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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Victims</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War_crime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War_crime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>War crime</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War_crime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Crimes_against_humanity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crimes_against_humanity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Crimes against humanity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crimes_against_humanity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genocide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genocide"> <div 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Treatment of starvation as a crime under international law</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Starving-woman-africa-biafra-nigeria-conflict-famine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Starving-woman-africa-biafra-nigeria-conflict-famine.jpg/220px-Starving-woman-africa-biafra-nigeria-conflict-famine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Starving-woman-africa-biafra-nigeria-conflict-famine.jpg/330px-Starving-woman-africa-biafra-nigeria-conflict-famine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Starving-woman-africa-biafra-nigeria-conflict-famine.jpg/440px-Starving-woman-africa-biafra-nigeria-conflict-famine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1820" data-file-height="1216" /></a><figcaption>Starving woman during the <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Biafra" title="Blockade of Biafra">blockade of Biafra</a>, an event that contributed significantly to the criminalization of starvation</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Starvation</b> of a civilian population is a <a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">war crime</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Crime_against_humanity" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime against humanity">crime against humanity</a>, and an act of <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> according to modern international criminal law.<sup id="cite_ref-Ventura_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ventura-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conley_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starvation has not always been illegal according to international law; the starvation of civilians during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">siege of Leningrad</a> was ruled to be not criminal by a United States military court, and the <a href="/wiki/1949_Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="1949 Geneva Convention">1949 Geneva Convention</a>, though imposing limits, "accepted the legality of starvation as a weapon of war in principle".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021383–384_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021383–384-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, the development of laws against starvation has been hampered by the Western powers who wish to use blockades against their enemies; however, it was banned in 1977 by <a href="/wiki/Protocol_I" title="Protocol I">Protocol I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protocol_II" title="Protocol II">Protocol II</a> to the Geneva Conventions and criminalized by the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a>. Prosecutions for starvation have been rare. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose_and_causes">Purpose and causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Purpose and causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bridget_Conley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bridget Conley (page does not exist)">Bridget Conley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alex_de_Waal" title="Alex de Waal">Alex de Waal</a> enumerate several reasons why a perpetrator might choose to employ starvation: "(i) extermination or genocide; (ii) control through weakening a population; (iii) gaining territorial control; (iv) flushing out a population; (v) punishment; (vi) material extraction or theft; (vii) extreme exploitation; (viii) war provisioning; and (ix) comprehensive societal transformation".<sup id="cite_ref-Conley_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are no systematic studies of the perpetration of starvation crimes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021371_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021371-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Victims">Victims</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Victims"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">Starvation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trnopolje_Camp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Trnopolje_Camp.jpg/220px-Trnopolje_Camp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Trnopolje_Camp.jpg/330px-Trnopolje_Camp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Trnopolje_Camp.jpg/440px-Trnopolje_Camp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="621" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Emaciated man at <a href="/wiki/Trnopolje_camp" title="Trnopolje camp">Trnopolje camp</a> in Bosnia. In 1992, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> condemned "the deliberate impeding of the delivery of food and medical supplies to the civilian population of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina" and called for the prosecution of those responsible.<sup id="cite_ref-Alessandra_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alessandra-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>During starvation events, most deaths occur to young children and the elderly, as well as pregnant and lactating mothers. Survivors can face lifelong health impairments.<sup id="cite_ref-Conley_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="War_crime">War crime</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: War crime"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Starvation has been extensively used as a method of warfare throughout history and into the twenty-first century. For most of this time, it was not considered a criminal act.<sup id="cite_ref-Jordash_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jordash-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021370_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021370-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the mid-nineteenth century to World War I, legal attempts to limit blockades were largely successful at preventing starvation in European wars, but not famine in colonial empires.