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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Foreign prostitutes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Foreign_prostitutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-African" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>African</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>European</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Japanese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_Korean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_Korean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>North Korean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_Korean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Korean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Korean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>South Korean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Korean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongolian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongolian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Mongolian</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongolian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pakistani" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pakistani"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Pakistani</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pakistani-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vietnamese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vietnamese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Vietnamese</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vietnamese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hong_Kong_and_Macau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hong_Kong_and_Macau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Hong Kong and Macau</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hong_Kong_and_Macau-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hong Kong and Macau subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hong_Kong_and_Macau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tanka_prostitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tanka_prostitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Tanka prostitution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tanka_prostitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xinjiang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xinjiang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Xinjiang</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Xinjiang-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Xinjiang subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Xinjiang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Temporary_marriage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temporary_marriage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Temporary marriage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temporary_marriage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_and_venues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_and_venues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Types and venues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_and_venues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Legal responses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legal_responses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legal responses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legal_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Party_disciplinary_measures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Party_disciplinary_measures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Party disciplinary measures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Party_disciplinary_measures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Policing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_question_of_legalisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_question_of_legalisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>The question of legalisation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_question_of_legalisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-HIV/AIDS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#HIV/AIDS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>HIV/AIDS</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-HIV/AIDS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>In the media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sex_trafficking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sex_trafficking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sex trafficking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sex_trafficking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> 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<div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Prostitution in China</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%8A%D9%86" title="الدعارة في الصين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الدعارة في الصين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostituci%C3%B3n_na_Rep%C3%BAblica_Popular_China" title="Prostitución na República Popular China – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Prostitución na República Popular China" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostituci%C3%B3_a_la_Rep%C3%BAblica_Popular_de_la_Xina" title="Prostitució a la República Popular de la Xina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Prostitució a la República Popular de la Xina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution_in_der_Volksrepublik_China" title="Prostitution in der Volksrepublik China – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Prostitution in der Volksrepublik China" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostituci%C3%B3n_en_la_Rep%C3%BAblica_Popular_China" title="Prostitución en la República Popular China – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Prostitución en la República Popular China" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%DA%86%DB%8C%D9%86" title="تن‌فروشی در چین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تن‌فروشی در چین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution_en_r%C3%A9publique_populaire_de_Chine" title="Prostitution en république populaire de Chine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Prostitution en république populaire de Chine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitucado_che_Popul-Republiko_Chinia" title="Prostitucado che Popul-Republiko Chinia – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Prostitucado che Popul-Republiko Chinia" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelacuran_di_Tiongkok" title="Pelacuran di Tiongkok – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pelacuran di Tiongkok" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostit%C3%BAci%C3%B3_K%C3%ADn%C3%A1ban" title="Prostitúció Kínában – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Prostitúció Kínában" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitui%C3%A7%C3%A3o_na_Rep%C3%BAblica_Popular_da_China" title="Prostituição na República Popular da China – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Prostituição na República Popular da China" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B5" title="Проституция в Китае – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Проституция в Китае" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution_i_Kina" title="Prostitution i Kina – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Prostitution i Kina" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87in%27de_fuhu%C5%9F" title="Çin'de fuhuş – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çin'de fuhuş" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1i_d%C3%A2m_t%E1%BA%A1i_Trung_Qu%E1%BB%91c" title="Mại dâm tại Trung Quốc – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mại dâm tại Trung Quốc" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD%E6%80%A7%E4%BA%A4%E6%98%93%E4%BA%A7%E4%B8%9A" title="中华人民共和国性交易产业 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="中华人民共和国性交易产业" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12644#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_China" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Prostitution_in_China" 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role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Tibet" title="Prostitution in Tibet">Prostitution in Tibet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Hong_Kong" title="Prostitution in Hong Kong">Prostitution in Hong Kong</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Taiwan" title="Prostitution in Taiwan">Prostitution in Taiwan</a></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beijing_Office_for_Women%27s_Production_and_Education.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Beijing_Office_for_Women%27s_Production_and_Education.jpg/220px-Beijing_Office_for_Women%27s_Production_and_Education.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Beijing_Office_for_Women%27s_Production_and_Education.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A prostitution "reeducation center" at a former <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, 1949</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prostitution_in_Asia2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Prostitution_in_Asia2.svg/260px-Prostitution_in_Asia2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Prostitution_in_Asia2.svg/390px-Prostitution_in_Asia2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Prostitution_in_Asia2.svg/520px-Prostitution_in_Asia2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption><b>Prostitution by legal status in Asia</b> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#008000; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Legalization – legal and regulated</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#336699; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Abolitionism – legal and not regulated; organized activities such as brothels and pimping illegal</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF0000; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Prohibitionism – illegal</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#585858; color:white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> Varies with local laws</div></figcaption></figure> <p>After taking power in 1949, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP) embarked upon a series of campaigns with the aim of eradicating <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a> from <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> by the early 1960s. Since the loosening of government controls over society in the early 1980s, prostitution in mainland China not only has become more visible, but can now be found throughout both urban and rural areas. In spite of government efforts, prostitution has now developed to the extent that it comprises an industry, one that involves a great number of people and produces a considerable economic output. Prostitution has also become associated with a number of issues, including organized crime, government corruption, hypocrisy, as well as <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted disease">sexually transmitted diseases</a>. Notably, a CCP official who was a major provincial campaigner against corruption was removed from his post and expelled from the party after he was caught in a hotel room with a prostitute in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prostitution and related activities in mainland China appear in diverse forms, at various venues and prices, and with prostitutes coming from a range of social backgrounds. They are almost all female, though in recent years male prostitutes have also emerged. Venues include hotels, massage parlors, <a href="/wiki/Karaoke" title="Karaoke">karaoke</a> bars and beauty salons. </p><p>Officially, prostitution is illegal in mainland China.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Government_of_China" title="Government of China">government of China</a> has vacillated, however, in its legal treatment of prostitutes, treating them sometimes as criminals and sometimes as behaving with misconduct. Since the reemergence of prostitution in the 1980s, government authorities have responded by first using the legal system, that is, the daily operations of courts and police. Second, they have relied on police-led campaigns, clearly delineated periods of intense public activity, as a form of social discipline. Despite lobbying by international <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">NGOs</a> and overseas commentators, there is not much support for <a href="/wiki/Legalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Legalisation">legalisation</a> of the sex sector by the public, social organizations or the government of the PRC. </p><p>While the sale of sexual intercourse remains illegal throughout mainland China, as of 2013 <a href="/wiki/Erotic_massage" title="Erotic massage">erotic massage</a>, more commonly known as massage with "happy endings", is legal in the city of <a href="/wiki/Foshan" title="Foshan">Foshan</a> in Guangdong province. In June of that year, the Foshan Court determined that the sale of erotic massage is not the same as prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maoist_era">Maoist era</h3></div> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">proclamation of the People's Republic of China</a> in 1949, local government authorities were charged with the task of eliminating prostitution. One month after the Communist takeover of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> on 3 February 1949, the new <a href="/wiki/Municipality_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipality of China">municipal government</a> under <a href="/wiki/Ye_Jianying" title="Ye Jianying">Ye Jianying</a> announced a policy to control the city's many <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothels</a>. On 21 November, all 224 of Beijing's establishments were shut down; 1286 prostitutes and 434 owners, procurers, and <a href="/wiki/Pimp" class="mw-redirect" title="Pimp">pimps</a> were arrested in the space of 12 hours by an estimated 2400 <a href="/wiki/Professional_revolutionaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional revolutionaries">cadres</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to the enormity of <a href="/wiki/Social_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Social issues">social issues</a> that had to be addressed, and the limited budgets and human resources of local governments, most cities adopted the slower approach of first controlling and then prohibiting brothel-prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method was used in <a href="/wiki/Tianjin" title="Tianjin">Tianjin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Typically it involved a system of governmental administration which controlled brothel activities and discouraged male patrons. The combined effect of such measures was to gradually reduce the number of brothels in each city until the point where a "Beijing-style" closure of the remaining brothels was deemed feasible and <a href="/wiki/Re-education_through_labor" title="Re-education through labor">reeducation</a> could begin. The number of <a href="/wiki/Sex_work_in_Shanghai_in_the_19th_and_20th_centuries" title="Sex work in Shanghai in the 19th and 20th centuries">sex workers in Shanghai</a> had grown to 100,000 following the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>, and it was here that reeducation programs were undertaken on the largest scale. </p><p>By the early 1960s, such measures had basically wiped out visible forms of prostitution from mainland China. According to the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China (PRC)</a> government, venereal diseases were almost eliminated from the mainland contemporaneously with the control of prostitution. To mark this victory, all 29 venereal disease research institutes were closed in 1964. </p><p>In accordance with <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxist theory</a>, women who sold sex were viewed as being forced into prostitution in order to survive. The eradication of prostitution was thus vaunted as one of the major accomplishments of the Communist government and evidence of the primacy of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxism" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Marxism">Chinese Marxism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prostitution did not exist as a serious object of concern in China for a period of nearly three decades. Recent studies have demonstrated, however, that the disappearance of prostitution under the <a href="/wiki/Maoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Maoist">Maoist</a> government was far from complete.