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id="toc-Western_European_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Norsemen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norsemen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Norsemen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norsemen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Spain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portugal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portugal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Portugal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portugal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-British" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>British</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Dutch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tuscany" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tuscany"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Tuscany</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tuscany-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Christianization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion_and_migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion_and_migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Religion and migration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion_and_migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease,_genocides,_and_indigenous_population_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease,_genocides,_and_indigenous_population_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Disease, genocides, and indigenous population loss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease,_genocides,_and_indigenous_population_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Slavery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization_and_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization_and_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Colonization and race</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization_and_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization_and_gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization_and_gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Colonization and gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization_and_gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_of_colonial_land_ownership_on_long-term_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_of_colonial_land_ownership_on_long-term_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Impact of colonial land ownership on long-term development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_of_colonial_land_ownership_on_long-term_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_European_colonies_in_the_Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_European_colonies_in_the_Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>List of European colonies in the Americas</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_European_colonies_in_the_Americas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of European colonies in the Americas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_European_colonies_in_the_Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_and_(before_1707)_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_and_(before_1707)_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>British and (before 1707) English</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_and_(before_1707)_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Duchy of Courland and Semigallia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Danish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Danish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Danish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Danish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dutch_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Dutch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>French</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Knights_of_Malta" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Knights_of_Malta"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Knights of Malta</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Knights_of_Malta-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norwegian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norwegian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.7</span> <span>Norwegian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norwegian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Portuguese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Portuguese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.8</span> <span>Portuguese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Portuguese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.9</span> <span>Russian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scottish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scottish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.10</span> <span>Scottish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scottish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.11</span> <span>Spanish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Swedish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Swedish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.12</span> <span>Swedish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Swedish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failed_attempts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failed_attempts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Failed attempts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Failed_attempts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Failed attempts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Failed_attempts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-German" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>German</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Italian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Denmark" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Denmark"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Denmark</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Denmark-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exhibitions_and_collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exhibitions_and_collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Exhibitions and collections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exhibitions_and_collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">European colonization of the Americas</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">64 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86" title="الاستعمار الأوروبي للأمريكيتين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الاستعمار الأوروبي للأمريكيتين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonizaci%C3%B3n_europea_d%27America" title="Colonización europea d'America – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Colonización europea d'America" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonizaci%C3%B3n_europea_d%27Am%C3%A9rica" title="Colonización europea d'América – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Colonización europea d'América" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Eimali_Amerikan%C4%B1n_kolonizasiyas%C4%B1" title="Şimali Amerikanın kolonizasiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Şimali Amerikanın kolonizasiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A8" title="আমেরিকা মহাদেশে ইউরোপীয়দের উপনিবেশ স্থাপন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আমেরিকা মহাদেশে ইউরোপীয়দের উপনিবেশ স্থাপন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Au-chiu-l%C3%A2ng_%C3%AA_B%C3%AD-chiu_si%CC%8Dt-b%C3%AEn" title="Au-chiu-lâng ê Bí-chiu si̍t-bîn – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Au-chiu-lâng ê Bí-chiu si̍t-bîn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Европейска колонизация на Америка – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Европейска колонизация на Америка" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonizacija_Amerike" title="Kolonizacija Amerike – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kolonizacija Amerike" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonitzaci%C3%B3_europea_d%27Am%C3%A8rica" title="Colonització europea d'Amèrica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Colonització europea d'Amèrica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europ%C3%A6isk_kolonisering_af_Amerika" title="Europæisk kolonisering af Amerika – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Europæisk kolonisering af Amerika" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europ%C3%A4ische_Kolonisierung_Amerikas" title="Europäische Kolonisierung Amerikas – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Europäische Kolonisierung Amerikas" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82" title="Αποικισμός της Αμερικής – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αποικισμός της Αμερικής" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonizaci%C3%B3n_europea_de_Am%C3%A9rica" title="Colonización europea de América – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Colonización europea de América" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%ADropa_koloniado_de_Ameriko" title="Eŭropa koloniado de Ameriko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Eŭropa koloniado de Ameriko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameriketako_europar_kolonizazioa" title="Ameriketako europar kolonizazioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ameriketako europar kolonizazioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="استعمار اروپا در آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="استعمار اروپا در آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonisation_europ%C3%A9enne_des_Am%C3%A9riques" title="Colonisation européenne des Amériques – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Colonisation européenne des Amériques" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuvierte_des_Americhis" title="Scuvierte des Americhis – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Scuvierte des Americhis" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonizaci%C3%B3n_europea_de_Am%C3%A9rica" title="Colonización europea de América – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Colonización europea de América" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%9F%BD%EC%9D%98_%EC%95%84%EB%A9%94%EB%A6%AC%EC%B9%B4_%EC%8B%9D%EB%AF%BC%EC%A7%80%ED%99%94" title="유럽의 아메리카 식민지화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유럽의 아메리카 식민지화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B4%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Ամերիկայի գաղութացում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ամերիկայի գաղութացում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonizacija_Amerike" title="Kolonizacija Amerike – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kolonizacija Amerike" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonisasi_Amerika_oleh_Eropa" title="Kolonisasi Amerika oleh Eropa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kolonisasi Amerika oleh Eropa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landn%C3%A1m_Amer%C3%ADku" title="Landnám Ameríku – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Landnám Ameríku" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonizzazione_europea_delle_Americhe" title="Colonizzazione europea delle Americhe – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Colonizzazione europea delle Americhe" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="הקולוניזציה האירופית של אמריקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הקולוניזציה האירופית של אמריקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90_%E1%83%94%E1%83%95%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0" title="ამერიკის კოლონიზაცია ევროპელთა მიერ – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ამერიკის კოლონიზაცია ევროპელთა მიერ" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonizasyon_%C3%A9rop%C3%A9enn_di_s%C3%A9_Am%C3%A9rik" title="Kolonizasyon éropéenn di sé Amérik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Kolonizasyon éropéenn di sé Amérik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonizatio_Europaea_Americarum" title="Colonizatio Europaea Americarum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Colonizatio Europaea Americarum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikos_kolonizacija" title="Amerikos kolonizacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Amerikos kolonizacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_gyarmatos%C3%ADt%C3%A1sa" title="Amerika gyarmatosítása – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Amerika gyarmatosítása" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B3%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="അമേരിക്കകളുടെ യൂറോപ്യൻ കോളനിവത്കരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അമേരിക്കകളുടെ യൂറോപ്യൻ കോളനിവത്കരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86" title="استعمار الاوروبيين الامريكتين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="استعمار الاوروبيين الامريكتين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3ria_de_la_queloniza%C3%A7on_de_las_Am%C3%A9ricas" title="Stória de la quelonizaçon de las Américas – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Stória de la quelonizaçon de las Américas" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europese_kolonisatie_van_Amerika" title="Europese kolonisatie van Amerika – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Europese kolonisatie van Amerika" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A8%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AD%E3%83%83%E3%83%91%E8%AB%B8%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AB%E3%82%88%E3%82%8B%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%E3%81%AE%E6%A4%8D%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0%E5%8C%96" title="ヨーロッパ諸国によるアメリカ大陸の植民地化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ヨーロッパ諸国によるアメリカ大陸の植民地化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeisk_kolonisering_av_Amerika" title="Europeisk kolonisering av Amerika – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Europeisk kolonisering av Amerika" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeisk_kolonisering_av_Amerika" title="Europeisk kolonisering av Amerika – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Europeisk kolonisering av Amerika" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7_%DA%A9%DB%90_%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="په امریکا کې د اروپا استعمار – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="په امریکا کې د اروپا استعمار" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuropiyan_Kalanaizieshan_a_di_Amoerkaz" title="Yuropiyan Kalanaizieshan a di Amoerkaz – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Yuropiyan Kalanaizieshan a di Amoerkaz" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europejska_kolonizacja_Ameryki" title="Europejska kolonizacja Ameryki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Europejska kolonizacja Ameryki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniza%C3%A7%C3%A3o_europeia_da_Am%C3%A9rica" title="Colonização europeia da América – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Colonização europeia da América" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonizarea_european%C4%83_a_Americii" title="Colonizarea europeană a Americii – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Colonizarea europeană a Americii" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Европейская колонизация Америки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Европейская колонизация Америки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonisation_o_the_Americas" title="European colonisation o the Americas – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="European colonisation o the Americas" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuperta_di_la_M%C3%A8rica" title="Scuperta di la Mèrica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Scuperta di la Mèrica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="European colonization of the Americas" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evropska_kolonizacija_Amerike" title="Evropska kolonizacija Amerike – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Evropska kolonizacija Amerike" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%DA%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%A9%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7_%D9%84%DB%95_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="داگیرکەری ئەورووپا لە ئەمریکا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="داگیرکەری ئەورووپا لە ئەمریکا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Колонизација Северне Америке – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Колонизација Северне Америке" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurooppalaisten_Amerikan_kolonisaatio" title="Eurooppalaisten Amerikan kolonisaatio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Eurooppalaisten Amerikan kolonisaatio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeiska_koloniseringen_av_Amerika" title="Europeiska koloniseringen av Amerika – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Europeiska koloniseringen av Amerika" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europeong_pananakop_ng_Kaamerikahan" title="Europeong pananakop ng Kaamerikahan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Europeong pananakop ng Kaamerikahan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="அமெரிக்காக்களில் ஐரோப்பியக் குடியேற்றம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அமெரிக்காக்களில் ஐரோப்பியக் குடியேற்றம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikan_kolonileri" title="Amerikan kolonileri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Amerikan kolonileri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Європейська колонізація Америки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Європейська колонізація Америки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%DB%8C_%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="یورپی نوآبادیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یورپی نوآبادیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%B1c_d%C3%A2n_ch%C3%A2u_%C3%82u_t%E1%BA%A1i_ch%C3%A2u_M%E1%BB%B9" title="Thực dân châu Âu tại châu Mỹ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thực dân châu Âu tại châu Mỹ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameeriga_kolonisiirmine_%C3%B5uruuplaisi_puult" title="Ameeriga kolonisiirmine õuruuplaisi puult – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Ameeriga kolonisiirmine õuruuplaisi puult" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E6%B4%B2%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91" title="美洲殖民 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="美洲殖民" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolonisasyon_han_mga_Europeo_ha_mga_Amerika" title="Kolonisasyon han mga Europeo ha mga Amerika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kolonisasyon han mga Europeo ha mga Amerika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/125px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/188px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/250px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top: 0.40em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_wave_of_European_colonization" title="First wave of European colonization">First wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Basque colonization of the Americas">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">British</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Curonian colonization of the Americas">Curonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Danish colonization of the Americas">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="German colonization of the Americas">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Hospitaller colonization of the Americas">Hospitaller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_and_the_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Italy and the colonization of the Americas">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Swedish colonies in the Americas">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_colonies_and_territories_in_Canada" title="Former colonies and territories in Canada">Colonization of Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonization of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">Decolonization</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid; padding-bottom:0.4em;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output 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decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Benton_American_Discovery_Viewed_by_Native_Americans.jpg/330px-Benton_American_Discovery_Viewed_by_Native_Americans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Benton_American_Discovery_Viewed_by_Native_Americans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="599" /></a><figcaption><i>American Discovery Viewed by Native Americans</i>, a 1922 painting by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hart_Benton_(painter)" title="Thomas Hart Benton (painter)">Thomas Hart Benton</a>, now housed in the <a href="/wiki/Peabody_Essex_Museum" title="Peabody Essex Museum">Peabody Essex Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Salem,_Massachusetts" title="Salem, Massachusetts">Salem, Massachusetts</a>, United States<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, a large scale <a href="/wiki/European_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonization">colonization</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, involving a number of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> countries, took place primarily between the late 15th century and the early 19th century. <a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">The Norse explored and colonized</a> areas of Europe and the North Atlantic, colonizing <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and creating a short-term settlement near the northern tip of <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a> circa 1000 AD. However, due to its long duration and importance, the later colonization by the European powers involving the continents of <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> is more well-known.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitt-Clarke_2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stannard_1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_1987-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this time, the European empires of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portugal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Netherlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Sweden</a> began to <a href="/wiki/Discovery_doctrine" title="Discovery doctrine">explore and claim</a> the Americas, its natural resources, and <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitt-Clarke_2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stannard_1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_1987-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to the displacement, disestablishment, <a href="/wiki/Enslavement_of_indigenous_peoples_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Enslavement of indigenous peoples in North America">enslavement</a>, and even <a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples#Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas_(pre-1948)" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples">genocide</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples</a> in the Americas,<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitt-Clarke_2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stannard_1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_1987-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the establishment of several <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonial</a> states.