of loans, land, credit, and tools to speed up development, but were only allocated to men. In a more European fashion, women were expected to serve on a more domestic level. The result was a technologic, economic, and class-based gender gap that widened over time.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Within a colony, the presence of extractive colonial institutions in a given area has been found have effects on the modern day economic development, institutions and infrastructure of these areas.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_and_indentured_servitude">Slavery and indentured servitude</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servant">Indentured servant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></div> European nations entered their imperial projects with the goal of enriching the European metropoles. Exploitation of non-Europeans and of other Europeans to support imperial goals was acceptable to the colonisers. Two outgrowths of this imperial agenda were the extension of slavery and indentured servitude. In the 17th century, nearly two-thirds of English settlers came to North America as indentured servants.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> European slave traders brought large numbers of African slaves to the Americas by sail. Spain and Portugal had <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">brought African slaves</a> to work in African colonies such as <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde" title="Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a> and <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a>, and then in Latin America, by the 16th century. The British, French and Dutch joined in the slave trade in subsequent centuries. The European colonial system took approximately 11 million Africans to the Caribbean and to North and South America as slaves.<a href="#cite_note-King_2010_24-86">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg/170px-Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg/255px-Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg/340px-Marchands_d%27esclaves_de_Gor%C3%A9e-Jacques_Grasset_de_Saint-Sauveur_mg_8526.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2531" data-file-height="3585" /></a><figcaption>Slave traders in Gorée, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, 18th century</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>European empire</th> <th>Colonial destination</th> <th>Number of slaves imported between 1450 and 1870<a href="#cite_note-King_2010_24-86">[86]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Portuguese Empire</td> <td>Brazil</td> <td>3,646,800 </td></tr> <tr> <td>British Empire</td> <td>British Caribbean</td> <td>1,665,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>French Empire</td> <td>French Caribbean</td> <td>1,600,200 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Spanish Empire</td> <td>Latin America</td> <td>1,552,100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dutch Empire</td> <td>Dutch Caribbean</td> <td>500,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>British Empire</td> <td>British North America</td> <td>399,000 </td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionists</a> in Europe and Americas protested the inhumane treatment of African slaves, which led to the elimination of the slave trade (and later, of most forms of slavery) by the late 19th century. One (disputed) school of thought points to the role of abolitionism in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>: while the British colonial metropole started to move towards outlawing slavery, slave-owning elites in the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> saw this as one of the reasons to fight for their post-colonial independence and for the right to develop and continue a largely slave-based economy.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> British colonising activity in <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> from the early 19th century played a part in ending slave-taking and slave-keeping among the indigenous <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> On the other hand, British colonial <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1815%E2%80%931910)" title="History of South Africa (1815–1910)">administration in Southern Africa</a>, when it officially abolished slavery in the 1830s, caused rifts in society which arguably perpetuated slavery in the <a href="/wiki/Boer_Republics" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer Republics">Boer Republics</a> and fed into the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_working_on_a_plantation_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_(1823),_plate_III_-_BL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Slaves_working_on_a_plantation_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_III_-_BL.jpg/220px-Slaves_working_on_a_plantation_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_III_-_BL.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Slaves_working_on_a_plantation_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_III_-_BL.jpg/330px-Slaves_working_on_a_plantation_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_III_-_BL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Slaves_working_on_a_plantation_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_III_-_BL.jpg/440px-Slaves_working_on_a_plantation_-_Ten_Views_in_the_Island_of_Antigua_%281823%29%2C_plate_III_-_BL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1994" data-file-height="1392" /></a><figcaption>Planting the sugar cane, <a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a>, 1823</figcaption></figure> The labour shortages that resulted from abolition inspired European colonisers in Queensland, British Guaiana and Fiji (for example) to develop new sources of labour, re-adopting a system of indentured servitude. <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servant">Indentured servants</a> consented to a contract with the European colonisers. Under their contract, the servant would work for an employer for a term of at least a year, while the employer agreed to pay for the servant's voyage to the colony, possibly pay for the return to the country of origin, and pay the employee a wage as well. The employees became "indentured" to the employer because they owed a debt back to the employer for their travel expense to the colony, which they were expected to pay through their wages. In practice, indentured servants were exploited through terrible working conditions and burdensome debts imposed by the employers, with whom the servants had no means of negotiating the debt once they arrived in the colony. India and China were the largest source of indentured servants during the colonial era. Indentured servants from India travelled to British colonies in Asia, Africa and the Caribbean, and also to French and Portuguese colonies, while Chinese servants travelled to British and Dutch colonies. Between 1830 and 1930, around 30 million indentured servants migrated from India, and 24 million returned to India. China sent more indentured servants to European colonies, and around the same proportion returned to China.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Following the <a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a>, an early but secondary focus for most colonial regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. By the end of the colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery persists in Africa and in the world at large with much the same practices of de facto servility despite legislative prohibition.<a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy,_Paul_E._2012-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_innovation">Military innovation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aschanti_Gefecht_11_july_1824_300dpi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Aschanti_Gefecht_11_july_1824_300dpi.jpg/250px-Aschanti_Gefecht_11_july_1824_300dpi.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Aschanti_Gefecht_11_july_1824_300dpi.jpg/375px-Aschanti_Gefecht_11_july_1824_300dpi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Aschanti_Gefecht_11_july_1824_300dpi.jpg/500px-Aschanti_Gefecht_11_july_1824_300dpi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2781" data-file-height="1360" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/First_Anglo-Ashanti_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Anglo-Ashanti War">First Anglo-Ashanti War</a>, 1823–1831</figcaption></figure> Conquering forces have throughout history applied innovation in order to gain an advantage over the armies of the people they aim to conquer. Greeks developed the <a href="/wiki/Phalanx" title="Phalanx">phalanx</a> system, which enabled their military units to present themselves to their enemies as a wall, with foot soldiers using shields to cover one another during their advance on the battlefield. Under <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>, they were able to organise thousands of soldiers into a formidable battle force, bringing together carefully trained infantry and cavalry regiments.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> exploited this military foundation further during his conquests. The Spanish Empire held a major advantage over <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoamerican">Mesoamerican</a> warriors through the use of weapons made of stronger metal, predominantly iron, which was able to shatter the blades of axes used by the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec civilisation">Aztec civilisation</a> and others. The use of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> weapons cemented the European military advantage over the peoples they sought to subjugate in the Americas and elsewhere. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_empire">End of empire</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Colonialism" title="Special:EditPage/Colonialism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (April 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lord_Pethic-Lawrence_and_Mahatma_Gandhi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lord_Pethic-Lawrence_and_Mahatma_Gandhi.jpg/220px-Lord_Pethic-Lawrence_and_Mahatma_Gandhi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lord_Pethic-Lawrence_and_Mahatma_Gandhi.jpg/330px-Lord_Pethic-Lawrence_and_Mahatma_Gandhi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Lord_Pethic-Lawrence_and_Mahatma_Gandhi.jpg/440px-Lord_Pethic-Lawrence_and_Mahatma_Gandhi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2869" data-file-height="2420" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi">Gandhi</a> with <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Pethick-Lawrence,_1st_Baron_Pethick-Lawrence" title="Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence">Lord Pethwick-Lawrence</a>, British Secretary of State for India, after a meeting on 18 April 1946</figcaption></figure> The populations of some colonial territories, such as Canada, enjoyed relative peace and prosperity as part of a European power, at least among the majority. Minority populations such as <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> peoples and French-Canadians experienced <a href="/wiki/Marginalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginalisation">marginalisation</a> and resented colonial practices. Francophone residents of <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, for example, were vocal in opposing conscription into the armed services to fight on behalf of Britain during World War I, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Conscription_crisis_of_1917" class="mw-redirect" title="Conscription crisis of 1917">Conscription crisis of 1917</a>. Other European colonies had much more pronounced conflict between European settlers and the local population. Rebellions broke out in the later decades of the imperial era, such as India's <a href="/wiki/Sepoy_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Sepoy Rebellion">Sepoy Rebellion of 1857</a>. The territorial boundaries imposed by European colonisers, notably in central Africa and South Asia, defied the existing boundaries of native populations that had previously interacted little with one another. European colonisers disregarded native political and cultural animosities, imposing peace upon people under their military control. Native populations were often relocated at the will of the colonial administrators. The <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Partition of British India">Partition of British India</a> in August 1947 led to the <a href="/wiki/Indian_independence_movement" title="Indian independence movement">Independence of India</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pakistan_Movement" title="Pakistan Movement">creation of Pakistan</a>. These events also caused much bloodshed at the time of the migration of immigrants from the two countries. Muslims from India and Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan migrated to the respective countries they sought independence for. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-independence_population_movement">Post-independence population movement</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Notting_Hill_Carnival_2002_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Notting_Hill_Carnival_2002_large.jpg/220px-Notting_Hill_Carnival_2002_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Notting_Hill_Carnival_2002_large.jpg/330px-Notting_Hill_Carnival_2002_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Notting_Hill_Carnival_2002_large.jpg/440px-Notting_Hill_Carnival_2002_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>The annual <a href="/wiki/Notting_Hill_Carnival" title="Notting Hill Carnival">Notting Hill Carnival</a> in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> is a celebration led by the <a href="/wiki/Trinidadian_and_Tobagonian_British" title="Trinidadian and Tobagonian British">Trinidadian and Tobagonian British</a> community.</figcaption></figure> In a reversal of the migration patterns experienced during the modern colonial era, post-independence era migration followed a route back towards the imperial country. In some cases, this was a movement of settlers of European origin returning to the land of their birth, or to an ancestral birthplace. 900,000 French colonists (known as the <a href="/wiki/Pied-Noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied-Noir">Pied-Noirs</a>) resettled in France following Algeria's independence in 1962. A significant number of these migrants were also of Algerian descent. 800,000 people of <a href="/wiki/Processo_Revolucion%C3%A1rio_Em_Curso#The_retornados" class="mw-redirect" title="Processo Revolucionário Em Curso">Portuguese</a> origin migrated to Portugal after the independence of former colonies in Africa between 1974 and 1979; 300,000 settlers of Dutch origin migrated to the Netherlands from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch West Indies">Dutch West Indies</a> after Dutch military control of the colony ended.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> After WWII 300,000 Dutchmen from the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_Indies" title="Dutch East Indies">Dutch East Indies</a>, of which the majority were people of Eurasian descent called <a href="/wiki/Indo_people" title="Indo people">Indo Europeans</a>, repatriated to the Netherlands. A significant number later migrated to the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Global travel and migration in general developed at an increasingly brisk pace throughout the era of European colonial expansion. Citizens of the former colonies of European countries may have a privileged status in some respects with regard to immigration rights when settling in the former European imperial nation. For example, rights to dual citizenship may be generous,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> or larger immigrant quotas may be extended to former colonies.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In some cases, the former European imperial nations continue to foster close political and economic ties with former colonies. The <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a> is an organisation that promotes cooperation between and among Britain and its former colonies, the Commonwealth members. A similar organisation exists for former colonies of France, the <a href="/wiki/Francophonie" title="Francophonie">Francophonie</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Community_of_Portuguese_Language_Countries" title="Community of Portuguese Language Countries">Community of Portuguese Language Countries</a> plays a similar role for former Portuguese colonies, and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Language_Union" title="Dutch Language Union">Dutch Language Union</a> is the equivalent for former colonies of the Netherlands.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Migration from former colonies has proven to be problematic for European countries, where the majority population may express hostility to ethnic minorities who have immigrated from former colonies. Cultural and religious conflict have often erupted in France in recent decades, between immigrants from the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> countries of north Africa and the majority population of France. Nonetheless, immigration has changed the ethnic composition of France; by the 1980s, 25% of the total population of "inner Paris" and 14% of the metropolitan region were of foreign origin, mainly Algerian.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introduced_diseases">Introduced diseases</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Globalisation_and_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Globalisation and disease">Globalisation and disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exchange">Columbian Exchange</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Impact_and_evaluation_of_colonialism_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization">Impact and evaluation of colonialism and colonization</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Florentinoviruela.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Florentinoviruela.JPG/220px-Florentinoviruela.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Florentinoviruela.JPG/330px-Florentinoviruela.