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<li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pictish_and_Pritenic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pictish_and_Pritenic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Pictish and Pritenic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pictish_and_Pritenic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diversification_and_Neo-Brittonic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diversification_and_Neo-Brittonic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Diversification and Neo-Brittonic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diversification_and_Neo-Brittonic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>First declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Second declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Third declension</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Place_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Place_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Place names</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Place_names-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Place names subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Place_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Examples_of_place_names_derived_from_the_Brittonic_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_place_names_derived_from_the_Brittonic_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Examples of place names derived from the Brittonic languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_place_names_derived_from_the_Brittonic_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 21 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-21" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">21 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="بریتانیا دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بریتانیا دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Общобритски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Общобритски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythoneg" title="Brythoneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Brythoneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="زبان بریتانیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان بریتانیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comh-Bhriotainis" title="Comh-Bhriotainis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Comh-Bhriotainis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Britonik_Umum" title="Bahasa Britonik Umum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Britonik Umum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breska" title="Breska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Breska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_brittonica_comune" title="Lingua brittonica comune – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua brittonica comune" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Britannica" title="Lingua Britannica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Britannica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brit_nyelv" title="Brit nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Brit nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Британски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Британски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britisk_(keltisk)" title="Britisk (keltisk) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Britisk (keltisk)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_brytyjski" title="Język brytyjski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język brytyjski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_brit%C3%B4nica" title="Língua britônica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua britônica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_britonic%C4%83" title="Limba britonică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba britonică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Общебриттский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Общебриттский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Briton" title="Old Briton – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Old Briton" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittiska_(spr%C3%A5k)" title="Brittiska (språk) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Brittiska (språk)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britonca" title="Britonca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Britonca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="عام بریطانی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عام بریطانی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%83%E7%AB%8B%E5%90%9E%E8%AA%9E" title="古布立吞語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient Celtic language of Britain, ancestor to Welsh, Cornish, Breton and Cumbric</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about an ancestral Celtic language. For the group of languages descended from it, see <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic languages</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Common Brittonic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">Brittonikā</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6th century BC to mid-6th century AD</span><sup id="cite_ref-linglist_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-linglist-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />Developed into <a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumbric_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumbric language">Cumbric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> and probably <a href="/wiki/Pictish" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictish">Pictish</a><sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Common Brittonic</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/brit">brit</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><i>None</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Linguasphere_Observatory" title="Linguasphere Observatory">Linguasphere</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hortensj-garden.org/index.php?tnc=1&tr=lsr&nid=50-AB">50-AB</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Common Brittonic</b> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">Brythoneg</i>; <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a>: <i lang="kw">Brythonek</i>; <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>: <i lang="br">Predeneg</i>), also known as <b>British</b>, <b>Common Brythonic</b>, or <b>Proto-Brittonic</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic language</a> historically spoken in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> from which evolved the later and modern <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic languages</a>. </p><p>It is a form of <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic</a>, descended from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a>, a theorized parent language that, by the first half of the first millennium BC, was <a href="/wiki/Divergence_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Divergence (linguistics)">diverging</a> into separate dialects or languages.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish</a> is linked, likely as a sister language or a descendant branch.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence from early and modern Welsh shows that Common Brittonic was significantly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman period</a>, especially in terms related to the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">church</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Christianity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ElfenLadin_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ElfenLadin-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the sixth century AD, the languages of the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons</a> were rapidly diverging into <a href="/wiki/Neo-Brittonic" title="Neo-Brittonic">Neo-Brittonic</a>: <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a>, and possibly the <a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish language</a>. </p><p>Over the next three centuries, Brittonic was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> in most of Scotland, and by <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> (from which descend <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">Modern English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a>) throughout most of modern England as well as Scotland south of the <a href="/wiki/Firth_of_Forth" title="Firth of Forth">Firth of Forth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolaisen_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolaisen-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cumbric disappeared in the 12th century,<sup id="cite_ref-Nicolaisen_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nicolaisen-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the far south-west, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> probably became extinct in the 18th century, though its use has since been <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language_revival" title="Cornish language revival">revived</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> O'Rahilly's historical model suggests a Brittonic language in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> before the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic languages</a>, but this view has not found wide acceptance.