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitt-Clarke_2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stannard_1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_1987-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:42_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a> began <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">colonizing the Pacific Northwest</a> in the mid-18th century, seeking pelts for the fur trade. Many of the social structures—including <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">religions</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Corrigan-Neal_2010_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corrigan-Neal_2010-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pointer_2011_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pointer_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Border" title="Border">political boundaries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">linguae francae</a>—which predominate in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere" title="Western Hemisphere">Western Hemisphere</a> in the 21st century are the descendants of those that were established during this period. </p><p>The rapid rate at which some European nations grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 15th century because it had been <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Crisis of the Late Middle Ages">preoccupied with internal wars</a> and it was slowly recovering from the loss of population caused by the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_20012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_20012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>'s domination of <a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">trade routes to Asia</a> prompted Western European monarchs to search for alternatives, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Voyages_of_Christopher_Columbus" title="Voyages of Christopher Columbus">voyages of Christopher Columbus</a> and his accidental arrival at the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>. </p><p>With the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> in 1494, Portugal and Spain agreed to divide the Earth in two, with Portugal having dominion over non-<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> lands in the world's eastern half, and Spain over those in the western half. Spanish claims essentially included all of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>; however, the Treaty of Tordesillas granted the eastern tip of South America to Portugal, where it established <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Brazil</a> in the early 1500s, and the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a> to Spain, where It established the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. The city of <a href="/wiki/Santo_Domingo" title="Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a>, in the current-day <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>, founded in 1496 by Columbus, is credited as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_the_Americas_by_year_of_foundation" title="List of cities in the Americas by year of foundation">oldest continuously inhabited</a> European-established settlement in the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1530s, other Western European powers realized they too could benefit from voyages to the Americas, leading to <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French</a> colonializations in the northeast tip of the Americas, including in the present-day <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Within a century, the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_colonies_in_the_Americas" title="Swedish colonies in the Americas">Swedish</a> established <a href="/wiki/New_Sweden" title="New Sweden">New Sweden</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Dutch</a> established <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a> along with the Swedish and Dutch established colonization of parts of the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>. By the 1700s, Denmark–Norway revived its former colonies in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian colonization of the Americas">Russia</a> began to explore and claim the Pacific Coast from <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Alaska</a> to <a href="/wiki/History_of_California_before_1900#Russian_colonization_(1812-1841)" title="History of California before 1900">California</a>. </p><p>Violent conflicts arose during the beginning of this period as indigenous peoples fought to preserve their territorial integrity from increasing European colonizers and from hostile indigenous neighbors who were equipped with Eurasian technology. Conflict between the various European empires and the indigenous peoples was a leading dynamic in the Americas into the 1800s, although some parts of the continent gained their <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">independence from Europe</a> by then, countries such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> continued to fight against Native Americans and practiced <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a>. The United States for example practiced a settler colonial policy of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_Destiny" class="mw-redirect" title="Manifest Destiny">Manifest Destiny</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>. </p><p>Other regions, including <a href="/wiki/California_Indian_Wars" title="California Indian Wars">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Desert" title="Conquest of the Desert">Patagonia</a>, the North Western Territory, and the <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">northern Great Plains</a>, experienced little to no colonization at all until the 1800s. European contact and colonization had disastrous effects on the indigenous peoples of the Americas and their societies.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitt-Clarke_2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stannard_1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_1987-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Western_European_powers">Western European powers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Western European powers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norsemen">Norsemen</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Norsemen"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse colonization of North America</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Erikr-eng.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Erikr-eng.png/220px-Erikr-eng.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Erikr-eng.png/330px-Erikr-eng.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Erikr-eng.png/440px-Erikr-eng.png 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption>Various sailing routes to <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vinland" title="Vinland">Vinland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a>), <a href="/wiki/Helluland" title="Helluland">Helluland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Baffin_Island" title="Baffin Island">Baffin Island</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Markland" title="Markland">Markland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Labrador" title="Labrador">Labrador</a>) travelled by the <a href="/wiki/Sagas_of_Icelanders" title="Sagas of Icelanders">Icelandic Sagas</a>, including in the <i><a href="/wiki/Saga_of_Erik_the_Red" title="Saga of Erik the Red">Saga of Erik the Red</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Saga_of_the_Greenlanders" title="Saga of the Greenlanders">Saga of the Greenlanders</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norse</a> <a href="/wiki/Vikings" title="Vikings">Viking</a> explorers were the first known Europeans to set foot in North America. Norse journeys to <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Price2015_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price2015-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Norsemen established a colony in Greenland in the late tenth century, and lasted until the mid 15th-century, with court and parliament assemblies (<i><a href="/wiki/Thing_(assembly)" title="Thing (assembly)">þing</a></i>) taking place at <a href="/wiki/Brattahl%C3%AD%C3%B0" title="Brattahlíð">Brattahlíð</a> and a bishop located at <a href="/wiki/Gardar,_Greenland" class="mw-redirect" title="Gardar, Greenland">Garðar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WurmMühlhäusler1996_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WurmMühlhäusler1996-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remains of a settlement at <a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a> in <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Newfoundland</a>, Canada, were discovered in 1960 and were dated to around the year 1000 (carbon dating estimate 990–1050).<sup id="cite_ref-CordellLightfoot2008_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CordellLightfoot2008-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> L'Anse aux Meadows is the only site widely accepted as evidence of pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. It was named a <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> in 1978.<sup id="cite_ref-Allen1997_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Allen1997-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also notable for its possible connection with the attempted colony of <a href="/wiki/Vinland" title="Vinland">Vinland</a>, established by <a href="/wiki/Leif_Erikson" title="Leif Erikson">Leif Erikson</a> around the same period or, more broadly, with the <a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse colonization of the Americas">Norse colonization of the Americas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kristinsson2010_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kristinsson2010-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leif Erikson's brother is said to have had the first contact with the native population of North America which would come to be known as the <a href="/wiki/Skr%C3%A6ling" title="Skræling">skrælings</a>. After capturing and killing eight of the natives, they were attacked at their beached ships, which they defended.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spain">Spain</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Spain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_wave_of_European_colonization" title="First wave of European colonization">First wave of European colonization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Viajes_de_colon_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Viajes_de_colon_en.svg/250px-Viajes_de_colon_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Viajes_de_colon_en.svg/375px-Viajes_de_colon_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Viajes_de_colon_en.svg/500px-Viajes_de_colon_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="343" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> voyages</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SpanishPacific.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/SpanishPacific.svg/250px-SpanishPacific.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/SpanishPacific.svg/375px-SpanishPacific.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/SpanishPacific.svg/500px-SpanishPacific.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="1075" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a> and other circumnavigation explorers</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22America%22_(Engraving)_Nova_reperta_(Speculum_diuersarum_imaginum_speculatiuarum_1638).tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%22America%22_%28Engraving%29_Nova_reperta_%28Speculum_diuersarum_imaginum_speculatiuarum_1638%29.tif/lossless-page1-220px-%22America%22_%28Engraving%29_Nova_reperta_%28Speculum_diuersarum_imaginum_speculatiuarum_1638%29.tif.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%22America%22_%28Engraving%29_Nova_reperta_%28Speculum_diuersarum_imaginum_speculatiuarum_1638%29.tif/lossless-page1-330px-%22America%22_%28Engraving%29_Nova_reperta_%28Speculum_diuersarum_imaginum_speculatiuarum_1638%29.tif.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%22America%22_%28Engraving%29_Nova_reperta_%28Speculum_diuersarum_imaginum_speculatiuarum_1638%29.tif/lossless-page1-440px-%22America%22_%28Engraving%29_Nova_reperta_%28Speculum_diuersarum_imaginum_speculatiuarum_1638%29.tif.png 2x" data-file-width="3162" data-file-height="2312" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Amerigo_Vespucci" title="Amerigo Vespucci">Amerigo Vespucci</a> wakes up "America" in <i>Americae Retectio</i>, engraving by the Flemish artist <a href="/wiki/Jan_Galle" title="Jan Galle">Jan Galle</a> (circa 1615)</figcaption></figure> <p>Systematic European colonization began in 1492. A <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> <a href="/wiki/Columbus%27s_first_voyage" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbus's first voyage">expedition</a> sailed west to find a new trade route to the <a href="/wiki/Far_East" title="Far East">Far East</a>, the source of spices, silks, porcelains, and other rich trade goods. Ottoman control of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, the traditional route for trade between Europe and Asia, forced European traders to look for alternative routes. The <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a> mariner <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> led an expedition to find a route to East Asia, but instead landed in <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">The Bahamas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DavidannGilbert2019_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DavidannGilbert2019-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Columbus encountered the <a href="/wiki/Lucayan_people" title="Lucayan people">Lucayan people</a> on the island <a href="/wiki/Guanahani" title="Guanahani">Guanahani</a> (possibly <a href="/wiki/Cat_Island,_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Cat Island, Bahamas">Cat Island</a>), which they had inhabited since the ninth century. In his reports, Columbus exaggerated the quantity of gold in the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a>, which he called the "<a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>". These claims, along with the slaves he brought back, convinced the monarchy to fund a second voyage. Word of Columbus's exploits spread quickly, sparking the Western European exploration, conquest, and colonization of the Americas. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MHN_Rugendas_Descobrimento_da_Am%C3%A9rica.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/MHN_Rugendas_Descobrimento_da_Am%C3%A9rica.jpg/220px-MHN_Rugendas_Descobrimento_da_Am%C3%A9rica.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/MHN_Rugendas_Descobrimento_da_Am%C3%A9rica.jpg/330px-MHN_Rugendas_Descobrimento_da_Am%C3%A9rica.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/MHN_Rugendas_Descobrimento_da_Am%C3%A9rica.jpg/440px-MHN_Rugendas_Descobrimento_da_Am%C3%A9rica.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3002" data-file-height="2244" /></a><figcaption>The Discovery of America (<a href="/wiki/Johann_Moritz_Rugendas" title="Johann Moritz Rugendas">Johann Moritz Rugendas</a>).</figcaption></figure> <p>Spanish explorers, conquerors, and settlers sought material wealth, prestige, and the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread of Christianity</a>, often summed up in the phrase "gold, glory, and God".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish justified their claims to the New World based on the ideals of the Christian Reconquista of the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> from the Muslims, completed in 1492.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the New World, military conquest to incorporate indigenous peoples into Christendom was considered the "spiritual conquest". In 1493, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a>, the first Spaniard to become Pope, issued a series of <a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal Bulls</a> that confirmed Spanish claims to the newly discovered lands.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the final <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a> was ratified by the Pope, the two kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a> (in a <a href="/wiki/Personal_union" title="Personal union">personal union</a> with other kingdoms of Spain) and Portugal in 1494. The treaty divided the entire non-European world into two spheres of exploration and colonization. The <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitudinal</a> boundary cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the eastern part of present-day Brazil. The countries declared their rights to the land despite the fact that Indigenous populations had settled from pole to pole in the hemisphere and it was their homeland. </p><p>After European contact, the native population of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80% (from around 50 million in 1492 to eight million in 1650), due in part to Old World diseases carried to the New World. <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a> was especially devastating, for it could be passed through touch, allowing native tribes to be wiped out,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the conditions that colonization imposed on Indigenous populations, such as forced labor and removal from homelands and traditional medicines.<sup id="cite_ref-Histoire_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Histoire-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:42_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:42-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars have argued <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">that this demographic collapse</a> was the result of the first large-scale act of <a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples">genocide</a> <a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history#1490_to_1914" title="Genocides in history">in the modern era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stannard_1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capitulo-CIX.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Capitulo-CIX.jpg/220px-Capitulo-CIX.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Capitulo-CIX.jpg/330px-Capitulo-CIX.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Capitulo-CIX.jpg/440px-Capitulo-CIX.jpg 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>The silver mountain of <a href="/wiki/Potos%C3%AD" title="Potosí">Potosí</a>, in what is now Bolivia. It was the source of vast amounts of silver that transformed the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world economy</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>For example, the labor and tribute of <a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Taíno people">inhabitants of Hispaniola</a> were granted in <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomienda</a> to Spaniards, a practice established in Spain for conquered Muslims. Although not technically slavery, it was coerced labor for the benefit of the Spanish grantees, called <i><a href="/wiki/Encomenderos" class="mw-redirect" title="Encomenderos">encomenderos</a></i>. Spain had a legal tradition and devised a proclamation known as <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Requirement_of_1513" title="Spanish Requirement of 1513">The Requerimento</a> to be read to indigenous populations in Spanish, often far from the field of battle, stating that the indigenous were now subjects of the Spanish Crown and would be punished if they resisted.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the news of this situation and the abuse of the institution reached Spain, the <a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws</a> were passed to regulate and gradually abolish the system in the Americas, as well as to reiterate the prohibition of enslaving Native Americans. By the time the new laws were passed, in 1542, the Spanish crown had acknowledged their inability to control and properly ensure compliance with traditional laws overseas, so they granted to Native Americans specific protections not even Spaniards had, such as the prohibition of enslaving them even in the case of crime or war. These extra protections were an attempt to avoid the proliferation of irregular claims to slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as historian <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Res%C3%A9ndez" title="Andrés Reséndez">Andrés Reséndez</a> has noted, "this categorical prohibition did not stop generations of determined conquistadors and colonists from taking Native slaves on a planetary scale, ... The fact that this other slavery had to be carried out clandestinely made it even more insidious. It is a tale of good intentions gone badly astray."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major event in early Spanish colonization, which had so far yielded paltry returns, was the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</a> (1519–1521). It was led by <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a> and made possible by securing indigenous alliances with the Aztecs' enemies, mobilizing thousands of warriors against the Aztecs for their own political reasons. The Aztec capital, <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>, became <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>, the chief city of the "<a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a>". More than an estimated 240,000 <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a> died during the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">siege of Tenochtitlan</a>, 100,000 in combat,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while 500–1,000 of the Spaniards engaged in the conquest died. The other great conquest was of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> (1531–35), led by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spanish_North_America.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spanish_North_America.png/220px-Spanish_North_America.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spanish_North_America.png/330px-Spanish_North_America.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Spanish_North_America.png/440px-Spanish_North_America.png 2x" data-file-width="7949" data-file-height="7944" /></a><figcaption>Spanish historical and territorial presence in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the early period of exploration, conquest, and settlement, c. 1492–1550, the overseas possessions claimed by Spain were only loosely controlled by the crown. With the conquests of the Aztecs and the Incas, the New World now commanded the crown's attention. Both Mexico and Peru had dense, hierarchically organized indigenous populations that could be incorporated and ruled. Even more importantly, both Mexico and Peru had large deposits of silver, which became the economic motor of the Spanish empire and transformed the world economy. In Peru, the singular, hugely rich <a href="/wiki/Cerro_Rico" title="Cerro Rico">silver mine of Potosí</a> was worked by traditional forced indigenous labor drafts, known as the <a href="/wiki/Mit%27a" title="Mit'a">mit'a</a>. In Mexico, silver was found outside the zone of dense indigenous settlement, so free laborers migrated to the mines in <a href="/wiki/Guanajuato" title="Guanajuato">Guanajuato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zacatecas" title="Zacatecas">Zacatecas</a>. The crown established the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a> in 1524, based in Seville, and issued <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">laws of the Indies</a> to assert its power against the early conquerors. The crown created the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">viceroyalty of New Spain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">viceroyalty of Peru</a> to tighten crown control over these rich prizes of conquest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portugal">Portugal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Portugal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/First_wave_of_European_colonization" title="First wave of European colonization">First wave of European colonization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_America" title="Portuguese America">Portuguese America</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pedro-e-297-a_0001_1_p24-C-R0150_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pedro-e-297-a_0001_1_p24-C-R0150_cropped.jpg/220px-Pedro-e-297-a_0001_1_p24-C-R0150_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pedro-e-297-a_0001_1_p24-C-R0150_cropped.jpg/330px-Pedro-e-297-a_0001_1_p24-C-R0150_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Pedro-e-297-a_0001_1_p24-C-R0150_cropped.jpg/440px-Pedro-e-297-a_0001_1_p24-C-R0150_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2495" data-file-height="1658" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_Brazil" title="Discovery of Brazil">Discovery of Brazil</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Over this same time frame as Spain, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Portugal" title="History of Portugal">Portugal</a> claimed lands in North America (Canada) and colonized much of eastern South America naming it <a href="/wiki/History_of_Brazil" title="History of Brazil">Santa Cruz and Brazil</a>. On behalf of both the Portuguese and Spanish crowns, cartographer <a href="/wiki/Amerigo_Vespucci" title="Amerigo Vespucci">Amerigo Vespucci</a> explored the South American east coast and published his new book <i>Mundus Novus</i> (<i>New World</i>) in 1502–1503 which disproved the belief that the Americas were the easternmost part of Asia and confirmed that Columbus had reached a set of continents previously unheard of to any Europeans. <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartographers</a> still use a <a href="/wiki/Latinization_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinization (literature)">Latinized</a> version of his first name, <i>America</i>, for the two continents. In April 1500, Portuguese noble <a href="/wiki/Pedro_%C3%81lvares_Cabral" title="Pedro Álvares Cabral">Pedro Álvares Cabral</a> claimed the region of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Brazil" title="History of Brazil">Brazil</a> to Portugal; the effective <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">colonization of Brazil</a> began three decades later with the founding of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Vicente,_S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="São Vicente, São Paulo">São Vicente</a> in 1532 and the establishment of the system of <a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_Brazil" title="Captaincies of Brazil">captaincies</a> in 1534, which was later replaced by other systems. Others tried to colonize the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">eastern coasts</a> of present-day Canada and the <a href="/wiki/R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Río de la Plata">River Plate</a> in South America. These explorers include <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Vaz_Corte-Real" title="João Vaz Corte-Real">João Vaz Corte-Real</a> in Newfoundland; <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Fernandes_Lavrador" title="João Fernandes Lavrador">João Fernandes Lavrador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaspar_Corte-Real" title="Gaspar Corte-Real">Gaspar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Corte-Real" title="Miguel Corte-Real">Miguel Corte-Real</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_%C3%81lvares_Fagundes" title="João Álvares Fagundes">João Álvares Fagundes</a>, in Newfoundland, Greenland, Labrador, and Nova Scotia (from 1498 to 1502, and in 1520). </p><p>During this time, the Portuguese gradually switched from an initial plan of establishing trading posts to extensive <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> of what is now Brazil. They imported millions of slaves to run their plantations. The Portuguese and Spanish royal governments expected to rule these settlements and collect at least 20% of all treasure found (the <i><a href="/wiki/Quinto_real" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinto real">quinto real</a></i> collected by the <i><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></i>), in addition to collecting all the taxes they could. By the late 16th century <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> from the Americas accounted for one-fifth of the combined total budget of Portugal and Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Europeans entered ports in the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/French_America" title="French America">French America</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/220px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/330px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/440px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="1090" /></a><figcaption>Map of territorial claims in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> by 1750, before the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>, which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink), France (blue), and Spain. (White border lines mark later Canadian Provinces and US States for reference)</figcaption></figure> <p>France founded colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America (which had not been colonized by Spain north of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Florida" title="History of Florida">Florida</a>), a number of Caribbean islands (which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease), and small coastal parts of South America. Explorers included <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Verrazzano" title="Giovanni da Verrazzano">Giovanni da Verrazzano</a> in 1524; <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cartier" title="Jacques Cartier">Jacques Cartier</a> (1491–1557), and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_de_Champlain" title="Samuel de Champlain">Samuel de Champlain</a> (1567–1635), who explored the region of Canada he reestablished as <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French colonial empire</a> stretched to over 10,000,000 km<sup>2</sup> (3,900,000 sq mi) at its peak in 1710, which was the second largest colonial empire in the world, after the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the French colonial regions, the focus of the economy was on <a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_the_Caribbean" title="Sugar plantations in the Caribbean">sugar plantations</a> in the <a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French West Indies</a>. In Canada the <a href="/wiki/North_American_fur_trade" title="North American fur trade">fur trade</a> with the natives was important. About 16,000 French men and women became colonizers. The great majority became subsistence farmers along the <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence_River" title="St. Lawrence River">St. Lawrence River</a>. With a favorable disease environment and plenty of land and food, their numbers grew exponentially to 65,000 by 1760. Their colony was taken over by Britain in 1760, but social, religious, legal, cultural, and economic changes were few in a society that clung tightly to its recently formed traditions.