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Your current IP address is 8.222.208.146. </p> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>Even while globally blocked, you will <i>usually</i> still be able to edit pages on <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="m:">Meta-Wiki</a>. </p> </div> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div><div style="font-size: 16px;"> <p>If you believe you were blocked by mistake, you can find additional information and instructions in the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/No_open_proxies" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/No open proxies">No open proxies</a> global policy. Otherwise, to discuss the block please <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Steward_requests/Global" class="extiw" title="m:Steward requests/Global">post a request for review on Meta-Wiki</a>. You could also send an email to the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Stewards" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/Stewards">stewards</a> <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/VRT" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/VRT">VRT</a> queue at <kbd>stewards@wikimedia.org</kbd> including all above details. </p> </div> <p>Other useful links: <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_blocks" class="extiw" title="m:Global blocks">Global blocks</a> · <a href="/wiki/Help:I_have_been_blocked" title="Help:I have been blocked">Help:I have been blocked</a> </p> </div></li></ul><hr /> <div id="viewsourcetext">You can view and copy the source of this page:</div><textarea readonly="" accesskey="," id="wpTextbox1" cols="80" rows="25" style="" class="mw-editfont-monospace" lang="en" dir="ltr" name="wpTextbox1">{{Short description|Treatment of starvation as a crime under international law}} [[File:Starving-woman-africa-biafra-nigeria-conflict-famine.jpg|thumb|Starving woman during the [[blockade of Biafra]], an event that contributed significantly to the criminalization of starvation]] '''Starvation''' of a civilian population is a [[war crime]], a [[crime against humanity]], and an act of [[genocide]] according to modern international criminal law.<ref name=Ventura>{{cite journal |last=Ventura |first=Manuel JB |title=Prosecuting Starvation under International Criminal Law |journal=Journal of International Criminal Justice |date=2019 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=781–814 |doi=10.1093/jicj/mqz043}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Luciano |first=Simone Antonio |title=Starvation at the International Criminal Court: Reflections on the Available Options for the Prosecution of the Crime of Starvation |journal=International Criminal Law Review |date=2023 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=284–320 |doi=10.1163/15718123-bja10149 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/icla/23/2/article-p284_003.xml |issn=1571-8123|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Conley>{{cite journal |last1=Conley |first1=Bridget |last2=de Waal |first2=Alex |title=The Purposes of Starvation |journal=Journal of International Criminal Justice |date=2019 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=699–722 |doi=10.1093/jicj/mqz054|doi-access=free }}</ref> Starvation has not always been illegal according to international law; the starvation of civilians during the [[siege of Leningrad]] was ruled to be not criminal by a United States military court, and the [[1949 Geneva Convention]], though imposing limits, "accepted the legality of starvation as a weapon of war in principle".{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|pp=383–384}} Historically, the development of laws against starvation has been hampered by the Western powers who wish to use blockades against their enemies; however, it was banned in 1977 by [[Protocol I]] and [[Protocol II]] to the Geneva Conventions and criminalized by the [[Rome Statute]]. Prosecutions for starvation have been rare. ==Purpose and causes== [[Bridget Conley]] and [[Alex de Waal]] enumerate several reasons why a perpetrator might choose to employ starvation: "(i) extermination or genocide; (ii) control through weakening a population; (iii) gaining territorial control; (iv) flushing out a population; (v) punishment; (vi) material extraction or theft; (vii) extreme exploitation; (viii) war provisioning; and (ix) comprehensive societal transformation".<ref name=Conley/> There are no systematic studies of the perpetration of starvation crimes.{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=371}} ==Victims== {{main|Starvation}} [[File:Trnopolje Camp.jpg|thumb|Emaciated man at [[Trnopolje camp]] in Bosnia. In 1992, the [[United Nations Security Council]] condemned "the deliberate impeding of the delivery of food and medical supplies to the civilian population of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina" and called for the prosecution of those responsible.