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Florentinoviruela.JPG/440px-Florentinoviruela.JPG 2x" data-file-width="613" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption>Aztecs dying of smallpox, (<a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a>, 1540–1585)</figcaption></figure> Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Half the native population of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> alone, including the emperor, and <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors. <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">Measles</a> killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 17th century. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay" title="Massachusetts Bay">Massachusetts Bay</a> Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and <a href="/wiki/1837-38_smallpox_epidemic" class="mw-redirect" title="1837-38 smallpox epidemic">1837–1838</a> brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the <a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Some believe[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">who?</a>] that the death of up to 95% of the <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native American population</a> of the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> was caused by <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> diseases.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">immunity</a> to these diseases, while the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a> had no time to build such immunity.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Smallpox decimated the native population of <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, killing around 50% of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">indigenous Australians</a> in the early years of British colonisation.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> It also killed many <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaiians</a> are estimated to have died of <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Whooping_cough" title="Whooping cough">whooping cough</a> and <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In 1875, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> killed over 40,000 <a href="/wiki/Fiji" title="Fiji">Fijians</a>, approximately one-third of the population.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ainu_people" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a> population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into <a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Conversely, researchers have hypothesised that a precursor to <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a> may have been carried from the New World to Europe after <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Columbus</a>'s voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today; syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_cholera_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="First cholera pandemic">first cholera pandemic</a> began in <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>, then spread across India by 1820. Ten thousand British troops and countless Indians died during this <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Between 1736 and 1834 only some 10% of <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>'s officers survived to take the final voyage home.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Waldemar_Haffkine" title="Waldemar Haffkine">Waldemar Haffkine</a>, who mainly worked in India, who developed and used <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a> against <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">bubonic plague</a> in the 1890s, is considered the first <a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">microbiologist</a>. According to a 2021 study by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_Baten" title="Jörg Baten">Jörg Baten</a> and Laura Maravall on the <a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">anthropometric</a> influence of colonialism on Africans, the <a href="/wiki/Human_height" title="Human height">average height</a> of Africans decreased by 1.1 centimetres upon colonization and later recovered and increased overall during colonial rule. The authors attributed the decrease to diseases, such as <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">sleeping sickness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">forced labor</a> during the early decades of colonial rule, conflicts, <a href="/wiki/Land_grabbing" title="Land grabbing">land grabbing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1890s_African_rinderpest_epizootic" title="1890s African rinderpest epizootic">widespread cattle deaths</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Rinderpest" title="Rinderpest">rinderpest</a> viral disease.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Countering_disease">Countering disease</h4></div> As early as 1803, the <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Spanish</a> Crown organised a mission (the <a href="/wiki/Balmis_expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Balmis expedition">Balmis expedition</a>) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish colonies</a>, and establish mass vaccination programs there.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine" title="Smallpox vaccine">smallpox vaccination</a> program for Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> Under the direction of <a href="/wiki/Mountstuart_Elphinstone" title="Mountstuart Elphinstone">Mountstuart Elphinstone</a> a program was launched to propagate <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccination" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox vaccination">smallpox vaccination</a> in India.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> The <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">sleeping sickness</a> epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">human history</a> due to lessening of the <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">mortality rate</a> in many countries due to <a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine#Modern_medicine" title="History of medicine">medical advances</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">world population</a> has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to over seven billion today.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Botany">Botany</h2></div> Colonial botany refers to the body of works concerning the study, cultivation, marketing and naming of the new plants that were acquired or traded during the age of European colonialism. Notable examples of these plants included sugar, <a href="/wiki/Nutmeg" title="Nutmeg">nutmeg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">tobacco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cloves" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloves">cloves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_bark" class="mw-redirect" title="Peruvian bark">Peruvian bark</a>, peppers, <a href="/wiki/Sassafras_albidum" title="Sassafras albidum">Sassafras albidum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tea" title="Tea">tea</a>. This work was a large part of securing financing for colonial ambitions, supporting European expansion and ensuring the profitability of such endeavors. <a href="/wiki/Vasco_de_Gama" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasco de Gama">Vasco de Gama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> were seeking to establish routes to trade spices, dyes and silk from the <a href="/wiki/Moluccas" class="mw-redirect" title="Moluccas">Moluccas</a>, India and China by sea that would be independent of the established routes controlled by Venetian and Middle Eastern merchants. Naturalists like <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_van_Rheede" title="Hendrik van Rheede">Hendrik van Rheede</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Eberhard_Rumphius" title="Georg Eberhard Rumphius">Georg Eberhard Rumphius</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jacobus_Bontius" title="Jacobus Bontius">Jacobus Bontius</a> compiled data about eastern plants on behalf of the Europeans. Though <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> did not possess an extensive colonial network, botanical research based on <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> identified and developed techniques to grow cinnamon, tea and rice locally as an alternative to costly imports.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonies" title="List of colonies">List of colonies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-99-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-99-01.jpg/220px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-99-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-99-01.jpg/330px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-99-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-99-01.jpg/440px-The_National_Archives_UK_-_CO_1069-99-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/British_Togoland" title="British Togoland">British Togoland</a> in 1953</figcaption></figure> Settlers acted as the link between indigenous populations and the imperial hegemony, thus bridging the geographical, ideological and commercial gap between the colonisers and colonised. While the extent in which geography as an academic study is implicated in colonialism is contentious, geographical tools such as <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">shipbuilding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a>, mining and agricultural productivity were instrumental in European colonial expansion. Colonisers' awareness of the Earth's surface and abundance of practical skills provided colonisers with a knowledge that, in turn, created power.<a href="#cite_note-Painter-124">[124]</a> Anne Godlewska and Neil Smith argue that "empire was 'quintessentially a geographical project'".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-Nayak-125">[125]</a> Historical geographical theories such as <a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">environmental determinism</a> legitimised colonialism by positing the view that some parts of the world were underdeveloped, which created notions of skewed evolution.<a href="#cite_note-Painter-124">[124]</a> Geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Ellen_Churchill_Semple" title="Ellen Churchill Semple">Ellen Churchill Semple</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ellsworth_Huntington" title="Ellsworth Huntington">Ellsworth Huntington</a> put forward the notion that northern climates bred vigour and intelligence as opposed to those indigenous to tropical climates (See <a href="/wiki/The_Tropics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Tropics">The Tropics</a>) viz a viz a combination of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">environmental determinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a> in their approach.<a href="#cite_note-arnold-126">[126]</a> Political geographers also maintain that colonial behaviour was reinforced by the physical mapping of the world, therefore creating a visual separation between "them" and "us". Geographers are primarily focused on the spaces of colonialism and imperialism; more specifically, the material and symbolic appropriation of space enabling colonialism.<a href="#cite_note-Gallaher-127">[127]</a>: 5  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png/330px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png/495px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png/660px-Scramble-for-Africa-1880-1913-v2.png 2x" data-file-width="2280" data-file-height="1130" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of Africa in the years 1880 and 1913</figcaption></figure> Maps played an extensive role in colonialism, as Bassett would put it "by providing geographical information in a convenient and standardised format, cartographers helped open West Africa to European conquest, commerce, and colonisation".<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Because the relationship between colonialism and geography was not scientifically objective, cartography was often manipulated during the colonial era. Social norms and values had an effect on the constructing of maps. During colonialism map-makers used rhetoric in their formation of boundaries and in their art. The rhetoric favoured the view of the conquering Europeans; this is evident in the fact that any map created by a non-European was instantly regarded as inaccurate. Furthermore, European cartographers were required to follow a set of rules which led to ethnocentrism; portraying one's own ethnicity in the centre of the map. As <a href="/wiki/J.B._Harley" class="mw-redirect" title="J.B. Harley">J.B. Harley</a> put it, "The steps in making a map – selection, omission, simplification, classification, the creation of hierarchies, and 'symbolisation' – are all inherently rhetorical."<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> A common practice by the European cartographers of the time was to map unexplored areas as "blank spaces". This influenced the colonial powers as it sparked competition amongst them to explore and colonise these regions. Imperialists aggressively and passionately looked forward to filling these spaces for the glory of their respective countries.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> The Dictionary of Human Geography notes that cartography was used to empty 'undiscovered' lands of their Indigenous meaning and bring them into spatial existence via the imposition of "Western place-names and borders, [therefore] priming 'virgin' (putatively empty land, 'wilderness') for colonisation (thus sexualising colonial landscapes as domains of male penetration), reconfiguring alien space as absolute, quantifiable and separable (as property)."<a href="#cite_note-human_geo-131">[131]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arthur_Mees_Flags_of_A_Free_Empire_1910_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1167_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Arthur_Mees_Flags_of_A_Free_Empire_1910_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1167_01.jpg/220px-Arthur_Mees_Flags_of_A_Free_Empire_1910_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1167_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Arthur_Mees_Flags_of_A_Free_Empire_1910_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1167_01.jpg/330px-Arthur_Mees_Flags_of_A_Free_Empire_1910_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1167_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Arthur_Mees_Flags_of_A_Free_Empire_1910_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1167_01.jpg/440px-Arthur_Mees_Flags_of_A_Free_Empire_1910_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1167_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1815" data-file-height="1432" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> (as of 1910). At its height, it was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest empire</a> in history.</figcaption></figure> David Livingstone stresses "that geography has meant different things at different times and in different places" and that we should keep an open mind in regards to the relationship between geography and colonialism instead of identifying boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-Nayak-125">[125]</a> Geography as a discipline was not and is not an objective science, Painter and Jeffrey argue, rather it is based on assumptions about the physical world.<a href="#cite_note-Painter-124">[124]</a> Comparison of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/exogeography" class="extiw" title="wikt:exogeography">exogeographical</a> representations of ostensibly tropical environments in science fiction art support this conjecture, finding the notion of the tropics to be an artificial collection of ideas and beliefs that are independent of geography.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ocean_and_space">Ocean and space</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ocean_colonization" title="Ocean colonization">Ocean colonization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></div> With contemporary advances in <a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">deep sea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a> technologies, colonization of the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seabed</a> and the Moon have become an object of non-terrestrial colonialism.<a href="#cite_note-Greenpeace_Aotearoa_2018_m713-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-RNZ_2023_g366-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-Smiles_2024_f731-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-Greaves_2023_pp._101–C3P68-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Versus_imperialism">Versus imperialism</h2></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">These paragraphs are an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Imperialism#Versus_colonialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism § Versus colonialism</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Imperialism&action=edit#Versus_colonialism">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> The term "imperialism" is often conflated with "colonialism"; however, many scholars have argued that each has its own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe one's influence upon a person or group of people. <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._C._Young" title="Robert J. C. Young">Robert Young</a> writes that imperialism operates from the centre as a state policy and is developed for ideological as well as financial reasons, while colonialism is simply the development for settlement or commercial intentions; however, colonialism still includes invasion.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Particularly, Edward Said distinguishes between imperialism and colonialism by stating: "imperialism involved 'the practice, the theory and the attitudes of a dominating metropolitan center ruling a distant territory', while colonialism refers to the 'implanting of settlements on a distant territory.'<a href="#cite_note-Imperialism_Gilmartin2009-138">[138]</a> Contiguous land empires such as the Russian, Chinese or Ottoman have traditionally been excluded from discussions of colonialism, though this is beginning to change, since it is accepted that they also sent populations into the territories they ruled.<a href="#cite_note-Imperialism_Gilmartin2009-138">[138]</a>: 116  Imperialism and colonialism both dictate the political and economic advantage over a land and the indigenous populations they control, yet scholars sometimes find it difficult to illustrate the difference between the two.