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pan_Suiming" title="Pan Suiming">Pan Suiming</a>, one of China's leading experts on prostitution, argues that "invisible" prostitution — in the form of women providing sexual services to cadres in exchange for certain privileges — became a distinctive feature of <a href="/wiki/Maoist_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Maoist China">Maoist China</a>, particularly towards the end of the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuiming199620–21_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuiming199620–21-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-1978">Post-1978</h3></div> <table style="width:250px; float:right;" class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="background:#efefef;"> <th colspan="2">Prostitution-related arrests during<br /> police campaigns (1983–1999) </th></tr> <tr style="background:#efefef;"> <td>year</td> <td>prostitution-related arrests </td></tr> <tr> <td>1983</td> <td>46,534 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1989–90</td> <td>243,183 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1996–7</td> <td>approx. 250,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1998</td> <td>189,972 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1999</td> <td>216,660 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The resurgence of prostitution in mainland China has coincided with the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Chinese_economic_reform" title="Chinese economic reform">liberalisation of Chinese economic policy</a> in 1978. According to the incomplete statistics composed on the basis of nationwide crackdowns, the rate of prostitution in China has been rising every year since 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200497_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200497-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 1989 and 1990, 243,183 people were apprehended for prostitution-related activities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXin19991411–1414_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXin19991411–1414-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Zhang Ping estimates that such police figures only account for around 25–30 percent of the total number of people who are actually involved.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prostitution is an increasingly large part of the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_China" title="Economy of China">Chinese economy</a>, employing perhaps 10 million people, with an annual level of <a href="/wiki/Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">consumption</a> of possibly 1 trillion <a href="/wiki/Renminbi" title="Renminbi">RMB</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wei_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wei-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following a 2000 police campaign, Chinese economist Yang Fan estimated that the Chinese <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a> slumped by 1%, as a result of decreased spending by newly unemployed female prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-Wei_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wei-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The revival of prostitution was initially associated with China's eastern, coastal cities, but since the early 1990s at least, local media have reported on prostitution scandals in the economic hinterlands, incorporating such remote and underdeveloped regions as <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Guizhou" title="Guizhou">Guizhou</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1980s, the typical seller of sex was a poorly educated, young female rural migrant from populous, relatively remote provinces such as <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hunan" title="Hunan">Hunan</a>. Over the past decade, there has been a recognition that the majority of women who enter prostitution do so of their own accord.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200498,_note_6_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200498,_note_6-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The potential benefits of prostitution as an alternative form of employment include greater <a href="/wiki/Disposable_income" title="Disposable income">disposable income</a>, access to upwardly mobile social circles and lifestyle options. The state-controlled media have focused attention on urban residents engaging in prostitution, especially university-educated women.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There also seems to be a growing acceptance of prostitution. In a 1997 study, 46.8% of undergraduates in Beijing admitted to having considered receiving prostitution services.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuiming1999a_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuiming1999a-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the demand side, prostitution has been associated with the gender imbalances brought about by the <a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">one-child policy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prostitution is often directly linked to low-level government corruption. Many local officials believe that encouraging prostitution in recreational business operations will bring economic benefits by developing the tourism and hospitality industries and generating a significant source of tax revenue.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On occasion, police have been implicated in the running of high grade hotels where prostitution activities occur, or accepting bribes and demanding sexual favours to ignore the existence of prostitution activities.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Government corruption is also involved in a more indirect form — the widespread abuse of public funds to finance consumption of sex services. Pan Suiming contends that China has a specific type of prostitution that entails a bargain between those who use their power and authority in government to obtain sex and those who use sex to obtain privileges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuiming199621,_note_6_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuiming199621,_note_6-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apart from violent incidents directly associated with prostitution, an increasing number of women who sell sex have been physically assaulted, and even murdered, in the course of attempts to steal their money and property.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXin19991423,_note_8_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEXin19991423,_note_8-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There have also been a growing number of criminal acts, especially incidences<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style"><span title="''incidence'' is normally used only in the singular form, perhaps ''incidence'', ''incidents'', or ''instances'' was intended (September 2022)">spelling?</span></a></i>]</sup> of theft and <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a> directed at men who buy sex, as well as bribery of <a href="/wiki/Public_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Public servant">public servants</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuiming1999b55,_note_6_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuiming1999b55,_note_6-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Offenders often capitalise on the unwillingness of participants in the prostitution transaction to report such activities. Organised <a href="/wiki/Crime_ring" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime ring">crime rings</a> are increasingly <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">trafficking</a> women into and out of China for the sex trade, sometimes forcibly and after multiple acts of rape.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mainland China also has a growing number of "<a href="/wiki/Heroin" title="Heroin">heroin</a> hookers", whose <a href="/wiki/Drug_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug addiction">drug addictions</a> are often connected to international and domestic crime rackets.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted disease">Sexually transmitted diseases</a> also made a resurgence around the same time as prostitution, and have been directly linked to prostitution. Some regions have introduced a policy of 100% <a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">condom</a> use, inspired by a <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Thailand#HIV/AIDS" title="Prostitution in Thailand">similar measure in Thailand</a>. Other interventions have been introduced recently at some sites, including STI services, peer education and voluntary counselling and testing for HIV.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chinese women are sometimes required to submit a nude photo along with personally identifiable contact information as <a href="/wiki/Collateral_(finance)" title="Collateral (finance)">collateral</a> when receiving a loan. If they fall behind in their payments, the photos together with the contact information are sold online to potential customers of prostitution or <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human traffickers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Peng_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peng-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2003 a report by <a href="/wiki/Chen_Jieren" title="Chen Jieren">Chen Jieren</a> on university prostitution in China has sparked a country-wide debate about the issue, which has also been described as a "well-kept secret".<sup id="cite_ref-Jeffreys2012_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jeffreys2012-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_prostitutes">Foreign prostitutes</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="African">African</h3></div> <p>Uganda's Director of <a href="/wiki/Interpol" title="Interpol">Interpol</a> <a href="/wiki/Asan_Kasingye" title="Asan Kasingye">Asan Kasingye</a> estimates that thousands of women from Kenya, Rwanda or Uganda were trafficked in 2011 to work as prostitutes in China, Indonesia and Malaysia.<sup id="cite_ref-dw_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dw-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European">European</h3></div> <p>During the 19th century<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDitmore2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSKBvqXL0jTQCpgPA212_212]_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDitmore2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSKBvqXL0jTQCpgPA212_212]-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in contemporary times, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_people" title="Portuguese people">Portuguese</a> prostitutes have operated in <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowan2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUaTG9lTkI74CpgPA172_172]_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERowan2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUaTG9lTkI74CpgPA172_172]-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Chinese triad members from Macau married Portuguese prostitutes before China took it back from Portugal, providing them with access to Portuguese citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1930, there were about 8000 White Russian prostitutes in Shanghai.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Sueur2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXV8CLKVkM6sCpgPA381_381]_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Sueur2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXV8CLKVkM6sCpgPA381_381]-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, Eastern Europeans and Russians make up most of the white prostitutes in China.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bars in major Chinese cities offer blonde, blue-eyed Russian "hostesses".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many European prostitutes in China market themselves as escorts to attract the attention of visiting businessmen and richer Chinese clients. They may work independently or through an escort agency and advertise their services through the internet.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In Shanghai, many Russian women work as prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese">Japanese</h3></div> <p>During the mid-2010s it was reported that Japanese pornographic actresses were working in <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> as prostitutes for rich clients.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_Korean">North Korean</h3></div> <p>The North Korean government system of harsh punishment through forced labor camps or the death penalty can fuel trafficking in neighboring China.<sup id="cite_ref-state17_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state17-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of the estimated 10,000<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> North Korean women and girls who have migrated illegally to China to flee abuse and human rights violations are particularly vulnerable to trafficking.<sup id="cite_ref-state17_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state17-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council_2014_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council_2014-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a source from 2005, "60 to 70 percent of <a href="/wiki/North_Korean_defectors#China" title="North Korean defectors">North Korean defectors</a> in the <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">People's Republic of China</a> are women, 70 to 80 percent of whom are victims of human trafficking."