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021372_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021372-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Mulder&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas Mulder (page does not exist)">Nicholas Mulder</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boyd_van_Dijk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boyd van Dijk (page does not exist)">Boyd van Dijk</a> argue that it took a long time for starvation to be recognized as criminal because it is important to <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> tactics implemented in war, widely employed by the Western powers such as the United Kingdom and France that played a major role in the development of international law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021370–371_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021370–371-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starvation was employed by the Allies during and after World War I,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021374_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021374-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by all powers during World War II,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021377_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021377-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was not prohibited by the 1948 <a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_on_Human_Rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Declaration on Human Rights">Universal Declaration on Human Rights</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021378_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021378-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the Soviet Union and Switzerland tried to limit the use of blockade in the <a href="/wiki/1949_Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="1949 Geneva Convention">1949 Geneva Convention</a>, the <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> block watered these provisions down because it wanted to preserve blockade as a weapon against communism. The final draft "accepted the legality of starvation as a weapon of war in principle".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021383–384_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021383–384-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Biafra" title="Blockade of Biafra">blockade of Biafra</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Nigerian Civil War</a> was the most well-known example during the next decades of starvation employed during a war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021384_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021384-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> recognized that the failure of its relief effort was due in part to the blockade law endorsed by the Western powers, and increased its efforts to secure stronger legal protections for civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021385_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021385-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the 1977 <a href="/wiki/Protocol_II" title="Protocol II">Protocol II</a>, "objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population" are protected and attacks against them are prohibited.<sup id="cite_ref-Conley_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a> of the <a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> includes starvation as a war crime when committed within an <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_armed_conflict&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International armed conflict (page does not exist)">international armed conflict</a>. In 2018, Switzerland proposed extending this provision to <a href="/wiki/Non-international_armed_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-international armed conflict">non-international armed conflict</a> (NIAC).<sup id="cite_ref-Alessandra_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alessandra-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This proposal was accepted by all of the <a href="/wiki/States_parties_to_the_Rome_Statute" title="States parties to the Rome Statute">states parties to the Rome Statute</a> and ratified by eleven states.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, many experts argue that starvation in NIAC is already criminalized in <a href="/wiki/International_customary_law" class="mw-redirect" title="International customary law">international customary law</a>, and prosecutions have already taken place.<sup id="cite_ref-Alessandra_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alessandra-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Legal scholar <a href="/wiki/Tom_Dannenbaum" title="Tom Dannenbaum">Tom Dannenbaum</a> argues that blockade-induced starvation should be considered a form of <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a> and prohibited on this basis.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Crimes_against_humanity">Crimes against humanity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Crimes against humanity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a> does not have an explicit provision for starvation, however, starvation would satisfy the requirements of some of the enumerated crimes against humanity. One of these provisions is "other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health".<sup id="cite_ref-Ventura_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ventura-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rome_Statute_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rome_Statute-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This provision does not require deliberate intent to cause starvation, only "knowledge of the likelihood of the relevant injury".<sup id="cite_ref-Ventura_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ventura-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starvation could also be prosecuted as torture, although depending on the legal forum, prosecutors might need to prove a specific purpose of the starvation or that the victims were under the control of the perpetrator.<sup id="cite_ref-Ventura_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ventura-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the starvation results in death, murder is also a crime against humanity. In the <a href="/wiki/Trial_of_Radovan_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87" title="Trial of Radovan Karadžić">Karadžić case</a>, the <a href="/wiki/ICTY" class="mw-redirect" title="ICTY">ICTY</a> convicted <a href="/wiki/Radovan_Karad%C5%BEi%C4%87" title="Radovan Karadžić">Radovan Karadžić</a> of the crime against humanity of murder for the starvation of prisoners. For murder to be charged, the accused's act or omission must have been made with intent to kill, inflict grievous bodily harm, or knowledge that death would occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Ventura_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ventura-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The crime against humanity of <a href="/wiki/Extermination_(crime)" title="Extermination (crime)">extermination</a> includes "the intentional infliction of conditions of life, <i><a href="/wiki/Inter_alia" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter alia">inter alia</a></i> the deprivation of access to food and medicine, calculated to bring about the destruction of part of a population".<sup id="cite_ref-Rome_Statute_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rome_Statute-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike murder, it excludes <i><a href="/wiki/Dolus_eventualis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dolus eventualis">dolus eventualis</a></i>, and according to Ventura, "the accused must act with the intent to kill on a massive scale or to systematically subject a large number of people to conditions that would lead to their death."