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Welsh and Breton are the only daughter languages that have survived fully into the modern day. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_baths_2014_60.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Roman_baths_2014_60.jpg/220px-Roman_baths_2014_60.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Roman_baths_2014_60.jpg/330px-Roman_baths_2014_60.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Roman_baths_2014_60.jpg/440px-Roman_baths_2014_60.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Bath curse tablet featuring possible Common Brittonic</figcaption></figure> <p>No documents in the language have been found, but a few inscriptions have been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bath_curse_tablets" title="Bath curse tablets">Bath curse tablets</a>, found in the Roman feeder pool at <a href="/wiki/Bath,_Somerset" title="Bath, Somerset">Bath, Somerset</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aquae_Sulis" title="Aquae Sulis">Aquae Sulis</a>), bear about 150 names – about 50% Celtic (but not necessarily Brittonic). An inscription on a metal pendant (discovered there in 1979) seems to contain an ancient Brittonic curse:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">Adixoui Deuina Deieda Andagin Uindiorix cuamenai</i></span>". (Sometimes the final word has been rendered <span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">cuamiinai</i></span>.) This text is often seen as: 'The affixed – Deuina, Deieda, Andagin [and] Uindiorix – I have bound';<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> else, at the opposite extreme, taking into account case-marking – <span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">-rix</i></span> 'king' nominative, <span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">andagin</i></span> 'worthless woman' accusative, <span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">dewina deieda</i></span> 'divine Deieda' nominative/vocative – is: 'May I, Windiorix for/at Cuamena defeat [or 'summon to justice'] the worthless woman, [oh] divine Deieda.'<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A tin/lead sheet retains part of nine text lines, damaged, with likely Brittonic names.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Local <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> <a href="/wiki/Toponymy" title="Toponymy">toponyms</a> (place names) are evidentiary, recorded in Latinised forms by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)"><i>Geography</i></a> discussed by Rivet and Smith in their book of that name published in 1979. They show most names he used were from the Brittonic language. Some place names still contain elements derived from it. Tribe names and some Brittonic personal names are also taken down by Greeks and, mainly, Romans. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Agricola_(book)" title="Agricola (book)"><i>Agricola</i></a> says that the language differed little from that of <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>. Comparison with what is known of <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a> confirms the similarity.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pictish_and_Pritenic">Pictish and Pritenic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Pictish and Pritenic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Pictish" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictish">Pictish</a></b>, which became extinct around 1000 years ago, was the spoken language of the <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a> in Northern Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite significant debate as to whether this language was Celtic, items such as geographical and personal names documented in the region gave evidence that this language was most closely aligned with the Brittonic branch of Celtic languages.<sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The question of the extent to which this language was distinguished, and the date of divergence, from the rest of Brittonic, was historically disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Pritenic</b> (also <b>Pretanic</b> and <b>Prittenic</b>) is a term coined in 1955 by <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_H._Jackson" title="Kenneth H. Jackson">Kenneth H. Jackson</a> to describe a hypothetical Roman-era (1st to 5th centuries) predecessor to the Pictish language.<sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jackson saw Pritenic as having diverged from Brittonic around the time of 75–100 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term Pritenic is controversial. In 2015, linguist Guto Rhys concluded that most proposals that Pictish diverged from Brittonic before <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 AD</span> were incorrect, questionable, or of little importance, and that a lack of evidence to distinguish Brittonic and Pictish rendered the term Pritenic "redundant".<sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diversification_and_Neo-Brittonic">Diversification and Neo-Brittonic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Diversification and Neo-Brittonic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Common Brittonic vied with Latin after the <a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest of Britain</a> in 43 AD, at least in major settlements. Latin words were widely borrowed by its speakers in the Romanised towns and their descendants, and later from church use. </p><p>By 500–550 AD, Common Brittonic had diverged into the Neo-Brittonic dialects:<sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a> primarily in Wales, <a href="/wiki/Old_Cornish" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Cornish">Old Cornish</a> in Cornwall, <a href="/wiki/Old_Breton" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Breton">Old Breton</a> in what is now Brittany, <a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a> in Northern England and Southern Scotland, and probably Pictish in Northern Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern forms of <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> are the only direct descendants of Common Brittonic to have survived fully into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-burnsmcarthur_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-burnsmcarthur-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> fell out of use in the 1700s but has since undergone a <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language_revival" title="Cornish language revival">revival</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BBCCornnotextinct_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBCCornnotextinct-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cumbric and Pictish are extinct and today spoken only in the form of loanwords in English, <a href="/wiki/Scots_language" title="Scots language">Scots</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dictscot_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dictscot-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UGlas_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr style="font-size: 90%;"> <td colspan="2"> </td> </tr></tbody><caption>(Late) Common Brittonic consonants </caption> <tbody><tr><th colspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2" width="20px"><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th colspan="2" width="20px"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th colspan="2" width="20px"><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th colspan="2" width="20px"><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2" width="20px"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th colspan="2" width="20px"><a href="/wiki/Labial%E2%80%93velar_consonant" title="Labial–velar consonant">Labial–<br />velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td width="20px" style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td width="20px" style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td width="20px" style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td width="20px" style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td width="20px" style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td width="20px" style="border-left: 0;">(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a></span>) </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">Stop</a> </th> <td style="border-right: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td width="20px" style="border-right: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span></td> <td width="20px" style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">ɡ</a></span> </td> <td width="20px" style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td width="20px" style="border-left: 0;">(ɡʷ) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <th>oral </th> <td style="border-right: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a></span> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>nasal </th> <td> </td> <td>β̃ </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td width="20px" style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td width="20px" style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;">(<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_fricative" title="Voiceless labial–velar fricative">ʍ</a>)</td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_consonant" title="Lateral consonant">Lateral</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td style="border-right: 0;"></td> <td style="border-left: 0;"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Early Common Brittonic vowels </caption> <tbody><tr style="font-size: 90%;"> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th> <th>short </th> <th>long </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">iː</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">eː</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛː</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔː</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑː</a></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The early Common Brittonic vowel inventory is effectively identical to that of Proto-Celtic.