<ref name="Alessandra" />]] During starvation events, most deaths occur to young children and the elderly, as well as pregnant and lactating mothers. Survivors can face lifelong health impairments.<ref name="Conley" /> ==War crime== Starvation has been extensively used as a method of warfare throughout history and into the twenty-first century. For most of this time, it was not considered a criminal act.<ref name=Jordash/>{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=370}} From the mid-nineteenth century to World War I, legal attempts to limit blockades were largely successful at preventing starvation in European wars, but not famine in colonial empires.{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=372}} Historians [[Nicholas Mulder]] and [[Boyd van Dijk]] argue that it took a long time for starvation to be recognized as criminal because it is important to [[blockade]] tactics implemented in war, widely employed by the Western powers such as the United Kingdom and France that played a major role in the development of international law.{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|pp=370–371}} Starvation was employed by the Allies during and after World War I,{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=374}} by all powers during World War II,{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=377}} and was not prohibited by the 1948 [[Genocide Convention]] or the [[Universal Declaration on Human Rights]].{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=378}} While the Soviet Union and Switzerland tried to limit the use of blockade in the [[1949 Geneva Convention]], the [[NATO]] block watered these provisions down because it wanted to preserve blockade as a weapon against communism. The final draft "accepted the legality of starvation as a weapon of war in principle".{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|pp=383–384}} The [[blockade of Biafra]] during the [[Nigerian Civil War]] was the most well-known example during the next decades of starvation employed during a war.{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=384}} The [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] recognized that the failure of its relief effort was due in part to the blockade law endorsed by the Western powers, and increased its efforts to secure stronger legal protections for civilians.{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=385}} According to the 1977 [[Protocol II]], "objects indispensable to the survival of the civilian population" are protected and attacks against them are prohibited.<ref name=Conley/> The [[Rome Statute]] of the [[International Criminal Court]] includes starvation as a war crime when committed within an [[international armed conflict]]. In 2018, Switzerland proposed extending this provision to [[non-international armed conflict]] (NIAC).<ref name=Alessandra/> This proposal was accepted by all of the [[states parties to the Rome Statute]] and ratified by eleven states.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kersten |first1=Mark |title=Fair Labelling the Crime of Starvation: Why Ratifying the War Crime of Starvation Matters |url=https://justiceinconflict.org/2023/01/16/fair-labelling-the-crime-of-starvation-why-ratifying-the-war-crime-of-starvation-matters/ |website=Justice in Conflict |access-date=3 November 2023 |language=en |date=16 January 2023}}</ref> Nevertheless, many experts argue that starvation in NIAC is already criminalized in [[international customary law]], and prosecutions have already taken place.<ref name=Alessandra>{{cite journal |last1=D’Alessandra |first1=Federica |last2=Gillett |first2=Matthew |title=The War Crime of Starvation in Non-International Armed Conflict |journal=Journal of International Criminal Justice |date=2019 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=815–847 |doi=10.1093/jicj/mqz042}}</ref> Legal scholar [[Tom Dannenbaum]] argues that blockade-induced starvation should be considered a form of [[torture]] and prohibited on this basis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dannenbaum |first1=Tom |title=Siege Starvation: A War Crime of Societal Torture |journal=Chicago Journal of International Law |date=2021–2022 |volume=22 |pages=368 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/cjil22&div=25&id=&page=}}</ref> ==Crimes against humanity== According to the [[Rome Statute]], [[crimes against humanity]] does not have an explicit provision for starvation, however, starvation would satisfy the requirements of some of the enumerated crimes against humanity. One of these provisions is "other inhumane acts of a similar character intentionally causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to mental or physical health".