<sup id="cite_ref-Ventura_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ventura-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genocide">Genocide</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Genocide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If committed with the intent to fully or partly destroy a protected group, starvation could be prosecuted as an act of genocide.<sup id="cite_ref-Ventura_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ventura-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_human_rights_law">International human rights law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: International human rights law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Starvation also violates the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">right to food</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Conley_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Case_law">Case law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Case law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike direct killing, there is a degree of distance between the perpetrator's actions in a starvation crime and the resulting effect on the victims. This aspect makes it more difficult to prosecute.<sup id="cite_ref-Conley_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conley-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, prosecutions for starvation have been rare.<sup id="cite_ref-Jordash_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jordash-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The judges at the <a href="/wiki/High_Command_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="High Command trial">High Command trial</a>—a United States military court convened to judge German war crimes—the judge ruled that "the cutting off every source of sustenance from without is deemed legitimate. …We might wish the law were otherwise, but we must administer it as we find it".<sup id="cite_ref-Jordash_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jordash-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even such actions as killing civilians fleeing a siege was ruled to be legal during the trial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021384_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021384-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blockade causing starvation—including the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leningrad" title="Siege of Leningrad">siege of Leningrad</a> where it killed hundreds of thousands of Soviet civilians—was deemed legal by Allied judges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021371_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021371-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_Plan" title="Hunger Plan">Hunger Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip_famine" title="Gaza Strip famine">Gaza Strip famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Nagorno-Karabakh" title="Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh">Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Yemen" title="Blockade of Yemen">Blockade of Yemen</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Ventura-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ventura_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ventura_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ventura_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ventura_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ventura_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ventura_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ventura_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFVentura2019" class="citation journal cs1">Ventura, Manuel JB (2019). "Prosecuting Starvation under International Criminal Law". <i>Journal of International Criminal Justice</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 781–814. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqz043">10.1093/jicj/mqz043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=Prosecuting+Starvation+under+International+Criminal+Law&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=781-814&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqz043&rft.aulast=Ventura&rft.aufirst=Manuel+JB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuciano2023" class="citation journal cs1">Luciano, Simone Antonio (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/icla/23/2/article-p284_003.xml">"Starvation at the International Criminal Court: Reflections on the Available Options for the Prosecution of the Crime of Starvation"</a>. <i>International Criminal Law Review</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 284–320. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15718123-bja10149">10.1163/15718123-bja10149</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1571-8123">1571-8123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Criminal+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Starvation+at+the+International+Criminal+Court%3A+Reflections+on+the+Available+Options+for+the+Prosecution+of+the+Crime+of+Starvation&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=284-320&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15718123-bja10149&rft.issn=1571-8123&rft.aulast=Luciano&rft.aufirst=Simone+Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Ficla%2F23%2F2%2Farticle-p284_003.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conley-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Conley_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conley_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conley_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conley_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conley_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Conley_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConleyde_Waal2019" class="citation journal cs1">Conley, Bridget; de Waal, Alex (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqz054">"The Purposes of Starvation"</a>. <i>Journal of International Criminal Justice</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 699–722. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqz054">10.1093/jicj/mqz054</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=The+Purposes+of+Starvation&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=699-722&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqz054&rft.aulast=Conley&rft.aufirst=Bridget&rft.au=de+Waal%2C+Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjicj%252Fmqz054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021383–384-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021383–384_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021383–384_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, pp. 383–384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021371-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021371_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021371_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alessandra-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alessandra_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alessandra_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alessandra_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD’AlessandraGillett2019" class="citation journal cs1">D’Alessandra, Federica; Gillett, Matthew (2019). "The War Crime of Starvation in Non-International Armed Conflict". <i>Journal of International Criminal Justice</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 815–847. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqz042">10.1093/jicj/mqz042</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=The+War+Crime+of+Starvation+in+Non-International+Armed+Conflict&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=815-847&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqz042&rft.aulast=D%E2%80%99Alessandra&rft.aufirst=Federica&rft.au=Gillett%2C+Matthew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jordash-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jordash_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jordash_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jordash_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordashMurdochHolmes2019" class="citation journal cs1">Jordash, Wayne; Murdoch, Catriona; Holmes, Joe (1 September 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/jicj/article/17/4/849/5652244">"Strategies for Prosecuting Mass Starvation"</a>. <i>Journal of International Criminal Justice</i>. <b>17</b> (4): 849–879. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqz044">10.1093/jicj/mqz044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Criminal+Justice&rft.atitle=Strategies+for+Prosecuting+Mass+Starvation&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=849-879&rft.date=2019-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjicj%2Fmqz044&rft.aulast=Jordash&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rft.au=Murdoch%2C+Catriona&rft.au=Holmes%2C+Joe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fjicj%2Farticle%2F17%2F4%2F849%2F5652244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021370-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021370_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, p. 370.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021372-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021372_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, p. 372.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021370–371-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021370–371_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, pp. 370–371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021374-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021374_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, p. 374.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021377-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021377_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, p. 377.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021378-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021378_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, p. 378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021384-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021384_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021384_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, p. 384.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021385-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMuldervan_Dijk2021385_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021">Mulder & van Dijk 2021</a>, p. 385.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKersten2023" class="citation web cs1">Kersten, Mark (16 January 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://justiceinconflict.org/2023/01/16/fair-labelling-the-crime-of-starvation-why-ratifying-the-war-crime-of-starvation-matters/">"Fair Labelling the Crime of Starvation: Why Ratifying the War Crime of Starvation Matters"</a>. <i>Justice in Conflict</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Justice+in+Conflict&rft.atitle=Fair+Labelling+the+Crime+of+Starvation%3A+Why+Ratifying+the+War+Crime+of+Starvation+Matters&rft.date=2023-01-16&rft.aulast=Kersten&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjusticeinconflict.org%2F2023%2F01%2F16%2Ffair-labelling-the-crime-of-starvation-why-ratifying-the-war-crime-of-starvation-matters%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDannenbaum2021–2022" class="citation journal cs1">Dannenbaum, Tom (2021–2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/cjil22&div=25&id=&page=">"Siege Starvation: A War Crime of Societal Torture"</a>. <i>Chicago Journal of International Law</i>. <b>22</b>: 368.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=Siege+Starvation%3A+A+War+Crime+of+Societal+Torture&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=368&rft.date=2021%2F2022&rft.aulast=Dannenbaum&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fcjil22%26div%3D25%26id%3D%26page%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rome_Statute-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rome_Statute_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rome_Statute_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/RS-Eng.pdf">Rome Statute</a> article 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDannenbaum2022" class="citation journal cs1">Dannenbaum, Tom (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/vantl55&div=22&id=&page=">"Criminalizing Starvation in an Age of Mass Deprivation in War: Intent, Method, Form, and Consequence"</a>. <i>Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law</i>. <b>55</b>: 681.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vanderbilt+Journal+of+Transnational+Law&rft.atitle=Criminalizing+Starvation+in+an+Age+of+Mass+Deprivation+in+War%3A+Intent%2C+Method%2C+Form%2C+and+Consequence&rft.volume=55&rft.pages=681&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Dannenbaum&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fvantl55%26div%3D22%26id%3D%26page%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarcus2003" class="citation journal cs1">Marcus, David (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3100102">"Famine Crimes in International Law"</a>. <i>The American Journal of International Law</i>. <b>97</b> (2): 245–281. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3100102">10.2307/3100102</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0002-9300">0002-9300</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=Famine+Crimes+in+International+Law&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=245-281&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3100102&rft.issn=0002-9300&rft.aulast=Marcus&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3100102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Starvation_(crime)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConleyde_WaalJordashMurdoch2022" class="citation book cs1">Conley, Bridget; de Waal, Alex; Jordash, Wayne; Murdoch, Catriona (2022). <i>Accountability for Mass Starvation: Testing the Limits of the Law</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286473-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286473-4"><bdi>978-0-19-286473-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accountability+for+Mass+Starvation%3A+Testing+the+Limits+of+the+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-19-286473-4&rft.aulast=Conley&rft.aufirst=Bridget&rft.au=de+Waal%2C+Alex&rft.au=Jordash%2C+Wayne&rft.au=Murdoch%2C+Catriona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuldervan_Dijk2021" class="citation book cs1">Mulder, Nicholas; van Dijk, Boyd (2021). "Why Did Starvation Not Become the Paradigmatic War Crime in International Law?". <i>Contingency in International Law: On the Possibility of Different Legal Histories</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 