<sup id="cite_ref-jeongjs_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jeongjs-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traffickers reportedly lure, drug, detain, or kidnap some North Korean women upon their arrival. The women are then moved to cities farther away to subjected to <a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">forced prostitution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothels</a> or through internet sex sites, or compelled service as hostesses in <a href="/wiki/Nightclub" title="Nightclub">nightclubs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Karaoke_bar" class="mw-redirect" title="Karaoke bar">karaoke bars</a>. Others offer jobs but subsequently force the women into prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-state17_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state17-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>North Korean victims of <a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">sex trafficking in China</a> have been subjected to penetrative vaginal and anal rape, groping, and forced masturbation in illegal 'online rape dens' used for digital and live pornographic video sharing in the twenty-first century.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Chinese authorities arrest these North Korean trafficking victims, they repatriate them. North Korean authorities keep such repatriates in penal labour colonies, execute any Chinese-fathered babies of theirs "to protect North Korean <a href="/wiki/Korean_nationalism#Ethnic_nationalism" title="Korean nationalism">pure blood</a>" and force <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortions</a> on all pregnant repatriates not executed.<sup id="cite_ref-jeongjs_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jeongjs-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council_2014_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council_2014-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Korean">South Korean</h3></div> <p>A ring of South Korean prostitutes, composed of 21 Korean women ranging in age from 24 to 37, serving Chinese men was busted in Macau in 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Korean women wear kiminos while working as prostitutes in Macau.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mongolian">Mongolian</h3></div> <p>Some Mongolian women work as prostitutes in bars in Beijing.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pakistani">Pakistani</h3></div> <p>There are reports that Pakistani women have been trafficked to China and forced into prostitution. Hundreds of Pakistani women have allegedly been "sold" by poor families to marry Chinese men. It is said that the majority have subsequently been handed over by their husbands to paying Chinese men to be raped in China.<sup id="cite_ref-CBS_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBS-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have been made to work in bars and clubs which is considered unacceptable in Pakistan's conservative Islamic society.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gender gap in China, resulting from the country's <a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">one-child policy</a>, has led to a shortage of women of marriageable age. With improved relations between China and Pakistan, more Pakistani women have begun marrying Chinese men, mainly as a result of <a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Pakistan" title="Poverty in Pakistan">poverty in Pakistan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of the women involved are from Christian families as these make up the poorest communities in Pakistan. The process is facilitated by marriage brokers who are able to charge far higher fees than the amount of money given to families of the women.<sup id="cite_ref-SG_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SG-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>China's foreign ministry has dismissed the list of sold girls. Pakistani officials have been accused of trying to suppress information to avoid jeopardizing China-Pakistan relations. Omar Warriach, <a href="/wiki/Amnesty_International" title="Amnesty International">Amnesty International</a>'s South Asia director has criticised administrations of both countries for allowing large scale mistreatment of Pakistani women without expressing any concern. He has urged Pakistan not to tolerate human right violations of its own citizens just to protect its relationship with China.<sup id="cite_ref-SG_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SG-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vietnamese">Vietnamese</h3></div> <p>China is a recipient of Vietnamese prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many Vietnamese women travel from <a href="/wiki/Lao_Cai" class="mw-redirect" title="Lao Cai">Lao Cai</a> in Vietnam to <a href="/wiki/Hekou_Yao_Autonomous_County" title="Hekou Yao Autonomous County">Hekou County</a> in China to work in brothels. They provide sex mainly to Chinese men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHitchcock2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH0PXkzgcdRQCpgPA211_211]_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHitchcock2009[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidH0PXkzgcdRQCpgPA211_211]-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vietnamese women working as prostitutes in China have been trafficked from Vietnam through various means at the Guangxi border.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ha Giang province is a conduit for women being trafficked to become prostitutes in China.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chinese police sent 11 Vietnamese prostitutes working in Guangxi back to Vietnam in 2012.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the Chinese border with Vietnam, in the Chinese town of Po-chai, a "Vietnamese girl market" made out of Vietnamese prostitutes offers sex to Chinese men exclusively and refuses service to Vietnamese men.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hong_Kong_and_Macau">Hong Kong and Macau</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Hong_Kong" title="Prostitution in Hong Kong">Prostitution in Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Macau" title="Prostitution in Macau">Prostitution in Macau</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a> are <a href="/wiki/Special_administrative_regions_of_China" title="Special administrative regions of China">special administrative regions</a> of China and subject to different laws: <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Hong_Kong" title="Prostitution in Hong Kong">prostitution in Hong Kong</a> is legal, as is <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Macau" title="Prostitution in Macau">prostitution in Macau</a>. This has led to a higher incidence of prostitution in these regions than in mainland China. Women travel from <a href="/wiki/Mainland_China" title="Mainland China">mainland China</a> to Hong Kong and Macau in order to engage in the trade. There are also allegations of women being trafficked for the purpose. The trafficked women are said to come from mainland China, <a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gvnet_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gvnet-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tanka_prostitution">Tanka prostitution</h3></div> <p>Elizabeth Wheeler Andrew (1845–1917) and Katharine Caroline Bushnell (5 February 1856 January 26, 1946), who wrote extensively on the position of women in the British Empire, wrote about the <a href="/wiki/Tanka_people" title="Tanka people">Tanka</a> inhabitants of Hong Kong and their position in the prostitution industry, catering towards foreign sailors. The Tanka did not marry with the Chinese, being descendants of the natives, they were restricted to the waterways. They supplied their women as prostitutes to British sailors and assisted the British in their military actions around Hong Kong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrewBushnell200611_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewBushnell200611-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tanka in Hong Kong were considered "outcasts" categorized low class.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarroll2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD37ijXG-FykCpgPA36_36]_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarroll2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD37ijXG-FykCpgPA36_36]-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ordinary Chinese prostitutes were afraid of serving Westerners since they looked strange to them, while the Tanka prostitutes freely mingled with western men.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaschokMiers1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidf5o_t7VxHYACpgPA237_237]_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaschokMiers1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidf5o_t7VxHYACpgPA237_237]-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tanka assisted the Europeans with supplies and providing them with prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELethbridge197875_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELethbridge197875-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low class European men in Hong Kong easily formed relations with the Tanka prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELethbridge1978210_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELethbridge1978210-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The profession of prostitution among the Tanka women led to them being hated by the Chinese both because they had sex with westerners and them being racially Tanka.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheung1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE45DHTYdTmACpgPA348_348]_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECheung1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE45DHTYdTmACpgPA348_348]-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Tanka prostitutes were considered to be "low class", greedy for money, arrogant, and treating clients with a bad attitude, they were known for punching their clients or mocking them by calling them names.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo2005256_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2005256-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the Tanka prostitutes were considered low class, their brothels were still remarkably well kept and tidy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo2005249_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2005249-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A famous fictional story which was written in the 1800s depicted western items decorating the rooms of Tanka prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIOAS1993110_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIOAS1993110-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The stereotype among most Chinese in Canton that all Tanka women were prostitutes was common, leading the government during the Republican era to accidentally inflate the number of prostitutes when counting, due to all Tanka women being included.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIOAS1993102_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIOAS1993102-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo2005228_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2005228-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tanka women were viewed as such that their prostitution activities were considered part of the normal bustle of a commercial trading city.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge1980196_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge1980196-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes the lowly regarded Tanka prostitutes managed to elevate themselves into higher forms of prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEJEAS2001112_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEJEAS2001112-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tanka women were ostracized from the Cantonese community, and were nicknamed "salt water girls " (ham shui mui in Cantonese) for their services as prostitutes to foreigners in Hong Kong.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELethbridge197875_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELethbridge197875-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge198033_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge198033-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tanka women who worked as prostitutes for foreigners also commonly kept a "nursery" Tanka girls specifically for exporting them for prostitution work to overseas Chinese communities such as in Australia or America, or to serve as a Chinese or foreigner's concubine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrewBushnell200613_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewBushnell200613-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A report called "Correspondence respecting the alleged existence of Chinese slavery in Hong Kong: presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty" was presented to the English Parliament in 1882 concerning the existence of slavery in Hong Kong, of which many were Tanka girls serving as prostitutes or mistresses to westerners.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</h2></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Manchu" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchu">Manchu</a> traveller Qi-yi-shi reported the presence of prostitution among <a href="/wiki/Torghut" title="Torghut">Torghut</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khoshut" title="Khoshut">Khoshut</a> women in the <a href="/wiki/Karasahr" title="Karasahr">Karasahr</a> area of <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> in 1777.