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British">British</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: British"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">British colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a> and <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></div><p> British colonization began in North America almost a century after Spain. The relatively late arrival meant that the British could use the other European colonization powers as models for their endeavors.<sup id="cite_ref-Haring,_Clarence_H._1985_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haring,_Clarence_H._1985-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztecs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Incas</a>, and other large Native American populations in the 16th century, their first attempt at colonization occurred in <a href="/wiki/Roanoke_Colony" title="Roanoke Colony">Roanoke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_Colony" title="Newfoundland Colony">Newfoundland</a>, although unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1606, <a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">King James I</a> granted a charter with the purpose of discovering the riches at their first permanent settlement in <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown, Virginia</a> in 1607. They were sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Common_stock" title="Common stock">common stock</a> companies such as the chartered <a href="/wiki/London_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="London Company">Virginia Company</a> financed by wealthy Englishmen who exaggerated the economic potential of the land.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_20012_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_20012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Penn_and_the_Indians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/William_Penn_and_the_Indians.jpg/220px-William_Penn_and_the_Indians.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/William_Penn_and_the_Indians.jpg/330px-William_Penn_and_the_Indians.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/William_Penn_and_the_Indians.jpg/440px-William_Penn_and_the_Indians.jpg 2x" data-file-width="602" data-file-height="299" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Penn_Treaty_Park" title="Penn Treaty Park">Penn's Treaty</a> with the Indians</figcaption></figure><p>The <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> of the 16th century broke the unity of <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christendom</a> and led to the formation of numerous new religious sects, which often faced persecution by governmental authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> by the end of the 16th century. One of the primary manifestations of this was the <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> movement, which sought to purify the existing Church of England of its residual Catholic rites. The first of these people, known as the <a href="/wiki/Pilgrims_(Plymouth_Colony)" title="Pilgrims (Plymouth Colony)">Pilgrims</a>, landed on <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Rock" title="Plymouth Rock">Plymouth Rock</a> in November 1620. Continuous waves of repression led to the <a href="/wiki/Puritan_migration_to_New_England_(1620%E2%80%931640)" title="Puritan migration to New England (1620–1640)">migration of about 20,000 Puritans to New England</a> between 1629 and 1642, where they founded <a href="/wiki/New_England_Colonies" title="New England Colonies">multiple colonies</a>. Later in the century, the new <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania" title="Province of Pennsylvania">Province of Pennsylvania</a> was given to <a href="/wiki/William_Penn" title="William Penn">William Penn</a> in settlement of a debt the king owed his father. Its government was established by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted English Quakers, but others were welcomed. <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Germany" title="Protestantism in Germany">German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_Switzerland" title="Protestantism in Switzerland">Swiss Protestants</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a> also flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very attractive.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg/220px-Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg/330px-Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg/440px-Thirteencolonies_politics_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3685" data-file-height="4500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> of North America:<br /> Dark Red = <a href="/wiki/New_England_Colonies" title="New England Colonies">New England colonies</a>.<br /> Bright Red = <a href="/wiki/Middle_Colonies" title="Middle Colonies">Middle Atlantic colonies</a>.<br /> Red-brown = <a href="/wiki/Southern_Colonies" title="Southern Colonies">Southern colonies</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Mainly due to discrimination, there was often a separation between English colonial communities and indigenous communities. The Europeans viewed the natives as savages who were not worthy of participating in what they considered civilized society.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The native people of North America did not die out nearly as rapidly nor as greatly as those in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Central and South America</a> due in part to their exclusion from British society. The indigenous people continued to be stripped of their native lands and were pushed further out west.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English eventually went on to control much of <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">Eastern North America</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, and parts of South America. They also gained <a href="/wiki/British_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="British Florida">Florida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763%E2%80%931791)" title="Province of Quebec (1763–1791)">Quebec</a> in the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/John_Smith_of_Jamestown" class="mw-redirect" title="John Smith of Jamestown">John Smith</a> convinced the colonists of Jamestown that searching for gold was not taking care of their immediate needs for food and shelter. The lack of <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> leading to an extremely high mortality rate was quite distressing and cause for despair among the colonists. To support the colony, numerous <a href="/wiki/Jamestown_supply_missions" title="Jamestown supply missions">supply missions</a> were organized. <a href="/wiki/Tobacco" title="Tobacco">Tobacco</a> later became a cash crop, with the work of <a href="/wiki/John_Rolfe" title="John Rolfe">John Rolfe</a> and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver of <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia</a> and the neighboring colony of <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Maryland</a>. <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">Plantation agriculture</a> was a primary aspect of the economies of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Colonies" title="Southern Colonies">Southern Colonies</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a>. They heavily relied on African slave labor to sustain their economic pursuits.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From the beginning of Virginia's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">indentured servants</a> looking for a new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured servants constituted three-quarters of all European immigrants to the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Colonies" title="Chesapeake Colonies">Chesapeake Colonies</a>. Most of the indentured servants were teenagers from England with poor economic prospects at home. Their fathers signed the papers that gave them free passage to America and an unpaid job until they came of age. They were given food, clothing, and housing and taught farming or household skills. American landowners were in need of laborers and were willing to pay for a laborer's passage to America if they served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of work, they could then start on their own in America.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the migrants from England died in the first few years.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_20012_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_20012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic advantage also prompted the <a href="/wiki/Darien_scheme" title="Darien scheme">Darien scheme</a>, an ill-fated venture by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a> to settle the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a> in the late 1690s. The Darien Scheme aimed to control trade through that part of the world and thereby promote Scotland into a world trading power. However, it was doomed by poor planning, short provisions, weak leadership, lack of demand for trade goods, and devastating disease.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The failure of the Darien scheme was one of the factors that led the Kingdom of Scotland into the <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Union_1707" class="mw-redirect" title="Act of Union 1707">Act of Union 1707</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a>, creating the united <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a> and giving Scotland commercial access to English, now British, colonies.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dutch">Dutch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Dutch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Dutch colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch America">Dutch America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg/220px-GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg/330px-GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg/440px-GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7276" data-file-height="4964" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a> on lower Manhattan island, was captured by the English in 1665, becoming <a href="/wiki/History_of_New_York_City_(1665%E2%80%931783)" title="History of New York City (1665–1783)">New York</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Netherlands had been part of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>, due to the inheritance of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I of Spain">Charles V</a> of Spain. Many Dutch people converted to <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> and sought their political independence from Spain. They were a seafaring nation and built a global empire in regions where the Portuguese had originally explored. In the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Golden_Age" title="Dutch Golden Age">Dutch Golden Age</a>, it sought colonies. In the Americas, the Dutch conquered the northeast of <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Brazil</a> in 1630, where the Portuguese had built sugar cane plantations worked by black slave labor from Africa. Prince <a href="/wiki/Johan_Maurits_van_Nassau-Siegen" class="mw-redirect" title="Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen">Johan Maurits van Nassau-Siegen</a> became the administrator of the colony (1637–43), building a capital city and royal palace, fully expecting the Dutch to retain control of this rich area. As the Dutch had in Europe, it tolerated the presence of Jews and other religious groups in the colony. After Maurits departed in 1643, the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_West_India_Company" title="Dutch West India Company">Dutch West India Company</a> took over the colony until it was lost to the Portuguese in 1654. The Dutch retained some territory in <a href="/wiki/Surinam_(Dutch_colony)" title="Surinam (Dutch colony)">Dutch Guiana</a>, now <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a>. The Dutch also seized islands in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Caribbean" title="Dutch Caribbean">Caribbean</a> that Spain had originally claimed but had largely abandoned, including <a href="/wiki/Sint_Maarten" title="Sint Maarten">Sint Maarten</a> in 1618, <a href="/wiki/Bonaire" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a> in 1634, <a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Curaçao">Curaçao</a> in 1634, <a href="/wiki/Sint_Eustatius" title="Sint Eustatius">Sint Eustatius</a> in 1636, <a href="/wiki/Aruba" title="Aruba">Aruba</a> in 1637, some of which remain in Dutch hands and retain Dutch cultural traditions. </p><p>On the east coast of North America, the Dutch planted the colony of <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a> on the lower end of the island of <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>, at <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a> starting in 1624. The Dutch sought to protect their investments and purchased Manhattan from a band of <a href="/wiki/Metoac#Exonyms" title="Metoac">Canarse</a> from <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a> who occupied the bottom quarter of Manhattan, known then as the <a href="/wiki/Manhattoes#Dutch_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Manhattoes">Manhattoes</a>, for 60 <a href="/wiki/Dutch_guilder" title="Dutch guilder">guilders</a>' worth of trade goods. Minuit conducted the transaction with the Canarse chief Seyseys, who accepted valuable merchandise in exchange for an island that was actually mostly controlled by another indigenous group, the <a href="/wiki/Weckquaesgeek" class="mw-redirect" title="Weckquaesgeek">Weckquaesgeeks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dutch fur traders set up a network upstream on the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_River" title="Hudson River">Hudson River</a>. There were Jewish settlers from 1654 onward, and they remained following the English capture of New Amsterdam in 1664. The naval capture was despite both nations being at peace with the other. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_North_America" title="Russian colonization of North America">Russian colonization of North America</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_New_Archangel,_1837.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif/lossy-page1-220px-View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif/lossy-page1-330px-View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif/lossy-page1-440px-View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4800" data-file-height="2811" /></a><figcaption>New Archangel (present-day <a href="/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska" title="Sitka, Alaska">Sitka, Alaska</a>), the capital of Russian America, in 1837</figcaption></figure> <p>Russia came to colonization late compared to Spain or Portugal, or even England. <a href="/wiki/History_of_Siberia" title="History of Siberia">Siberia</a> was added to the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossack</a> explorers along rivers sought valuable furs of <a href="/wiki/Stoat" title="Stoat">ermine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sable" title="Sable">sable</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fox" title="Fox">fox</a>. Cossacks enlisted the aid of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Siberia" title="Indigenous peoples of Siberia">indigenous Siberians</a>, who sought protection from nomadic peoples, and those peoples paid tribute in fur to the czar. Thus, prior to the eighteenth-century Russian expansion that pushed beyond the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a> dividing Eurasia from North America, Russia had experience with northern indigenous peoples and accumulated wealth from the hunting of fur-bearing animals. Siberia had already attracted a core group of scientists, who sought to map and catalogue the flora, fauna, and other aspects of the natural world. </p><p>A major Russian expedition for exploration was mounted in 1742, contemporaneous with other eighteenth-century European state-sponsored ventures. It was not clear at the time whether Eurasia and North America were completely separate continents. The first voyages were made by <a href="/wiki/Vitus_Bering" title="Vitus Bering">Vitus Bering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Chirikov" title="Aleksei Chirikov">Aleksei Chirikov</a>, with settlement beginning after 1743. By the 1790s the first permanent settlements were established. Explorations continued down the <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="West Coast of North America">Pacific coast of North America</a>, and Russia established a settlement in the early nineteenth century at what is now called <a href="/wiki/Fort_Ross,_California" title="Fort Ross, California">Fort Ross, California</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russian fur traders forced indigenous <a href="/wiki/Aleut" class="mw-redirect" title="Aleut">Aleut</a> men into seasonal labor.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Never very profitable, Russia sold its North American holdings to the United States in 1867, called at the time "<a href="/wiki/Seward%27s_Folly" class="mw-redirect" title="Seward's Folly">Seward's Folly</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tuscany">Tuscany</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tuscany"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thornton_expedition" title="Thornton expedition">Thornton expedition</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Guianas" title="The Guianas">The Guianas</a></div> <p>Duke <a href="/wiki/Ferdinando_I_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany">Ferdinand I de Medici</a> made the only Italian attempt to create colonies in America. For this purpose, the Grand Duke organized in 1608 an <a href="/wiki/Thornton_expedition" title="Thornton expedition">expedition</a> to the north of Brazil, under the command of the English captain Robert Thornton. </p><p>Thornton, on his return from the preparatory trip in 1609 (he had been to the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon</a>), found Ferdinand I dead and all projects were cancelled by his successor <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_II_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany">Cosimo II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christianization">Christianization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Christianization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion#Christianity" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion § Christianity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forced_assimilation" title="Forced assimilation">Forced assimilation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:13.-_50003_0004_-_Alonso_de_Molina_-_Vocabulario_en_lengua_mexicana_y_castellana_c_1565.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/13.-_50003_0004_-_Alonso_de_Molina_-_Vocabulario_en_lengua_mexicana_y_castellana_c_1565.tif/lossy-page1-220px-13.-_50003_0004_-_Alonso_de_Molina_-_Vocabulario_en_lengua_mexicana_y_castellana_c_1565.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/13.-_50003_0004_-_Alonso_de_Molina_-_Vocabulario_en_lengua_mexicana_y_castellana_c_1565.tif/lossy-page1-330px-13.-_50003_0004_-_Alonso_de_Molina_-_Vocabulario_en_lengua_mexicana_y_castellana_c_1565.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/13.-_50003_0004_-_Alonso_de_Molina_-_Vocabulario_en_lengua_mexicana_y_castellana_c_1565.tif/lossy-page1-440px-13.-_50003_0004_-_Alonso_de_Molina_-_Vocabulario_en_lengua_mexicana_y_castellana_c_1565.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2224" /></a><figcaption>Franciscan <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Molina" title="Alonso de Molina">Alonso de Molina</a>'s 1565 <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> (Aztec) dictionary, conceived for friars to communicate with the indigenous peoples in central Mexico in their own language.</figcaption></figure> <p>Beginning with the <a href="/wiki/First_wave_of_European_colonization" title="First wave of European colonization">first wave of European colonization</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">religious discrimination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">persecution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">violence</a> toward the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American religion">Indigenous peoples' native religions</a> was systematically perpetrated by the European Christian colonists and settlers from the 15th–16th centuries onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitt-Clarke_2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostler_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stannard_1992-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_1987-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Corrigan-Neal_2010_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corrigan-Neal_2010-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pointer_2011_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pointer_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> and the following centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> colonial empires were the most active in attempting to convert the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Corrigan-Neal_2010_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corrigan-Neal_2010-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pointer_2011_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pointer_2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pope <a href="/wiki/Alexander_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander VI">Alexander VI</a> issued the <i><a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a></i> bull in May 1493 that confirmed the lands claimed by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Spain">Kingdom of Spain</a>, and mandated in exchange that the Indigenous peoples be converted to <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church_and_colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church and colonialism">Catholic Christianity</a>. During <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Columbus</a>'s second voyage, <a href="/wiki/Benedictines" title="Benedictines">Benedictine</a> friars accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. With the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire">Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire</a>, evangelization of the dense Indigenous populations was undertaken in what was called the "spiritual conquest".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several mendicant orders were involved in the early campaign to convert the Indigenous peoples. <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominicans</a> learned <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages of the Americas</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mixtec_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixtec language">Mixtec</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Zapotec language">Zapotec</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the first schools for <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Indigenous peoples in Mexico</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Gante" title="Pedro de Gante">Pedro de Gante</a> in 1523. The friars aimed at converting Indigenous leaders, with the hope and expectation that their communities would follow suit.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In densely populated regions, friars mobilized Indigenous communities to build churches, making the religious change visible; these churches and chapels were often in the same places as old temples, often using the same stones. "Native peoples exhibited a range of responses, from outright hostility to active embrace of the new religion."