370–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780192898036" title="Special:BookSources/9780192898036"><bdi>9780192898036</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Why+Did+Starvation+Not+Become+the+Paradigmatic+War+Crime+in+International+Law%3F&rft.btitle=Contingency+in+International+Law%3A+On+the+Possibility+of+Different+Legal+Histories&rft.pages=370-&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780192898036&rft.aulast=Mulder&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft.au=van+Dijk%2C+Boyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStarvation+%28crime%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War_crimes" title="Template:War crimes"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War_crimes" title="Template talk:War crimes"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War_crimes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War crimes"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="War_crimes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crimes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">List of war crimes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/International_humanitarian_law" title="International humanitarian law">International<br />humanitarian law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">Sources</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lieber_Code" title="Lieber Code">Lieber Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg_Declaration_of_1868" title="Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868">Saint Petersburg Declaration of 1868</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1864_Geneva_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="1864 Geneva Convention">1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Geneva_Convention" title="First Geneva Convention">First (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Geneva_Convention" title="Second Geneva Convention">Second (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Geneva_Convention" title="Third Geneva Convention">Third (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Geneva_Convention" title="Fourth Geneva Convention">Fourth (1949)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocol_I" title="Protocol I">Protocol I (1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocol_II" title="Protocol II">Protocol II (1977)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsibility_to_protect" title="Responsibility to protect">Responsibility to protect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute" title="Rome Statute">Rome Statute</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civilian" title="Civilian">Civilians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-combatant" title="Non-combatant">non-combatants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civilian_casualty" title="Civilian casualty">Civilian casualties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_responsibility" title="Command responsibility">Command responsibility</a> / <a href="/wiki/Superior_orders" title="Superior orders">Superior orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distinction_(law)" title="Distinction (law)">Distinction</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hors_de_combat" title="Hors de combat">Hors de combat</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention_(criminal_law)" title="Intention (criminal law)">Intent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_criminal_enterprise" title="Joint criminal enterprise">Joint criminal enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_neutrality" title="Medical neutrality">Medical neutrality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_necessity" title="Military necessity">Military necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">Prisoners of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(law)" title="Proportionality (law)">Proportionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_persons" title="Protected persons">Protected persons</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ruse_de_guerre" title="Ruse de guerre">Ruse de guerre</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_conduct" title="Safe conduct">Safe conduct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">War crimes by type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Attacks on <a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_humanitarian_workers" title="Attacks on humanitarian workers">humanitarian workers</a> / <a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_parachutists" title="Attacks on parachutists">parachutists</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_punishment" title="Collective punishment">Collective punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_order_(international_law)" title="Criminal order (international law)">Criminal orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_flights" title="Death flights">Death flights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_march" title="Death march">Death marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desecration_of_graves" class="mw-redirect" title="Desecration of graves">Desecration of graves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_the_healthcare_system" title="Destruction of the healthcare system">Destruction of the healthcare system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforced_disappearance" title="Enforced disappearance">Enforced disappearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extrajudicial_killing" title="Extrajudicial killing">Extrajudicial killings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostage" title="Hostage">Hostage-taking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trophy_collecting" title="Human trophy collecting">Human trophy collecting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiscriminate_attack" title="Indiscriminate attack">Indiscriminate attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Looting" title="Looting">Looting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre" title="Massacre">Massacres</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mass_killing" title="Mass killing">Mass killings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_quarter" title="No quarter">No quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Starvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_shield_(law)" title="Human shield (law)">Use of human shields</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">War crimes<br />committed by...