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnellMillwardElliottForet2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6qFH-53_VnECpgPA103_103]_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnellMillwardElliottForet2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6qFH-53_VnECpgPA103_103]-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also wrote of the prevalence of prostitution in <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a> and reported that some Manchu soldiers and officials in Xinjiang had long-term relationships with <a href="/wiki/East_Turkestan" title="East Turkestan">Turkistani</a> prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward1998206_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward1998206-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of local Turki (<a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghur</a>) prostitutes at a party held by Russian officials in Kashgar in 1900 led to anti-Russian street demonstrations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENightingaleSkrine2013124–125_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENightingaleSkrine2013124–125-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In late-19th- and early-20th-century <a href="/wiki/Turpan" title="Turpan">Turpan</a>, Islamic modesty meant that Muslim prostitutes would not bare their bodies to clients in the way that Chinese prostitutes did. The only women in Xinjiang at that time not to wear headscarfs were prostitutes from the poorest social classes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008192–_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008192–-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 20th century the Scottish missionary <a href="/wiki/George_W._Hunter_(missionary)" title="George W. Hunter (missionary)">George W. Hunter</a> noted that the poverty of the Turki Muslims (Uyghurs) resulted in them selling their daughters, and that the practice led to Xinjiang containing significant numbers of Turki prostitutes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008258–_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008258–-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, he observed very little prostitution among the Tungan Muslims (<a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui people</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFriederich1994352_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriederich1994352-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the same period the Finnish military officer <a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustaf_Emil_Mannerheim" title="Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim">Carl Mannerheim</a> reported that several streets in <a href="/wiki/Hotan" title="Hotan">Hotan</a> were occupied by Uyghur prostitutes who specialised in selling their services to travelling merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETamm2011310_&_318_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETamm2011310_&_318-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Records from Turpan indicate that the customers of Turki prostitutes in Xinjiang included merchants from <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchluessel20149_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchluessel20149-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temporary_marriage">Temporary marriage</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Temporary_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporary marriage">Temporary marriage</a>, in the form of the Sunni Muslim <a href="/wiki/Misyar_marriage" title="Misyar marriage">misyar marriage</a> ("traveller's marriage") contract, is a practice that has sometimes been used as a cover for a form of prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was widespread in Xinjiang under Chinese rule prior to the <a href="/wiki/Dungan_Revolt_(1862%E2%80%9377)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dungan Revolt (1862–77)">Dungan Revolt of 1862–77</a>, and some westerners considered its use there to be a form of licensed prostitution. It allowed a man to marry a woman for a week or even a couple of days, with "the mulla who performs the ceremony arranging for the divorce at the same time".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008266–_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008266–-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases a temporary marriage was undertaken without the traditional marriage contract and could be easily terminated by the man involved. Such a marriage was forbidden by the Koran, and the Turki (<a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghur</a>) Muslims in Xinjiang called it a "<a href="/wiki/Marriage_of_convenience" title="Marriage of convenience">marriage of convenience</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamal2000102–_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamal2000102–-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the restoration of Chinese rule in the late 19th century it was common for Chinese soldiers and civilians in the Yarkand area of Xinjiang, including high officials, to take temporary wives, often without a marriage ceremony. Most of the wives came from <a href="/wiki/Khotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan">Khotan</a>. When the Chinese returned to China proper, their wives were abandoned or sold to friends.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunmore1894_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunmore1894-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008267–_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008267–-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Russian exile <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nazaroff" title="Paul Nazaroff">Paul Nazaroff</a> reported the existence of a temporary marriage bazaar in <a href="/wiki/Yangi_Hissar" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangi Hissar">Yangi Hissar</a> in the 1920s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008259–_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008259–-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NazarovBurr1935_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NazarovBurr1935-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The frequent marriages of Chinese men to Muslim Turki women in Xinjiang from 1880 to 1949 occurred despite the fact that Islamic law forbids Muslim women from marrying non-Muslims, and that the Turki community considered such women to be prostitutes. Some foreign commentators suggested that the women involved were motivated by poverty, as such marriages prevented the women from being subject to the tax on prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann200883–_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann200883–-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_and_venues">Types and venues</h2></div> <p>Chinese police categorise prostitution practices according to a descending hierarchy of seven tiers, though this typology does not exhaust the forms of practices that exist.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tiers highlight the heterogeneous nature of prostitution and prostitutes. While they are all classified as prostitutes, the services they offer can be very different. Within some tiers, for example, there is still some revulsion to the acts of <a href="/wiki/Anal_sex" title="Anal sex">anal sex</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oral_sex" title="Oral sex">oral sex</a>. In parallel with the wide range of backgrounds for prostitutes, male buyers of sex also come from a wide range of occupational backgrounds. According to the local police, in China there are seven categories of prostitutes:<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>First tier - <i>baoernai</i> (包二奶)</dt> <dd>Women who act as the "second wives" of men with money and influential positions, including government officials and entrepreneurs from the mainland, as well as overseas businessmen. This practice is defined as prostitution on the grounds that women in question actively solicit men who can provide them with fixed-term accommodation and a regular allowance. Women who engage in these acts will sometimes co-habit with their "clients" and may even have ambitions to become a real wife. Illegal online "College Concubine Agencies" have appeared, charging a fee to put men in contact with female university students who wish to become mistresses.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Second tier - <i>baopo</i> (包婆 "packaged wife")</dt> <dd>Women who accompany high class clients for a fixed duration of time, for example, during the course of a business trip, and receive a set payment for doing so.</dd></dl> <p>The first and second tiers have become the focus of heated public debate because they are explicitly linked to <a href="/wiki/Government_corruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Government corruption">government corruption</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Many domestic commentators contend that these practices constitute a concrete expression of "<a href="/wiki/Bourgeois" class="mw-redirect" title="Bourgeois">bourgeois</a> rights".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuiming199652–7,_note_18_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESuiming199652–7,_note_18-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/All-China_Women%27s_Federation" title="All-China Women's Federation">All-China Women's Federation</a>, as one of the major vehicles of <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a> in the PRC, as well as women's groups in <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, have been actively involved in efforts to eradicate this form of "<a href="/wiki/Concubine" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubine">concubinage</a>" as practices that violate the emotional and economic surety of the marriage contract.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Third tier - <i>santing</i> (三厅 "three halls")</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barber_shop_Bao%27an_Shenzhen_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Barber_shop_Bao%27an_Shenzhen_China.jpg/220px-Barber_shop_Bao%27an_Shenzhen_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Barber_shop_Bao%27an_Shenzhen_China.jpg/330px-Barber_shop_Bao%27an_Shenzhen_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Barber_shop_Bao%27an_Shenzhen_China.jpg/440px-Barber_shop_Bao%27an_Shenzhen_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3552" data-file-height="2368" /></a><figcaption>A hair salon where prostitutes work in <a href="/wiki/Bao%27an_District" class="mw-redirect" title="Bao'an District">Bao'an District</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shenzhen" title="Shenzhen">Shenzhen</a>. Brothels are often disguised as hair salons, or they operate out of working hair salons.</figcaption></figure> <p>Women who perform sexual acts with men in <a href="/wiki/Karaoke" title="Karaoke">karaoke</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nightclub" title="Nightclub">dance</a> venues, <a href="/wiki/Bar_(establishment)" title="Bar (establishment)">bars</a>, restaurants, <a href="/wiki/Teahouse" title="Teahouse">teahouses</a> and other venues and who receive financial recompense in the form of <a href="/wiki/Gratuity" title="Gratuity">tips</a> from the individual men they accompany, as well as from a share of the profits generated by informal <a href="/wiki/Service_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Service charge">service charges</a> on the use of facilities and the consumption of food and beverages. A common <a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">euphemism</a> for such hostesses is <i>sanpei xiaojie</i> (三陪小姐: "ladies of the three accompaniments"). In theory, the "three accompaniments" are chatting, drinking and dancing with their clients. In practice, the "three accompaniments" more often refers to dancing with, drinking with, and being publicly groped by their clients. These women often begin by allowing their clients to fondle or intimately caress their bodies, then if the client is eager, will engage in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">sexual intercourse</a>. </p> <dl><dt>Fourth tier - "doorbell girls" (叮咚小姐 "dingdong ladies")</dt> <dd>Women who solicit potential buyers of sex by <a href="/wiki/Cold_calling" title="Cold calling">phoning</a> rooms in a given hotel.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Fifth tier - <i>falangmei</i> (发廊妹 "hairdressing salon sisters")</dt> <dd>Women who work in places that offer commercial sexual services under the guise of <a href="/wiki/Massage" title="Massage">massage</a> or health and beauty treatments; for instance, in health and fitness centres, <a href="/wiki/Beauty_salon" title="Beauty salon">beauty parlours</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barber" title="Barber">barber shops</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_bathing" title="Public bathing">bathhouses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sauna" title="Sauna">saunas</a>. Common activities in these premises are <a href="/wiki/Masturbation" title="Masturbation">masturbation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Oral_sex" title="Oral sex">oral sex</a>.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Sixth tier - <i>jienü</i> (街女 "street girls")</dt> <dd>Women who solicit male buyers of sex on the streets.</dd></dl> <dl><dt>Seventh tier - <i>xiagongpeng</i> (下工棚 "down the work shack")</dt> <dd>Women who sell sex to the transient labour force of male workers from the rural countryside.</dd></dl> <p>The lowest two tiers are characterised by a more straightforward exchange of sex for financial or material recompense. They are neither explicitly linked to government corruption, nor directly mediated through China's new commercial recreational business sector. Women who sell sex in the lowest two tiers usually do so in return for small sums of money, food and shelter. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_responses">Legal responses</h2></div> <p>The PRC rejects the argument that prostitution is an unremarkable transaction between consenting individuals and that prohibition laws constitute a violation of <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a>. Overall, the PRC's legal response to prostitution is to penalise third party organisers of prostitution. Participants in the prostitution transaction are still usually penalised according to the Chinese system of <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative sanctions</a>, rather than through the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_code" title="Criminal code">criminal code</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:33%"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ddddff;">Prostitution law</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li>1987 Security administration punishment regulations (中华人民共和国治安管理处罚条例).</li> <li>1991 Decision on Strictly Forbidding the Selling and Buying of Sex (严禁卖淫嫖娼的决定).</li> <li>1991 Decision on the Severe Punishment of Criminals Who Abduct and Traffic in or Kidnap Women and Children (严惩拐卖、绑架妇女、儿童的犯罪分子的决定).</li> <li>1992 Law on Protecting the Rights and Interests of Women (妇女权益保障法).</li> <li>1997 revision of Criminal Law of the PRC (中华人民共和国刑法).</li> <li>1999 "Regulations concerning the management of public places of entertainment" (娱乐场所管理条例).</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Prostitution_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Template:Prostitution in the People's Republic of China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Prostitution_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Template talk:Prostitution in the People's Republic of China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prostitution_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Prostitution in the People's Republic of China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Until the 1980s, the subject of prostitution was not viewed as a major concern for the <a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a>. The PRC's first criminal code, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Criminal_Law_and_the_Criminal_Procedure_Law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Criminal Law and the Criminal Procedure Law (page does not exist)">Criminal Law and the Criminal Procedure Law</a> of 1979 made no explicit reference to the activities of prostitutes and prostitute clients.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal control of prostitution was effected on the basis of <a href="/wiki/Province_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of China">provincial</a> rulings and localised policing initiatives until the introduction of the "Security administration punishment regulations" in 1987. The Regulations makes it an offence to "sell sex" (卖淫) and to "have illicit relations with a prostitute" (嫖宿暗娼).