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In central and southern Mexico where there was an existing Indigenous tradition of creating written texts, the friars taught Indigenous scribes to write their own languages in <a href="/wiki/New_Philology_(Latin_America)" title="New Philology (Latin America)">Latin letters</a>. There is a significant body of texts in Indigenous languages created by and for Indigenous peoples in their own communities for their own purposes. In frontier areas where there were no settled Indigenous populations, friars and <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> often created <a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">missions</a>, bringing together dispersed Indigenous populations in communities supervised by the friars in order to more easily preach the gospel and ensure their adherence to the faith. These missions were established throughout <a href="/wiki/Spanish_America" title="Spanish America">Spanish America</a> which extended from the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">southwestern portions of current-day United States</a> through Mexico and to Argentina and Chile. </p><p>As <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">slavery</a> was prohibited between Christians and could only be imposed upon non-Christian prisoners of war and/or men already sold as slaves, the debate on Christianization was particularly acute during the early 16th century, when Spanish conquerors and settlers sought to mobilize Indigenous labor. Later, two <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Order" title="Dominican Order">Dominican</a> friars, <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_Las_Casas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartolomé de Las Casas">Bartolomé de Las Casas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Juan_Gin%C3%A9s_de_Sep%C3%BAlveda" title="Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda">Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda</a>, held the <a href="/wiki/Valladolid_debate" title="Valladolid debate">Valladolid debate</a>, with the former arguing that Native Americans were endowed with <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">souls</a> like all other human beings, while the latter argued to the contrary to justify their enslavement. In 1537, the papal bull <i><a href="/wiki/Sublimis_Deus" title="Sublimis Deus">Sublimis Deus</a></i> definitively recognized that Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without putting an end to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless. </p><p>When the first <a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscans</a> arrived in Mexico in 1524, they burned the sacred places dedicated to the <a href="/wiki/Native_American_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American religion">Indigenous peoples' native religions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Histoire2_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Histoire2-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Mexico" title="Pre-Columbian Mexico">Pre-Columbian Mexico</a>, burning the temple of a conquered group was standard practice, shown in Indigenous manuscripts, such as <a href="/wiki/Codex_Mendoza" title="Codex Mendoza">Codex Mendoza</a>. Conquered Indigenous groups expected to take on the gods of their new overlords, adding them to the existing pantheon. They likely were unaware that their <a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Christianity" title="Conversion to Christianity">conversion to Christianity</a> entailed the complete and irrevocable renunciation of their ancestral religious beliefs and practices. In 1539, Mexican bishop <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Zum%C3%A1rraga" title="Juan de Zumárraga">Juan de Zumárraga</a> oversaw the trial and execution of the Indigenous nobleman <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Ometochtzin" title="Carlos Ometochtzin">Carlos of Texcoco</a> for <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Christianity" title="Apostasy in Christianity">apostasy from Christianity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following that, the Catholic Church removed Indigenous converts from the jurisdiction of the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>, since it had a chilling effect on evangelization. In creating a protected group of Christians, Indigenous men no longer could aspire to be ordained Christian priests.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the Americas, the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> were active in attempting to convert the Indigenous peoples to Christianity. They had considerable success on the frontiers in <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Portuguese Brazil</a>, most famously with Antonio de Vieira, S.J;<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Paraguay" title="History of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, almost an autonomous state within a state.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Eliot_Bible,_Cambridge,_1663.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/John_Eliot_Bible%2C_Cambridge%2C_1663.jpg/220px-John_Eliot_Bible%2C_Cambridge%2C_1663.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/John_Eliot_Bible%2C_Cambridge%2C_1663.jpg/330px-John_Eliot_Bible%2C_Cambridge%2C_1663.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/John_Eliot_Bible%2C_Cambridge%2C_1663.jpg/440px-John_Eliot_Bible%2C_Cambridge%2C_1663.jpg 2x" data-file-width="686" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eliot_Indian_Bible" title="Eliot Indian Bible">Eliot Indian Bible</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Mamusse_Wunneetupanatamwe_Up-Biblum_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God">Mamusse Wunneetupanatamwe Up-Biblum God</a></i>, a translation by <a href="/wiki/John_Eliot_(missionary)" title="John Eliot (missionary)">John Eliot</a> of the gospel into <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a>, was published in 1663. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion_and_migration">Religion and migration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Religion and migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Catedral_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Catedral_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg/220px-Catedral_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Catedral_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg/330px-Catedral_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Catedral_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg/440px-Catedral_de_M%C3%A9xico.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption>Catholic cathedral in Mexico City</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sinagoga-kahal-zur-israel-recife.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sinagoga-kahal-zur-israel-recife.jpg/220px-Sinagoga-kahal-zur-israel-recife.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sinagoga-kahal-zur-israel-recife.jpg/330px-Sinagoga-kahal-zur-israel-recife.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sinagoga-kahal-zur-israel-recife.jpg/440px-Sinagoga-kahal-zur-israel-recife.jpg 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kahal_Zur_Israel_Synagogue" title="Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue">Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue</a> in Mauritsstad (Recife) is the oldest synagogue in the Americas. An estimated number of 700 Jews lived in Dutch Brazil, about 4.7% of the total population.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholics" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholics">Roman Catholics</a> were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of Portugal and Spain, and later, France in <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>. No other religion was tolerated and there was a concerted effort to convert indigenous peoples and black slaves to Catholicism. The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Spain" title="Catholic Church in Spain">Catholic Church</a> established three offices of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lima" title="Lima">Lima, Peru</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Cartagena_de_Indias" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a> in Colombia to maintain religious orthodoxy and practice. The Portuguese did not establish a permanent office of the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a> in Brazil, but did send visitations of inquisitors in the seventeenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglicans</a>, Dutch <a href="/wiki/Calvinists" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinists">Calvinists</a>, English <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">nonconformists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland_Toleration_Act" title="Maryland Toleration Act">English Catholics</a>, Scottish <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterians</a>, French Protestant <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenots</a>, German and Swedish <a href="/wiki/Lutherans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutherans">Lutherans</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jews fled to the Dutch colony of <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a> when the Spanish and Portuguese inquisitions cracked down on their presence.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disease,_genocides,_and_indigenous_population_loss"><span id="Disease.2C_genocides.2C_and_indigenous_population_loss"></span>Disease, genocides, and indigenous population loss</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Disease, genocides, and indigenous population loss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Disease_in_colonial_America" title="Disease in colonial America">Disease in colonial America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genocide_of_indigenous_peoples#Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas_(pre-1948)" title="Genocide of indigenous peoples">Genocide of indigenous peoples § Indigenous peoples of the Americas (pre-1948)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg/220px-FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg/330px-FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg/440px-FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a></i> (compiled 1540–1585)<br /><a href="/wiki/Nahua_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahua people">Nahua</a> suffering from smallpox</figcaption></figure> <p>The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, dogs and various domesticated <a href="/wiki/Fowl" title="Fowl">fowl</a>, from which many diseases originally stemmed. In contrast to the indigenous people, the Europeans had developed a richer endowment of antibodies.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The large-scale contact with Europeans after 1492 introduced Eurasian germs to the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people of the Americas">indigenous people of the Americas</a>. </p><p>Epidemics of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> (1518, 1521, 1525, 1558, 1589), <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> (1546), <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> (1558), <a href="/wiki/Diphtheria" title="Diphtheria">diphtheria</a> (1614) and <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a> (1618) swept the Americas subsequent to European contact,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> killing between 10 million and 100 million<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> people, up to 95% of the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous population</a> of the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cultural and political instability attending these losses appears to have been of substantial aid in the efforts of various colonists in New England and Massachusetts to acquire control over the great wealth in land and resources of which indigenous societies had customarily made use.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such diseases yielded human mortality of unquestionably enormous gravity and scale – and this has profoundly confused efforts to determine its full extent with any true precision. Estimates of the <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">pre-Columbian population of the Americas</a> vary tremendously. </p><p>Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher-end estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may have been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the period just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to scientists from <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a>, the colonization of the Americas by Europeans killed so much of the indigenous population that it resulted in <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">climate change</a> and <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">global cooling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some contemporary scholars also attribute significant indigenous population losses in the Caribbean to the widespread practice of slavery and deadly forced labor in gold and silver mines.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Treuer_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treuer-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Andrés Reséndez, supports this claim and argues that indigenous populations were smaller previous estimations and "a nexus of slavery, overwork and famine killed more Indians in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza and malaria."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_World_History" title="The Cambridge World History">the Cambridge World History</a>, the Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies, and the Cambridge World History of Genocide, colonial policies in some cases included the deliberate genocide of indigenous peoples in North America.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_Pomeranz_2015_p430_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill_Pomeranz_2015_p430-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Cambridge World History of Genocide, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a> also included genocidal massacres.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Adam_Jones_(Canadian_scholar)" title="Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)">Adam Jones</a>, genocidal methods included the following: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <ul><li>Genocidal massacres</li> <li>Biological warfare, using pathogens (especially smallpox and plague) to which the indigenous peoples had no resistance</li> <li>Spreading of disease via the 'reduction' of Indians to densely crowded and unhygienic settlements</li> <li>Slavery and forced/indentured labor, especially, though not exclusively, in Latin America, in conditions often rivalling those of Nazi concentration camps</li> <li>Mass population removals to barren 'reservations,' sometimes involving death marches <i>en route</i>, and generally leading to widespread mortality and population collapse upon arrival</li> <li>Deliberate starvation and famine, exacerbated by destruction and occupation of the native land base and food resources</li> <li>Forced education of indigenous children in White-run schools ...<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery">Slavery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Slavery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enslavement_of_indigenous_peoples_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Enslavement of indigenous peoples in North America">Enslavement of indigenous peoples in North America</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Slavery in colonial Spanish America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Slavery in Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_slave_trade_in_the_American_Southeast" title="Indian slave trade in the American Southeast">Indian slave trade in the American Southeast</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Slavery in the British and French Caribbean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Narratio_Regionum_indicarum_per_Hispanos_Quosdam_devastatarum_verissima_Theodore_de_Bry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Narratio_Regionum_indicarum_per_Hispanos_Quosdam_devastatarum_verissima_Theodore_de_Bry.jpg/220px-Narratio_Regionum_indicarum_per_Hispanos_Quosdam_devastatarum_verissima_Theodore_de_Bry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Narratio_Regionum_indicarum_per_Hispanos_Quosdam_devastatarum_verissima_Theodore_de_Bry.jpg/330px-Narratio_Regionum_indicarum_per_Hispanos_Quosdam_devastatarum_verissima_Theodore_de_Bry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Narratio_Regionum_indicarum_per_Hispanos_Quosdam_devastatarum_verissima_Theodore_de_Bry.jpg/440px-Narratio_Regionum_indicarum_per_Hispanos_Quosdam_devastatarum_verissima_Theodore_de_Bry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1013" data-file-height="821" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of Spanish treatment of the indigenous populations in the Caribbean by <a href="/wiki/Theodore_de_Bry" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore de Bry">Theodore de Bry</a>, illustrating Spanish Dominican friar <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_Las_Casas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bartolomé de Las Casas">Bartolomé de Las Casas</a>'s indictment of early Spanish cruelty, known as the <a href="/wiki/Black_legend" title="Black legend">Black legend</a>, and indigenous barbarity, including human cannibalism, in an attempt to justify their enslavement.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Triangle_trade2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Triangle_trade2.png/220px-Triangle_trade2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Triangle_trade2.png/330px-Triangle_trade2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Triangle_trade2.png/440px-Triangle_trade2.png 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="327" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Triangular_trade" title="Triangular trade">Triangular trade</a> between Europe, Africa, and the Americas</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tobacco_cultivation_(Virginia,_ca._1670).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg/220px-Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg/330px-Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg/440px-Tobacco_cultivation_%28Virginia%2C_ca._1670%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption>African slaves 17th-century in a tobacco plantation, <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia</a>, 1670.</figcaption></figure> <p>Indigenous population loss following European contact directly led to Spanish explorations beyond the Caribbean islands they initially claimed and settled in the 1490s, since they required a labor force to both produce food and to mine gold. Slavery was not unknown in Indigenous societies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> With the arrival of European colonists, enslavement of Indigenous peoples "became commodified, expanded in unexpected ways, and came to resemble the kinds of human trafficking that are recognizable to us today".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the disease was the main killer of indigenous peoples, the practice of slavery and forced labor was also a significant contributor to the indigenous death toll.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the arrival of Europeans other than the Spanish, enslavement of native populations increased since there were no prohibitions against slavery until decades later. It is estimated that from Columbus's arrival to the end of the 19th century between 2.5 and 5 million Native Americans were forced into slavery. Indigenous men, women, and children were often forced into labor in sparsely populated frontier settings, in the household, or in the toxic gold and silver mines.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This practice was known as the <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda"><i>encomienda</i> system</a> and granted free native labor to the Spaniards. Based upon the practice of exacting tribute from Muslims and Jews during the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a>, the Spanish Crown granted a number of native laborers to an <i>encomendero</i>, who was usually a conquistador or other prominent Spanish male. Under the grant, they were theoretically bound to both protect the natives and convert them to Christianity. In exchange for their <a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion#Christianity" title="Forced conversion">forced conversion to Christianity</a>, the natives paid tributes in the form of gold, agricultural products, and labor. The <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">Spanish Crown</a> tried to terminate the system through the <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_Burgos" title="Laws of Burgos">Laws of Burgos</a> (1512–13) and the <a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws</a> of the Indies (1542). However, the encomenderos refused to comply with the new measures and the indigenous people continued to be exploited. Eventually, the encomienda system was replaced by the <i><a href="/wiki/Repartimientos" class="mw-redirect" title="Repartimientos">repartimiento</a></i> system which was not abolished until the late 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the Caribbean, deposits of gold were quickly exhausted and the precipitous drop in the indigenous population meant a severe labor shortage. Spaniards sought a high-value, low-bulk export product to make their fortunes. <a href="/wiki/Cane_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Cane sugar">Cane sugar</a> was the answer. It had been cultivated on the Iberian Atlantic islands. It was a highly desirable, expensive foodstuff. The problem of a labor force was solved by the importation of African slaves, initiating the creation of sugar plantations worked by <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slaves">chattel slaves</a>. Plantations required a significant workforce to be purchased, housed, and fed; capital investment in building <a href="/wiki/Engenho" title="Engenho">sugar mills</a> on-site, since once cane was cut, the sugar content rapidly declined. Plantation owners were linked to creditors and a network of merchants to sell processed sugar in Europe. The whole system was predicated on a huge, enslaved population. The Portuguese controlled the African slave trade, since the division of spheres with Spain in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a>, they controlled the African coasts. Black slavery dominated the labor force in <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical zones</a>, particularly where sugar was cultivated, in Portuguese Brazil, the English, French, and Dutch Caribbean islands. On the mainland of North America, the English <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">southern colonies</a> imported black slaves, starting in <a href="/wiki/First_Africans_in_Virginia" title="First Africans in Virginia">Virginia in 1619</a>, to cultivate other tropical or semi-tropical crops such as tobacco, rice, and cotton. </p><p>Although black slavery is most associated with agricultural production, in Spanish America enslaved and free blacks and <a href="/wiki/Mulattoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulattoes">mulattoes</a> were found in numbers in cities, working as artisans. Most newly transported African slaves were not Christians, but their conversion was a priority. For the Catholic Church, black slavery was not incompatible with Christianity. The <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> created hugely profitable agricultural enterprises and held a significant black slave labor force. European whites often justified the practice through the belts of latitude theory, supported by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>. In this perspective, belts of latitude wrapped around the Earth and corresponded with specific human traits. The peoples from the "cold zone" in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a> were "of lesser prudence", while those of the "hot zone" in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Sahara Africa</a> were intelligent but "weaker and less spirited".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the theory, those of the "<a href="/wiki/Temperate_climate" title="Temperate climate">temperate zone</a>" across the Mediterranean reflected an ideal balance of strength and prudence. Such ideas about latitude and character justified a natural human hierarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>African slaves were a highly valuable commodity, enriching those involved in the trade. Africans were transported to slave ships to the Americas and were primarily obtained from their African homelands by coastal tribes who captured and sold them. Europeans traded for slaves with the local native African tribes who captured them elsewhere in exchange for rum, guns, gunpowder, and other manufactures. The total <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a> to islands in the Caribbean, Brazil, the Portuguese, Spanish, French, Dutch, and British Empires is estimated to have involved 12 million Africans.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The vast majority of these slaves went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. At most about 600,000 African slaves were imported into the United States, or 5% of the 12 million slaves brought across from Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonization_and_race">Colonization and race</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Colonization and race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cabrera_Pintura_de_Castas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Cabrera_Pintura_de_Castas.jpg/170px-Cabrera_Pintura_de_Castas.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Cabrera_Pintura_de_Castas.jpg/255px-Cabrera_Pintura_de_Castas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Cabrera_Pintura_de_Castas.jpg/340px-Cabrera_Pintura_de_Castas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="484" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Castas#Casta_paintings_of_the_18th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Castas">Castas</a> painting depicting Spaniard and <a href="/wiki/Mulatto" title="Mulatto">mulatta</a> spouse with their <i>morisca</i> daughter by <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Cabrera_(painter)" title="Miguel Cabrera (painter)">Miguel Cabrera</a>, 1763</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout the South American hemisphere, there were three large regional sources of populations: Native Americans, arriving Europeans, and forcibly transported Africans. The mixture of these cultures impacted the ethnic makeup that predominates in the hemisphere's largely independent states today. The term to describe someone of mixed European and indigenous ancestry is <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizo</a> while the term to describe someone of mixed European and African ancestry is <a href="/wiki/Mulatto" title="Mulatto">mulatto</a>. The mestizo and mulatto population are specific to Iberian-influenced current-day Latin America because the conquistadors had (often forced) sexual relations with the indigenous and African women.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The social interaction of these three groups of people inspired the creation of a caste system based on skin tone. The hierarchy centered around those with the lightest skin tone and ordered from highest to lowest was the <a href="/wiki/Peninsulares" title="Peninsulares">Peninsulares</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">Criollos</a>, mestizos, indigenous, mulatto, then African.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike the Iberians, the British men came with families with whom they planned to permanently live in what is now North America.