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (June 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɨ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʉ/</span> have not developed yet. </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Late Common Brittonic vowels </caption> <tbody><tr style="font-size: 90%;"> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1"><small>unrounded</small> </th> <th rowspan="1"><small>rounded</small> </th> <th rowspan="1"><small>unrounded</small> </th> <th rowspan="1"><small>rounded</small> </th> <th rowspan="1"><small>rounded</small> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close front rounded vowel">y</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Close central unrounded vowel">ɨ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_central_rounded_vowel" title="Close central rounded vowel">ʉ</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front rounded vowel">ø</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a></span>) </td> <td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Mid_central_rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid central rounded vowel">ɵ̞</a></span>) </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>By late Common Brittonic, the <a href="/wiki/New_Quantity_System" title="New Quantity System">New Quantity System</a> had occurred, leading to a radical restructuring of the vowel system. </p><p>Notes: </p> <ul><li>The central mid vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɵ̞/</span> were allophonic developments of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>, respectively.</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vowel developments<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a> </th> <th colspan="10">Stage </th></tr> <tr> <th>I </th> <th>II </th> <th>III </th> <th>IV </th> <th>V </th> <th>Vb </th> <th>VI </th> <th>VII </th> <th>VIII </th> <th>IX </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header" style=""><div style=""><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1221560606">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-rl){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header{line-height:1;max-width:1em;padding:0.4em;vertical-align:bottom;width:1em}html.client-js .mw-parser-output .sortable:not(.jquery-tablesorter) .ts-vertical-header:not(.unsortable),html.client-js .mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.headerSort{background-position:50%.4em;padding-right:0.4em;padding-top:21px}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.is-valign-top{vertical-align:top}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.is-valign-middle{vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header.is-normal{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header>*{display:inline-block;transform:rotate(180deg);writing-mode:vertical-rl}@supports(writing-mode:sideways-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-header>*{transform:none;writing-mode:sideways-lr}}}</style>Short vowels</div> </th> <td colspan="10"><i>*a</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="10"><i>*e</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="6"><i>*i</i> </td> <td colspan="5"><i>*ɪ</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7"><i>*o</i> </td> <td colspan="3"><i>*o</i>, <i>*ʉ</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="7"><i>*u</i> </td> <td colspan="3"><i>*u</i>, <i>*ʉ</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Long vowels</div> </th> <td colspan="4"><i>*ā</i> </td> <td colspan="5"><i>*ɔ̄</i> </td> <td><i>*ɔ</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="8"><i>*ē</i> </td> <td colspan="2"><i>*ui</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9"><i>*ī</i> </td> <td colspan="2"><i>*i</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><i>*ō</i> </td> <td colspan="3"><i>*ū</i> </td> <td colspan="4"><i>*ǖ</i> </td> <td><i>*ü</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>*ū</i> </td> <td colspan="4"><i>*ǖ</i> </td> <td colspan="4"><i>*ī</i> </td> <td><i>*i</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2" class="nowrap ts-vertical-header" style=""><div style=""><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1221560606">Diphthongs</div> </th> <td colspan="3"><i>*ai</i> </td> <td colspan="5"><i>*ɛ̄</i> </td> <td colspan="2"><i>*oi</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4"><i>*au</i> </td> <td colspan="5"><i>*ɔ̄</i> </td> <td><i>*ɔ</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Through <a href="/wiki/Comparative_linguistics" title="Comparative linguistics">comparative linguistics</a>, it is possible to approximately reconstruct the <a href="/wiki/Declension" title="Declension">declension</a> paradigms of Common Brittonic: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_declension">First declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: First declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Brittonic *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">tōtā</i></span> 'tribe' and cognates in other languages </caption> <tbody><tr> <th># </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Noun_case" class="mw-redirect" title="Noun case">Case</a> </th> <th>Brittonic </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">PIE</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Singular</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtā</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutā</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túath<sup>L</sup></i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh</i></span><sub>2</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">Vocative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtā</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutā</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túath<sup>L</sup></i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub></i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Accusative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtin</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutim</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túaith<sup>N</sup></i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>m</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtiās</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutiās</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túaithe</i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>s</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtī</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutī</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túaith<sup>L</sup></i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>eh<sub>1</sub></i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Ablative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtī</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutī</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>es</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtī</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutī</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>(e)h<sub>1</sub></i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtī</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutī</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>i</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Dual</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a> <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a> <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtī</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túaith<sup>L</sup></i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>h<sub>1</sub>e</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtious</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túath<sup>L</sup></i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>ows</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtābon</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túathaib</i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>ām</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Ablative</a> <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtābin</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