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_war_crimes" title="Croatian war crimes">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_war_crimes" title="German war crimes">Germany</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_of_the_Wehrmacht" title="War crimes of the Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_war_crimes" title="Israeli war crimes">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_war_crimes" title="Italian war crimes">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes" title="Japanese war crimes">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unit_731" title="Unit 731">Unit 731</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_political_violence" title="Palestinian political violence">Palestinian political violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamas_war_crimes" title="Hamas war crimes">Hamas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_war_crimes" title="Russian war crimes">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_war_crimes" title="Soviet war crimes">Soviet Union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_war_crimes" title="Serbian war crimes">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_war_crimes" title="Turkish war crimes">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates_war_crimes" title="United Arab Emirates war crimes">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_war_crimes" title="British war crimes">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_war_crimes" title="United States war crimes">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">War crimes by war</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_Afghanistan" title="War crimes in Afghanistan">Afghanistan wars</a></li> <li>2nd <a href="/wiki/Second_Chechen_War_crimes_and_terrorism" title="Second Chechen War crimes and terrorism">Chechen War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Korean_War" title="War crimes in the Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li>2006 <a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_2006_Lebanon_War" title="War crimes in the 2006 Lebanon War">Lebanon War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_violations_during_the_Libyan_civil_war_(2011)" title="Human rights violations during the Libyan civil war (2011)">Libyan civil war</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_during_the_Myanmar_civil_war_(2021%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes during the Myanmar civil war (2021–present)">Myanmar civil war</a> (2021–present)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">Nagorno-Karabakh conflict</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_First_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War">First war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Second_Nagorno-Karabakh_War" title="War crimes in the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War">Second war</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_conflict" title="Gaza–Israel conflict">Gaza</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Gaza_War_(2008%E2%80%932009)" title="War crimes in the Gaza War (2008–2009)">2008–2009</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="War crimes in the Israel–Hamas war">2023–present</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_war_crimes_in_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Israeli war crimes in the Israel–Hamas war">by Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Gaza_Strip_healthcare_collapse" title="Timeline of the Gaza Strip healthcare collapse">Destruction of the healthcare system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_during_the_Israeli_invasion_of_the_Gaza_Strip" title="Destruction of cultural heritage during the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court_arrest_warrants_for_Israeli_figures" title="International Criminal Court arrest warrants for Israeli figures">ICC arrest warrants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attacks_on_health_facilities_during_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" title="Attacks on health facilities during the Israel–Hamas war">health facilities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ICJ_case_on_Israel%27s_occupation_of_the_Palestinian_territories" title="ICJ case on Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories">in the occupied Palestinian territories</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crimes_during_the_Russo-Ukrainian_War" title="Atrocity crimes during the Russo-Ukrainian War">Russo-Ukrainian War</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_situation_during_the_war_in_Donbas" title="Humanitarian situation during the war in Donbas">War in Donbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="War crimes in the Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">2nd Sino-Japanese War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_Manchukuo" title="War crimes in Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_during_the_final_stages_of_the_Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="War crimes during the final stages of the Sri Lankan civil war">Sri Lankan civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_during_the_Sudanese_civil_war_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes during the Sudanese civil war (2023–present)">Sudanese civil war</a> (2023–present)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="War crimes in the Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Tigray_war" title="War crimes in the Tigray war">Tigray war‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_I" title="War crimes in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_World_War_II" title="War crimes in World War II">World War II</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allied_war_crimes_during_World_War_II" title="Allied war crimes during World War II">Allied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_war_crimes" class="mw-redirect" title="Axis war crimes">Axis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Yemeni_civil_war_(2014%E2%80%93present)" title="War crimes in the Yemeni civil war (2014–present)">Yemeni civil war</a> (2014–present)</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Yugoslav_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="War crimes in the Yugoslav Wars">Yugoslav Wars</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_in_the_Kosovo_War" title="War crimes in the Kosovo War">Kosovo War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:left;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_crimes_trial" title="War crimes trial">War crimes trials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime_apologia" title="War crime apologia">War crime apologia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-conflict_reception_of_war_criminals" title="Post-conflict reception of war criminals">Post-conflict reception of war criminals</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Other_international_crimes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Other <a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">international crimes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrocity_crime" title="Atrocity crime">Atrocity crimes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_aggression" title="Crime of aggression">Crimes of aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div>‡ Does not apply to <a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">airborne forces</a> (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Paratrooper" title="Paratrooper">paratroopers</a>) <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:War_crimes" title="Category:War crimes">Category</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Malnutrition" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nutritional_pathology" title="Template:Nutritional pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nutritional_pathology" title="Template talk:Nutritional pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nutritional_pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nutritional pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Malnutrition" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protein%E2%80%93energy_malnutrition" title="Protein–energy malnutrition">Protein-energy<br />malnutrition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascites" title="Ascites">Ascites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emaciation" title="Emaciation">Emaciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwashiorkor" title="Kwashiorkor">Kwashiorkor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marasmus" title="Marasmus">Marasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catabolysis" title="Catabolysis">Catabolysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_deficiency" title="Vitamin deficiency">Vitamin deficiency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/B_vitamins" title="B vitamins">B vitamins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>B<sub>1</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beriberi" class="mw-redirect" title="Beriberi">Beriberi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wernicke%E2%80%93Korsakoff_syndrome" title="Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome">Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wernicke%27s_encephalopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wernicke's encephalopathy">Wernicke's encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korsakoff%27s_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Korsakoff's syndrome">Korsakoff's syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>2</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Riboflavin#Deficiency" title="Riboflavin">Riboflavin deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>3</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pellagra" title="Pellagra">Pellagra</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>6</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyridoxine_deficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyridoxine deficiency">Pyridoxine deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>7</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotin_deficiency" title="Biotin deficiency">Biotin deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>9</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folate_deficiency" title="Folate deficiency">Folate deficiency</a></li></ul></li> <li>B<sub>12</sub> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12_deficiency" title="Vitamin B12 deficiency">Vitamin B<sub>12</sub> deficiency</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>A: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A_deficiency" title="Vitamin A deficiency">Vitamin A deficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bitot%27s_spots" title="Bitot's spots">Bitot's spots</a></li></ul></li> <li>C: <a href="/wiki/Scurvy" title="Scurvy">Scurvy</a></li> <li>D: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_deficiency" title="Vitamin D deficiency">Vitamin D deficiency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">Rickets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteomalacia" title="Osteomalacia">Osteomalacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison%27s_groove" title="Harrison's groove">Harrison's groove</a></li></ul></li> <li>E: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E_deficiency" title="Vitamin E deficiency">Vitamin E deficiency</a></li> <li>K: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K_deficiency" title="Vitamin K deficiency">Vitamin K deficiency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mineral_deficiency" title="Mineral deficiency">Mineral deficiency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance" title="Electrolyte imbalance">Electrolyte imbalance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypocalcemia" title="Hypocalcemia">Calcium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypochloremia" title="Hypochloremia">Chloride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_deficiency_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnesium deficiency (medicine)">Magnesium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypophosphatemia" title="Hypophosphatemia">Phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypokalemia" title="Hypokalemia">Potassium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyponatremia" title="Hyponatremia">Sodium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_deficiency" title="Iron deficiency">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_deficiency" title="Zinc deficiency">Zinc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manganese_deficiency_(medicine)" title="Manganese deficiency (medicine)">Manganese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_deficiency" title="Copper deficiency">Copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iodine_deficiency" title="Iodine deficiency">Iodine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromium_deficiency" title="Chromium deficiency">Chromium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_deficiency" title="Molybdenum deficiency">Molybdenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenium_deficiency" title="Selenium deficiency">Selenium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keshan_disease" title="Keshan disease">Keshan disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine_deficiency" title="Fluorine deficiency">Fluorine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_development_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (biology)">Growth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deformity" title="Deformity">Deformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delayed_milestone" title="Delayed milestone">Delayed milestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failure_to_thrive" title="Failure to thrive">Failure to thrive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_stature" title="Short stature">Short stature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idiopathic_short_stature" title="Idiopathic short stature">Idiopathic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anorexia_(symptom)" title="Anorexia (symptom)">Anorexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cachexia" title="Cachexia">Cachexia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deficiency_(medicine)" title="Deficiency (medicine)">Deficiency (medicine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydration" title="Dehydration">Dehydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_of_malnutrition" title="Epidemiology of malnutrition">Epidemiology of malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">Famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_fortification" title="Food fortification">Food fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger" title="Hunger">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronutrient_deficiency" title="Micronutrient deficiency">Micronutrient deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">Starvation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Starvation (crime)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminal_dehydration" title="Terminal dehydration">Terminal dehydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undernutrition_in_children" title="Undernutrition in children">Undernutrition in children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weight_loss" title="Weight loss">Weight loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_food_crises_(2022%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="World food crises (2022–present)">World food crises (2022–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underweight" title="Underweight">Underweight</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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