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They kept the natives on the margins of colonial society. Because the British colonizers' wives were present, the British men rarely had sexual relations with the native women. While the mestizo and mulatto population make up the majority of people in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> today, there is only a small mestizo population in present-day North America (excluding Central America).<sup id="cite_ref-Haring,_Clarence_H._1985_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haring,_Clarence_H._1985-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonization_and_gender">Colonization and gender</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Colonization and gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the early to mid-16th century, even the Iberian men began to carry their wives and families to the Americas. Some women even carried out the voyage alone.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, more studies of the role of women and female migration from Europe to the Americas have been made.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_of_colonial_land_ownership_on_long-term_development">Impact of colonial land ownership on long-term development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Impact of colonial land ownership on long-term development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eventually, most of the Western Hemisphere came under the control of Western European governments, leading to changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century, over 50 million people left Western Europe for the Americas.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The post-1492 era is known as the period of the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a>, a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">slaves</a>), ideas, and <a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">communicable disease</a> between the American and <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasian</a> hemispheres following Columbus's voyages to the Americas. </p><p>Most scholars writing at the end of the 19th century estimated that the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> population was as low as 10 million; by the end of the 20th century most scholars gravitated to a middle estimate of around 50 million, with some historians arguing for an estimate of 100 million or more.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent estimate is that there were about 60.5 million people living in the Americas <a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">immediately before depopulation</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Brierley_et_al_2019_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brierley_et_al_2019-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which 90 per cent, mostly in Central and South America, perished from wave after wave of disease, along with war and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">slavery</a> playing their part.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Treuer_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treuer-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geographic differences between the colonies played a large determinant in the types of political and economic systems that later developed. In their paper on institutions and long-run growth, economists <a href="/wiki/Daron_Acemoglu" title="Daron Acemoglu">Daron Acemoglu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Johnson_(economist)" title="Simon Johnson (economist)">Simon Johnson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/James_A._Robinson_(economist)" class="mw-redirect" title="James A. Robinson (economist)">James A. Robinson</a> argue that certain natural endowments gave rise to distinct colonial policies promoting either smallholder or coerced labor production.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Densely settled populations, for example, were more easily exploitable and profitable as slave labor. In these regions, landowning elites were economically incentivized to develop forced labor arrangements such as the Peru <a href="/wiki/Mit%27a" title="Mit'a">mit'a</a> system or Argentinian <a href="/wiki/Latifundias" class="mw-redirect" title="Latifundias">latifundias</a> without regard for democratic norms. French and British colonial leaders, conversely, were incentivized to develop <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> markets, <a href="/wiki/Property_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Property rights">property rights</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic institution">democratic institutions</a> in response to <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environments</a> that supported <a href="/wiki/Smallholder" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallholder">smallholder</a> production over forced labor. </p><p><a href="/wiki/James_Mahony" title="James Mahony">James Mahoney</a> proposes that colonial policy choices made at critical junctures regarding land ownership in <a href="/wiki/Coffee" title="Coffee">coffee</a>-rich Central America fostered enduring <a href="/wiki/Path_dependence" title="Path dependence">path dependent</a> institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coffee economies in <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a> and <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, for example, were centralized around large plantations that operated under coercive labor systems. By the 19th century, their political structures were largely authoritarian and militarized. In <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>, conversely, liberal reforms were enacted at critical junctures to expand <a href="/wiki/Commercial_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial agriculture">commercial agriculture</a>, and they ultimately raised the <a href="/wiki/Bargaining_power" title="Bargaining power">bargaining power</a> of the middle class. Both nations eventually developed more democratic and egalitarian institutions than their highly concentrated landowning counterparts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_European_colonies_in_the_Americas">List of European colonies in the Americas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: List of European colonies in the Americas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Santo_Domingo_-_Fortaleza_Ozama_0961.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Santo_Domingo_-_Fortaleza_Ozama_0961.JPG/175px-Santo_Domingo_-_Fortaleza_Ozama_0961.JPG" decoding="async" width="175" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Santo_Domingo_-_Fortaleza_Ozama_0961.JPG/263px-Santo_Domingo_-_Fortaleza_Ozama_0961.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Santo_Domingo_-_Fortaleza_Ozama_0961.JPG/350px-Santo_Domingo_-_Fortaleza_Ozama_0961.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Santo_Domingo" title="Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a>, Dominican Republic. Founded in 1496, the city is the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the New World.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cumana_Festung_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Cumana_Festung_anagoria.JPG/220px-Cumana_Festung_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Cumana_Festung_anagoria.JPG/330px-Cumana_Festung_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Cumana_Festung_anagoria.JPG/440px-Cumana_Festung_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cuman%C3%A1" title="Cumaná">Cumaná</a>, Venezuela. Founded in 1510, it is the oldest continuously inhabited European city in the continental Americas.</figcaption></figure> <p>There were at least a dozen European countries involved in the colonization of the Americas. The following list indicates those countries and the Western Hemisphere territories they worked to control.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mayflower_in_Plymouth_Harbor,_by_William_Halsall.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Mayflower_in_Plymouth_Harbor%2C_by_William_Halsall.jpg/220px-Mayflower_in_Plymouth_Harbor%2C_by_William_Halsall.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Mayflower_in_Plymouth_Harbor%2C_by_William_Halsall.jpg/330px-Mayflower_in_Plymouth_Harbor%2C_by_William_Halsall.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Mayflower_in_Plymouth_Harbor%2C_by_William_Halsall.jpg/440px-Mayflower_in_Plymouth_Harbor%2C_by_William_Halsall.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1973" data-file-height="1012" /></a><figcaption>Mayflower, the ship that carried a colony of English Puritans to North America.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_and_(before_1707)_English"><span id="British_and_.28before_1707.29_English"></span>British and (before 1707) English</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: British and (before 1707) English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">British colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="#Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas">§ Scottish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Hudson%27s_Bay_Company_trading_posts" title="List of Hudson's Bay Company trading posts">List of Hudson's Bay Company trading posts</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a> (1607–1783) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a> (1607–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land" title="Rupert's Land">Rupert's Land</a> (1670–1870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_British_Columbia" title="History of British Columbia">British Columbia</a> (1793–1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a> (1783–1907)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_West_Indies" title="British West Indies">British West Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duchy_of_Courland_and_Semigallia">Duchy of Courland and Semigallia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Duchy of Courland and Semigallia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Courland_colonization_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Courland colonization of the Americas">Courland colonization of the Americas</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Courland" class="mw-redirect" title="New Courland">New Courland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a>) (1654–1689); Courland is now part of Latvia</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Danish">Danish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Danish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Danish colonization of the Americas">Danish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">Dano-Norwegian West Indies</a></i> (1754–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">Danish West Indies</a> (1814–1917)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/North_Greenland" title="North Greenland">Dano-Norwegian North Greenland</a></i> (1721–1814)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Greenland" title="South Greenland">Dano-Norwegian South Greenland</a></i> (1728?–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> (1814–1953)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dutch_2">Dutch</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Dutch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Dutch colonization of the Americas">Dutch colonization of the Americas</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a> (1614–1667)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essequibo_(colony)" title="Essequibo (colony)">Essequibo</a> (1616–1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Virgin_Islands" title="Dutch Virgin Islands">Dutch Virgin Islands</a> (1625–1680)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berbice" title="Berbice">Berbice</a> (1627–1815)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">New Walcheren</a> (1628–1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Brazil" title="Dutch Brazil">Dutch Brazil</a> (1630–1654)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeroon_(colony)" title="Pomeroon (colony)">Pomeroon</a> (1650–1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayenne_(Dutch_colony)" title="Cayenne (Dutch colony)">Cayenne</a> (1658–1664)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demerara" title="Demerara">Demerara</a> (1745–1815)<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60038552_Een_gezelschap_met_gouverneur_Van_Hee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60038552_Een_gezelschap_met_gouverneur_Van_Hee.jpg/220px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60038552_Een_gezelschap_met_gouverneur_Van_Hee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60038552_Een_gezelschap_met_gouverneur_Van_Hee.jpg/330px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60038552_Een_gezelschap_met_gouverneur_Van_Hee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60038552_Een_gezelschap_met_gouverneur_Van_Hee.jpg/440px-Tropenmuseum_Royal_Tropical_Institute_Objectnumber_60038552_Een_gezelschap_met_gouverneur_Van_Hee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption>Baron <a href="/wiki/Aarnoud_van_Heemstra" title="Aarnoud van Heemstra">Aarnoud van Heemstra</a>, the governor of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch</a> colony of <a href="/wiki/Suriname_(Dutch_colony)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suriname (Dutch colony)">Suriname</a>, 1923</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suriname_(Dutch_colony)" class="mw-redirect" title="Suriname (Dutch colony)">Suriname</a> (1667–1954) (Remained within the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Netherlands" title="Kingdom of the Netherlands">Kingdom of the Netherlands</a> until 1975 as a constituent country)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao_and_Dependencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Curaçao and Dependencies">Curaçao and Dependencies</a> (1634–1954) (Aruba and Curaçao are still in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Bonaire; 1634–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sint_Eustatius_and_Dependencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Sint Eustatius and Dependencies">Sint Eustatius and Dependencies</a> (1636–1954) (Sint Maarten is still in the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Sint Eustatius and Saba; 1636–present)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French">French</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: French"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_French_forts_in_North_America" title="List of French forts in North America">List of French forts in North America</a></div> <ul><li>Present-day <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> (1534–1763), and nearby lands: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> (1604–1713)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="Newfoundland and Labrador">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudson_Bay" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence River">Saint Lawrence River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes" title="Great Lakes">Great Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Winnipeg" title="Lake Winnipeg">Lake Winnipeg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Present-day <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_Texas" title="French colonization of Texas">Fort Saint Louis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>) (1685–1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Croix,_U.S._Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands">Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands</a> (1650–1733)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Caroline" title="Fort Caroline">Fort Caroline</a> in <a href="/wiki/French_Florida" title="French Florida">French Florida</a> (occupation by Huguenots) (1562–1565)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincennes,_Indiana" title="Vincennes, Indiana">Vincennes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fort_Ouiatenon" title="Fort Ouiatenon">Fort Ouiatenon</a> in Indiana</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Louisiana" title="French Louisiana">French Louisiana</a> (23.3% of the current U.S. territory) (1801–1804) (sold by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon I</a>) (also see: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Louisiana (New Spain)</a>) <ul><li>Lower Louisiana</li> <li>Upper Louisiana</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana (New France)</a> (1672–1764)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> (1763–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_West_Indies" title="French West Indies">French West Indies</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Pallisaded_Village_of_Lachine_1689.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Pallisaded_Village_of_Lachine_1689.jpg/220px-The_Pallisaded_Village_of_Lachine_1689.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Pallisaded_Village_of_Lachine_1689.jpg/330px-The_Pallisaded_Village_of_Lachine_1689.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/The_Pallisaded_Village_of_Lachine_1689.jpg/440px-The_Pallisaded_Village_of_Lachine_1689.jpg 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="485" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lachine,_Quebec" title="Lachine, Quebec">Fort Lachine</a> in New France, 1689</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> (1659–1804, now <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="History of the British Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_Antarctique" title="France Antarctique">France Antarctique</a> (1555–1567)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equinoctial_France" title="Equinoctial France">Equinoctial France</a> (1612–1615)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Florida" title="French Florida">French Florida</a> (1562–1565)</li> <li>Present-day <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a> (1795–1809)</li> <li>Present-day <a href="/wiki/Suriname" title="Suriname">Suriname</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tapanahony" title="Tapanahony">Tapanahony</a> (District of <a href="/wiki/Sipaliwini_District" title="Sipaliwini District">Sipaliwini</a>) (Controversial Franco-Dutch in favour of the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>) (25.8% of the current territory) (1814)</li></ul></li> <li>Present-day <a href="/wiki/Guyana" title="Guyana">Guyana</a> (1782–1784)</li> <li>Present-day <a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" title="Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Christopher_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Christopher Island">Saint Christopher Island</a> (1628–1690, 1698–1702, 1706, 1782–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevis" title="Nevis">Nevis</a> (1782–1784)</li></ul></li> <li>Present-day <a href="/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a> (briefly in 1666)</li></ul></li> <li>Present-day <a href="/wiki/Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a> (1666–1667, 1781–1793, 1802–1803)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominica" title="Dominica">Dominica</a> (1625–1763, 1778–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenada" title="Grenada">Grenada</a> (1650–1762, 1779–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" title="Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a> (1719–1763, 1779–1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a> (1650–1723, 1756–1778, 1784–1803)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turks_and_Caicos_Islands" title="Turks and Caicos Islands">Turks and Caicos Islands</a> (1783)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montserrat" title="Montserrat">Montserrat</a> (1666, 1712)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a> (1504, 1701, 1764–1767)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8Eles_des_Saintes" title="Îles des Saintes">Îles des Saintes</a> (1648–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie-Galante" title="Marie-Galante">Marie-Galante</a> (1635–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_D%C3%A9sirade" title="La Désirade">la Désirade</a> (1635–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> (1635–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinique" title="Martinique">Martinique</a> (1635–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> (1604–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon" title="Saint Pierre and Miquelon">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a> (1604–1713, 1763–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin" title="Collectivity of Saint Martin">Collectivity of Saint Martin</a> (1624–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a> (1648–1784, 1878–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipperton_Island" title="Clipperton Island">Clipperton Island</a> (1858–present)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Knights_of_Malta">Knights of Malta</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Knights of Malta"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Hospitaller colonization of the Americas">Hospitaller colonization of the Americas</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a> (1651–1665)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Kitts" title="Saint Kitts">Saint Christopher</a> (1651–1665)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Croix,_U.S._Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands">Saint Croix</a> (1651–1665)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin" title="Collectivity of Saint Martin">Saint Martin</a> (1651–1665)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norwegian">Norwegian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Norwegian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_colonization_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Norwegian colonization of the Americas">Norwegian colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_possessions_of_Norway" title="List of possessions of Norway">List of possessions of Norway</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America#Norse_Greenland" title="Norse colonization of North America">Greenland</a> (986–1408<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Greenland" title="South Greenland">Dano-Norwegian South Greenland</a></i> (1728?–1814)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/North_Greenland" title="North Greenland">Dano-Norwegian North Greenland</a></i> (1721–1814)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Danish_West_Indies" title="Danish West Indies">Dano-Norwegian West Indies</a></i> (1754–1814)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooper_Island_(British_Virgin_Islands)" title="Cooper Island (British Virgin Islands)">Cooper Island</a> (1844–1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_Islands" title="Sverdrup Islands">Sverdrup Islands</a> (1898–1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_the_Red%27s_Land" title="Erik the Red's Land">Erik the Red's Land</a> (1931–1933)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Portuguese">Portuguese</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Portuguese"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese colonization of the Americas</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Colonial Brazil</a> (1500–1815) became a Kingdom, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Portugal,_Brazil_and_the_Algarves" title="United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves">United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labrador" title="Labrador">Terra do Labrador</a> (1499/1500–?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_(island)" title="Newfoundland (island)">Land of the Corte-Real</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Bacalhau" title="Bacalhau">Terra Nova dos Bacalhaus</a> (Land of Codfish) – Terra Nova (Newfoundland) (1501–?) Claimed region (sporadically settled). <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_Cove-St._Philip%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="Portugal Cove-St. Philip's">Portugal Cove-St. Philip's</a> (1501–1696)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> (1519?–1520s?) Claimed region (sporadically settled).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a> (c.1536–1620)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia do Sacramento</a> (1680–1705/1714–1762/1763–1777 (1811–1817))</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisplatina" title="Cisplatina">Cisplatina</a> (1811–1822, now <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a> (1809–1817)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian">Russian</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Russian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian colonization of the Americas">Russian colonization of the Americas</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_New_Archangel,_1837.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif/lossy-page1-220px-View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif/lossy-page1-330px-View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif/lossy-page1-440px-View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4800" data-file-height="2811" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Russian-American_Company" title="Russian-American Company">Russian-American Company</a>'s capital at New Archangel (present-day <a href="/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska" title="Sitka, Alaska">Sitka, Alaska</a>) in 1837</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>) (1799–1867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Ross" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Ross">Fort Ross</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sonoma_County,_California" title="Sonoma County, California">Sonoma County, California</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Fort_Elizabeth" title="Russian Fort Elizabeth">Russian Fort Elizabeth</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scottish">Scottish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Scottish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a> (1622–1632)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darien_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Darien Scheme">Darien Scheme</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a> (1698–1700)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas#Stuarts_Town,_Carolina_(1684)" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Stuarts Town, Carolina</a> (1684–1686)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish">Spanish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Spanish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="#Basque_colonization_of_the_Americas">§ Basque colonization of the Americas</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> (1493–1697); the island currently comprising <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>, under Spanish rule in whole from 1492 to 1697; under the partial rule under the <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Captaincy General of Santo Domingo</a> (1697–1821), then again as the Dominican Republic (1861–1865).