>ām</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtābin</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>ows</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Plural</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a> <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtās</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutās</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túatha<sup>H</sup></i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>es</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Accusative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtās</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutās</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túatha<sup>H</sup></i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>ns</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtābon</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutānon</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túath<sup>N</sup></i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>om</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtābo</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">toutābi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">túathaib</i></span> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>i</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Ablative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtā</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>os</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Instrumental</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtā</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>b<sup>h</sup>is</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative</a> </th> <td>*<span title="Common Brittonic-language text"><i lang="cel">tōtā</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td>*<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">tewteh<sub>2</sub>su</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Notes: </p> <ul><li>The dative dual and plural represent the inherited instrumental forms, which replaced the inherited dative dual and plural, from Proto-Celtic <span title="Proto-Celtic-language text">*<i lang="cel">toutābom</i></span>, <span title="Proto-Celtic-language text">*<i lang="cel">toutābos</i></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_declension">Second declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Second declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Brittonic *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wiros</i></span> 'man' and cognates in other languages </caption> <tbody><tr> <th># </th> <th>Case </th> <th>Brittonic </th> <th>Gaulish </th> <th>Welsh </th> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>PIE </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Singular</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nom.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wiros</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wiros</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">gŵr</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">fer</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHros</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">Voc.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wire</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wire</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">fir<sup>L</sup></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHre</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Acc.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wiron</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wirom</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">fer<sup>N</sup></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrom</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Gen.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirī</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wirī</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">fir<sup>L</sup></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrosyo</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dat.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirū</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wirū</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">fiur<sup>L</sup></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHroh<sub>1</sub></i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Abl.</a> <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">ins.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirū</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHroh<sub>1</sub></i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Loc.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirē</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrey</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Dual</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nom.</a> <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">acc.</a> <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">voc.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirō</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wirō</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">fer<sup>L</sup></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHroh<sub>1</sub></i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Gen.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirōs</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">fer</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrows</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dat.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirobon</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">feraib</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrob<sup>h</sup>ām</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Abl.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirobin</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrob<sup>h</sup>ām</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Ins.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirobin</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrob<sup>h</sup>ām</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Loc.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirou</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrows</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">Plural</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nom.</a> <a href="/wiki/Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">voc.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirī</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wirī</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">gwŷr</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">fir<sup>L</sup></i></span> (nom.), <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">firu<sup>H</sup></i></span> (voc.) </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHroy</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">Acc.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirūs</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wirūs</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">firu<sup>H</sup></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrons</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Gen.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wiron</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wiron</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">fer<sup>N</sup></i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrooHom</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dat.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirobi</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Transalpine Gaulish-language text"><i lang="xtg">wirobi</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">feraib</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrōys</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">Abl.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirobi</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHromos</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">Ins.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirobi</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHrōys</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Loc.</a> </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">wirobi</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text">*<i lang="ine">wiHroysu</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Notes: </p> <ul><li>Neuter 2nd declension stems deviate from the paradigm as such:</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Neuter 2nd declension stem *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">cradion</i></span> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th># </th> <th>Case </th> <th>Brittonic </th></tr> <tr> <td>Sg </td> <td>Nom. voc. acc. </td> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">cradion</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pl </td> <td>Nom. voc. acc. </td> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">cradiā</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Notes: </p> <ul><li>Dual is same as singular</li> <li>All other declensions same as regular 2nd declension paradigm</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Third_declension">Third declension</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Third declension"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Brittonic *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecis</i></span> and cognates in other languages </caption> <tbody><tr> <th># </th> <th>Case </th> <th>Brittonic </th> <th>Gaulish </th> <th>Welsh </th> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>PIE </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6">Sg </th> <th>Nom. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecis</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">carreg</i></span> </td> <td><span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">carrac</i></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voc. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carreci</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Acc. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecin</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gen. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecēs</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dat. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecē</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Abl. ins. loc. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecī</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">Du </th> <th>Nom. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecī</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gen. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carreciōs</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dat. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecibon</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Abl. ins. loc. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecī</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="4">Pl </th> <th>Nom. voc. acc. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecīs</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td><span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">cerrig</i></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gen. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecion</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dat. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecibo</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Abl. ins. loc. </th> <td>*<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">carrecibi</i></span> </td> <td>— </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Place_names">Place names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Place names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Brittonic-derived place names are scattered across Great Britain, with many occurring in the <a href="/wiki/West_Country" title="West Country">West Country</a>; however, some of these may be pre-Celtic. The best example is perhaps that of each (river) <a href="/wiki/River_Avon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="River Avon (disambiguation)">Avon</a>, which comes from the Brittonic <span title="uncoded-language text"><span lang="mis">aβon[a]</span></span>, "river" (transcribed into Welsh as <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">afon</i></span>, Cornish <span title="Cornish-language text"><i lang="kw">avon</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">abhainn</i></span>, <a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a> <span title="Manx-language text"><i lang="gv">awin</i></span>, Breton <span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">aven</i></span>; the Latin cognate is <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">amnis</i></span>). When river is preceded by the word, in the modern vein, it is <a href="/wiki/List_of_tautological_place_names" title="List of tautological place names">tautological</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_place_names_derived_from_the_Brittonic_languages">Examples of place names derived from the Brittonic languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Examples of place names derived from the Brittonic languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Celtic_toponymy" title="Celtic toponymy">Celtic toponymy</a></div> <p>Examples are: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/River_Avon_(disambiguation)#United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="River Avon (disambiguation)">Avon</a></i> from <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">abonā</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-b_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> = 'river' (cf. <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">afon</i></span>, Cornish <span title="Cornish-language text"><i lang="kw">avon</i></span>, Breton <span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">aven</i></span>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Britain_(place_name)" title="Britain (place name)">Britain</a></i>, cognate with <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">Pritani</i></span> = (possibly) 'People of the Forms' (cf. Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Prydain</i></span> 'Britain', <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">pryd</i></span> 'appearance, form, image, resemblance'; Irish <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">cruth</i></span> 'appearance, shape', Old Irish <span title="Old Irish (to 900)-language text"><i lang="sga">Cruithin</i></span> '<a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>')</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheviot_Hills" title="Cheviot Hills"><i>Cheviot</i></a> from *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">cev-</i></span> = 'ridge' and <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">-ed</i></span>, a noun suffix<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dover" title="Dover">Dover</a></i>: as pre-medieval Latin did not distinguish a Spanish-style mixed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[b/v]</a></span> sound, the phonetic standard way of reading <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Dubrīs</i></span> is as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[dʊβriːs]</a></span>. It means 'water(s)' (cognate with old Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">dwfr</i></span>, plural phonetically <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ð/: 'th' in 'this'">ð</span></span>/</a></span></span>, Cornish <span title="Cornish-language text"><i lang="kw">dowr</i></span>, Breton <span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">dour</i></span>, and Irish <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">dobhar</i></span>, its orthography <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">bh</i></span> denoting <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[v]</a></span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[β]</a></span> phonetically)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a></i> from <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">canto-</i></span> = 'border' (becoming in Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">cant(el)</i></span> 'rim, brim', in Breton, <span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">kant</i></span>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lothian" title="Lothian">Lothian</a></i>, (<span title="Middle Welsh-language text"><i lang="wlm">Lleuddiniawn</i></span> in medieval Welsh) from *<span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">Lugudũn(iãnon)</i></span> 'Fort of <a href="/wiki/Lugus" title="Lugus">Lugus</a>'</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/River_Severn" title="River Severn">Severn</a></i> from <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">Sabrīna</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-b_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> perhaps the name of a goddess (modern Welsh, <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy"><a href="/wiki/Hafren" title="Hafren">Hafren</a></i></span>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/River_Thames" title="River Thames">Thames</a></i> from <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">Tamesis</i></span> = 'dark' (likely cognate with Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">tywyll</i></span> 'darkness', Cornish <span title="Cornish-language text"><i lang="kw">tewal</i></span>, Breton <span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">teñval</i></span>, Irish <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">teimheal</i></span>, pointing to a Brittonic approximate word <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">temeselo-</i></span>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Thanet_District" title="Thanet District">Thanet</a> (headland)</i> from <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">tan-eto-</i></span> = 'bonfire', 'aflame' (cf. Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">tân</i></span> 'fire', Cornish <span title="Cornish-language text"><i lang="kw">tanses</i></span>, Old Breton <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">tanet</i></span> 'aflame')</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/York" title="York">York</a></i> from <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">Ebur-ākon</i></span><sup id="cite_ref-b_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-b-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> = '<a href="/wiki/Taxus" title="Taxus">yew tree</a> stand/group' (cognate with Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">Efrog</i></span>, from <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">efwr</i></span> '<a href="/wiki/Heracleum_sphondylium" title="Heracleum sphondylium">cow parsnip, hogweed</a>' + <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">-og</i></span> 'abundant in', Breton <span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">evor</i></span> '<a href="/wiki/Frangula_alnus" title="Frangula alnus">alder buckthorn</a>', Scottish Gaelic <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">iubhar</i></span> 'yew', <span title="Scottish Gaelic-language text"><i lang="gd">iùbhrach</i></span> 'stand/grove of yew trees'; cognate with <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vreux" title="Évreux">Évreux</a> in France, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vora" title="Évora">Évora</a> in Portugal and <a href="/wiki/Newry" title="Newry">Newry</a>, Northern Ireland) via Latin <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Eburacum</i></span> > <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">OE</a> <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">Eoforwīc</i></span> (re-analysed by English speakers as <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">eofor</i></span> 'boar' with Old English <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">wic</i></span> appended at the end) > <a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a> <span title="Old Norse-language text"><i lang="non">Jórvík</i></span></li></ul> <p>Basic words <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis"><a href="/wiki/Tor_(rock_formation)" title="Tor (rock formation)">tor</a></i></span>, <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/combe" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/combe">combe</a></i></span>, <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">bere</i></span>, and <span title="uncoded-language text"><i lang="mis">hele</i></span> from Brittonic are common in Devon place-names.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tautologous, <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_word" title="Hybrid word">hybrid word</a> names exist in England, such as: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derwentwater" title="Derwentwater">Derwentwater</a> (for Brittonic part see <i>Dover</i> above)</li> <li>Chetwood, (cognate with Welsh <span title="Welsh-language text"><i lang="cy">coed</i></span>, Breton <span title="Breton-language text"><i lang="br">koad</i></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (May 2023)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bredon_Hill" title="Bredon Hill">Bredon Hill</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A study of 2018 found the number of people with at least minimal skills in Cornish as over 3,000, including around 500 estimated to be fluent.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-b-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-b_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-b_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">See note on pre-medieval-Latin recording of the letter <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">b</i></span> at <i>Dover</i>, in this section.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSchrijver1995" class="citation book cs1">Schrijver, Peter (1995). <i>Studies in British Celtic historical phonology</i>. Leiden studies in Indo-european. Amsterdam Atlanta (Ga.): Rodopi. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5183-820-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5183-820-6"><bdi>978-90-5183-820-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+British+Celtic+historical+phonology&rft.place=Amsterdam+Atlanta+%28Ga.%29&rft.series=Leiden+studies+in+Indo-european&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-90-5183-820-6&rft.aulast=Schrijver&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-linglist-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-linglist_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/">Common Brittonic</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/MultiTree" class="mw-redirect" title="MultiTree">MultiTree</a></i> on <a href="/wiki/The_Linguist_List" class="mw-redirect" title="The Linguist List">the Linguist List</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UGlas-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UGlas_3-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhys" class="citation web cs1">Rhys, Guto. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theses.gla.ac.uk/6285/7/2015RhysPhD.pdf">"Approaching the Pictish language: historiography, early evidence and the question of Pritenic"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>University of Glasgow</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Glasgow&rft.atitle=Approaching+the+Pictish+language%3A+historiography%2C+early+evidence+and+the+question+of+Pritenic&rft.aulast=Rhys&rft.aufirst=Guto&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheses.gla.ac.uk%2F6285%2F7%2F2015RhysPhD.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEska2019" class="citation journal cs1">Eska, Joseph F. (2019-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zcph-2019-0003/html">"The evolution of proto-Brit. *-/lth/ in Welsh"</a>. <i>Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie</i>. <b>66</b> (1): 75–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fzcph-2019-0003">10.1515/zcph-2019-0003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1865-889X">1865-889X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212726410">212726410</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+celtische+Philologie&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+proto-Brit.+%2A-%2Flth%2F+in+Welsh&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=75-82&rft.date=2019-12-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A212726410%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1865-889X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fzcph-2019-0003&rft.aulast=Eska&rft.aufirst=Joseph+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Fzcph-2019-0003%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSims-Williams1984" class="citation journal cs1">Sims-Williams, Patrick (November 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-968X.1984.tb01211.x">"The Double System of Verbal Inflexion in Old Irish"</a>. <i>Transactions of the Philological Society</i>. <b>82</b> (1): 138–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-968X.1984.tb01211.x">10.1111/j.1467-968X.1984.tb01211.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0079-1636">0079-1636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=The+Double+System+of+Verbal+Inflexion+in+Old+Irish&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=138-201&rft.date=1984-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-968X.1984.tb01211.x&rft.issn=0079-1636&rft.aulast=Sims-Williams&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-968X.1984.tb01211.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenderson2007" class="citation book cs1">Henderson, Jon C. (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlanticironages00hend"><i>The Atlantic Iron Age: Settlement and Identity in the First Millennium BC</i></a></span>. Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlanticironages00hend/page/n306">292</a>–295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415436427" title="Special:BookSources/9780415436427"><bdi>9780415436427</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+Iron+Age%3A+Settlement+and+Identity+in+the+First+Millennium+BC&rft.pages=292-295&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780415436427&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Jon+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatlanticironages00hend&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSims-Williams2007" class="citation book cs1">Sims-Williams, Patrick (2007). <i>Studies on Celtic Languages before the Year 1000</i>. CMCS. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+on+Celtic+Languages+before+the+Year+1000&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=CMCS&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Sims-Williams&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">Koch, John T.</a> (2006). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128"><i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i></a></span>. ABC-CLIO. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n19">1455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=1455&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Koch&rft.aufirst=John+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcelticculturehis00koch_128&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEska2008" class="citation book cs1">Eska, Joseph (2008). "Continental Celtic". In Woodard, Roger (ed.). <i>The Ancient Languages of Europe</i>. Cambridge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Continental+Celtic&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Europe&rft.pub=Cambridge&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Eska&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForsyth2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Forsyth" title="Katherine Forsyth">Forsyth, Katherine</a> (2006). <a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">Koch, John T.