<a href="#cite_note-Imperialism_Painter_&_Jeffrey-139">[139]</a>: 107  Although imperialism and colonialism focus on the suppression of another, if colonialism refers to the process of a country taking physical control of another, imperialism refers to the political and monetary dominance, either formally or informally. Colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area and then eventually is able to rule over the areas the previous nation had controlled. Colonialism's core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war.<a href="#cite_note-Imperialism_Painter_&_Jeffrey-139">[139]</a>: 170–75  The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the other state's lands and therefore increasing its own dominance. Colonialism is the builder and preserver of the colonial possessions in an area by a population coming from a foreign region.<a href="#cite_note-Imperialism_Painter_&_Jeffrey-139">[139]</a>: 173–76  Colonialism can completely change the existing social structure, physical structure, and economics of an area; it is not unusual that the characteristics of the conquering peoples are inherited by the conquered indigenous populations.<a href="#cite_note-Imperialism_Painter_&_Jeffrey-139">[139]</a>: 41  Few colonies remain remote from their mother country. Thus, most will eventually establish a separate nationality or remain under complete control of their mother colony.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> The Soviet leader <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a> suggested that "imperialism was the highest form of capitalism", claiming that "imperialism developed after colonialism, and was distinguished from colonialism by monopoly capitalism".<a href="#cite_note-Imperialism_Gilmartin2009-138">[138]</a>: 116 </div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marxism">Marxism</h2></div> Marxism views colonialism as a form of capitalism, enforcing exploitation and social change. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> thought that working within the global capitalist system, colonialism is closely associated with uneven development. It is an "instrument of wholesale destruction, dependency and systematic exploitation producing distorted economies, socio-psychological disorientation, massive poverty and neocolonial dependency".<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Colonies are constructed into modes of production. The search for raw materials and the current search for new investment opportunities is a result[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>] of inter-capitalist rivalry for <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a> regarded colonialism as the root cause of imperialism, as imperialism was distinguished by monopoly capitalism via colonialism and as <a href="/wiki/Lyal_S._Sunga" title="Lyal S. Sunga">Lyal S. Sunga</a> explains: "Vladimir Lenin advocated forcefully the principle of <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> of peoples in his "Theses on the Socialist Revolution and the Right of Nations to Self-Determination" as an integral plank in the programme of socialist internationalism" and he quotes Lenin who contended that "The right of nations to self-determination implies exclusively the right to independence in the political sense, the right to free political separation from the oppressor nation. Specifically, this demand for political democracy implies complete freedom to agitate for secession and for a referendum on secession by the seceding nation."<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Non-Russian Marxists within the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">RSFSR</a> and later the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">USSR</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Mirsaid_Sultan-Galiev" title="Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev">Sultan Galiev</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasyl%27_Shakhrai" title="Vasyl' Shakhrai">Vasyl Shakhrai</a>, meanwhile, between 1918 and 1923 and then after 1929, considered the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet regime</a> a renewed version of <a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Russian imperialism and colonialism</a>. In his critique of colonialism in Africa, the Guyanese historian and political activist <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a> states:<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><blockquote>The decisiveness of the short period of colonialism and its negative consequences for Africa spring mainly from the fact that Africa lost power. Power is the ultimate determinant in human society, being basic to the relations within any group and between groups. It implies the ability to defend one's interests and if necessary to impose one's will by any means available ... When one society finds itself forced to relinquish power entirely to another society that in itself is a form of <a href="/wiki/Underdevelopment" title="Underdevelopment">underdevelopment</a> ... During the centuries of pre-colonial trade, some control over social political and economic life was retained in Africa, in spite of the disadvantageous commerce with Europeans. That little control over internal matters disappeared under colonialism. Colonialism went much further than trade. It meant a tendency towards direct appropriation by Europeans of the social institutions within Africa. Africans ceased to set indigenous cultural goals and standards, and lost full command of training young members of the society. Those were undoubtedly major steps backwards ... Colonialism was not merely a system of exploitation, but one whose essential purpose was to repatriate the profits to the so-called 'mother country'. From an African view-point, that amounted to consistent expatriation of surplus produced by African labour out of African resources. It meant the development of Europe as part of the same dialectical process in which Africa was underdeveloped. Colonial Africa fell within that part of the international capitalist economy from which surplus was drawn to feed the metropolitan sector. As seen earlier, exploitation of land and labour is essential for human social advance, but only on the assumption that the product is made available within the area where the exploitation takes place.</blockquote>According to Lenin, the new imperialism emphasised the transition of capitalism from <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> to a stage of <a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">monopoly</a> <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> to finance <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>. He states it is, "connected with the intensification of the struggle for the partition of the world". As <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> thrives on <a href="/wiki/Exports" class="mw-redirect" title="Exports">exports</a> of commodities[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>], monopoly capitalism thrived on the export of capital amassed by profits from banks and industry. This, to Lenin, was the highest stage of capitalism. He goes on to state that this form of capitalism was doomed for war between the capitalists and the exploited nations with the former inevitably losing. War is stated to be the consequence of imperialism. As a continuation of this thought, G.N. Uzoigwe states, "But it is now clear from more serious investigations of African history in this period that imperialism was essentially economic in its fundamental impulses."<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Liberalism_and_capitalism">Liberalism and capitalism</h2></div> <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberals" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical liberals">Classical liberals</a> were generally in abstract opposition to colonialism and imperialism, including <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Frédéric Bastiat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Cobden" title="Richard Cobden">Richard Cobden</a>, John Bright, Henry Richard, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, H.R. Fox Bourne, Edward Morel, Josephine Butler, W.J. Fox and <a href="/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone" title="William Ewart Gladstone">William Ewart Gladstone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dk-146">[146]</a> Their philosophies found the <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">colonial enterprise</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>, in opposition to the principles of <a href="/wiki/Free_trade" title="Free trade">free trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">liberal policies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> wrote in <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a> that Britain should grant independence to all of its colonies and also argued that it would be economically beneficial for British people in the average, although the merchants having mercantilist privileges would lose out.<a href="#cite_note-dk-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Race_and_gender">Race and gender</h2></div> During the colonial era, the global process of colonisation served to spread and synthesize the social and political belief systems of the "mother-countries" which often included a belief in a certain natural racial superiority of the race of the mother-country. Colonialism also acted to reinforce these same racial belief systems within the "mother-countries" themselves. Usually also included within the colonial belief systems was a certain belief in the inherent superiority of male over female. This particular belief was often pre-existing amongst the pre-colonial societies, prior to their colonisation.<a href="#cite_note-Stoler_1989-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fee-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fausto-Sterling_2001-151">[151]</a> Popular political practices of the time reinforced colonial rule by legitimising European (and/ or Japanese) male authority, and also legitimising female and non-mother-country race inferiority through studies of <a href="/wiki/Craniology" class="mw-redirect" title="Craniology">craniology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fee-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fausto-Sterling_2001-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Biologists, naturalists, anthropologists, and ethnologists of the 19th century were focused on the study of colonised indigenous women, as in the case of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a>'s study of <a href="/wiki/Saartjie_Baartman" class="mw-redirect" title="Saartjie Baartman">Sarah Baartman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Fausto-Sterling_2001-151">[151]</a> Such cases embraced a natural superiority and inferiority relationship between the races based on the observations of naturalists' from the mother-countries. European studies along these lines gave rise to the perception that African women's anatomy, and especially genitalia, resembled those of mandrills, baboons, and monkeys, thus differentiating colonised Africans from what were viewed as the features of the evolutionarily superior, and thus rightfully authoritarian, European woman.<a href="#cite_note-Fausto-Sterling_2001-151">[151]</a> In addition to what would now be viewed as pseudo-scientific studies of race, which tended to reinforce a belief in an inherent mother-country racial superiority, a new supposedly "science-based" ideology concerning gender roles also then emerged as an adjunct to the general body of beliefs of inherent superiority of the colonial era.<a href="#cite_note-Fee-150">[150]</a> Female inferiority across all cultures was emerging as an idea supposedly supported by <a href="/wiki/Craniology" class="mw-redirect" title="Craniology">craniology</a> that led scientists to argue that the typical brain size of the female human was, on the average, slightly smaller than that of the male, thus inferring that therefore female humans must be less developed and less evolutionarily advanced than males.<a href="#cite_note-Fee-150">[150]</a> This finding of relative cranial size difference was later attributed to the general typical size difference of the human male body versus that of the typical human female body.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Within the former European colonies, non-Europeans and women sometimes faced invasive studies by the colonial powers in the interest of the then prevailing pro-colonial scientific ideology of the day.<a href="#cite_note-Fausto-Sterling_2001-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Othering">Othering</h2></div> <a href="/wiki/Othering" class="mw-redirect" title="Othering">Othering</a> is the process of creating a separate entity to persons or groups who are labelled as different or non-normal due to the repetition of characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-Mountz-154">[154]</a> Othering is the creation of those who discriminate, to distinguish, label, categorise those who do not fit in the societal norm. Several scholars in recent decades developed the notion of the "other" as an epistemological concept in social theory.<a href="#cite_note-Mountz-154">[154]</a> For example, postcolonial scholars, believed that colonising powers explained an "other" who were there to dominate, civilise, and extract resources through colonisation of land.<a href="#cite_note-Mountz-154">[154]</a> Political geographers explain how colonial/imperial powers "othered" places they wanted to dominate to legalise their exploitation of the land.<a href="#cite_note-Mountz-154">[154]</a> During and after the rise of colonialism the Western powers perceived the East as the "other", being different and separate from their societal norm. This viewpoint and separation of culture had divided the Eastern and Western culture creating a dominant/subordinate dynamic, both being the "other" towards themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Mountz-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-colonialism">Post-colonialism</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Post-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonialism">Post-colonialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_literature" title="Postcolonial literature">Postcolonial literature</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Indies_literature" title="Dutch Indies literature">Dutch Indies literature</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Colonialism" title="Special:EditPage/Colonialism">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (April 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HK_Queen_Victoria_Street_The_Central_Market.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/HK_Queen_Victoria_Street_The_Central_Market.jpg/220px-HK_Queen_Victoria_Street_The_Central_Market.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/HK_Queen_Victoria_Street_The_Central_Market.jpg/330px-HK_Queen_Victoria_Street_The_Central_Market.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/HK_Queen_Victoria_Street_The_Central_Market.jpg/440px-HK_Queen_Victoria_Street_The_Central_Market.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria_Street,_Hong_Kong" title="Queen Victoria Street, Hong Kong">Queen Victoria Street</a> in the former British colony of <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></figcaption></figure> Post-colonialism (or post-colonial theory) can refer to a set of theories in philosophy and literature that grapple with the legacy of colonial rule. In this sense, one can regard post-colonial literature as a branch of <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_literature" title="Postmodern literature">postmodern literature</a> concerned with the political and cultural independence of peoples formerly subjugated in colonial empires. Many practitioners take <a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Edward Saïd</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/Orientalism_(book)" title="Orientalism (book)">Orientalism</a> (1978) as the theory's founding work (although French theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Aim%C3%A9_C%C3%A9saire" title="Aimé Césaire">Aimé Césaire</a> (1913–2008) and <a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a> (1925–1961) made similar claims decades before Saïd). Saïd analyzed the works of <a href="/wiki/Honor%C3%A9_de_Balzac" title="Honoré de Balzac">Balzac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Baudelaire" title="Charles Baudelaire">Baudelaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lautr%C3%A9amont" class="mw-redirect" title="Lautréamont">Lautréamont</a>, arguing that they helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority. Writers of post-colonial fiction interact with the traditional colonial <a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">discourse</a>, but modify or subvert it; for instance by retelling a familiar story from the perspective of an oppressed minor character in the story. <a href="/wiki/Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak" title="Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak">Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Subaltern_(post-colonialism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subaltern (post-colonialism)">Can the Subaltern Speak?</a> (1998) gave its name to <a href="/wiki/Subaltern_Studies" title="Subaltern Studies">Subaltern Studies</a>. In A Critique of Postcolonial Reason (1999), Spivak argued that major works of European <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> (such as those of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>) not only tend to exclude the subaltern from their discussions, but actively prevent non-Europeans from occupying positions as fully human <a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">subjects</a>. Hegel's <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology of Spirit">Phenomenology of Spirit</a> (1807), famous for its explicit ethnocentrism, considers <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilisation</a> as the most accomplished of all, while Kant also had some traces of <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racialism</a> in his work. The 2014 <a href="/wiki/YouGov" title="YouGov">YouGov</a> survey found that British people are mostly proud of colonialism and the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>:<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">A new YouGov survey finds that most think the British Empire is more something to be proud of (59%) than to be ashamed of (19%). 23% don't know. Young people are least likely to feel pride over shame when it comes to the Empire, though about half (48%) of 18–24 year old's do. In comparison, about two-thirds (65%) of over 60's feel mostly proud. ... A third of British people (34%) also say they would like it if Britain still had an empire. Under half (45%) say they would not like the Empire to exist today. 