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> (1493–1898); first as the <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Captaincy General of Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Colony of Santiago</a> (1509–1655); conquered by Britain in 1655, currently <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> (1607–1898); first as the <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Captaincy General of Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">Viceroyalty of New Granada</a> (1717–1819) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Captaincy General of Venezuela</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">Viceroyalty of New Spain</a> (1535–1821) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Extremadura" title="Nueva Extremadura">Nueva Extremadura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Galicia" title="Nueva Galicia">Nueva Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="New Kingdom of León">Nuevo Reino de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuevo_Santander" title="Nuevo Santander">Nuevo Santander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Vizcaya,_New_Spain" title="Nueva Vizcaya, New Spain">Nueva Vizcaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Californias" title="The Californias">Las Californias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe_de_Nuevo_M%C3%A9xico" title="Santa Fe de Nuevo México">Santa Fe de Nuevo México</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Louisiana (New Spain)</a> (1769–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a> (1565–1763, 1783-1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a> (1716–1802)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Viceroyalty of Peru</a> (1542–1824)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Captaincy General of Chile</a> (1544–1818)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata</a> (1776–1814)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Swedish">Swedish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Swedish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Swedish_colonization_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Swedish colonization of the Americas">Swedish colonization of the Americas</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Sweden" title="New Sweden">New Sweden</a> (1638–1655)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy" title="Saint Barthélemy">Saint Barthélemy</a> (1784–1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> (1813–1814)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Failed_attempts">Failed attempts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Failed attempts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German"><a href="/wiki/German_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="German colonization of the Americas">German</a></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: German"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Klein-Venedig" title="Klein-Venedig">Klein-Venedig</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanauish-Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanauish-Indies">Hanauish-Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Thomas_(Brandenburg_colony)" title="Saint Thomas (Brandenburg colony)">Saint Thomas <small>(Brandenburg colony)</small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_interest_in_the_Caribbean" title="German interest in the Caribbean">German interest in the Caribbean</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>)</small></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian"><a href="/wiki/Italy_and_the_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Italy and the colonization of the Americas">Italian</a></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Italian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thornton_expedition" title="Thornton expedition">Thornton expedition</a> (now <a href="/wiki/French_Guiana" title="French Guiana">French Guiana</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Denmark"><a href="/wiki/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Danish colonization of the Americas">Denmark</a></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Denmark"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jens_Munk" title="Jens Munk">Nova Dania</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Churchill,_Manitoba" title="Churchill, Manitoba">Churchill</a>, Canada)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exhibitions_and_collections">Exhibitions and collections</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Exhibitions and collections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_American_History" title="National Museum of American History">National Museum of American History</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Historical_Society" title="Virginia Historical Society">Virginia Historical Society</a> (VHS) co-organized a traveling exhibition to recount the strategic alliances and violent conflict between European empires (English, Spanish, French) and the Native people living in North America. The exhibition was presented in three languages and with multiple perspectives. Artefacts on display included rare surviving Native and European artefacts, maps, documents, and ceremonial objects from museums and royal collections on both sides of the Atlantic. The exhibition opened in <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond, Virginia</a> on March 17, 2007, and closed at the Smithsonian International Gallery on October 31, 2009. </p><p>The related online exhibition explores the international origins of the societies of Canada and the United States and commemorates the 400th anniversary of three lasting settlements in <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown</a> (1607), <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec City</a> (1608), and <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe,_New_Mexico" title="Santa Fe, New Mexico">Santa Fe</a> (1609). The site is accessible in three languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Smithsonian_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smithsonian-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_colonization_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronology of the colonization of North America">Chronology of the colonization of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Southern_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonization of the Southern United States">European colonization of the Southern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_emigration" title="European emigration">European emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Former_colonies_and_territories_in_Canada" title="Former colonies and territories in Canada">Former colonies and territories in Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaicaipuro" title="Guaicaipuro">Guaicaipuro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America" title="History of the west coast of North America">History of the west coast of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_North_American_cities_founded_in_chronological_order" class="mw-redirect" title="List of North American cities founded in chronological order">List of North American cities founded in chronological order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites#Environmental_impacts" title="Mennonites">Mennonites#Environmental impacts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanus_Pontifex" title="Romanus Pontifex">Romanus Pontifex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish conquest of Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_European_colonization_of_North_America" title="Timeline of the European colonization of North America">Timeline of the European colonization of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_imperialism#Colonization_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of imperialism">Timeline of imperialism#Colonization of North America</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCardin2015" class="citation web cs1">Cardin, Dinah (14 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pem.org/blog/benton-painting-native-americans">"Benton painting Native Americans"</a>. <i>www.pem.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/Salem,_Massachusetts" title="Salem, Massachusetts">Salem, Massachusetts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Peabody_Essex_Museum" title="Peabody Essex Museum">Peabody Essex Museum</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200930030008/https://www.pem.org/blog/benton-painting-native-americans">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pem.org&rft.atitle=Benton+painting+Native+Americans&rft.date=2015-08-14&rft.aulast=Cardin&rft.aufirst=Dinah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pem.org%2Fblog%2Fbenton-painting-native-americans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostler_2015-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostler_2015_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstler2015" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ostler, Jeffrey (2 March 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-3">"Genocide and American Indian History"</a>. <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199329175.013.3">10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-932917-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-932917-5"><bdi>978-0-19-932917-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210810232132/https://oxfordre.com/americanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-3">Archived</a> from the original on 10 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genocide+and+American+Indian+History&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+American+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015-03-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199329175.013.3&rft.isbn=978-0-19-932917-5&rft.aulast=Ostler&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Famericanhistory%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199329175.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199329175-e-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitt-Clarke_2019-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whitt-Clarke_2019_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhittClarke2019" class="citation book cs1">Whitt, Laurelyn; Clarke, Alan W., eds. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XimhDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA44">"Settler Colonialism and Indigenous Nations"</a>. <i>North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 44–70, 71–100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42550-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42550-6"><bdi>978-1-108-42550-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2019008004">2019008004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Settler+Colonialism+and+Indigenous+Nations&rft.btitle=North+American+Genocides%3A+Indigenous+Nations%2C+Settler+Colonialism%2C+and+International+Law&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=44-70%2C+71-100&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2019008004&rft.isbn=978-1-108-42550-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXimhDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA44&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stannard_1992-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stannard_1992_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStannard1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Stannard" title="David Stannard">Stannard, David E.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cXQ8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57">"Pestilence and Genocide"</a>. <i>American Holocaust: Columbus and the Conquest of the New World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 57–146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508557-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508557-4"><bdi>0-19-508557-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pestilence+and+Genocide&rft.btitle=American+Holocaust%3A+Columbus+and+the+Conquest+of+the+New+World&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=57-146&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-19-508557-4&rft.aulast=Stannard&rft.aufirst=David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcXQ8DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton_1987-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thornton_1987_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Russell_Thornton" title="Russell Thornton">Thornton, Russell</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9iQYSQ9y60MC&pg=PA42">"Overview of Decline: 1492 to 1890–1900"</a>. <i>American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492</i>. 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(2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xiKib92zBzsC&pg=PA125">"Religious Intolerance toward Native American Religions"</a>. <i>Religious Intolerance in America: A Documentary History</i>. <a href="/wiki/Chapel_Hill,_North_Carolina" title="Chapel Hill, North Carolina">Chapel Hill, North Carolina</a>: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. pp. 125–146. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5149%2F9780807895955_corrigan.9">10.5149/9780807895955_corrigan.9</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807833896" title="Special:BookSources/9780807833896"><bdi>9780807833896</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2009044820">2009044820</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:183694926">183694926</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religious+Intolerance+toward+Native+American+Religions&rft.btitle=Religious+Intolerance+in+America%3A+A+Documentary+History&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pages=125-146&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5149%2F9780807895955_corrigan.9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A183694926%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2009044820&rft.isbn=9780807833896&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxiKib92zBzsC%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pointer_2011-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pointer_2011_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pointer_2011_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pointer_2011_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPointer2011" class="citation book cs1">Pointer, Richard W. 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Wurm; Peter Mühlhäusler; Darrell T. Tyron (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=glU0vte5gSkC&pg=PA1048"><i>Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. p. 1048. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-013417-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-013417-9"><bdi>978-3-11-013417-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+Languages+of+Intercultural+Communication+in+the+Pacific%2C+Asia%2C+and+the+Americas&rft.pages=1048&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-3-11-013417-9&rft.au=S.A.+Wurm&rft.au=Peter+M%C3%BChlh%C3%A4usler&rft.au=Darrell+T.+Tyron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DglU0vte5gSkC%26pg%3DPA1048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CordellLightfoot2008-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CordellLightfoot2008_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinda_S._CordellKent_LightfootFrancis_McManamonGeorge_Milner2008" class="citation book cs1">Linda S. Cordell; Kent Lightfoot; Francis McManamon; George Milner (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82"><i>Archaeology in America: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 82–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-02189-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-02189-3"><bdi>978-0-313-02189-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230425150120/https://books.google.com/books?id=arfWRW5OFVgC&pg=PA82">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-04-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 2,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=European+colonizers+killed+so+many+Native+Americans+that+it+changed+the+global+climate%2C+researchers+say&rft.date=2019-02-01&rft.aulast=Kent&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2019%2F02%2F01%2Fworld%2Feuropean-colonization-climate-change-trnd%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKochBrierleyMaslinLewis2019" class="citation journal cs1">Koch, Alexander; Brierley, Chris; Maslin, Mark M.; Lewis, Simon L. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2018.12.004">"Earth system impacts of the European arrival and Great Dying in the Americas after 1492"</a>. <i>Quaternary Science Reviews</i>. <b>207</b>: 13–36. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019QSRv..207...13K">2019QSRv..207...13K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2018.12.004">10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.12.004</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=Earth+system+impacts+of+the+European+arrival+and+Great+Dying+in+the+Americas+after+1492&rft.volume=207&rft.pages=13-36&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2018.12.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019QSRv..207...13K&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Brierley%2C+Chris&rft.au=Maslin%2C+Mark+M.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Simon+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.quascirev.2018.12.004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReséndez2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Res%C3%A9ndez" title="Andrés Reséndez">Reséndez, Andrés</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17"><i>The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt" title="Houghton Mifflin Harcourt">Houghton Mifflin Harcourt</a>. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0547640983" title="Special:BookSources/978-0547640983"><bdi>978-0547640983</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230316173811/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA17">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-03-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Slavery%3A+The+Uncovered+Story+of+Indian+Enslavement+in+America&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0547640983&rft.aulast=Res%C3%A9ndez&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2gpCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treuer-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treuer_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treuer_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreuer2016" class="citation news cs1">Treuer, David (May 13, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html">"The new book 'The Other Slavery' will make you rethink American history"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190623103420/https://www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html">Archived</a> from the original on June 23, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 21,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=The+new+book+%27The+Other+Slavery%27+will+make+you+rethink+American+history&rft.date=2016-05-13&rft.aulast=Treuer&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Fbooks%2Fjacketcopy%2Fla-ca-jc-native-american-slavery-20160505-snap-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHickel2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jason_Hickel" title="Jason Hickel">Hickel, Jason</a> (2018). <i>The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions</i>. Windmill Books. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1786090034" title="Special:BookSources/978-1786090034"><bdi>978-1786090034</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Divide%3A+A+Brief+Guide+to+Global+Inequality+and+its+Solutions&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Windmill+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1786090034&rft.aulast=Hickel&rft.aufirst=Jason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:2_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrockell" class="citation news cs1">Brockell, Gillian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/10/14/here-are-indigenous-people-christopher-columbus-his-men-could-not-annihilate/">"Here are the indigenous people Christopher Columbus and his men could not annihilate"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201116131252/https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/10/14/here-are-indigenous-people-christopher-columbus-his-men-could-not-annihilate/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-11-16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-11-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Here+are+the+indigenous+people+Christopher+Columbus+and+his+men+could+not+annihilate&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Brockell&rft.aufirst=Gillian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fhistory%2F2019%2F10%2F14%2Fhere-are-indigenous-people-christopher-columbus-his-men-could-not-annihilate%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McNeill_Pomeranz_2015_p430-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McNeill_Pomeranz_2015_p430_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNeillPomeranz2015">McNeill & Pomeranz 2015</a>, p. 430: "That said, and ever since the initial Eastern seaboard settler wars against the Tsenacommacahs and Pequots in the 1620s and early 1630s, systematic genocidal massacre was a core component of native destruction throughout three centuries of largely 'Anglo' expansion across continental North America. The culmination of this process from the mid-1860s to mid-1880s ... native Araucanian resistance by the Argentinian and Chilean military in the Southern Cone pampas, primarily in the agribusiness interest. In Australia, too, 'Anglo' attrition or outright liquidation of Aborigines from the time of 'first contact' in 1788 reached its zenith in Queensland in these same decades, as a dedicated Native Mounted Police strove to cleanse the territory of indigenous tribes in favour of further millions of cattle stock. Undoubtedly, in all these instances, Western racism and contempt for natives as 'savages' played a critical role in psycho-cultural justifications for genocide"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBloxhamMoses2010">Bloxham & Moses 2010</a>, p. 339: "The genocidal intent of California settlers and government officials was acted out in numerous battles and massacres (and aided by technological advances in weaponry, especially after the Civil War), in the abduction and sexual abuse of Indian women, and in the economic exploitation of Indian child labourers."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlackhawkKiernanMadleyTaylor2023">Blackhawk et al. 2023</a>, pp. 27, 38: "More than any other work, Wolfe’s seminal 2006 essay, 'Settler colonialism and the elimination of the Native' established the 'centrality of dispossession' to our understandings of Indigenous genocide in the context of settler colonialism. His definition of 'settler colonialism' spoke directly to Genocide Studies scholars"; "With these works, a near consensus emerged. By most scholarly definitions and consistent with the UN Convention, these scholars all asserted that genocide against at least some Indigenous peoples had occurred in North America following colonisation, perpetuated first by colonial empires and then by independent nation-states"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKiernanLemosTaylor2023">Kiernan, Lemos & Taylor 2023</a>, p. 622: "These mass killings represent turning points in the history of the Spanish Atlantic conquest and share important characteristics. Each targeted Amerindian communities. Each was entirely or partially planned and executed by European actors, namely Spanish military entrepreneurs under the leadership of Friar Nicolás de Ovando, Hernán Cortés and Pedro de Alvarado respectively. Each event can be described as a 'genocidal massacre' targeting a specific community because of its membership of a larger group"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJones2023">Jones 2023</a>, p. 138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_83-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Reséndez, Andrés. <i>The Other Slavery : The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America / Andrés Reséndez.</i> Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2016. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:5_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaite2017" class="citation journal cs1">Waite, Kevin (Sep 1, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=21544727&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA502506898&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs">"The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America"</a>. <i>The Journal of Civil War Era</i>. <b>7</b> (3): 473–477. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcwe.2017.0066">10.1353/cwe.2017.0066</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164320613">164320613</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Jan 15,</span> 2023</span> – via go.gale.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Civil+War+Era&rft.atitle=The+Other+Slavery%3A+The+Uncovered+Story+of+Indian+Enslavement+in+America&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=473-477&rft.date=2017-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcwe.2017.0066&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164320613%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Waite&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Fp%3DAONE%26sw%3Dw%26issn%3D21544727%26v%3D2.1%26it%3Dr%26id%3DGALE%257CA502506898%26sid%3DgoogleScholar%26linkaccess%3Dabs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/encomienda">"encomienda | Definition & Facts"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201022063405/https://www.britannica.com/topic/encomienda">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-10-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-10-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=encomienda+%7C+Definition+%26+Facts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fencomienda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegal1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Segal" title="Ronald Segal">Segal, Ronald</a> (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780374524906"><i>The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa</i></a></span>. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780374524906/page/4">4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-374-11396-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-374-11396-4"><bdi>978-0-374-11396-4</bdi></a>. <q>It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. [Note in original: Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature," in <i>Journal of African History</i> 30 (1989), p. 368.] ... It is widely conceded that further revisions are more likely to be upward than downward.