<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prostitution only became a distinct object of <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statutory</a> classification in the early 1990s. Responding to requests from the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Security_(PRC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Public Security (PRC)">Ministry of Public Security</a> and the <a href="/wiki/All-China_Women%27s_Federation" title="All-China Women's Federation">All-China Women's Federation</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_People%27s_Congress" title="National People's Congress">National People's Congress</a> passed legislation that significantly expanded the range and scope of prostitution controls: the 1991 Decision on Strictly Forbidding the Selling and Buying of Sex and the 1991 Decision on the Severe Punishment of Criminals Who Abduct and Traffic in or Kidnap Women and Children.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adding symbolic weight to these enhanced law enforcement controls was the 1992 Law on Protecting the Rights and Interests of Women, which defines prostitution as a social practice that abrogates the inherent rights of women to personhood.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The PRC's revised <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal Law">Criminal Law</a> of 1997 retains its abolitionist focus in that it is primarily concerned with criminalising third-party involvement in prostitution. For the first time the death penalty may be used, but only in exceptional cases of organising prostitution activities, involving additional circumstances such as repeated offences, rape, causing serious <a href="/wiki/Bodily_harm" title="Bodily harm">bodily injury</a>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The activities of first-party participants continue to be regulated in practice according to <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a>, with the exceptions of anyone who sells or buys prostitutional sex in the full knowledge that they are infected with an STD; and anyone who has prostitutional sex with a <a href="/wiki/Prostitution_of_children" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitution of children">child under 14 years of age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since 2003, male <a href="/wiki/Homosexual" class="mw-redirect" title="Homosexual">homosexual</a> prostitution has also been prosecuted under the law.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1997 criminal code codified provisions in the 1991 Decision, establishing a system of controls over social place, specifically places of leisure and entertainment.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ultimate goal is to stop managers and workers within the predominantly male-run and male-patronised <a href="/wiki/Hospitality_industry" title="Hospitality industry">hospitality and service industry</a> from profiting from and/or encouraging the prostitution of others. Government intervention in commercial recreation has found concrete expression in the form of the 1999 "Regulations concerning the management of public places of entertainment". The provisions proscribe a range of commercial practices that characterise the activities of female "hostesses".<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These laws have been further reinforced via the introduction of localised licensing measures that bear directly on the interior spatial organisation of recreational venues. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Party_disciplinary_measures">Party disciplinary measures</h3></div> <p>As a result of strong calls to curb official corruption, during the mid to late 1990s, a whole host of regulations were also introduced to ban government employees both from running recreational venues and from protecting illegal business operations. The 1997 Communist Party Discipline Regulations, for example, contain specific provisions to the effect that party members will be stripped of their posts for using their position and/or public funds to keep a "second wife", a "hired wife", and to buy sexual services.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These measures are being policed via the practice established in 1998 of <a href="/wiki/Audit" title="Audit">auditing</a> government officials, and thereby combining the forces of the CPC's disciplinary committees with those of the State Auditing Administration. Following the introduction of these measures, the <a href="/wiki/Media_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of China">Chinese media</a> has publicised numerous cases of government officials being convicted and disciplined for abusing their positions for prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Policing">Policing</h2></div> <p>Despite the position of the law, prostitutes are often treated as quasi-criminals by the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Public_Security_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Public Security of the People's Republic of China">Ministry of Public Security</a>. Chinese police conduct regular patrols of <a href="/wiki/Public_space" title="Public space">public spaces</a>, often with the support of mass-line organisations, using a strong presence as a deterrence against prostitution. Because lower tier prostitutes work the streets, they are more likely to be apprehended. Arrests are also more likely to be female sellers of sex than male buyers of sex. The overwhelming majority of men and women who are apprehended are released with a caution and <a href="/wiki/Fine_(penalty)" title="Fine (penalty)">fine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2004107,_note_6_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2004107,_note_6-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response, sellers and buyers of sex have adopted a wide range of tactics designed to avoid apprehension. The spatial mobility which is afforded by modern communications systems, such as mobile phones and <a href="/wiki/Pager" title="Pager">pagers</a>, and by modern forms of transportation, such as <a href="/wiki/Taxicab" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxicab">taxis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">private cars</a>, has severely reduced the ability of police to determine exactly who is engaged in acts of solicitation.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prostitutes have also begun using the internet, in particular <a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">instant messaging</a> software such as <a href="/wiki/Tencent_QQ" title="Tencent QQ">QQ</a>, to attract customers.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2004, PlayChina, an online prostitution referral service, was shut down by police. </p><p>In tandem with the long-term task of developing preventative policing, the much more visible form of policing have been periodic police-led campaigns. Anti-prostitution campaigns have been accompanied by nationwide "media blitzes" to publicise the PRC's laws and regulations. This is typically followed by the announcement of arrest statistics, and then by sober official statements suggesting that the struggle to eliminate prostitution will be a long one. The use of campaigns has been criticised for their reliance on an outdated "ideological" construction and an equally outmoded campaign formula of the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The primary target of the PRC's prostitution controls throughout the 1990s has been China's burgeoning hospitality and entertainment industry. These culminated in the "strike hard" campaigns of late 1999 and 2000. Whilst such campaigns may have failed to eradicate prostitution <i>in toto</i>, there is some evidence that regulation of China's recreational venues has helped to create a legitimate female service worker with the right to refuse to engage in practices repugnant to the "valid labour contract", as well as the right to be free from <a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">sexual harassment</a> in the workplace.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chinese police have, however, proven unable to effectively police higher tier prostitution practices. The nature of concubinage and second wife practices makes it more suited as a target of social action campaigns rather than conventional police action. Because of social changes, for example, Chinese police are now professionally constrained not to intrude on people's personal relationships in an overt or coercive manner.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200494,_note_41_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200494,_note_41-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Police forces around China also differ as to how they approach the subject. In some areas, "massage parlours" on main streets are known full well to be brothels, but are generally left to function without hindrance, barring occasional raids. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_question_of_legalisation">The question of legalisation</h2></div> <p>The illegal activities and problems associated with prostitution had led some to believe that there would be benefits if prostitution was legalized. </p><p>A number of international <a href="/wiki/NGO" class="mw-redirect" title="NGO">NGOs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> organisations have criticised the PRC government for failing to comply with the UN <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_Against_Women" title="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women">Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women</a>, accusing PRC of penalising and abusing lower tier prostitutes, many of whom are victims of human trafficking, while exonerating men who buy sex, and ignoring the ongoing problems of governmental complicity and involvement in the sex trade industry.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Elimination_of_All_Forms_of_Discrimination_Against_Women" title="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women">Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women</a> reads: <i>Art. 6</i>: <i>States Parties shall take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to suppress all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of prostitution of women</i>. However, it does not advocate a system of <a href="/wiki/Regulated_prostitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulated prostitution">legal and regulated prostitution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has, though, been some calls for legalization; a minor rally for this caused was held in 2010 organized by sex worker activist Ye Haiyan, who was arrested by police for her role in organizing the protests.<sup id="cite_ref-whatsonxiamen_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whatsonxiamen-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Central guidelines laid down by the CPC do not permit the public advocacy of the legalisation of prostitution. Arguments concerning legalisation are not absent, however, from mainland China. On the contrary, some commentators contend that legally recognising the sex industry, in conjunction with further economic development, will ultimately reduce the number of women in prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Domestic commentators have also been highly critical of the PRC's prostitution controls, with a consistent <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a>-informed focus of complaint being the gender-biased and discriminatory nature of such controls, as well as human rights abuses.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some commentators in China and overseas contend that the PRC's policy of banning prostitution is problematic because it hinders the task of developing measures to prevent the spread of HIV.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While prostitution controls have been relaxed at a local level,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> there is no impetus for legalisation at the central government level. Importantly, legalisation does not have much public support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhiping200028–33_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhiping200028–33-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given the underdeveloped nature of the Chinese economy and legal system, there is an argument that legalisation would further complicate the already difficult task of establishing the legal responsibility for third-party involvement in forced prostitution and the traffic in women.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surveys conducted in China suggest that clandestine forms of prostitution will continue to proliferate alongside the establishment of legal prostitution businesses, because of social sanctions against working or patronising a <a href="/wiki/Red-light_district" title="Red-light district">red-light district</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Problems associated with female employment also limit the effectiveness of legalisation. These include the lack of independent <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>, and limited access of individuals to civil redress with regard to <a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_and_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational health and safety">occupational health and safety</a> issues.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2004128,_note_7_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2004128,_note_7-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="HIV/AIDS"><span id="HIV.2FAIDS"></span>HIV/AIDS</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS in China</a></div> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/UNAIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="UNAIDS">UNAIDS</a>, 0.5% of Chinese sex workers are infected with <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn_report_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn_report-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study reported that 5% of low-cost sex workers were infected.<sup id="cite_ref-elderly_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elderly-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one part of <a href="/wiki/Yunnan" title="Yunnan">Yunnan</a> province, the infection rate is estimated to be as high as 7%. The Chinese government has initiated programs to educate sex workers in HIV/AIDS prevention.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn_report_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn_report-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rising HIV/AIDS rates among Chinese's elderly has been partially attributed to the use of sex workers.<sup id="cite_ref-elderly_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elderly-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_the_media">In the media</h2></div> <p>The spread of prostitution practices has introduced a large quantity of <a href="/wiki/Slang" title="Slang">slang</a> to the popular vocabulary. Prostitution is a popular subject in the media, especially on the internet. Typically news of police raids, court cases or family tragedies related to prostitution are published in a sensationalised form. A good example is news of an orgy between 400 Japanese clients and 500 Chinese prostitutes in 2003, which, partially because of <a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">anti-Japanese sentiment</a>, was widely publicised and met with considerable outrage.