20% don't know.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonistics">Colonistics</h2></div> The field of colonistics studies colonialism from such viewpoints as those of economics, sociology and psychology.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Migrations">Migrations</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Europe" title="Greater Europe">Greater Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tibetan_Monks_arrested_in_2008_%E9%81%AD%E9%80%AE%E6%8D%95%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E5%83%A7%E4%BE%B6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tibetan_Monks_arrested_in_2008_%E9%81%AD%E9%80%AE%E6%8D%95%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E5%83%A7%E4%BE%B6.jpg/220px-Tibetan_Monks_arrested_in_2008_%E9%81%AD%E9%80%AE%E6%8D%95%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E5%83%A7%E4%BE%B6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tibetan_Monks_arrested_in_2008_%E9%81%AD%E9%80%AE%E6%8D%95%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E5%83%A7%E4%BE%B6.jpg/330px-Tibetan_Monks_arrested_in_2008_%E9%81%AD%E9%80%AE%E6%8D%95%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E5%83%A7%E4%BE%B6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Tibetan_Monks_arrested_in_2008_%E9%81%AD%E9%80%AE%E6%8D%95%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E5%83%A7%E4%BE%B6.jpg/440px-Tibetan_Monks_arrested_in_2008_%E9%81%AD%E9%80%AE%E6%8D%95%E7%9A%84%E8%A5%BF%E8%97%8F%E5%83%A7%E4%BE%B6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="483" /></a><figcaption>Indigenous Tibetans protesting the <a href="/wiki/Sinicization_of_Tibet" title="Sinicization of Tibet">Sinicization of Tibet</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg/170px-Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg/255px-Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg/340px-Emigrants_Leave_Ireland_by_Henry_Doyle_1868.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2370" data-file-height="3161" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish</a> leaving Ireland, many in response to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Famine</a> in the 1840s</figcaption></figure> Nations and regions outside <a href="/wiki/Huaxia" title="Huaxia">Northern China</a> with significant populations of <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a> ancestry: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>: 42.24% Han settlers, 44.96% Indigenous<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>: disputed. 12.2% Han Chinese in the <a href="/wiki/Tibet_Autonomous_Region" title="Tibet Autonomous Region">Tibet Autonomous Region</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:12-159">[159]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>: 95–97% Han Taiwanese, 2.3% Indigenous<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>: 74.3% Han Chinese, 13.5% Indigenous Malay<a href="#cite_note-162">[a]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>: 22.9% Han Chinese, 69.7% Indigenous</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuang_Guandong" title="Chuang Guandong">Manchuria</a>: 80%+ Han Chinese, <20% Indigenous Manchurians.<a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a></li></ul> Nations and regions outside Europe with significant populations of <a href="/wiki/European_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="European ethnic groups">European</a> ancestry<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boerfamily1886.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Boerfamily1886.jpg/220px-Boerfamily1886.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Boerfamily1886.jpg/330px-Boerfamily1886.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Boerfamily1886.jpg/440px-Boerfamily1886.jpg 2x" data-file-width="515" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Boer" class="mw-redirect" title="Boer">Boer</a> family in South Africa, 1886</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Europeans in Africa">Europeans in Africa</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_South_African" class="mw-redirect" title="European South African">European South African</a>): 5.8% of the population<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_Namibians" class="mw-redirect" title="European Namibians">European Namibians</a>): 6.5% of the population, of which most are Afrikaans-speaking, in addition to a German-speaking minority.<a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a>: estimated to be approximately 25% of the population<a href="#cite_note-advan-167">[166]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Europeans in Zimbabwe">Europeans in Zimbabwe</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pied-noir" class="mw-redirect" title="Pied-noir">Pied-noir</a>)<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a>: 3% of the population<a href="#cite_note-169">[168]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> (<a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="Europeans in Kenya">Europeans in Kenya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Franco-Mauritian" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-Mauritian">Franco-Mauritian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_Moroccans" title="European Moroccans">European Moroccans</a>)<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivory_Coast" title="Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a> (<a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French people</a>)<a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish people">Spaniards</a>), known as <a href="/wiki/Canarian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Canarian people">Canarians</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> (<a href="/wiki/Franco-Seychellois" title="Franco-Seychellois">Franco-Seychellois</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Somalis" title="Italian Somalis">Italian Somalis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_Eritreans" title="Italian Eritreans">Italian Eritreans</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Helena" title="Saint Helena">Saint Helena</a> (UK) including <a href="/wiki/Tristan_da_Cunha" title="Tristan da Cunha">Tristan da Cunha</a> (UK): predominantly European.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a>: 3% of the population<a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_Tunisians" title="European Tunisians">European Tunisians</a>)<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a></li></ul></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prokudin-Gorskii_Russians_in_Central_Asia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Prokudin-Gorskii_Russians_in_Central_Asia.jpg/220px-Prokudin-Gorskii_Russians_in_Central_Asia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Prokudin-Gorskii_Russians_in_Central_Asia.jpg/330px-Prokudin-Gorskii_Russians_in_Central_Asia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Prokudin-Gorskii_Russians_in_Central_Asia.jpg/440px-Prokudin-Gorskii_Russians_in_Central_Asia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="974" /></a><figcaption>Russian settlers in <a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Central Asia</a>, present-day Kazakhstan, 1911</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans" title="Volga Germans">Germans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians_in_Russia" title="Ukrainians in Russia">Ukrainians</a>)<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russians_in_Kazakhstan" title="Russians in Kazakhstan">Russians in Kazakhstan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germans_of_Kazakhstan" title="Germans of Kazakhstan">Germans of Kazakhstan</a>): 30% of the population<a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-russians-178">[177]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_diaspora" title="Russian diaspora">Russians</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a>): 6% of the population<a href="#cite_note-russians-178">[177]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a> (Russians and other Slavs): 14% of the population<a href="#cite_note-russians-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-179">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a> (Russians and other Slavs): 4% of the population<a href="#cite_note-russians-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a> (Russians and other Slavs): 1% of the population<a href="#cite_note-russians-178">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> (Spanish Ancestry): 3% of the population</li> <li><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> (<a href="/wiki/Russians_in_China" title="Russians in China">Russians in China</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Indians">Anglo-Indians</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> (see <a href="/wiki/White_Latin_American" class="mw-redirect" title="White Latin American">White Latin American</a>) <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Italians_Sao_Paulo_-_original.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Italians_Sao_Paulo_-_original.jpg/220px-Italians_Sao_Paulo_-_original.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Italians_Sao_Paulo_-_original.jpg/330px-Italians_Sao_Paulo_-_original.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Italians_Sao_Paulo_-_original.jpg/440px-Italians_Sao_Paulo_-_original.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2009" data-file-height="1428" /></a><figcaption>Italian immigrants arriving in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a>, Brazil, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1890</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethnography_of_Argentina#Ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnography of Argentina">European Immigration to Argentina</a>): 97% European and mestizo of the population<a href="#cite_note-184">[183]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>: 15% of the population<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Brazilian" class="mw-redirect" title="White Brazilian">White Brazilian</a>): 47% of the population<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Latin_American#Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="White Latin American">White Chilean</a>): 60–70% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Colombian" class="mw-redirect" title="White Colombian">White Colombian</a>): 37% of the population<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>: 83% of the population<a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Cuban" class="mw-redirect" title="White Cuban">White Cuban</a>): 65% of the population<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>: 16% of the population<a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>: 7% of the population<a href="#cite_note-EC-194">[193]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>: 1% of the population<a href="#cite_note-CIATONGA-195">[194]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>: 12% of the population<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Mexican" class="mw-redirect" title="White Mexican">White Mexican</a>): 9% or ~17% of the population.<a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-MEG-198">[197]</a> and 70–80% more as <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">Mestizos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MEG-198">[197]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>: 17% of the population<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a>: 10% of the population<a href="#cite_note-PA-200">[199]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>: approx. 80% of the population<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_Peruvian" class="mw-redirect" title="European Peruvian">European Peruvian</a>): 15% of the population<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a>: approx. 20% of the population<a href="#cite_note-203">[202]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Latin_American#Uruguay" class="mw-redirect" title="White Latin American">White Uruguayan</a>): 88% of the population<a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Menonite_Children.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Menonite_Children.JPG/220px-Menonite_Children.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Menonite_Children.JPG/330px-Menonite_Children.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Menonite_Children.JPG/440px-Menonite_Children.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mennonites_in_Belize" title="Mennonites in Belize">Mennonites</a> of German descent in <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a> </figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Venezuelan" class="mw-redirect" title="White Venezuelan">White Venezuelan</a>): 42% of the population<a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rest of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahamas">Bahamas</a>: 12% of the population<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> (<a href="/wiki/White_Barbadian" class="mw-redirect" title="White Barbadian">White Barbadian</a>): 4% of the population<a href="#cite_note-207">[206]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>: 34% of the population<a href="#cite_note-208">[207]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_Canadians" title="European Canadians">European Canadians</a>): 80% of the population<a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a>: mostly of British descent.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>: 12% of the population<a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>: 12% of the population<a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a>: 5% of the population<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a>:<a href="#cite_note-214">[213]</a> 1% of the population<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portuguese_immigrant_family_in_Hawaii_during_the_19th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Portuguese_immigrant_family_in_Hawaii_during_the_19th_century.jpg/220px-Portuguese_immigrant_family_in_Hawaii_during_the_19th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Portuguese_immigrant_family_in_Hawaii_during_the_19th_century.jpg/330px-Portuguese_immigrant_family_in_Hawaii_during_the_19th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Portuguese_immigrant_family_in_Hawaii_during_the_19th_century.jpg/440px-Portuguese_immigrant_family_in_Hawaii_during_the_19th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese American">Portuguese</a> immigrant family in Hawaii during the 19th century</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_American" class="mw-redirect" title="European American">European American</a>): 72% of the population, including <a href="/wiki/White_Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="White Hispanic and Latino Americans">Hispanic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-Hispanic_Whites" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Hispanic Whites">Non-Hispanic Whites</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Oceania" title="Europeans in Oceania">Europeans in Oceania</a>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_Australians" title="European Australians">European Australians</a>): 90% of the population</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_New_Zealanders" title="European New Zealanders">European New Zealanders</a>): 78% of the population</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia" title="New Caledonia">New Caledonia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caldoche" title="Caldoche">Caldoche</a>): 35% of the population</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a>: (<a href="/wiki/Zoreilles" title="Zoreilles">Zoreilles</a>) 10% of the population<a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>: 25% of the population<a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_Island" title="Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a>: approx. 20% of the population.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>: 7% of the population<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a>: 9→5% of the population</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-rules" style="column-width: 20em;column-gap: 2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_independence_movements" title="African independence movements">African independence movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_company" title="Chartered company">Chartered company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Chinese imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_colonialism" title="Christianity and colonialism">Christianity and colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilising_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Civilising mission">Civilising mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">Client state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Empire">Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism_and_the_Olympic_Games" title="Colonialism and the Olympic Games">Colonialism and the Olympic Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coloniality_of_power" title="Coloniality of power">Coloniality of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">Colonial war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural colonialism">Cultural colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decoloniality" title="Decoloniality">Decoloniality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">Decolonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmentalism" title="Developmentalism">Developmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_colonial_rule" title="Direct colonial rule">Direct colonial rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Liberty" title="Empire of Liberty">Empire of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonization of Africa">European colonization of Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonization of Micronesia">European colonization of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonisation_of_Southeast_Asia" title="European colonisation of Southeast Asia">European colonisation of Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_law_on_colonialism" title="French law on colonialism">French law on colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_eastward_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="German eastward expansion">German eastward expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Empire">Global Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_British_Empire" title="Historiography of the British Empire">Historiography of the British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_Western_European_colonialism_and_colonisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation">Impact of Western European colonialism and colonisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_of_the_Great_Powers_(1814%E2%80%931919)" class="mw-redirect" title="International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)">International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orientalism" title="Orientalism">Orientalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluricontinental" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluricontinental">Pluricontinental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">Protectorate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_state" title="Satellite state">Satellite state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stranger_King_(Concept)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stranger King (Concept)">Stranger King (Concept)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">Western imperialism in Asia</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Oster-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oster_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oster_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTignor2005" class="citation book cs1">Tignor, Roger (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CMfksrnWaUkC&pg=PR10">Preface to Colonialism: a theoretical overview</a>. Markus Weiner Publishers. p. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-340-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-340-1"><bdi>978-1-55876-340-1</bdi></a>. 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Retrieved 8 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Collins+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Colonialism&rft.date=2011&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.collinsdictionary.com%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fcolonialism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_4-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargaret_Kohn2017" class="citation web cs1">Margaret Kohn (29 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/">"Colonialism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. Retrieved 5 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Colonialism&rft.date=2017-08-29&rft.au=Margaret+Kohn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcolonialism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodney2018" class="citation book cs1">Rodney, Walter (2018). How Europe underdeveloped Africa. Verso Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78873-119-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78873-119-5"><bdi>978-1-78873-119-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1048081465">1048081465</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Europe+underdeveloped+Africa&rft.pub=Verso+Books&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1048081465&rft.isbn=978-1-78873-119-5&rft.aulast=Rodney&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGo2007" class="citation book cs1">Go, Julian (2007). "Colonialism (Neocolonialism)". In Ritzer, George (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781405165518">The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology</a> (1 ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781405165518.wbeosc071">10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosc071</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2433-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-2433-1"><bdi>978-1-4051-2433-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Colonialism+%28Neocolonialism%29&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Sociology&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781405165518.wbeosc071&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-2433-1&rft.aulast=Go&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1002%2F9781405165518&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGo2024" class="citation journal cs1">Go, Julian (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/social-science-history/article/reverberations-of-empire-how-the-colonial-past-shapes-the-present/178FA24536F578B3EFE2434DFDB87846">"Reverberations of Empire: How the Colonial Past Shapes the Present"</a>. Social Science History. 48 (1): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fssh.2023.37">10.1017/ssh.2023.37</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-5532">0145-5532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+History&rft.atitle=Reverberations+of+Empire%3A+How+the+Colonial+Past+Shapes+the+Present&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fssh.2023.37&rft.issn=0145-5532&rft.aulast=Go&rft.aufirst=Julian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fsocial-science-history%2Farticle%2Freverberations-of-empire-how-the-colonial-past-shapes-the-present%2F178FA24536F578B3EFE2434DFDB87846&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNamee2023" class="citation book cs1">McNamee, Lachlan (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s-x8EAAAQBAJ">Settling for Less: Why States Colonize and Why They Stop</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-23781-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-23781-7"><bdi>978-0-691-23781-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Settling+for+Less%3A+Why+States+Colonize+and+Why+They+Stop&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-691-23781-7&rft.aulast=McNamee&rft.aufirst=Lachlan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds-x8EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacobs_2009_p.-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Jacobs_2009_p._9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2009" class="citation book cs1">Jacobs, Margaret D. (2009-07-01). White Mother to a Dark Race. Lincoln: U of Nebraska Press. pp. 24, 81, 421, 430. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1100-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1100-1"><bdi>978-0-8032-1100-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/268789976">268789976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Mother+to+a+Dark+Race&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pages=24%2C+81%2C+421%2C+430&rft.pub=U+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2009-07-01&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F268789976&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-1100-1&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Margaret+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_T._Hoffman2015" class="citation book cs1">Philip T. 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S. (2014). Scars of Partition: Postcolonial Legacies in French and British Borderlands. 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Random House Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/noturningbackhis00free/page/113">113</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-45053-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-345-45053-1"><bdi>978-0-345-45053-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=No+Turning+Back%3A+The+History+of+Feminism+and+The+Future+of+Women&rft.pages=113&rft.pub=Random+House+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-345-45053-1&rft.aulast=Freedman&rft.aufirst=Estelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnoturningbackhis00free%2Fpage%2F113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDellOlken2020" class="citation journal cs1">Dell, Melissa; Olken, Benjamin A. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/dell/publications/development-effects-extractive-colonial-economy-dutch-cultivation-system-java">"The Development Effects of the Extractive Colonial Economy: The Dutch Cultivation System in Java"</a>. The Review of Economic Studies. 87: 164–203. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Frestud%2Frdz017">10.1093/restud/rdz017</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F136437">1721.1/136437</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Economic+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Development+Effects+of+the+Extractive+Colonial+Economy%3A+The+Dutch+Cultivation+System+in+Java&rft.volume=87&rft.pages=164-203&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1721.1%2F136437&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Frestud%2Frdz017&rft.aulast=Dell&rft.aufirst=Melissa&rft.au=Olken%2C+Benjamin+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.harvard.edu%2Fdell%2Fpublications%2Fdevelopment-effects-extractive-colonial-economy-dutch-cultivation-system-java&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattingly2017" class="citation journal cs1">Mattingly, Daniel C. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://daniel-mattingly.com/s/Mattingly_CPS_Preprint.pdf">"Colonial Legacies and State Institutions in China: Evidence From a Natural Experiment"</a> (PDF). Comparative Political Studies. 50 (4): 434–463. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0010414015600465">10.1177/0010414015600465</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:156822667">156822667</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160714115343/http://daniel-mattingly.com/s/Mattingly_CPS_Preprint.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2016-07-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Political+Studies&rft.atitle=Colonial+Legacies+and+State+Institutions+in+China%3A+Evidence+From+a+Natural+Experiment&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=434-463&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0010414015600465&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A156822667%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mattingly&rft.aufirst=Daniel+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdaniel-mattingly.com%2Fs%2FMattingly_CPS_Preprint.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/Departments/hpolscrv/whiteser.html">White Servitude</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141009091039/http://www.montgomerycollege.edu/Departments/hpolscrv/whiteser.html">Archived</a> 2014-10-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", by Richard Hofstadter, Montgomery College </li> <li id="cite_note-King_2010_24-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-King_2010_24_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-King_2010_24_86-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2010" class="citation book cs1">King, Russell (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleonmoveatla0000unse/page/24">People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration</a>. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleonmoveatla0000unse/page/24">24</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26124-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26124-2"><bdi>978-0-520-26124-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+on+the+Move%3A+An+Atlas+of+Migration&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26124-2&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeopleonmoveatla0000unse%2Fpage%2F24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHannah-Jones2019" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nikole_Hannah-Jones" title="Nikole Hannah-Jones">Hannah-Jones, Nikole</a> (August 14, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/black-history-american-democracy.html">"Our democracy's founding ideals were false when they were written. Black Americans have fought to make them true"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Magazine" title="The New York Times Magazine">The New York Times Magazine</a>. <q>The wealth and prominence that allowed Jefferson, at just 33, and the other founding fathers to believe they could successfully break off from one of the mightiest empires in the world came from the dizzying profits generated by chattel slavery. In other words, we may never have revolted against Britain if the founders had not understood that slavery empowered them to do so; nor if they had not believed that independence was required in order to ensure that slavery would continue. It is not incidental that 10 of this nation's first 12 presidents were enslavers, and some might argue that this nation was founded not as a democracy but as a slavocracy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times+Magazine&rft.atitle=Our+democracy%27s+founding+ideals+were+false+when+they+were+written.+Black+Americans+have+fought+to+make+them+true&rft.date=2019-08-14&rft.aulast=Hannah-Jones&rft.aufirst=Nikole&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2019%2F08%2F14%2Fmagazine%2Fblack-history-american-democracy.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetrie2015" class="citation book cs1">Petrie, Hazel (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1xJzCgAAQBAJ">Outcasts of the Gods? The Struggle over Slavery in Maori New Zealand</a>. Auckland University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781775587859" title="Special:BookSources/9781775587859"><bdi>9781775587859</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 June 2020. <q>Trade with the early explorers, whalers, sealers, and shore-based traders; interaction with missionaries; the availability of muskets; unprecedented warfare; new methods of dispute resolution; and English law all played their part in influencing the increase or decline of Maori captive-taking.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Outcasts+of+the+Gods%3F+The+Struggle+over+Slavery+in+Maori+New+Zealand&rft.pub=Auckland+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781775587859&rft.aulast=Petrie&rft.aufirst=Hazel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1xJzCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirth1929" class="citation book cs1">Firth, Raymond (1929). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JNGm14xd1JkC">Primitive Economics of the New Zealand Maori</a>. Routledge Revivals (reprint ed.). Abingdon: Routledge (published 2011). p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415694728" title="Special:BookSources/9780415694728"><bdi>9780415694728</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 June 2020. <q>The economic value of the slave to the community was considerable. [...] Slavery among the Maori is certainly not comparable to the system as it existed among the ancient civilized states of Europe, but relative to the culture of this native people, it played an important part [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primitive+Economics+of+the+New+Zealand+Maori&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.series=Routledge+Revivals&rft.pages=203&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1929&rft.isbn=9780415694728&rft.aulast=Firth&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJNGm14xd1JkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowe2014" class="citation book cs1">Lowe, Joshua (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DrlABAAAQBAJ">To what extent was the Great Trek undertaken to preserve Afrikaner Culture?</a>. GRIN. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783656715245" title="Special:BookSources/9783656715245"><bdi>9783656715245</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 June 2020. <q>There were also threats to what the Afrikaner perceived as tradition, and slavery was included in this perception. The abolition of slavery had an effect on why the Great Trek was undertaken and has links to the Afrikaner cultural preservation theory. Slavery was an integral part of Afrikaner society, and there was a sense of discontent when it was called to an end.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+what+extent+was+the+Great+Trek+undertaken+to+preserve+Afrikaner+Culture%3F&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=GRIN&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9783656715245&rft.aulast=Lowe&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDrlABAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2010" class="citation book cs1">King, Russell (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleonmoveatla0000unse/page/26">People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration</a>. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleonmoveatla0000unse/page/26">26–27</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26124-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26124-2"><bdi>978-0-520-26124-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+on+the+Move%3A+An+Atlas+of+Migration&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=26-27&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26124-2&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeopleonmoveatla0000unse%2Fpage%2F26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagden2003" class="citation book cs1">Pagden, Anthony (2003). Peoples and Empires. New York: Modern Library. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6761-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8129-6761-6"><bdi>978-0-8129-6761-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peoples+and+Empires&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Modern+Library&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8129-6761-6&rft.aulast=Pagden&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2010" class="citation book cs1">King, Russell (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleonmoveatla0000unse/page/35">People on the Move: An Atlas of Migration</a>. Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/peopleonmoveatla0000unse/page/35">35</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26124-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-26124-2"><bdi>978-0-520-26124-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+on+the+Move%3A+An+Atlas+of+Migration&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Los+Angeles&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-520-26124-2&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpeopleonmoveatla0000unse%2Fpage%2F35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Willems, Wim "De uittocht uit Indie (1945–1995), De geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders" (Publisher: Bert Bakker, Amsterdam, 2001). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-351-2361-1" title="Special:BookSources/90-351-2361-1">90-351-2361-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Crul, Lindo and Lin Pang. Culture, Structure and Beyond, Changing identities and social positions of immigrants and their children (Het Spinhuis Publishers, 1999). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-5589-173-8" title="Special:BookSources/90-5589-173-8">90-5589-173-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1981/61">"British Nationality Act 1981"</a>. The National Archives, United Kingdom. Retrieved February 24, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+Nationality+Act+1981&rft.pub=The+National+Archives%2C+United+Kingdom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2F1981%2F61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.francophonie.org/francophonie-brief-1763">"The Francophonie in Brief"</a>. Portail de l’Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (OIF) (in French). 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Key Concepts in Political Geography. pp. 115–123. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781446279496.n13">10.4135/9781446279496.n13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412946728" title="Special:BookSources/9781412946728"><bdi>9781412946728</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Colonialism%2FImperialism&rft.btitle=Key+Concepts+in+Political+Geography&rft.pages=115-123&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4135%2F9781446279496.n13&rft.isbn=9781412946728&rft.aulast=Gilmartin&rft.aufirst=Mary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXpBJclVnVdQC%26pg%3DPA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Imperialism_Painter_&_Jeffrey-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Imperialism_Painter_&_Jeffrey_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Imperialism_Painter_&_Jeffrey_139-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Imperialism_Painter_&_Jeffrey_139-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Imperialism_Painter_&_Jeffrey_139-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPainterJeffrey2009" class="citation book cs1">Painter, Joe; Jeffrey, Alex (2009). Political Geography (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-4435-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4462-4435-7"><bdi>978-1-4462-4435-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Geography&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4462-4435-7&rft.aulast=Painter&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft.au=Jeffrey%2C+Alex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/hobson-imperialism-a-study">"Imperialism: A Study – Online Library of Liberty"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Imperialism%3A+A+Study+%E2%80%93+Online+Library+of+Liberty&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foll.libertyfund.org%2Ftitles%2Fhobson-imperialism-a-study&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatts2005" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Watts, Michael (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jXl0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174">"colonialism, history of"</a>. In Forsyth, Tim (ed.). Encyclopedia of International Development. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136952913" title="Special:BookSources/9781136952913"><bdi>9781136952913</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=colonialism%2C+history+of&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+International+Development&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781136952913&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjXl0DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunga1997" class="citation book cs1">Sunga, Lyal S. 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Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 90ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789041104724" title="Special:BookSources/9789041104724"><bdi>9789041104724</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emerging+System+of+International+Criminal+Law%3A+Developments+in+Codification+and+Implementation&rft.pages=90ff&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9789041104724&rft.aulast=Sunga&rft.aufirst=Lyal+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDbb8eQH-vbQC%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> Sunga traces the origin of the international movement against colonialism, and relates it to the rise of the right to self-determination in international law. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter_Rodney1972" class="citation book cs1">Walter Rodney (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CwSSkemSJLcC&pg=PA224">How Europe Underdeveloped Africa</a>. 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YouGov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+British+Empire+is+%27something+to+be+proud+of%27&rft.pub=YouGov&rft.date=2014-07-26&rft.aulast=Dahlgreen&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyougov.co.uk%2Fnews%2F2014%2F07%2F26%2Fbritain-proud-its-empire%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaunier1949" class="citation book cs1">Maunier, René (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gZCAAAAAQBAJ">The Sociology of the Colonies [Part 1]: An Introduction to the Study of Race Contact</a>. International Library of Sociology. Translated by Lorimer, E.-O. Routledge (published 2013). p. 137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-24522-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-24522-0"><bdi>978-1-136-24522-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 December 2018. <q>There are thus three elements in Colonistics or colonial study: Colonial Economics, Colonial Sociology and Colonial Psychology.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociology+of+the+Colonies+%5BPart+1%5D%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Study+of+Race+Contact&rft.series=International+Library+of+Sociology&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1949&rft.isbn=978-1-136-24522-0&rft.aulast=Maunier&rft.aufirst=Ren%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgZCAAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220613171035/https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cgtrt/eng/news/t1884310.htm">"Main Data of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region from the Seventh National Population Census"</a>. www.fmprc.gov.cn. Consulate General of the People's Republic of China in Toronto. 16 June 2021. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/ce/cgtrt/eng/news/t1884310.htm">the original</a> on 13 June 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fmprc.gov.cn&rft.atitle=Main+Data+of+Xinjiang+Uygur+Autonomous+Region+from+the+Seventh+National+Population+Census&rft.date=2021-06-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fmprc.gov.cn%2Fce%2Fcgtrt%2Feng%2Fnews%2Ft1884310.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-159"><a href="#cite_ref-:12_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/viewpoint/how-much-does-beijing-control-ethnic-makeup-of-tibet">"How Much Does Beijing Control the Ethnic Makeup of Tibet?"</a>. ChinaFile. 2021-09-02. Retrieved 2023-05-08.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ChinaFile&rft.atitle=How+Much+Does+Beijing+Control+the+Ethnic+Makeup+of+Tibet%3F&rft.date=2021-09-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinafile.com%2Freporting-opinion%2Fviewpoint%2Fhow-much-does-beijing-control-ethnic-makeup-of-tibet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsai2019" class="citation thesis cs1">Tsai, Lin-chin (May 10, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://escholarship.org/uc/item/30h7d8r5">Re-conceptualizing Taiwan: Settler Colonial Criticism and Cultural Production</a> (Thesis) – via escholarship.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Re-conceptualizing+Taiwan%3A+Settler+Colonial+Criticism+and+Cultural+Production&rft.date=2019-05-10&rft.aulast=Tsai&rft.aufirst=Lin-chin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fescholarship.org%2Fuc%2Fitem%2F30h7d8r5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-census2020-161"><a href="#cite_ref-census2020_161-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.singstat.gov.sg/-/media/files/publications/cop2020/sr1/cop2020sr1.pdf">"Census 2020"</a> (PDF). Singapore Department of Statistics. Retrieved 16 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Singapore+Department+of+Statistics&rft.atitle=Census+2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.singstat.gov.sg%2F-%2Fmedia%2Ffiles%2Fpublications%2Fcop2020%2Fsr1%2Fcop2020sr1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HQ5KbXYhEB8C&dq=sedentary+farming+manchu&pg=PA141">Richards 2003</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html">Ethnic groups by country.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190106010801/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2075.html">Archived</a> 2019-01-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Statistics (where available) from CIA Factbook. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/south-africa/#people-and-society">"South Africa § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=South+Africa+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fsouth-africa%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/naimbia/#people-and-society">"Naimbia § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Naimbia+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fnaimbia%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-advan-167"><a href="#cite_ref-advan_167-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarnusBourdon2006" class="citation journal cs1">Tarnus, Evelyne; Bourdon, Emmanuel (2006). "Anthropometric evaluations of body composition of undergraduate students at the University of La Réunion". Advances in Physiology Education. 30 (4): 248–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1152%2Fadvan.00069.2005">10.1152/advan.00069.2005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17108254">17108254</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19474655">19474655</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Advances+in+Physiology+Education&rft.atitle=Anthropometric+evaluations+of+body+composition+of+undergraduate+students+at+the+University+of+La+R%C3%A9union&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=248-53&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19474655%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17108254&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1152%2Fadvan.00069.2005&rft.aulast=Tarnus&rft.aufirst=Evelyne&rft.au=Bourdon%2C+Emmanuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaurenson2006" class="citation news cs1">Laurenson, John (July 29, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/5224244.stm">"Former settlers return to Algeria"</a>. BBC News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Former+settlers+return+to+Algeria&rft.date=2006-07-29&rft.aulast=Laurenson&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fprogrammes%2Ffrom_our_own_correspondent%2F5224244.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/botswana/#people-and-society">"Botswana § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Botswana+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fbotswana%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> De Azevedo, Raimondo Cagiano (1994) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25">Migration and development co-operation.</a>. Council of Europe. p. 25. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-871-2611-9" title="Special:BookSources/92-871-2611-9">92-871-2611-9</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/ivory-coast/41.htm">Ivory Coast – The Economy</a>". <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Country_Studies" title="Library of Congress Country Studies">Library of Congress Country Studies</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2862.htm">Senegal</a>, About 50,000 Europeans (mostly French) and Lebanese reside in Senegal, mainly in the cities. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/eswatini/#people-and-society">"Eswatini § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Eswatini+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Feswatini%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2586700129.html">Tunisia</a>, Worldmark Encyclopedia of the Nations. Thomson Gale. 2007. Encyclopedia.com. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Fiona Hill, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theglobalist.com/printStoryId.aspx?StoryId=3727">Russia — Coming In From the Cold?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110715022142/http://www.theglobalist.com/printStoryId.aspx?StoryId=3727">Archived</a> 2011-07-15 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Globalist" title="The Globalist">The Globalist</a>, 23 February 2004 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.everyculture.com/Russia-Eurasia-China/Siberian-Germans-Orientation.html">Siberian Germans</a>". </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YLeAxHLmgR8C&pg=PA15">Migrant resettlement in the Russian federation: reconstructing 'homes' and 'homelands'</a>". Moya Flynn. (1994). p. 15. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84331-117-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-84331-117-8">1-84331-117-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-russians-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-russians_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-russians_178-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-russians_178-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-russians_178-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-russians_178-4">e</a> Robert Greenall, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm">"Russians left behind in Central Asia"</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>, 23 November 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/kyrgyzstan/#people-and-society">"Kyrgyzstan § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Kyrgyzstan+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fkyrgyzstan%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XRXVbGwPgqIC&pg=PA125">The Kyrgyz – Children of Manas.</a>". Petr Kokaisl, Pavla Kokaislova (2009). p. 125. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/80-254-6365-6" title="Special:BookSources/80-254-6365-6">80-254-6365-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/turkemistan/#people-and-society">"Turkemistan § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Turkemistan+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fturkemistan%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://countrystudies.us/tajikistan/23.htm">Tajikistan – Ethnic Groups</a>. Source: U.S. Library of Congress. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> HK Census. " <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.censtatd.gov.hk/hong_kong_statistics/statistical_tables/index.jsp?htmlTableID=139&excelID=&chartID=&tableID=139&ID=&subjectID=1">HK Census</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071208065844/http://www.censtatd.gov.hk/hong_kong_statistics/statistical_tables/index.jsp?htmlTableID=139&excelID=&chartID=&tableID=139&ID=&subjectID=1">Archived</a> 2007-12-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". Statistical Table. Retrieved on 2007-03-08. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/argentina/#people-and-society">"Argentina § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Argentina+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fargentina%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/#people-and-society">"Bolivia § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Bolivia+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fbolivia%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/#people-and-society">"Brazil § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Brazil+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fbrazil%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernández,_Francisco_Lizcano2007" class="citation book cs1">Fernández, Francisco Lizcano (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LcabJ98-t1wC&q=chile+60%25+blancos+Esteva-Fabregat&pg=PA93">Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI</a>. UAEM. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-970-757-052-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-970-757-052-8"><bdi>978-970-757-052-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Composici%C3%B3n+%C3%89tnica+de+las+Tres+%C3%81reas+Culturales+del+Continente+Americano+al+Comienzo+del+Siglo+XXI&rft.pub=UAEM&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-970-757-052-8&rft.au=Fern%C3%A1ndez%2C+Francisco+Lizcano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLcabJ98-t1wC%26q%3Dchile%2B60%2525%2Bblancos%2BEsteva-Fabregat%26pg%3DPA93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.infoamerica.org/primera/lb_2011.pdf">Informe Latinobarómetro 2011</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latinobar%C3%B3metro" title="Latinobarómetro">Latinobarómetro</a> (p. 58). </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCruz-CokeMoreno1994" class="citation journal cs1">Cruz-Coke, R.; Moreno, R. S. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1050080">"Genetic epidemiology of single gene defects in Chile"</a>. Journal of Medical Genetics. 31 (9): 702–706. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjmg.31.9.702">10.1136/jmg.31.9.702</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1050080">1050080</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7815439">7815439</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Genetics&rft.atitle=Genetic+epidemiology+of+single+gene+defects+in+Chile&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=702-706&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1050080%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7815439&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjmg.31.9.702&rft.aulast=Cruz-Coke&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Moreno%2C+R.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1050080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/columbia/#people-and-society">"Columbia § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Columbia+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fcolumbia%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/costa-rica/#people-and-society">"Costa Rica § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. Retrieved 2007-11-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Costa+Rica+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fcosta-rica%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2007.zip">(Archived 2007 edition.)</a> = 3.9 million whites and mestizos </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110414135412/http://www.cubagob.cu/otras_info/censo/tablas_html/ii_3.htm">"Tabla II.3 Población por color de la piel y grupos de edades, según zona de residencia y sexo"</a>. Censo de Población y Viviendas (in Spanish). Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas. 2002. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cubagob.cu/otras_info/censo/tablas_html/ii_3.htm">the original</a> on 2011-04-14. Retrieved 2008-10-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Censo+de+Poblaci%C3%B3n+y+Viviendas&rft.atitle=Tabla+II.3+Poblaci%C3%B3n+por+color+de+la+piel+y+grupos+de+edades%2C+seg%C3%BAn+zona+de+residencia+y+sexo&rft.date=2002&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cubagob.cu%2Fotras_info%2Fcenso%2Ftablas_html%2Fii_3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/dominican-republic/#people-and-society">"Dominican Republic § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Dominican+Republic+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fdominican-republic%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EC-194"><a href="#cite_ref-EC_194-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/ecuador/#people-and-society">"Ecuador § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. Retrieved 2007-11-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Ecuador+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fecuador%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2007.zip">(Archived 2007 edition.)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIATONGA-195"><a href="#cite_ref-CIATONGA_195-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/honduras">"Honduras"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. 19 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Honduras&rft.date=2021-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fhonduras&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2021.zip">(Archived 2021 edition.)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/el-salvador/#people-and-society">"El Salvador § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=El+Salvador+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fel-salvador%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/mexico/#people-and-society">"Mexico § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. Retrieved 2010-01-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Mexico+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fmexico%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2010.zip">(Archived 2010 edition.)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-MEG-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MEG_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MEG_198-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379167/Mexico">"Mexico: Ethnic Groups"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. 23 February 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mexico%3A+Ethnic+Groups&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2024-02-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F379167%2FMexico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/nicaragua/#people-and-society">"Nicaragua § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. Retrieved 2007-11-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Nicaragua+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fnicaragua%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2007.zip">(Archived 2007 edition.)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-PA-200"><a href="#cite_ref-PA_200-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/panama/#people-and-society">"Panama § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>. Retrieved 2007-11-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Panama+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fpanama%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2007.zip">(Archived 2007 edition.)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/puerto-rico/#people-and-society">"Puerto Rico § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Puerto+Rico+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fpuerto-rico%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/peru/#people-and-society">"Peru § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Peru+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fperu%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancisco_Lizcano_Fernández2005" class="citation journal cs1">Francisco Lizcano Fernández (May–August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130626010236/http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf">"Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI"</a> (PDF). Convergencia (38). UAEM, México. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1405-1435">1405-1435</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://convergencia.uaemex.mx/rev38/38pdf/LIZCANO.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on June 26, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Convergencia&rft.atitle=Composici%C3%B3n+%C3%89tnica+de+las+Tres+%C3%81reas+Culturales+del+Continente+Americano+al+Comienzo+del+Siglo+XXI&rft.issue=38&rft.date=2005-05%2F2005-08&rft.issn=1405-1435&rft.au=Francisco+Lizcano+Fern%C3%A1ndez&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconvergencia.uaemex.mx%2Frev38%2F38pdf%2FLIZCANO.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/uruguay/#people-and-society">"Uruguay § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Uruguay+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Furuguay%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ine.gov.ve/CENSO2011/documentos/pdf/ResultadosBasicosCenso2011.pdf">Resultado Basico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171203105548/http://www.ine.gov.ve/CENSO2011/documentos/pdf/ResultadosBasicosCenso2011.pdf">Archived</a> 2017-12-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (p. 14). </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bahamas-the/#people-and-society">"Bahamas The § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Bahamas+The+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fbahamas-the%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/barbados/#people-and-society">"Barbados § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Barbados+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fbarbados%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bermuda/#people-and-society">"Bermuda § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Bermuda+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fbermuda%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171019141854/http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=92334&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=">"Canadian Census 2006"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&APATH=3&DETAIL=0&DIM=0&FL=A&FREE=0&GC=0&GID=837928&GK=0&GRP=1&PID=92334&PRID=0&PTYPE=88971,97154&S=0&SHOWALL=0&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&THEME=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=">the original</a> on 2017-10-19. Retrieved 2012-08-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Canadian+Census+2006&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww12.statcan.ca%2Fcensus-recensement%2F2006%2Fdp-pd%2Ftbt%2FRp-eng.cfm%3FLANG%3DE%26APATH%3D3%26DETAIL%3D0%26DIM%3D0%26FL%3DA%26FREE%3D0%26GC%3D0%26GID%3D837928%26GK%3D0%26GRP%3D1%26PID%3D92334%26PRID%3D0%26PTYPE%3D88971%2C97154%26S%3D0%26SHOWALL%3D0%26SUB%3D0%26Temporal%3D2006%26THEME%3D80%26VID%3D0%26VNAMEE%3D%26VNAMEF%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/french-guiana/#people-and-society">"French Guiana § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=French+Guiana+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Ffrench-guiana%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/download/factbook-2006.zip">(Archived 2006 edition.)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100923001626/http://www.stalvik.com/Engelska/laegreenland.htm">"Greenland"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stalvik.com/Engelska/laegreenland.htm">the original</a> on 2010-09-23. Retrieved 2012-08-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Greenland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stalvik.com%2FEngelska%2Flaegreenland.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2003/geos/mb.html#People">Martinique: People: Ethnic Groups.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180911195426/http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2003/geos/mb.html#People">Archived</a> 2018-09-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> World Factbook of CIA </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cieux.com/stbarth/stbfact.html">"Fact Sheet on St. Barthélemy"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fact+Sheet+on+St.+Barth%C3%A9lemy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cieux.com%2Fstbarth%2Fstbfact.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hawaii.edu/satocenter/langnet/definitions/trinidad.html">"Trinidad French Creole"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trinidad+French+Creole&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hawaii.edu%2Fsatocenter%2Flangnet%2Fdefinitions%2Ftrinidad.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/french-polynesia/#people-and-society">"French Polynesia § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=French+Polynesia+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Ffrench-polynesia%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20190521214830/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_DP_DPDP1&prodType=table">"American FactFinder – Results"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_DP_DPDP1&prodType=table">the original</a> on 21 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+FactFinder+%E2%80%93+Results&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffactfinder.census.gov%2Ffaces%2Ftableservices%2Fjsf%2Fpages%2Fproductview.xhtml%3Fpid%3DDEC_10_DP_DPDP1%26prodType%3Dtable&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/guam/#people-and-society">"Guam § People and Society"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_World_Factbook" title="The World Factbook">The World Factbook</a> (2024 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+World+Factbook&rft.atitle=Guam+%C2%A7+People+and+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cia.gov%2Fthe-world-factbook%2Fcountries%2Fguam%2F%23people-and-society&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> Proportions of ethnic groups are calculated based only on the resident population, which comprises Singapore Citizens (SC) and Permanent Residents (PR) <a href="#cite_note-census2020-161">[161]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Albertini, Rudolf von. European Colonial Rule, 1880–1940: The Impact of the West on India, Southeast Asia, and Africa (1982) 581 pp</li> <li>Benjamin, Thomas, ed. Encyclopedia of Western Colonialism Since 1450 (2006)</li> <li>Cooper, Frederick. Colonialism in Question: Theory, Knowledge, History (2005)</li> <li>Cotterell, Arthur. Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415–1999 (2009) popular history; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Western-Power-Asia-Slow-Swift/dp/0470824891/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Getz, Trevor R. and Heather Streets-Salter, eds.: Modern Imperialism and Colonialism: A Global Perspective (2010)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJensenSimonsen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Jensen, Niklas Thode; Simonsen, Gunvor (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880">"Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Journal_of_History" title="Scandinavian Journal of History">Scandinavian Journal of History</a>. 41 (4–5): 475–494. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880">10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scandinavian+Journal+of+History&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+The+historiography+of+slavery+in+the+Danish-Norwegian+West+Indies%2C+c.+1950%E2%80%932016&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4%E2%80%935&rft.pages=475-494&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03468755.2016.1210880&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=Niklas+Thode&rft.au=Simonsen%2C+Gunvor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F03468755.2016.1210880&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>LeCour Grandmaison, Olivier: Coloniser, Exterminer – Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, Fayard, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-213-62316-3" title="Special:BookSources/2-213-62316-3">2-213-62316-3</a></li> <li>Lindqvist, Sven: Exterminate All The Brutes, 1992, New Press; Reprint edition (June 1997), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-359-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-359-2">978-1-56584-359-2</a></li> <li>Morris, Richard B. and Graham W. Irwin, eds. Harper Encyclopedia of the Modern World: A Concise Reference History from 1760 to the Present (1970) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/harperencycloped00morr">online</a></li> <li>Ness, Immanuel and Zak Cope, eds. The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Imperialism and Anti-Imperialism (2 vol 2015), 1456 pp</li> <li>Nuzzo, Luigi: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2012041215">Colonial Law</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_History_Online" title="European History Online">European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_European_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of European History">Institute of European History</a>, 2010, retrieved: December 17, 2012.</li> <li>Osterhammel, Jürgen: Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview, Princeton, NJ: M. Wiener, 1997.</li> <li>Page, Melvin E. et al. eds. Colonialism: An International Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia (3 vol 2003)</li> <li>Petringa, Maria, Brazza, A Life for Africa (2006), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4259-1198-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4259-1198-0">978-1-4259-1198-0</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijay_Prashad" title="Vijay Prashad">Prashad, Vijay</a>: The Darker Nations: A People's History of the Third World, The New Press, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-785-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-785-9">978-1-56584-785-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFResendez2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andres_Resendez" class="mw-redirect" title="Andres Resendez">Resendez</a>, Andres (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&q=Rese%CC%81ndez%2C%20Andre%CC%81s.%202017.%20The%20other%20slavery%3A%20the%20uncovered%20story%20of%20indian%20enslavement%20in%20America.&pg=PP1">The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America</a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 448. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0544602670" title="Special:BookSources/978-0544602670"><bdi>978-0544602670</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Slavery%3A+The+Uncovered+Story+of+Indian+Enslavement+in+America&rft.pages=448&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0544602670&rft.aulast=Resendez&rft.aufirst=Andres&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2gpCgAAQBAJ%26q%3DRese%25CC%2581ndez%252C%2520Andre%25CC%2581s.%25202017.%2520The%2520other%2520slavery%253A%2520the%2520uncovered%2520story%2520of%2520indian%2520enslavement%2520in%2520America.%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Rönnbäck, K. & Broberg, O. (2019) Capital and Colonialism. The Return on British Investments in Africa 1869–1969 (Palgrave Studies in Economic History)</li> <li>Schill, Pierre : Réveiller l'archive d'une guerre coloniale. Photographies et écrits de Gaston Chérau, correspondant de guerre lors du conflit italo-turc pour la Libye (1911–1912), Créaphis, 480 p., 2018 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-35428-141-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-35428-141-0">978-2-35428-141-0</a>). Awaken the archive of a colonial war. Photographs and writings of a French war correspondent during the Italo-Turkish war in Libya (1911–1912). With contributions from art historian Caroline Recher, critic Smaranda Olcèse, writer Mathieu Larnaudie and historian Quentin Deluermoz.</li> <li>Stuchtey, Benedikt: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20101025319">Colonialism and Imperialism, 1450–1950</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_History_Online" title="European History Online">European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_European_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of European History">Institute of European History</a>, 2011, retrieved: July 13, 2011.</li> <li>Townsend, Mary Evelyn. European colonial expansion since 1871 (1941).</li> <li>U.S. Tariff Commission. Colonial tariff policies (1922), worldwide; 922pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/colonialtariffpo00unit">survey online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVelychenko2002" class="citation journal cs1">Velychenko, Stephen (2002). "The Issue of Russian Colonialism in Ukrainian Thought. Dependency Identity and Development". Ab Imperio. 2002 (1): 323–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fimp.2002.0070">10.1353/imp.2002.0070</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155635060">155635060</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ab+Imperio&rft.atitle=The+Issue+of+Russian+Colonialism+in+Ukrainian+Thought.+Dependency+Identity+and+Development&rft.volume=2002&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=323-367&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fimp.2002.0070&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A155635060%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Velychenko&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abimperio.net/cgi-bin/aishow.pl?state=showa&idart=222&idlang=1&Code=">Ab Imperio E</a></li> <li>Wendt, Reinhard: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921437">European Overseas Rule</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_History_Online" title="European History Online">European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_European_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of European History">Institute of European History</a>, 2011, retrieved: June 13, 2012.