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Diaspora%3A+Five+Centuries+of+the+Black+Experience+Outside+Africa&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-374-11396-4&rft.aulast=Segal&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780374524906&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6445941.stm">"Quick guide: The slave trade"</a>. <i>bbc.co.uk</i>. March 15, 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070828121236/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/6445941.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-08-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=Quick+guide%3A+The+slave+trade&rft.date=2007-03-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F6445941.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Behrendt" title="Stephen D. Behrendt">Stephen D. Behrendt</a>, David Richardson, and David Eltis, <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="W. E. B. Du Bois Institute">W.E.B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research</a>, Harvard University. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_Behrendt1999" class="citation book cs1">Stephen Behrendt (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi">"Transatlantic Slave Trade"</a>. <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi"><i>Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience</i></a></span>. New York: Basic Civitas Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00071-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-00071-5"><bdi>978-0-465-00071-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transatlantic+Slave+Trade&rft.btitle=Africana%3A+The+Encyclopedia+of+the+African+and+African+American+Experience&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Civitas+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-465-00071-5&rft.au=Stephen+Behrendt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fafricanaencyclop00appi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manning, Patrick. <i>Migration in World History [electronic Resource].</i> 2nd ed. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, 2012. Print.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTereixa_Constenla2012" class="citation web cs1">Tereixa Constenla (29 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2012/05/29/inenglish/1338297350_910456.html">"The women who made America"</a>. El Pais. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171932/https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2012/05/29/inenglish/1338297350_910456.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+women+who+made+America&rft.pub=El+Pais&rft.date=2012-05-29&rft.au=Tereixa+Constenla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fenglish.elpais.com%2Felpais%2F2012%2F05%2F29%2Finenglish%2F1338297350_910456.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaola_Antolini1992" class="citation web cs1">Paola Antolini (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aei.pitt.edu/34007/1/A484.pdf">"1492: The Role of Women"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 1992. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920170327/http://aei.pitt.edu/34007/1/A484.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 20 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1492%3A+The+Role+of+Women&rft.pub=1992&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Paola+Antolini&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Faei.pitt.edu%2F34007%2F1%2FA484.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Eltis <i>Economic Growth and the Ending of the Transatlantic slave trade</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2002" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Alan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NPoAQRgkrOcC&q=pre-Columbian+population+million&pg=PA40"><i>American colonies; Volume 1 of The Penguin history of the United States, History of the United States Series</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0142002100" title="Special:BookSources/978-0142002100"><bdi>978-0142002100</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+colonies%3B+Volume+1+of+The+Penguin+history+of+the+United+States%2C+History+of+the+United+States+Series&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0142002100&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNPoAQRgkrOcC%26q%3Dpre-Columbian%2Bpopulation%2Bmillion%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brierley_et_al_2019-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brierley_et_al_2019_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKochBrierleyMaslinLewis2019" class="citation journal cs1">Koch, Alexander; Brierley, Chris; Maslin, Mark M.; Lewis, Simon L. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2018.12.004">"Earth system impacts of the European arrival and Great Dying in the Americas after 1492"</a>. <i>Quaternary Science Reviews</i>. <b>207</b>: 13–36. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019QSRv..207...13K">2019QSRv..207...13K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2018.12.004">10.1016/j.quascirev.2018.12.004</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Quaternary+Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=Earth+system+impacts+of+the+European+arrival+and+Great+Dying+in+the+Americas+after+1492&rft.volume=207&rft.pages=13-36&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.quascirev.2018.12.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019QSRv..207...13K&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Brierley%2C+Chris&rft.au=Maslin%2C+Mark+M.&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Simon+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.quascirev.2018.12.004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaslinLewis2020" class="citation web cs1">Maslin, Mark; Lewis, Simon (June 25, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theconversation.com/why-the-anthropocene-began-with-european-colonisation-mass-slavery-and-the-great-dying-of-the-16th-century-140661">"Why the Anthropocene began with European colonisation, mass slavery and the 'great dying' of the 16th century"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Conversation_(website)" title="The Conversation (website)">The Conversation</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200910163239/https://theconversation.com/why-the-anthropocene-began-with-european-colonisation-mass-slavery-and-the-great-dying-of-the-16th-century-140661">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-09-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-08-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Conversation&rft.atitle=Why+the+Anthropocene+began+with+European+colonisation%2C+mass+slavery+and+the+%27great+dying%27+of+the+16th+century&rft.date=2020-06-25&rft.aulast=Maslin&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheconversation.com%2Fwhy-the-anthropocene-began-with-european-colonisation-mass-slavery-and-the-great-dying-of-the-16th-century-140661&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson, "Institutions as a Fundamental Cause of Long-Run Growth", Handbook of Economic Growth 1: 385–472. 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Mahoney, "Path-Dependent Explanations of Regime Change: Central America in Comparative Perspective." Studies in Comparative International Development, 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note that throughout this period, certain countries in Europe became united and also disunited (e.g.: Denmark/Norway, England/Scotland, Spain/Netherlands).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDale_Mackenzie_Brown2000" class="citation web cs1">Dale Mackenzie Brown (February 28, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/greenland/">"The Fate of Greenland's Vikings"</a>. Archaeological Institute of America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140120065212/http://archive.archaeology.org/online/features/greenland/">Archived</a> from the original on January 20, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 20,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Fate+of+Greenland%27s+Vikings&rft.pub=Archaeological+Institute+of+America&rft.date=2000-02-28&rft.au=Dale+Mackenzie+Brown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.archaeology.org%2Fonline%2Ffeatures%2Fgreenland%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smithsonian-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Smithsonian_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanhistory.si.edu/exhibitions/small_exhibition.cfm?key=1267&exkey=244">"Jamestown, Québec, Santa Fe: Three North American Beginnings"</a>. National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120615015509/http://americanhistory.si.edu/exhibitions/small_exhibition.cfm?key=1267&exkey=244">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jamestown%2C+Qu%C3%A9bec%2C+Santa+Fe%3A+Three+North+American+Beginnings&rft.pub=National+Museum+of+American+History%2C+Smithsonian+Institution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanhistory.si.edu%2Fexhibitions%2Fsmall_exhibition.cfm%3Fkey%3D1267%26exkey%3D244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bailyn" title="Bernard Bailyn">Bailyn, Bernard</a>, ed. <i>Atlantic History: Concept and Contours</i> (Harvard UP, 2005)</li> <li>Bannon, John Francis. <i>History of the Americas</i> (2 vols. 1952), older textbook</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackhawkKiernanMadleyTaylor2023" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Ned_Blackhawk" title="Ned Blackhawk">Blackhawk, Ned</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Kiernan, Ben</a>; Madley, Benjamin; <a href="/wiki/Rebe_Taylor" title="Rebe Taylor">Taylor, Rebe</a>, eds. (2023). <i>The Cambridge World History of Genocide</i>. Vol. 2: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108765480">10.1017/9781108765480</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-76548-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-76548-0"><bdi>978-1-108-76548-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Genocide&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108765480&rft.isbn=978-1-108-76548-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloxhamMoses2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Bloxham" title="Donald Bloxham">Bloxham, Donald</a>; <a href="/wiki/A._Dirk_Moses" title="A. Dirk Moses">Moses, A. Dirk</a>, eds. (2010). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199232116.001.0001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199232116.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923211-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923211-6"><bdi>978-0-19-923211-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Genocide+Studies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199232116.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923211-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bolton, Herbert E. "The Epic of Greater America", <i>American Historical Review</i> 38, no. 3 (April 1933): 448–474 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1837492">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Davis, Harold E. <i>The Americas in History</i> (1953), older textbook</li> <li>Egerton, Douglas R. et al. <i>The Atlantic World: A History, 1400–1888</i> (2007)</li> <li>Eltis, David. <i>The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas</i> (2000).</li> <li>Fernlund, Kevin Jon. <i>A Big History of North America, from Montezuma to Monroe.</i> Columbia: University of Missouri Press. (2022).</li> <li>Hinderaker, Eric; Horn, Rebecca. "Territorial Crossings: Histories and Historiographies of the Early Americas", <i><a href="/wiki/William_and_Mary_Quarterly" title="William and Mary Quarterly">William and Mary Quarterly</a></i>, (2010) 67#3 pp. 395–432 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/10.5309/willmaryquar.67.3.395">in JSTOR</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2023" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adam_Jones_(Canadian_scholar)" title="Adam Jones (Canadian scholar)">Jones, Adam</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JYbgEAAAQBAJ"><i>Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction</i></a> (4th ed.). Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003185291">10.4324/9781003185291</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95870-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-95870-6"><bdi>978-1-000-95870-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genocide%3A+A+Comprehensive+Introduction&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003185291&rft.isbn=978-1-000-95870-6&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJYbgEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiernanLemosTaylor2023" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Ben_Kiernan" title="Ben Kiernan">Kiernan, Ben</a>; Lemos, T. M.; Taylor, Tristan S., eds. (2023). <i>The Cambridge World History of Genocide</i>. Vol. 1: Genocide in the Ancient, Medieval and Premodern Worlds. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108655989">10.1017/9781108655989</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-65598-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-65598-9"><bdi>978-1-108-65598-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+History+of+Genocide&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781108655989&rft.isbn=978-1-108-65598-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Lockhart, James, and Stuart B. Schwartz. <i>Early Latin America: A History of Colonial Spanish America and Brazil</i> (1983).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeillPomeranz2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._R._McNeill" title="J. R. McNeill">McNeill, J. R.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Pomeranz" title="Kenneth Pomeranz">Pomeranz, Kenneth</a>, eds. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SRL0CAAAQBAJ"><i>Production, Destruction and Connection, 1750-Present, Part 1, Structures, Spaces, and Boundary Making</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_World_History" title="The Cambridge World History">The Cambridge World History</a>. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139196079">10.1017/CBO9781139196079</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-40775-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-40775-5"><bdi>978-1-108-40775-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Production%2C+Destruction+and+Connection%2C+1750-Present%2C+Part+1%2C+Structures%2C+Spaces%2C+and+Boundary+Making&rft.series=The+Cambridge+World+History&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9781139196079&rft.isbn=978-1-108-40775-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSRL0CAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merriman,_Roger_Bigelow" class="mw-redirect" title="Merriman, Roger Bigelow">Merriman, Roger Bigelow</a>. <i>The Rise of The Spanish Empire in the Old World and in the New</i> (4 vol. 1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Eliot_Morison" title="Samuel Eliot Morison">Morison, Samuel Eliot</a>. <i>The European Discovery of America: The Northern Voyages, A.D. 500–1600.</i> (1971).</li> <li>Morison, Samuel Eliot. <i>The European Discovery of America: The Southern Voyages, 1492–1616.</i> (1971).</li> <li>Parry, J.H. <i>The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration, and Settlement, 1450–1650.</i> (1982).</li> <li>Pyne, Stephen J. <i>The Great Ages of Discovery: How Western Civilization Learned About a Wider World.</i> Tucson: University of Arizona Press. (2021).</li> <li>Sarson, Steven, and Jack P. Greene, eds. <i>The American Colonies and the British Empire, 1607–1783</i> (8 vol, 2010); primary sources</li> <li>Sobecki, Sebastian. "New World Discovery". Oxford Handbooks Online (2015). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199935338.013.141">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935338.013.141</a></li> <li>Starkey, Armstrong (1998). <i>European-Native American Warfare, 1675–1815</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3075-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3075-0">978-0-8061-3075-0</a></li> <li>Vickers, Daniel, ed. <i>A Companion to Colonial America.</i> (2003).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2008" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Thomas (2008). <i>Formation of Latin American Nations. From Late Antiquity to Early Modernity</i>. Norman: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oklahoma_Press" title="University of Oklahoma Press">University of Oklahoma Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806161501" title="Special:BookSources/9780806161501"><bdi>9780806161501</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Formation+of+Latin+American+Nations.+From+Late+Antiquity+to+Early+Modernity&rft.place=Norman&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780806161501&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxtell,_J.1988" class="citation book cs1">Axtell, J. (1988). <i>After Columbus: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-198-02206-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-198-02206-0"><bdi>978-0-198-02206-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/87034886">87034886</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Columbus%3A+Essays+in+the+Ethnohistory+of+Colonial+North+America&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F87034886&rft.isbn=978-0-198-02206-0&rft.au=Axtell%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxtell,_J.1992" class="citation book cs1">Axtell, J. (1992). <i>Beyond 1492: Encounters in Colonial North America</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-195-08033-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-195-08033-9"><bdi>978-0-195-08033-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/91045411">91045411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+1492%3A+Encounters+in+Colonial+North+America&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F91045411&rft.isbn=978-0-195-08033-9&rft.au=Axtell%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxtell,_J.1981" class="citation book cs1">Axtell, J. (1981). <i>The European and the Indian: Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-195-02904-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-195-02904-8"><bdi>978-0-195-02904-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/lc80025084">lc80025084</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+and+the+Indian%3A+Essays+in+the+Ethnohistory+of+Colonial+North+America&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2Flc80025084&rft.isbn=978-0-195-02904-8&rft.au=Axtell%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlin,_I.2009" class="citation book cs1">Berlin, I. (2009). <i>Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02082-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-02082-5"><bdi>978-0-674-02082-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Many+Thousands+Gone%3A+The+First+Two+Centuries+of+Slavery+in+North+America&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-02082-5&rft.au=Berlin%2C+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Blackhawk, Ned. (2023). <i>The Rediscovery of America: Native Peoples and the Unmaking of U.S. History.</i> New Haven: Yale University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButler,_J.2001" class="citation book cs1">Butler, J. (2001). <i>Becoming America: The Revolution Before 1776</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00667-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00667-6"><bdi>978-0-674-00667-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/99054646">99054646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Becoming+America%3A+The+Revolution+Before+1776&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F99054646&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00667-6&rft.au=Butler%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdelson,_S.M.2017" class="citation book cs1">Edelson, S.M. (2017). <i>The New Map of Empire: How Britain Imagined America before Independence</i>. <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97899-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-97899-7"><bdi>978-0-674-97899-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Map+of+Empire%3A+How+Britain+Imagined+America+before+Independence&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-674-97899-7&rft.au=Edelson%2C+S.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinton,_A.L._and_Woolford,_A._and_Benvenuto,_J.2014" class="citation book cs1">Hinton, A.L. and Woolford, A. and Benvenuto, J. (2014). <i>Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America</i>. <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-822-35779-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-822-35779-7"><bdi>978-0-822-35779-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2014020685">2014020685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+Genocide+in+Indigenous+North+America&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2014020685&rft.isbn=978-0-822-35779-7&rft.au=Hinton%2C+A.L.+and+Woolford%2C+A.+and+Benvenuto%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJennings,_F.2010" class="citation book cs1">Jennings, F. (2010). <i>The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-807-87144-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-807-87144-7"><bdi>978-0-807-87144-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/74034275">74034275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invasion+of+America%3A+Indians%2C+Colonialism%2C+and+the+Cant+of+Conquest&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F74034275&rft.isbn=978-0-807-87144-7&rft.au=Jennings%2C+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruer,_M.2022" class="citation book cs1">Kruer, M. (2022). <i>Time of Anarchy: Indigenous Power and the Crisis of Colonialism in Early America</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-26956-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-26956-9"><bdi>978-0-674-26956-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Time+of+Anarchy%3A+Indigenous+Power+and+the+Crisis+of+Colonialism+in+Early+America&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-674-26956-9&rft.au=Kruer%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaramie,_M.G.2012" class="citation book cs1">Laramie, M.G. (2012). <i>The European Invasion of North America: Colonial Conflict Along the Hudson-Champlain Corridor, 1609-1760</i>. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-39737-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-39737-0"><bdi>978-0-313-39737-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011050352">2011050352</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+European+Invasion+of+North+America%3A+Colonial+Conflict+Along+the+Hudson-Champlain+Corridor%2C+1609-1760&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011050352&rft.isbn=978-0-313-39737-0&rft.au=Laramie%2C+M.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRestall,_M._and_Lane,_K.2018" class="citation book cs1">Restall, M. and Lane, K. (2018). <i>Latin America in Colonial Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-41640-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-41640-5"><bdi>978-1-108-41640-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+America+in+Colonial+Times&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-108-41640-5&rft.au=Restall%2C+M.+and+Lane%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRushforth,_B._and_Mapp,_P.2016" class="citation book cs1">Rushforth, B. and Mapp, P. (2016). <i>Colonial North America and the Atlantic World: A History in Documents</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-51032-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-51032-3"><bdi>978-1-315-51032-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+North+America+and+the+Atlantic+World%3A+A+History+in+Documents&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-315-51032-3&rft.au=Rushforth%2C+B.+and+Mapp%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_A._and_Foner,_E.2002" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, A. and Foner, E. (2002). <i>American Colonies: The Settling of North America (The Penguin History of the United States, Volume 1)</i>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-07581-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-07581-4"><bdi>978-1-101-07581-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Colonies%3A+The+Settling+of+North+America+%28The+Penguin+History+of+the+United+States%2C+Volume+1%29&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-101-07581-4&rft.au=Taylor%2C+A.+and+Foner%2C+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_A.2013" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, A. (2013). <i>Colonial America: A Very Short Introduction</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-76623-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-76623-9"><bdi>978-0-199-76623-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2012029104">2012029104</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+America%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2012029104&rft.isbn=978-0-199-76623-9&rft.au=Taylor%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitt,_L._and_Clarke,_A.W.2019" class="citation book cs1">Whitt, L. and Clarke, A.W. (2019). <i>North American Genocides: Indigenous Nations, Settler Colonialism, and International Law</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42550-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-42550-6"><bdi>978-1-108-42550-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2019008004">2019008004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=North+American+Genocides%3A+Indigenous+Nations%2C+Settler+Colonialism%2C+and+International+Law&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2019008004&rft.isbn=978-1-108-42550-6&rft.au=Whitt%2C+L.+and+Clarke%2C+A.