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another highly publicised case was that of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alex_Ho_Wai-to&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alex Ho Wai-to (page does not exist)">Alex Ho Wai-to</a>, then a <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_of_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Party of Hong Kong">Democratic Party</a> candidate for the <a href="/wiki/Legislative_Council_of_Hong_Kong" title="Legislative Council of Hong Kong">Legislative Council of Hong Kong</a>, who was given a six-month <a href="/wiki/Re-education_through_labor" title="Re-education through labor">re-education through labor</a> sentence for hiring a prostitute.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prostitution has emerged as a subject of art in recent years, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cinema">Chinese cinema</a>. <a href="/wiki/Li_Shaohong" title="Li Shaohong">Li Shaohong</a>'s 1995 film <i><a href="/wiki/Blush_(1995_film)" title="Blush (1995 film)">Blush</a></i> begins in 1949 with the rounding up of prostitutes in <a href="/wiki/Shanghai" title="Shanghai">Shanghai</a> for "<a href="/wiki/Reeducation_through_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Reeducation through labor">reeducation</a>", and proceeds to tell the story of a <a href="/wiki/Love_triangle" title="Love triangle">love triangle</a> between two prostitutes and one of their former clients. One of the prostitutes, Xiaoe, attempts to hang herself in reeducation. When asked to explain the reason, she says she was born in the brothel and enjoyed her lifestyle there - thereby challenging the government-sanctioned perspective of prostitution. The 1998 film <i><a href="/wiki/Xiu_Xiu:_The_Sent_Down_Girl" title="Xiu Xiu: The Sent Down Girl">Xiu Xiu: The Sent Down Girl</a></i> was a dramatic portrayal of "invisible" prostitution in the rural China during the Maoist era. </p><p>The 2001 independent film <i><a href="/wiki/Seafood_(film)" title="Seafood (film)">Seafood</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Zhu_Wen_(writer)" title="Zhu Wen (writer)">Zhu Wen</a>, was an even more frank depiction of prostitution, this time of the complicated relationship between prostitution and law enforcement. In the film, a Beijing prostitute goes to a seaside resort to commit <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a>. Her attempt is intervened by a police officer who tries to redeem her, but also inflicts upon her many instances of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_assault" title="Sexual assault">sexual assault</a>. Both films, whilst being critically acclaimed abroad, performed poorly in mainland China, only partially due to government restrictions on distribution. The depiction of prostitution in fiction, by comparison, has fared slightly better. The most notable author on the subject is the young writer <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jiu_Dan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jiu Dan (page does not exist)">Jiu Dan</a>, whose portrayal of Chinese prostitutes in <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> in her <a href="/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a> <i>Wuya</i>, was extremely controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sex_trafficking">Sex trafficking</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking in China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_China" title="Human trafficking in China">Human trafficking in China</a></div> <p>China is a source, destination, and transit country for women and children subjected to sex trafficking. Chinese women and girls are subjected to sex trafficking within China. Traffickers typically recruit them from rural areas and take them to urban centers, using a combination of fraudulent job offers and coercion by imposing large travel fees, confiscating passports, confining victims, or physically and financially threatening victims to compel their engagement in commercial sex. Well-organized criminal syndicates and local gangs play key roles in the trafficking of Chinese women and girls in China, recruiting victims with fraudulent employment opportunities and subsequently forcing them into commercial sex. Illicit brokers increasingly facilitate the forced and fraudulent marriage of South Asian, Southeast Asian, and African women and girls to Chinese men for fees of up $30,000. The men—sometimes in partnership with their parents—often incur large debts to cover these fees, which they attempt to recover by subjecting the "brides" to prostitution. Some Chinese men are reportedly circumventing this brokerage system by traveling to Southeast Asian capitals and entering into legal marriages with local women and girls, then returning to China and subjecting them to forced prostitution.<sup id="cite_ref-state18_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state18-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chinese men, women, and children are subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking in at least 57 other countries. Chinese women and girls are subjected to sexual exploitation throughout the world, including in major cities, construction sites, remote mining and logging camps, and areas with high concentrations of Chinese migrant workers.<sup id="cite_ref-state18_150-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state18-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women and children from neighboring Asian countries, Africa, and the Americas are subjected to sex trafficking in China. A large number of North Korean women are subjected to forced prostitution. Women and girls are kidnapped or recruited through marriage brokers and transported to China, where some are subjected to commercial sex.<sup id="cite_ref-state18_150-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state18-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">United States Department of State</a> <a href="/wiki/Office_to_Monitor_and_Combat_Trafficking_in_Persons" title="Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons">Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons</a> ranks China as a '<a href="/wiki/Trafficking_in_Persons_Report#Ranking_System" title="Trafficking in Persons Report">Tier 3</a>' country.<sup id="cite_ref-state18_150-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-state18-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Crime in the People's Republic of China">Crime in the People's Republic of China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_China" title="Corruption in China">Corruption in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking in China</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output 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"当今中国社会病 Social problems in contemporary China". <i>Jindun</i>. <b>12</b>: 27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jindun&rft.atitle=%E5%BD%93%E4%BB%8A%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%97%85+Social+problems+in+contemporary+China&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=27&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Ping&rft.aufirst=Zhang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wei-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wei_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wei_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhong Wei. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020421054050/http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/sandt/sex-industry.html">A Close Look at China's Sex Industry</a>". Retrieved 30 November 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/sandt/sex-industry.html">the original</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020421054050/http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/sandt/sex-industry.html">Archived</a> 21 April 2002 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on 21 April 2002.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duncan Hewitt, BBC News: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1775221.stm"><i>Teenage prostitution case shocks China</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffreys2012" class="citation book cs1">Jeffreys, Elaine (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OABGgpFzQ20C"><i>Prostitution Scandals in China: Policing, Media and Society</i></a>. Oxon: Routledge. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415503426" title="Special:BookSources/9780415503426"><bdi>9780415503426</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prostitution+Scandals+in+China%3A+Policing%2C+Media+and+Society&rft.place=Oxon&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780415503426&rft.aulast=Jeffreys&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOABGgpFzQ20C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200498,_note_6-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200498,_note_6_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2004">Jeffreys 2004</a>, p. 98, note 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilWangAndersonGuo1996" class="citation journal cs1">Gil, V.E.; Wang, M.S.; Anderson, A.F.; Guo, M.L.; Wu, Z.O. (1996). "Plum blossoms and pheasants: prostitutes, prostitution, and social control measures in contemporary China". <i>International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology</i>. <b>38</b> (4): 319. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0306624X9403800405">10.1177/0306624X9403800405</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0306-624X">0306-624X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146392951">146392951</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Offender+Therapy+and+Comparative+Criminology&rft.atitle=Plum+blossoms+and+pheasants%3A+prostitutes%2C+prostitution%2C+and+social+control+measures+in+contemporary+China&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=319&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146392951%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0306-624X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0306624X9403800405&rft.aulast=Gil&rft.aufirst=V.E.&rft.au=Wang%2C+M.S.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+A.F.&rft.au=Guo%2C+M.L.&rft.au=Wu%2C+Z.O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wang Haibo (3 July 2003). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030913101320/http://news.rednet.com.cn/Articles/2003/07/435298.HTM">女大学生卖淫，我不相信是假新闻</a> (Female university students selling sex, I don't believe it's false news)". <i>Hong wang</i>. Retrieved 24 November 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.rednet.com.cn/Articles/2003/07/435298.HTM">the original</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030913101320/http://news.rednet.com.cn/Articles/2003/07/435298.HTM">Archived</a> 13 September 2003 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on 13 September 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuiming1999a-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuiming1999a_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuiming1999a">Suiming 1999a</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCurry, J.; Allison, R. (9 March 2004). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/china/story/0,7369,1165129,00.html">40m bachelors and no women ... the birth of a new problem for China</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. Retrieved 2 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonGil1999" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, A.; Gil, V. (1999). "Prostitution and public policy in the People's Republic of China: an analysis of the rehabilitative ideal". <i>International Criminal Justice Review</i>. <b>4</b> (23): 28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Criminal+Justice+Review&rft.atitle=Prostitution+and+public+policy+in+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China%3A+an+analysis+of+the+rehabilitative+ideal&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=23&rft.pages=28&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Gil%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalhotra1994" class="citation journal cs1">Malhotra, A. (1994). "Prostitution, triads and corruption - Shanghai's dark side". <i>Asia Inc</i>. <b>32</b>: <span class="nowrap">32–</span>9.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Asia+Inc.&rft.atitle=Prostitution%2C+triads+and+corruption+-+Shanghai%27s+dark+side&rft.volume=32&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Malhotra&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuiming199621,_note_6-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuiming199621,_note_6_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuiming1996">Suiming 1996</a>, p. 21, note 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEXin19991423,_note_8-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEXin19991423,_note_8_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFXin1999">Xin 1999</a>, p. 1423, note 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuiming1999b55,_note_6-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuiming1999b55,_note_6_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuiming1999b">Suiming 1999b</a>, p. 55, note 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhang, pp. 25–9, note 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hughes, D., et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/china.htm">China and Hong Kong: Facts on Trafficking and Prostitution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051205023840/http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/china.htm">Archived</a> 5 December 2005 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Coalition Against Trafficking in Women</i>. Retrieved 2 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cwa.tnet.co.th/Publications/Newsletters/vol13_2-3/v13_2-3_yunnan.html">CWA Newsletter</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060630015922/http://www.cwa.tnet.co.th/Publications/Newsletters/vol13_2-3/v13_2-3_yunnan.html">Archived</a> 30 June 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <i>Child Workers in Asia</i> <b>13</b> (2–3), 1997. Retrieved 2 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wang Xingjuan (1996). 当前卖淫嫖娼的现象问题 (<i>Some problems concerning the current phenomenon of selling and buying sex</i>). pp. 27–8, note 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"A Joint Assessment of HIV/AIDS Prevention, Treatment and Care in China". State Council HIV/AIDS Working Committee Office and UN Theme Group on HIV/AIDS in China, 2004.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhang Feng (27 October 2005). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-10/27/content_488154.htm">HIV/AIDS battle enters new phase</a>". <i>China Daily</i>. Retrieved 3 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peng-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peng_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeng_Bin2016" class="citation news cs1">Peng Bin (4 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.echinacities.com/china-news/Loan-Sharks-Accept-Naked-Photos-as-Collateral-for-Female-College-Students">"Loan Sharks Accept Naked Photos as Collateral"</a>. <i>eChinacities</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=eChinacities&rft.atitle=Loan+Sharks+Accept+Naked+Photos+as+Collateral&rft.date=2016-08-04&rft.au=Peng+Bin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.echinacities.com%2Fchina-news%2FLoan-Sharks-Accept-Naked-Photos-as-Collateral-for-Female-College-Students&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jeffreys2012-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jeffreys2012_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffreys2012" class="citation book cs1">Jeffreys, Elaine (14 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ADGAn5AMnKkC&pg=PA51"><i>Prostitution Scandals in China: Policing, Media and Society</i></a>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">48–</span>52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-31259-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-31259-5"><bdi>978-1-136-31259-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Prostitution+Scandals+in+China%3A+Policing%2C+Media+and+Society&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E48-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012-06-14&rft.isbn=978-1-136-31259-5&rft.aulast=Jeffreys&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DADGAn5AMnKkC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dw-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dw_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dw.de/human-traffickers-take-the-route-from-africa-to-asia/a-15793043">"Human traffickers take the route from Africa to Asia | Asia | DW.DE | 07.03.2012"</a>. dw.de<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+traffickers+take+the+route+from+Africa+to+Asia+%26%23124%3B+Asia+%26%23124%3B+DW.DE+%26%23124%3B+07.03.2012&rft.pub=dw.de&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dw.de%2Fhuman-traffickers-take-the-route-from-africa-to-asia%2Fa-15793043&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDitmore2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSKBvqXL0jTQCpgPA212_212]-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDitmore2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidSKBvqXL0jTQCpgPA212_212]_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDitmore2006">Ditmore 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBvqXL0jTQC&pg=PA212">212</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERowan2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUaTG9lTkI74CpgPA172_172]-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERowan2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidUaTG9lTkI74CpgPA172_172]_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRowan2008">Rowan 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UaTG9lTkI74C&pg=PA172">172</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKenneth_Hugh_De_Courcy,_John_De_Courcy1978" class="citation book cs1">Kenneth Hugh De Courcy, John De Courcy (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gEvvAAAAMAAJ&q=marriages"><i>Intelligence digest, Volume 1996</i></a>. Intelligence International Ltd<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 February</span> 2012</span>. <q>Triads in Portugal. Sources in Lisbon say that Chinese triad gangs from the Portuguese colony of Macau are setting up in Portugal ahead of the handover of Macau to China in 1999. Security sources fear that as many as 1000 triad members could settle in Portugal. They are already involved in securing Portuguese citizenship for Macau residents by arranging marriages of convenience with Portuguese prostitutes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intelligence+digest%2C+Volume+1996&rft.pub=Intelligence+International+Ltd.&rft.date=1978&rft.au=Kenneth+Hugh+De+Courcy%2C+John+De+Courcy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgEvvAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dmarriages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELe_Sueur2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXV8CLKVkM6sCpgPA381_381]-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELe_Sueur2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidXV8CLKVkM6sCpgPA381_381]_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLe_Sueur2003">Le Sueur 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XV8CLKVkM6sC&pg=PA381">381</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_China_Watch2012" class="citation web cs1">The China Watch (27 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thechinawatch.com/2012/02/blue-eyed-sex-for-sale/">"Blue-eyed sex for sale"</a>. <i>the China Watch</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=the+China+Watch&rft.atitle=Blue-eyed+sex+for+sale&rft.date=2012-02-27&rft.au=The+China+Watch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thechinawatch.com%2F2012%2F02%2Fblue-eyed-sex-for-sale%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hornblower, Margot (24 June 2001). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070501171440/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101930621-161939,00.html">The Skin Trade</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/Time_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Time Magazine">Time Magazine</a></i>. Retrieved 19 April 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asiapacificms.com/articles/russian_mafia/">"The Russian Mafia in Asia - Asia Pacific Media Service"</a>. Asiapacificms.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/World-News/North-Koreans-In-Prostitution-And-Slavery-After-Crossing-The-Border-Illegally-Into-China/Article/200811215150156">the original</a> on 11 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sky+News&rft.atitle=Smuggling%2C+Sex+And+Slavery&rft.date=2008-11-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.sky.com%2Fskynews%2FHome%2FWorld-News%2FNorth-Koreans-In-Prostitution-And-Slavery-After-Crossing-The-Border-Illegally-Into-China%2FArticle%2F200811215150156&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council_2014-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council_2014_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council_2014_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirbyBiserkoDarusman2014" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Kirby_(judge)" title="Michael Kirby (judge)">Kirby, Michael Donald</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sonja_Biserko" title="Sonja Biserko">Biserko, Sonja</a>; <a href="/wiki/Marzuki_Darusman" title="Marzuki Darusman">Darusman, Marzuki</a> (7 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoIDPRK/Report/A.HRC.25.CRP.1_ENG.doc">"Report of the detailed findings of the commission of inquiry on human rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea - A/HRC/25/CRP.1"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council" title="United Nations Human Rights Council">United Nations Human Rights Council</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140227104633/http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoIDPRK/Report/A.HRC.25.CRP.1_ENG.doc">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+detailed+findings+of+the+commission+of+inquiry+on+human+rights+in+the+Democratic+People%27s+Republic+of+Korea+-+A%2FHRC%2F25%2FCRP.1&rft.pub=United+Nations+Human+Rights+Council&rft.date=2014-02-07&rft.aulast=Kirby&rft.aufirst=Michael+Donald&rft.au=Biserko%2C+Sonja&rft.au=Darusman%2C+Marzuki&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2FDocuments%2FHRBodies%2FHRCouncil%2FCoIDPRK%2FReport%2FA.HRC.25.CRP.1_ENG.doc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jeongjs-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jeongjs_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jeongjs_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130322212930/http://www.awomansvoice.org/nl1-2004-2.html">Intervention Agenda Item 12: Elimination of Violence Against Women (archived copy)</a><sup><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></sup>" at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Commission on Human Rights">United Nations Commission on Human Rights</a> in April 2004; speaker: Ji Sun JEONG for <i>A Woman's Voice International</i> (AWVI, an NGO that focused on the PRC's and DPRK's treatment of <a href="/wiki/North_Korean_defectors#China" title="North Korean defectors">North Korean refugees to China</a> and of Christians). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tuoitrenews.vn/cmlink/tuoitrenews/society/inside-a-vietnamese-girl-market-1.97444#ixzz2JLViImZt">the original</a> on 30 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tuoitrenews&rft.atitle=Inside+a+%22Vietnamese+girl+market%22&rft.date=2013-01-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftuoitrenews.vn%2Fcmlink%2Ftuoitrenews%2Fsociety%2Finside-a-vietnamese-girl-market-1.97444%23ixzz2JLViImZt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff_Reporter2007" class="citation web cs1">Staff Reporter (18 October 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mg.co.za/article/2007-10-18-sa-a-humantrafficking-hot-spot-conference-hears">"SA a human-trafficking hot spot, conference hears"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=SA+a+human-trafficking+hot+spot%2C+conference+hears&rft.date=2007-10-18&rft.au=Staff+Reporter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmg.co.za%2Farticle%2F2007-10-18-sa-a-humantrafficking-hot-spot-conference-hears&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gvnet-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gvnet_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gvnet.com/humantrafficking/Macau.htm">"Human Trafficking & Modern-day Slavery - Macau"</a>. gvnet.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Human+Trafficking+%26+Modern-day+Slavery+-+Macau&rft.pub=gvnet.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgvnet.com%2Fhumantrafficking%2FMacau.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewBushnell200611-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrewBushnell200611_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndrewBushnell2006">Andrew & Bushnell 2006</a>, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarroll2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD37ijXG-FykCpgPA36_36]-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarroll2013[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD37ijXG-FykCpgPA36_36]_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCarroll2013">Carroll 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D37ijXG-FykC&pg=PA36">36</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaschokMiers1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidf5o_t7VxHYACpgPA237_237]-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJaschokMiers1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidf5o_t7VxHYACpgPA237_237]_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJaschokMiers1994">Jaschok & Miers 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f5o_t7VxHYAC&pg=PA237">237</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELethbridge197875-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELethbridge197875_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELethbridge197875_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLethbridge1978">Lethbridge 1978</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELethbridge1978210-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELethbridge1978210_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLethbridge1978">Lethbridge 1978</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECheung1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE45DHTYdTmACpgPA348_348]-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECheung1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidE45DHTYdTmACpgPA348_348]_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCheung1997">Cheung 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E45DHTYdTmAC&pg=PA348">348</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2005256-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo2005256_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHo2005">Ho 2005</a>, p. 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2005249-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo2005249_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHo2005">Ho 2005</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIOAS1993110-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIOAS1993110_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIOAS1993">IOAS 1993</a>, p. 110.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIOAS1993102-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIOAS1993102_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIOAS1993">IOAS 1993</a>, p. 102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHo2005228-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHo2005228_87-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHo2005">Ho 2005</a>, p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge1980196-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge1980196_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge1980">Hodge 1980</a>, p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z4UwAQAAIAAJ&q=tanka+career"><i>Ejeas, Volume 1</i></a>. Brill. 2001. p. 112<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2011</span>. <q>A popular contemporary magazine which followed closely the news in the 'flower business' (huashi) so recorded at least one case of such career advancement that occurred to a Tanka (boat-people) prostitute in Canton.44 To say that all</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ejeas%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz4UwAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dtanka%2Bcareer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEJEAS2001112-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEJEAS2001112_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEJEAS2001">EJEAS 2001</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHodge198033-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHodge198033_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHodge1980">Hodge 1980</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndrewBushnell200613-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndrewBushnell200613_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAndrewBushnell2006">Andrew & Bushnell 2006</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEyreSpottiswoode1882" class="citation book cs1">Eyre, G.E.; <a href="/wiki/William_Spottiswoode" title="William Spottiswoode">Spottiswoode, W.</a> (March 1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hswPjsESizYC&pg=PA54"><i>Correspondence respecting the alleged existence of Chinese slavery in Hong Kong: presented to both Houses of Parliament by Command of Her Majesty</i></a>. C (Series) (Great Britain. Parliament). Vol. 3185 (reprint ed.). LONDON: <a href="/wiki/Eyre_%26_Spottiswoode" title="Eyre & Spottiswoode">Eyre & Spottiswoode</a>. p. 54<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Correspondence+respecting+the+alleged+existence+of+Chinese+slavery+in+Hong+Kong%3A+presented+to+both+Houses+of+Parliament+by+Command+of+Her+Majesty&rft.place=LONDON&rft.series=C+%28Series%29+%28Great+Britain.+Parliament%29&rft.pages=54&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Eyre+%26+Spottiswoode&rft.date=1882-03&rft.aulast=Eyre&rft.aufirst=G.E.