</a> (ed.). <i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 1444, 1447.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=1444%2C+1447&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Forsyth&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForsyth1997" class="citation book cs1">Forsyth, Katherine (1997). <i>Language in Pictland: The case against "non-Indo-European Pictish"</i>. Utrecht: de Keltische Draak. p. 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+in+Pictland%3A+The+case+against+%22non-Indo-European+Pictish%22&rft.place=Utrecht&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=de+Keltische+Draak&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Forsyth&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1955" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_H._Jackson" title="Kenneth H. Jackson">Jackson, Kenneth H.</a> (1955). "The Pictish Language". In Wainwright, F. T. (ed.). <i>The Problem of the Picts</i>. Edinburgh: Nelson. pp. 129–166.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Pictish+Language&rft.btitle=The+Problem+of+the+Picts&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=129-166&rft.pub=Nelson&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ElfenLadin-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ElfenLadin_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1943" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, H. (1943). <i>Yr Elfen Ladin yn yr Iaith Gymraeg</i>. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yr+Elfen+Ladin+yn+yr+Iaith+Gymraeg&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pub=University+of+Wales+Press&rft.date=1943&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nicolaisen-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nicolaisen_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nicolaisen_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolaisen" class="citation book cs1">Nicolaisen, W. F. H. <i>Scottish Place Names</i>. p. 131.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scottish+Place+Names&rft.pages=131&rft.aulast=Nicolaisen&rft.aufirst=W.+F.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanner2004" class="citation book cs1">Tanner, Marcus (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastofcelts00tann/page/225"><i>The last of the Celts</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastofcelts00tann/page/225">225</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300104642" title="Special:BookSources/0300104642"><bdi>0300104642</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+last+of+the+Celts&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0300104642&rft.aulast=Tanner&rft.aufirst=Marcus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flastofcelts00tann%2Fpage%2F225&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerdinand2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ferdinand, Siarl (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.33353%2Fscf.79496">"The Promotion of Cornish in Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly: Attitudes towards the Language and Recommendations for Policy"</a>. <i>Studia Celtica Fennica</i>. <b>19</b>: 107–130. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.33353%2Fscf.79496">10.33353/scf.79496</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Celtica+Fennica&rft.atitle=The+Promotion+of+Cornish+in+Cornwall+and+the+Isles+of+Scilly%3A+Attitudes+towards+the+Language+and+Recommendations+for+Policy&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=107-130&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.33353%2Fscf.79496&rft.aulast=Ferdinand&rft.aufirst=Siarl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.33353%252Fscf.79496&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Rahilly1964" class="citation book cs1">O'Rahilly, Thomas (1964). <i>Early Irish history and mythology</i>. School of Celtic Studies, Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-901282-29-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-901282-29-4"><bdi>0-901282-29-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Irish+history+and+mythology&rft.pub=School+of+Celtic+Studies%2C+Dublin+Institute+for+Advanced+Studies&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=0-901282-29-4&rft.aulast=O%27Rahilly&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman2001" class="citation book cs1">Freeman, Philip (2001). <i>Ireland and the Classical World</i>. University of Texas Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ireland+and+the+Classical+World&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (September 2021)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomlin1987" class="citation journal cs1">Tomlin, R. S. O. (1987). "Was ancient British Celtic ever a written language? Two texts from Roman Bath". <i>Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies</i>. <b>34</b>: 18–25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Board+of+Celtic+Studies&rft.atitle=Was+ancient+British+Celtic+ever+a+written+language%3F+Two+texts+from+Roman+Bath&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=18-25&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Tomlin&rft.aufirst=R.+S.+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMees2009" class="citation book cs1">Mees, Bernard (2009). <i>Celtic Curses</i>. Boydell & Brewer. p. 35.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Curses&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Mees&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrick Sims-Williams, "Common Celtic, Gallo-Brittonic, and Insular Celtic", <i>Gaulois et celtique continental</i>, eds. Pierre-Yves Lambert and Georges-Jean Pinault (Geneva: Droz, 2007), 327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tomlin, 1987.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Yves_Lambert" title="Pierre-Yves Lambert">Pierre-Yves Lambert</a>, <i>La langue gauloise</i>, éditions errance 1994. p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-burnsmcarthur-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-burnsmcarthur_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns_Mcarthur2005" class="citation book cs1">Burns Mcarthur, Thomas (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QMsWFsI0YkIC"><i>Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+Oxford+Companion+to+the+English+Language&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780192806376&rft.aulast=Burns+Mcarthur&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQMsWFsI0YkIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBCCornnotextinct-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BBCCornnotextinct_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-cornwall-11935464">"Cornish language no longer extinct, says UN"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News_Online" title="BBC News Online">BBC News Online</a></i>. 7 November 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 April</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News+Online&rft.atitle=Cornish+language+no+longer+extinct%2C+says+UN&rft.date=2010-11-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-cornwall-11935464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dictscot-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dictscot_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dsl.ac.uk/about-scots/history-of-scots/vocabulary/">"Dictionaries of the Scots Language"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Scottish Place Name Society. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://spns.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Alan_James_Brittonic_Language_in_the_Old_North_BLITON_Volume_II_Dictionary.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 13 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SPNS.org.uk&rft.atitle=The+Brittonic+Language+in+the+Old+North%3A+A+Guide+to+the+Place-name+Evidence&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fspns.org.uk%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F04%2FAlan_James_Brittonic_Language_in_the_Old_North_BLITON_Volume_II_Dictionary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoverMawerStenton1932" class="citation book cs1">Gover, J. E. B.; Mawer, A.; Stenton, F. A. (1932). <i>Place-names of Devon</i>. English Place-name Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Place-names+of+Devon&rft.pub=English+Place-name+Society&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Gover&rft.aufirst=J.+E.+B.&rft.au=Mawer%2C+A.&rft.au=Stenton%2C+F.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2003" class="citation web cs1">Green, Terry (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111004165450/http://www.ndas.org.uk/place_names.html">"The Archaeology of some North Devon Place-Names"</a>. <i>NDAS.org.uk</i>. North Devon Archaeological Society. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NDAS.org.uk&rft.atitle=The+Archaeology+of+some+North+Devon+Place-Names&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Terry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ndas.org.uk%2Fplace_names.