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Conrad, Joseph</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Darkness" title="Heart of Darkness">Heart of Darkness</a>, 1899</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon, Frantz</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Wretched_of_the_Earth" title="The Wretched of the Earth">The Wretched of the Earth</a>, Preface by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>. Translated by Constance Farrington. London: Penguin Book, 2001</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Las Casas, Bartolomé de</a>, <a href="/wiki/A_Short_Account_of_the_Destruction_of_the_Indies" title="A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies">A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies</a> (1542, published in 1552).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/colonialism" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:colonialism">colonialism</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kohn, Margaret. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/">"Colonialism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Colonialism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcolonialism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColonialism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a> (c. 375 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a> (c. 350 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a> (51 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a> (c. 1274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a> (1313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a> (1532)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a> (1651)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a> (1748)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a> (1762)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a> (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a> (1791)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a> (1859)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a> (1992)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_Indigenous_and_minority_rights" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_rights_footer" title="Template:Indigenous rights footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_rights_footer" title="Template talk:Indigenous rights footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_rights_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous rights footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="International_Indigenous_and_minority_rights" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">International <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">minority rights</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_domain" title="Ancestral domain">Ancestral domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free,_prior_and_informed_consent" title="Free, prior and informed consent">Free, prior and informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_intellectual_property" title="Indigenous intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Land rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_language" title="Indigenous language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian_self-determination" title="Indigenous Australian self-determination">in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_self-government_in_Canada" title="Indigenous self-government in Canada">in Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_medicine" title="Traditional medicine">medical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_treaties_in_Australia" title="Indigenous treaties in Australia">in Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_the_Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Principles of the Treaty of Waitangi">in New Zealand</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-governmental and political organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Watch" title="Amazon Watch">Amazon Watch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_First_Nations" title="Assembly of First Nations">Assembly of First Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_Indigenous_Nationalities_of_Ecuador" title="Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador">Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Aboriginal_Peoples" title="Congress of Aboriginal Peoples">Congress of Aboriginal Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordinator_of_Indigenous_Organizations_of_the_Amazon_River_Basin" title="Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin">Coordinator of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Survival" title="Cultural Survival">Cultural Survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Environmental_Network" title="Indigenous Environmental Network">Indigenous Environmental Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples_Council_on_Biocolonialism" title="Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism">Indigenous Peoples Council on Biocolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Work_Group_for_Indigenous_Affairs" title="International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs">International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indigenous_Organization_of_Colombia" title="National Indigenous Organization of Colombia">National Indigenous Organization of Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survival_International" title="Survival International">Survival International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unrepresented_Nations_and_Peoples_Organization" title="Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization">Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapatista_Army_of_National_Liberation" title="Zapatista Army of National Liberation">Zapatista Army of National Liberation</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_rights_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous rights organizations">more ...</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civilizing_mission" title="Civilizing mission">Civilizing mission</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Colonialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_colonialism" title="Internal colonialism">Internal colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">Settler colonialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">Biopiracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Sports mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redface" title="Redface">Redface</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_Access_Pipeline_protests" title="Dakota Access Pipeline protests">Dakota Access Pipeline protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine" title="Discovery doctrine">Discovery doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortress_conservation" title="Fortress conservation">Fortress conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_grabbing" title="Green grabbing">Green grabbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeland" title="Homeland">Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lands_inhabited_by_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples">Lands inhabited by indigenous peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bantustan" title="Bantustan">Bantustan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_okrugs_of_Russia" title="Autonomous okrugs of Russia">Autonomous okrugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">American Indian reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_colony" title="Indian colony">Indian colony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reserve" title="Indian reserve">Indian reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rancher%C3%ADa" title="Ranchería">Ranchería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rancherie" title="Rancherie">Rancherie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republics_of_Russia" title="Republics of Russia">Russian republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_Indian_reserve" title="Urban Indian reserve">Urban Indian reserve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">Manifest destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_shaman" title="Plastic shaman">Plastic shaman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legend_of_the_Rainbow_Warriors" title="Legend of the Rainbow Warriors">Rainbow Warriors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-spirit" title="Two-spirit">Two-spirit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legal representation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Governmental bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aotearoa-New Zealand <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Te_Puni_K%C5%8Dkiri" title="Te Puni Kōkiri">Te Puni Kōkiri</a></li></ul></li> <li>Brazil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Nacional_do_%C3%8Dndio" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundação Nacional do Índio">Fundação Nacional do Índio</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_and_Northern_Affairs_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada">Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mexico <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="National Institute of Indigenous Peoples">National Institute of Indigenous Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li>Philippines <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Commission_on_Indigenous_Peoples_(Philippines)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (Philippines)">National Commission on Indigenous Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li>Russia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_for_the_Development_of_the_Russian_Far_East_and_Arctic" title="Ministry for the Development of the Russian Far East and Arctic">Ministry for the Development of the Russian Far East and Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Bashkortostan" title="Government of Bashkortostan">Government of Bashkortostan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Sakha_Republic" title="Government of the Sakha Republic">Government of the Sakha Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Tatarstan" title="Government of Tatarstan">Government of Tatarstan</a></li></ul></li> <li>Taiwan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Council of Indigenous Peoples">Council of Indigenous Peoples</a></li></ul></li> <li>US <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intergovernmental bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African Union <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Commission_on_Human_and_Peoples%27_Rights" title="African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights">African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Council" title="Arctic Council">Arctic Council</a></li> <li>WIPO <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Committee_on_Intellectual_Property_and_Genetic_Resources,_Traditional_Knowledge_and_Folklore" title="Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore">Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge, and Folklore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Seas_Treaty" title="High Seas Treaty">BBNJ ABS Committee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous-led international bodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Permanent_Forum_on_Indigenous_Issues" title="United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues">UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Caucus" title="Indigenous Caucus">Indigenous Caucus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties and Declarations of Rights</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_and_Tribal_Peoples_Convention,_1989" title="Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989">Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention (ILO C169)</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Nagoya_Protocol" title="Nagoya Protocol">Nagoya Protocol</a> on <a href="/wiki/Access_and_Benefit_Sharing_Agreement" title="Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement">Fair Access and Benefit-Sharing</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Peasants" title="United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants">UN Declaration on the Rights of Peasants (UNDROP)</a></li> <li>2023: <a href="/wiki/High_Seas_Treaty" title="High Seas Treaty">High Seas Treaty (BBNJ Agreement)</a></li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/WIPO_Treaty_on_Intellectual_Property,_Genetic_Resources_and_Associated_Traditional_Knowledge" title="WIPO Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge">Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge (GRATK)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical cases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chechen%E2%80%93Russian_conflict" title="Chechen–Russian conflict">Chechen–Russian conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sri Lankan Civil War">Sri Lankan Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Peruvian_political_crisis" title="2009 Peruvian political crisis">2009 Peruvian political crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alta_controversy" title="Alta controversy">Alta controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiapas_conflict" title="Chiapas conflict">Chiapas conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Chagossians" title="Expulsion of the Chagossians">Expulsion of the Chagossians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Arctic_relocation" title="High Arctic relocation">High Arctic relocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Tibet" title="Human rights in Tibet">Human rights in Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Danes_experiment" title="Little Danes experiment">Little Danes experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_conflict" title="Mapuche conflict">Mapuche conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oka_Crisis" title="Oka Crisis">Oka Crisis</a></li> <li>Residential schools <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Indian_residential_school_system" title="Canadian Indian residential school system">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_schools" title="Native schools">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Bantu_Education" title="Department of Bantu Education">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_rubber_boom" class="mw-redirect" title="Amazon rubber boom">Rubber boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Beers#Forceful_relocation_of_indigenous_Bushman_people_in_Botswana" title="De Beers">San controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stolen_Generations" title="Stolen Generations">Stolen Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Uyghurs_in_China" title="Persecution of Uyghurs in China">Persecution of Uyghurs in China</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_rights" title="Category:Indigenous rights">Indigenous rights</a> • <a href="/wiki/Category:Minority_rights" title="Category:Minority rights">Minority rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="International_relations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_organization" title="International organization">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court (ICC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations (UN)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">1648–1814</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">1814–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="International relations (1919–1939)">1919–1939</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomatic history of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_since_1989" title="International relations since 1989">International relations since 1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entente_(alliance)" title="Entente (alliance)">Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition" title="Coalition">Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_alliance" title="Military alliance">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-belligerence" title="Co-belligerence">Co-belligerence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">Collective security</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis" title="Crisis">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">Expansionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations" title="Idealism in international relations">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">International community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internationality" title="Internationality">Internationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_institutionalism" title="Liberal institutionalism">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">Interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">Isolationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_interest" title="National interest">National interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">Neutral country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-belligerent" title="Non-belligerent">Non-belligerent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">Non-state actor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(international_relations)" title="Power (international relations)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">Suzerainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_treaty" title="Bilateral treaty">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_friendship" title="Treaty of friendship">Friendship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateral_treaty" title="Multilateral treaty">Multilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact" title="Non-aggression pact">Non-aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-of-society" title="Whole-of-society">Whole-of-society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">Theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(international_relations)" title="Constructivism (international relations)">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_school_of_international_relations_theory" title="English school of international relations theory">English school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_(international_relations)" title="Liberalism (international relations)">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_international_relations_theory" title="Marxist international relations theory">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_international_relations" title="Postcolonial international relations">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)" title="Realism (international relations)">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields and subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">Comparative politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_analysis" title="Foreign policy analysis">Foreign policy analysis</a></li> 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