<ref name=Ventura/><ref name="Rome Statute"/> This provision does not require deliberate intent to cause starvation, only "knowledge of the likelihood of the relevant injury".<ref name=Ventura/> Starvation could also be prosecuted as torture, although depending on the legal forum, prosecutors might need to prove a specific purpose of the starvation or that the victims were under the control of the perpetrator.<ref name=Ventura/> If the starvation results in death, murder is also a crime against humanity. In the [[Trial of Radovan Karadžić|Karadžić case]], the [[ICTY]] convicted [[ Radovan Karadžić]] of the crime against humanity of murder for the starvation of prisoners. For murder to be charged, the accused's act or omission must have been made with intent to kill, inflict grievous bodily harm, or knowledge that death would occur.<ref name=Ventura/> The crime against humanity of [[Extermination (crime)|extermination]] includes "the intentional infliction of conditions of life, ''[[inter alia]]'' the deprivation of access to food and medicine, calculated to bring about the destruction of part of a population".<ref name="Rome Statute">[https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/RS-Eng.pdf Rome Statute] article 7</ref> Unlike murder, it excludes ''[[dolus eventualis]]'', and according to Ventura, "the accused must act with the intent to kill on a massive scale or to systematically subject a large number of people to conditions that would lead to their death."<ref name=Ventura/> ==Genocide== If committed with the intent to fully or partly destroy a protected group, starvation could be prosecuted as an act of genocide.<ref name=Ventura/> ==International human rights law== Starvation also violates the [[right to food]].<ref name="Conley" /> ==Case law== Unlike direct killing, there is a degree of distance between the perpetrator's actions in a starvation crime and the resulting effect on the victims. This aspect makes it more difficult to prosecute.<ref name="Conley" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dannenbaum |first1=Tom |title=Criminalizing Starvation in an Age of Mass Deprivation in War: Intent, Method, Form, and Consequence |journal=Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law |date=2022 |volume=55 |pages=681 |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/vantl55&div=22&id=&page=}}</ref> Historically, prosecutions for starvation have been rare.<ref name=Jordash/> The judges at the [[High Command trial]]—a United States military court convened to judge German war crimes—the judge ruled that "the cutting off every source of sustenance from without is deemed legitimate. …We might wish the law were otherwise, but we must administer it as we find it".<ref name=Jordash>{{cite journal |last1=Jordash |first1=Wayne |last2=Murdoch |first2=Catriona |last3=Holmes |first3=Joe |title=Strategies for Prosecuting Mass Starvation |journal=Journal of International Criminal Justice |date=1 September 2019 |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=849–879 |doi=10.1093/jicj/mqz044 |url=https://academic.oup.com/jicj/article/17/4/849/5652244}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=David |title=Famine Crimes in International Law |journal=The American Journal of International Law |date=2003 |volume=97 |issue=2 |pages=245–281 |doi=10.2307/3100102 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3100102 |issn=0002-9300}}</ref> Even such actions as killing civilians fleeing a siege was ruled to be legal during the trial.{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=384}} Blockade causing starvation—including the [[siege of Leningrad]] where it killed hundreds of thousands of Soviet civilians—was deemed legal by Allied judges.{{sfn|Mulder|van Dijk|2021|p=371}} ==See also== *[[Hunger Plan]] *[[Gaza Strip famine]] *[[Blockade of Nagorno-Karabakh]] *[[Blockade of Yemen]] ==References== {{reflist}} ==Further reading== *{{cite book |last1=Conley |first1=Bridget |last2=de Waal |first2=Alex |last3=Jordash|first3=Wayne |last4=Murdoch |first4=Catriona |title=Accountability for Mass Starvation: Testing the Limits of the Law |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-286473-4 |language=en}} *{{cite book |last1=Mulder|first=Nicholas |first2= Boyd |last2=van Dijk |title=Contingency in International Law: On the Possibility of Different Legal Histories |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=370– |language=en |chapter=Why Did Starvation Not Become the Paradigmatic War Crime in International Law?|isbn=9780192898036}} {{War crimes}} {{Nutritional pathology}} [[Category:International criminal law]] [[Category:Starvation]] [[Category:War crimes by type]] [[Category:Crimes against humanity by type]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> 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