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>Filppula, M.; Klemola, J.; Pitkänen, H. (2001); <i>The Celtic Roots of English</i>, (Studies in Languages, No. 37); University of Joensuu, Faculty of Humanities; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/952-458-164-7" title="Special:BookSources/952-458-164-7">952-458-164-7</a>.</li> <li>Forsyth, K. (1997), <i>Language in Pictland</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_H._Jackson" title="Kenneth H. Jackson">Jackson, Kenneth H.</a> (1953), <i>Language and History in Early Britain</i>.</li> <li>Jackson, Kenneth H. (1955), "The Pictish Language"; in F. T. Wainwright, <i>The Problem of the Picts</i>; London: Nelson.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">Koch, John T.</a> (1986), "New Thought on Albion, Ieni and the 'Pretanic Isles'", <i>Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium</i>, 6: pp. 1–28.</li> <li>Lambert, Pierre-Yves [ed.] (2002), <i><a href="/wiki/Recueil_des_inscriptions_gauloises" title="Recueil des inscriptions gauloises">Recueil des inscriptions gauloises</a> II.2. Textes gallo-latins sur instrumentum</i>; Paris: CNRS Editions; pp. 304–306.</li> <li>Lambert, Pierre-Yves (2003), <i>La langue gauloise</i>; 2nd ed.; Paris: Editions Errance; p. 176.</li> <li>Lockwood, W. B. (1975), <i>Languages of the British Isles Past and Present</i>; London: Deutsch; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-233-96666-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-233-96666-8">0-233-96666-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCone1996" class="citation book cs1">McCone, Kim (1996). <i>Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change</i>. Dept. of Old Irish, St. Patrick's College. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-901519-40-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-901519-40-5"><bdi>0-901519-40-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1023922722">1023922722</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Towards+a+Relative+Chronology+of+Ancient+and+Medieval+Celtic+Sound+Change&rft.pub=Dept.+of+Old+Irish%2C+St.+Patrick%27s+College&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1023922722&rft.isbn=0-901519-40-5&rft.aulast=McCone&rft.aufirst=Kim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACommon+Brittonic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ostler, Nicholas (2005), <i>Empires of the Word</i>; London: HarperCollins; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-711870-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-00-711870-8">0-00-711870-8</a>.</li> <li>Price, Glanville. (2000), <i>Languages of Britain and Ireland</i>; Blackwell; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-21581-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-21581-6">0-631-21581-6</a>.</li> <li>Rivet, A. and Smith, C. (1979), <i>The Place-names of Roman Britain</i></li> <li>Sims-Williams, Patrick (2003), <i>The Celtic Inscriptions of Britain: Phonology and Chronology, c. 400–1200</i>; Oxford, Blackwell; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0903-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0903-3">1-4051-0903-3</a>.</li> <li>Ternes, Elmar [ed.] (2011), <i>Brythonic Celtic – Britannisches Keltisch: From Medieval British to Modern Breton</i>; Bremen: Hempen Verlag.</li> <li>Trudgill, P. [ed.] (1984), <i>Language in the British Isles</i>; Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Willis, David (2009), "Old and Middle Welsh"; in <i>The Celtic Languages</i>, 2nd ed.; eds. Martin J. Ball & Nichole Müller; New York: Routledge; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-203-88248-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-203-88248-2">0-203-88248-2</a>; pp. 117–160.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asnc.cam.ac.uk/personalnames/">Celtic Personal Names of Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060518053641/http://www.roman-britain.org/chase/_romans.htm">Roman road stations of the Cannock-Chase area</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2567392/Evidence_for_written_Celtic_from_Roman_Britain_a_linguistic_analysis_of_Tabellae_Sulis_14_and_18">Alex Mullen (2007)</a>, "Evidence for Written Celtic from Roman Britain: A Linguistic Analysis of <i>Tabellae Sulis</i> 14 and 18", <i>Studia Celtica</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Celtic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Celtic_languages" title="Template:Celtic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Celtic_languages" title="Template talk:Celtic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Celtic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Celtic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Celtic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languages" title="Continental Celtic languages">Continental Celtic</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galatian_language" title="Galatian language">Galatian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaulish" title="Cisalpine Gaulish">Cisalpine Gaulish</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Celtic_languages" title="Hispano-Celtic languages">Hispano-Celtic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gallaecian_language" title="Gallaecian language">Gallaecian</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Noric_language" title="Noric language">Noric</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a><br />(Brythonic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Common Brittonic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Brittonic_languages" title="Southwestern Brittonic languages">Southwestern Brittonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Brittonic_languages" title="Western Brittonic languages">Western Brittonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Welsh" title="Middle Welsh">Middle Welsh</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pictish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Classical_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Gaelic">Classical Gaelic</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Irish" title="Early Modern Irish">Early Modern Irish</a></i>/<i><a href="/wiki/Classical_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Gaelic">Classical Gaelic</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galwegian_Gaelic" title="Galwegian Gaelic">Galwegian Gaelic</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unknown</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian</a></i>? (possibly hypothetical)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Camunic_language" title="Camunic language">Camunic</a></i>? (possibly related to <a href="/wiki/Rhaetic" title="Rhaetic">Rhaetic</a> or pre-Indo-European)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_(ancient_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligurian (ancient language)">Ligurian</a></i>? (possibly independent or pre-Indo-European)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_language" title="Lusitanian language">Lusitanian</a></i>? (possibly <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhaetic" title="Rhaetic">Rhaetic</a></i>? (possibly <a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tartessian_language" title="Tartessian language">Tartessian</a></i>? (possibly <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hispanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleo-Hispanic languages">Paleo-Hispanic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beurla_Reagaird" title="Beurla Reagaird">Beurla Reagaird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelta" title="Shelta">Shelta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Celtic-speaking areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Brittany" title="Lower Brittany">Lower Brittany</a> (Brittany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_Wladfa" title="Y Wladfa">Y Wladfa</a> (Chubut Province, Argentina; Welsh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaeltacht" title="Gaeltacht">Gaeltacht</a> (Ireland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a> (Nova Scotia; Scottish Gaelic)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A0idhealtachd" title="Gàidhealtachd">Gàidhealtachd</a> (Scotland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_Fro_Gymraeg" title="Y Fro Gymraeg">Y Fro Gymraeg</a> (Wales)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immersive education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwan_(school)" title="Diwan (school)">Diwan</a> (Breton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skol_Veythrin_Karenza" title="Skol Veythrin Karenza">Skol Veythrin Karenza</a> (Cornish)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelscoil" title="Gaelscoil">Gaelscoil</a> (Irish)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunscoill_Ghaelgagh" title="Bunscoill Ghaelgagh">Bunscoill Ghaelgagh</a> (Manx)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic-medium_education" title="Scottish Gaelic-medium education">Scottish Gaelic-medium education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-medium_education" title="Welsh-medium education">Welsh-medium education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct or ancestor languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&oldid=1257412357">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Common_Brittonic&oldid=1257412357</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" 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