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEuropean+colonization+of+the+Americas" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Americas&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/13px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/20px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/27px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span> Quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a> at Wikiquote</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="20x20px_History_of_the_Americas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Americas" title="Template:History of the Americas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Americas" title="Template talk:History of the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Americas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Americas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="20x20px_History_of_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="vertical-align:1px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Americas_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/20px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/30px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/40px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Americas" title="History of the Americas">History of the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Americas" title="History of the Americas">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_America" title="History of North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesoamerica" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_America" title="History of Central America">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin_America" title="History of Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_America" title="History of South America">South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Andean_South_America" title="History of Andean South America">Andean South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetics</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LocationAmericas.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/LocationAmericas.png/200px-LocationAmericas.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/LocationAmericas.png/300px-LocationAmericas.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/LocationAmericas.png/400px-LocationAmericas.png 2x" data-file-width="2759" data-file-height="1404" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Settlement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_North_America" title="Exploration of North America">Exploration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">European colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">British colonization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exchange">Columbian Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">Decolonization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Aztecs" title="History of the Aztecs">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_Confederation" title="Muisca Confederation">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Incas" title="History of the Incas">Inca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Maps_of_the_history_of_the_Americas" title="Category:Maps of the history of the Americas">Maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_of_the_Americas" title="Category:Culture of the Americas">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_the_Americas" title="Category:Geography of the Americas">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smallpox_epidemics_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Smallpox epidemics in the Americas">Epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">Slavery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="List of pre-Columbian cultures">Pre-Columbian cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_in_the_Americas_by_population" title="List of countries in the Americas by population">Population</a></li> <li>Conflicts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_North_America" title="List of conflicts in North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_South_America" title="List of conflicts in South America">South America</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">Archaeology of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)" title="List of archaeological periods (North America)">North America by period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Timelines_of_North_American_history" title="Category:Timelines of North American history">North American timelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Mesoamerica)" title="List of archaeological periods (Mesoamerica)">Mesoamerica by period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Mesoamerica timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_eras" title="Category:Historical eras">Era</a>: <a href="/wiki/Category:History_by_period" title="Category:History by period">By period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_by_region" title="Category:History by region">By region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">Modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Future" title="Category:Future">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_colonization_of_North_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:European_colonization_of_North_America" title="Template:European colonization of North America"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:European_colonization_of_North_America" title="Template talk:European colonization of North America"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:European_colonization_of_North_America" title="Special:EditPage/Template:European colonization of North America"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_colonization_of_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonization of North America">European colonization of North America</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santo_Tom%C3%A1s_de_Castilla#Belgian_colony" title="Santo Tomás de Castilla">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Curonian colonization of the Americas">Curonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Danish colonization of the Americas">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="German colonization of the Americas">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="French colonization of the Americas">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospitaller_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Hospitaller colonization of the Americas">Hospitaller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse</a></li> <li>Norwegian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erik_the_Red%27s_Land" title="Erik the Red's Land">Erik the Red's Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen_Land" title="Fridtjof Nansen Land">Fridtjof Nansen Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_Islands" title="Sverdrup Islands">Sverdrup Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">Spanish</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Sweden" title="New Sweden">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Article also discusses colonization in Central and South America and Asia</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Colonization,_decolonization,_and_neocolonialism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Colonization" title="Template:Colonization"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Colonization" title="Template talk:Colonization"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Colonization" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Colonization"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Colonization,_decolonization,_and_neocolonialism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">Colonization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">neocolonialism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em">Exploration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Americas" title="Exploration of the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_exploration_of_Africa" title="European exploration of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_European_exploration_of_Asia" title="Chronology of European exploration of Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Oceania" title="Europeans in Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Antarctica" class="mw-redirect" title="Exploration of Antarctica">Antarctica</a> — <a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">World oceans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em"><a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">Colonization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_European_colonies_in_Africa" title="List of European colonies in Africa">European colonies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_imperialism_in_Asia" title="Western imperialism in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_colonisation_of_Southeast_Asia" title="European colonisation of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Oceania" title="Colonisation of Oceania">Oceania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_Antarctica" title="Colonization of Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em">Decolonization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_the_Americas" title="Decolonization of the Americas">Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Asia" title="Decolonisation of Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Oceania" title="Decolonisation of Oceania">Oceania</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em"><a href="/wiki/Exploration" title="Exploration">Exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">Maritime history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">European</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em"><a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">Colonization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">Antiquity</a> — <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_company" title="Chartered company">Chartered companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">Interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Western_colonialism" title="Chronology of Western colonialism">chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detribalization" title="Detribalization">detribalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Current: <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_list_of_non-self-governing_territories" title="United Nations list of non-self-governing territories">Non-self-governing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial empires</a><br /> in the <a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Overseas, major: <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Overseas, minor: <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Papua_and_New_Guinea" title="Territory of Papua and New Guinea">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_colonial_policy" title="Austrian colonial policy">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Couronian_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Couronian colonization">Couronian (Polish-Lithuanian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realm_of_New_Zealand" title="Realm of New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_possessions_of_Norway" title="List of possessions of Norway">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Mostly contiguous: <a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_expansionism" title="Chinese expansionism">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_classical_Ottoman_Empire" title="Government of the classical Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_West_Africa" title="South West Africa">South African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em"><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Wars of national liberation</a> — Predecessors of sovereign states <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_predecessors_of_sovereign_states_in_Europe" title="List of predecessors of sovereign states in Europe">in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_predecessors_of_sovereign_states_in_South_America" title="List of predecessors of sovereign states in South America">in South America</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_referendum" title="Independence referendum">Independence referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_by_date_of_formation" title="List of sovereign states by date of formation">Sovereign states formation dates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em"><a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Independence" title="Independence">Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_colonialism" title="Internal colonialism">Internal colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation-building" title="Nation-building">Nation-building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">Neocolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_international_relations" title="Postcolonial international relations">Postcolonial international relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">Decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">Terra nullius</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_(settlement_or_colony)" title="Plantation (settlement or colony)">Plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settler" title="Settler">Settler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontacted_peoples" title="Uncontacted peoples">Uncontacted peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_colonialism" title="Christianity and colonialism">Christianity and colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_public_space" title="Decolonization of public space">Decolonization of public space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #FFDD99"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Template:Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Template talk:Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indigenous peoples of the Americas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Pre-history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Classification of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_the_Americas" title="Archaeology of the Americas">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solutrean_hypothesis" title="Solutrean hypothesis">Solutrean hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Americas_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/120px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/180px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/240px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Mythology/Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Mythologies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Mythologies</a>‎ <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_deities" title="List of Native American deities">List of deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="Human sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures">Human sacrifice</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arborglyph" title="Arborglyph">Arborglyph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_World_(mythology)" title="Fifth World (mythology)">Fifth World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Spirit" title="Great Spirit">Great Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">Medicine man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_wheel" title="Medicine wheel">Medicine wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_red_road" title="The red road">The red road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totem_pole" title="Totem pole">Totem pole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turtle_Island" title="Turtle Island">Turtle Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">Mesoamerica</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">Common</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_cosmovision" title="Mesoamerican cosmovision">Cosmovision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_creation_myths" title="Mesoamerican creation myths">Creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_world_tree" title="Mesoamerican world tree">World tree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">Variations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_religion" title="Muisca religion">Muisca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures" title="List of pre-Columbian cultures">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_civilizations" title="Andean civilizations">Andes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_cultures_of_Colombia" title="Pre-Columbian cultures of Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_Ecuador" title="Pre-Columbian Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization_of_pre-Columbian_Peru" title="Periodization of pre-Columbian Peru">Peru</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Art" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_art" title="Pre-Columbian art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_music_of_North_America" title="Indigenous music of North America">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Visual arts of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painting_in_the_Americas_before_European_colonization" title="Painting in the Americas before European colonization">Painting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_artists_of_the_Americas" title="List of Indigenous artists of the Americas">Artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_writers_of_the_Americas" title="List of Indigenous writers of the Americas">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">European<br />colonization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">European colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Modern groups<br />by country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#North_America" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas#Belize" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada" title="Indigenous peoples in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Costa_Rica" title="Indigenous peoples of Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinago" title="Kalinago">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipil_people" title="Pipil people">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_Inuit" title="Greenlandic Inuit">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Honduras" title="Indigenous peoples of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Nicaragua" title="Indigenous peoples of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Panama" title="Indigenous peoples of Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa_First_Peoples_Community" title="Santa Rosa First Peoples Community">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;background:#FFDD99"><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="Indigenous peoples of South America">South America</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Indigenous_peoples_of_South_America" title="List of Indigenous peoples of South America">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Argentina" title="Indigenous peoples in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Bolivia" title="Indigenous peoples in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Brazil" title="Indigenous peoples in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Chile" title="Indigenous peoples in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Colombia" title="Indigenous peoples in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Ecuador" title="Indigenous peoples in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Guyana" title="Indigenous peoples in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Paraguay" title="Indigenous peoples in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Peru" title="Indigenous peoples of Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Suriname" title="Indigenous peoples in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Uruguay" title="Indigenous peoples in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Venezuela" title="Indigenous peoples in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFDD99;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;background:#FFDD99">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_ethnobotany" title="Native American ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_ethnobotany" title="Cherokee ethnobotany">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_ethnobotany" title="Iroquois ethnobotany">Iroquois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_ethnobotany" title="Navajo ethnobotany">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_ethnobotany" title="Zuni ethnobotany">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_movements_in_the_Americas" title="Indigenous movements in the Americas">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deerskin_trade" title="Deerskin trade">Deerskin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_popular_culture" title="Native Americans in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background: #FFDD99"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Category:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_colonization_of_the_Americas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Americas_topic" title="Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Americas_topic" title="Template talk:Americas topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Americas_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Americas topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_colonization_of_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">European colonization of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sovereign states in the Americas">Sovereign<br />states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Argentina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Argentina (page does not exist)">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Bahamas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the Bahamas (page does not exist)">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Barbados&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Barbados (page does not exist)">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Belize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Belize (page does not exist)">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Bolivia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Bolivia (page does not exist)">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Brazil&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Brazil (page does not exist)">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonization of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Chile&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Chile (page does not exist)">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Colombia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Colombia (page does not exist)">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Costa_Rica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Costa Rica (page does not exist)">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Cuba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Cuba (page does not exist)">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Dominican_Republic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the Dominican Republic (page does not exist)">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Ecuador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Ecuador (page does not exist)">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_El_Salvador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of El Salvador (page does not exist)">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Guatemala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Guatemala (page does not exist)">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Guyana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Guyana (page does not exist)">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Haiti&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Haiti (page does not exist)">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Honduras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Honduras (page does not exist)">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Jamaica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Jamaica (page does not exist)">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Nicaragua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Nicaragua (page does not exist)">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Panama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Panama (page does not exist)">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Paraguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Paraguay (page does not exist)">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Suriname&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Suriname (page does not exist)">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the United States (page does not exist)">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Uruguay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Uruguay (page does not exist)">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Venezuela&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Venezuela (page does not exist)">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/100px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/150px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/200px-Americas_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Territory" title="Territory">territories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Anguilla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Anguilla (page does not exist)">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Aruba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Aruba (page does not exist)">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Bermuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Bermuda (page does not exist)">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the British Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Cayman_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the Cayman Islands (page does not exist)">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Falkland_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the Falkland Islands (page does not exist)">Falkland Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_French_Guiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of French Guiana (page does not exist)">French Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Puerto_Rico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Puerto Rico (page does not exist)">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_South_Georgia_and_the_South_Sandwich_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (page does not exist)">South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the United States Virgin Islands (page does not exist)">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="European colonization of North America">North America</a></b></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_Central_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of Central America (page does not exist)">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_the_Caribbean&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of the Caribbean (page does not exist)">Caribbean</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=European_colonization_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="European colonization of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a 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