&rft.au=Spottiswoode%2C+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhswPjsESizYC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunnellMillwardElliottForet2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6qFH-53_VnECpgPA103_103]-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDunnellMillwardElliottForet2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6qFH-53_VnECpgPA103_103]_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDunnellMillwardElliottForet2004">Dunnell et al. 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6qFH-53_VnEC&pg=PA103">103</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillward1998206-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMillward1998206_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMillward1998">Millward 1998</a>, p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENightingaleSkrine2013124–125-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENightingaleSkrine2013124–125_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNightingaleSkrine2013">Nightingale & Skrine 2013</a>, pp. 124–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008192–-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008192–_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellér-Hann2008">Bellér-Hann 2008</a>, pp. 192–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008258–-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008258–_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellér-Hann2008">Bellér-Hann 2008</a>, pp. 258–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFriederich1994352-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFriederich1994352_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFriederich1994">Friederich 1994</a>, p. 352.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETamm2011310_&_318-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETamm2011310_&_318_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTamm2011">Tamm 2011</a>, pp. 310 & 318.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarl_Mannerheim1909" class="citation book cs1">Carl Mannerheim (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-1-A-224/V-1/page/0056.html.ja"><i>Across Asia from West to East in 1906-08</i></a>. Vol. 1. National Institute of Informatics - Digital Silk Road Project. p. 50<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Across+Asia+from+West+to+East+in+1906-08&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Informatics+-+Digital+Silk+Road+Project&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Carl+Mannerheim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsr.nii.ac.jp%2Ftoyobunko%2FVIII-1-A-224%2FV-1%2Fpage%2F0056.html.ja&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchluessel20149-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchluessel20149_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchluessel2014">Schluessel 2014</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPohl,_Florian2010" class="citation book cs1">Pohl, Florian (1 September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n4Eye4ilLVkC&q=Mutah&pg=PA50"><i>Muslim World: Modern Muslim Societies</i></a>. Marshall Cavendish. pp. <span class="nowrap">52–</span>53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780761479277" title="Special:BookSources/9780761479277"><bdi>9780761479277</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslim+World%3A+Modern+Muslim+Societies&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E53&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2010-09-01&rft.isbn=9780761479277&rft.au=Pohl%2C+Florian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn4Eye4ilLVkC%26q%3DMutah%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008266–-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008266–_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellér-Hann2008">Bellér-Hann 2008</a>, pp. 266–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamal2000102–-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKamal2000102–_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKamal2000">Kamal 2000</a>, pp. 102–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dunmore1894-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dunmore1894_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Adolphus_Murray_Earl_of_Dunmore1894" class="citation book cs1">Charles Adolphus Murray Earl of Dunmore (1894). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pamirs00dunmgoog"><i>The Pamirs: Being a Narrative of a Year's Expedition on Horseback and on Foot Through Kashmir, Western Tibet, Chinese Tartary, and Russian Central Asia</i></a>. J. Murray. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pamirs00dunmgoog/page/n394">328</a>–. <q>When a Chinaman is called back to his own home in China proper, or a Chinese soldier has served his time in Turkestan and has to return to his native city of Pekin and Shanghai, he either leaves his temporary wife behind to shift for herself, or he sells her to a friend. If he has a family he takes the boys with him.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pamirs%3A+Being+a+Narrative+of+a+Year%27s+Expedition+on+Horseback+and+on+Foot+Through+Kashmir%2C+Western+Tibet%2C+Chinese+Tartary%2C+and+Russian+Central+Asia&rft.pages=328-&rft.pub=J.+Murray&rft.date=1894&rft.au=Charles+Adolphus+Murray+Earl+of+Dunmore&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpamirs00dunmgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008267–-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008267–_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellér-Hann2008">Bellér-Hann 2008</a>, pp. 267–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008259–-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann2008259–_108-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellér-Hann2008">Bellér-Hann 2008</a>, pp. 259–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NazarovBurr1935-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NazarovBurr1935_109-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPavel_Stepanovich_NazarovMalcolm_Burr1935" class="citation book cs1">Pavel Stepanovich Nazarov; Malcolm Burr (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lHpCAAAAIAAJ&q=if+such+a+marriage+is+concluded+for+a+fixed+short+period,+after+the+inevitable+palau+was+consumed+at+the+wedding+feat,+the+mullah+reads+the+ceremony+of+divorce+in+advance,+to+simplify+matters"><i>Moved On! From Kashgar to Kashmir</i></a>. G. Allen & Unwin, Limited. p. 25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moved+On%21+From+Kashgar+to+Kashmir&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=G.+Allen+%26+Unwin%2C+Limited&rft.date=1935&rft.au=Pavel+Stepanovich+Nazarov&rft.au=Malcolm+Burr&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlHpCAAAAIAAJ%26q%3Dif%2Bsuch%2Ba%2Bmarriage%2Bis%2Bconcluded%2Bfor%2Ba%2Bfixed%2Bshort%2Bperiod%2C%2Bafter%2Bthe%2Binevitable%2Bpalau%2Bwas%2Bconsumed%2Bat%2Bthe%2Bwedding%2Bfeat%2C%2Bthe%2Bmullah%2Breads%2Bthe%2Bceremony%2Bof%2Bdivorce%2Bin%2Badvance%2C%2Bto%2Bsimplify%2Bmatters&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann200883–-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBellér-Hann200883–_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBellér-Hann2008">Bellér-Hann 2008</a>, pp. 83–.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010115002400/http://www.amrc.org.hk/Arch/3303.htm">Sex Work in China</a>". Asia Monitor Resource Centre. Retrieved 23 April 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amrc.org.hk/Arch/3303.htm">the original</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010115002400/http://www.amrc.org.hk/Arch/3303.htm">Archived</a> 15 January 2001 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> on 15 January 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNiklas_Dougherty2006" class="citation web cs1">Niklas Dougherty (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dougherty.se/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Prostitution_in_China.pdf">"Prostitution in contemporary China The case of Shanghai Jiading"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Lund university. p. 16<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Prostitution+in+contemporary+China+The+case+of+Shanghai+Jiading&rft.pages=16&rft.pub=Lund+university&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Niklas+Dougherty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdougherty.se%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2020%2F10%2FProstitution_in_China.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.echinacities.com/china-media/Degrading-Online-Mistress-Ads-Pimp-Out-Chinese-University-Students">"Degrading Online Mistress Ads Pimp Out Chinese University Students"</a>. eChinacities (originally <a href="/wiki/Xinhua_News_Agency" title="Xinhua News Agency">Xinhua News Agency</a>). 18 May 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Degrading+Online+Mistress+Ads+Pimp+Out+Chinese+University+Students&rft.date=2011-05-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.echinacities.com%2Fchina-media%2FDegrading-Online-Mistress-Ads-Pimp-Out-Chinese-University-Students&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESuiming199652–7,_note_18-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESuiming199652–7,_note_18_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSuiming1996">Suiming 1996</a>, pp. 52–7, note 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Act of the People's Republic of China for Security Administration Punishment.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Criminal Law and the Criminal Procedure Law of the People's Republic of China</i>. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press (1984). Articles 140, 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note 15, Article 30, at 695–6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quanguo renda changweihui, xingfashi bianzhu, fazhi gongzuo weiyuanhui (Criminal Law Office and the Legal Council of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress) (1991). 关于严禁卖淫嫖娼的决定和关于严惩拐卖绑架妇女儿童的犯罪分子的决定 (<i>An Explanation of the Decision on Strictly Forbidding the Selling and Buying of Sex and the Decision on the Severe Punishment of Criminals Who Abduct and Traffic in or Kidnap Women and Children</i>). Zhonggguo jiancha chubanshe.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Articles 36, 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>1997 Criminal Code of the People's Republic of China</i> trans. Wei Luo, (Buffalo, New York: W.S. Hein & Co., 1998), Articles 358, 359, at 186–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.sina.com/china/1/2005/0124/18934.html">Chinese tycoon convicted of running prostitution, gambling ring sentenced to death</a>". <a href="/wiki/Sina.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Sina.com">Sina.com</a>, 24 January 2005. Retrieved 2 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note 19, Article 360, at 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-02/08/content_304163.htm">China court hears homosexual prostitution case</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/China_Daily" title="China Daily">China Daily</a></i>, 8 February 2004. Retrieved 2 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note 19, Articles 361, 362, at 187–8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">中华人民共和国国务院 guowuyuan (State Council of the PRC) (1999). 娱乐场所管理条例 (<i>Regulations concerning the management of public places of entertainment</i>). Wenhua chubanshe. Articles 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Communist Party discipline regulations". Xinhua News Agency, 1999., trans. <i>Selected World Broadcasts - China</i>, 14 April, FE/2892 S2/1-18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, "Guangdong court judge sacked for hiring prostitutes" <a href="/wiki/Xinhua" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinhua">Xinhua</a>, 26 September 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2004107,_note_6-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2004107,_note_6_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2004">Jeffreys 2004</a>, p. 107, note 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTao1994" class="citation journal cs1">Tao, Ouyang (1994). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Dangjin woguo maiyin piaochang fanzui de zhuangshi tedian ji duice" [当今我国卖淫嫖娼犯罪的壮实特点及对策: Prostitution offences in contemporary China: characteristics and countermeasures]". <i>Fanzui Yu Gaizao Yanjiu</i>. <b>10</b>: <span class="nowrap">15–</span>18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fanzui+Yu+Gaizao+Yanjiu&rft.atitle=%22Dangjin+woguo+maiyin+piaochang+fanzui+de+zhuangshi+tedian+ji+duice%22+%5B%E5%BD%93%E4%BB%8A%E6%88%91%E5%9B%BD%E5%8D%96%E6%B7%AB%E5%AB%96%E5%A8%BC%E7%8A%AF%E7%BD%AA%E7%9A%84%E5%A3%AE%E5%AE%9E%E7%89%B9%E7%82%B9%E5%8F%8A%E5%AF%B9%E7%AD%96%3A+Prostitution+offences+in+contemporary+China%3A+characteristics+and+countermeasures%5D&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E18&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Tao&rft.aufirst=Ouyang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://society.dayoo.com/gb/content/2005-10/13/content_2254667.htm">23岁"妈咪"网上介绍小姐称学生包夜600</a> (23-year-old "Mummy" introduces ladies on the internet, students for 600 a night). Retrieved 25 November 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gail_Hershatter" title="Gail Hershatter">Hershatter, G.</a>, <i>Dangerous Pleasures: Prostitution and Modernity in Twentieth-Century Shanghai</i> (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press) at 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeffreys, E., "Feminist prostitution debates: Are there any sex workers in China?" in McLaren, A. E., Chinese Women - Living and Working (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2004) at 98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200494,_note_41-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys200494,_note_41_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2004">Jeffreys 2004</a>, p. 94, note 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Human Rights in China <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hrichina.org/fs/downloadables/pdf/downloadable-resources/cedaw_98.pdf?revision_id=14195">Can dialogue improve China's human rights situation? Report on the implementation of CEDAW in the People's Republic of China</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060621212142/http://www.hrichina.org/fs/downloadables/pdf/downloadable-resources/cedaw_98.pdf?revision_id=14195">Archived</a> 21 June 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2000. Retrieved 2 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081121055338/http://www.ippf.org/en/Resources/Statements/The%2BRight%2Bto%2Bbe%2BFree%2Bfrom%2BTorture%2Band%2BIll%2BTreatment.htm">"The Right to be Free from Torture and Ill Treatment: Charter Right 12"</a>. International Planned Parenthood Federation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ippf.org/en/Resources/Statements/The+Right+to+be+Free+from+Torture+and+Ill+Treatment.htm">the original</a> on 21 November 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 May</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Right+to+be+Free+from+Torture+and+Ill+Treatment%3A+Charter+Right+12&rft.pub=International+Planned+Parenthood+Federation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ippf.org%2Fen%2FResources%2FStatements%2FThe%2BRight%2Bto%2Bbe%2BFree%2Bfrom%2BTorture%2Band%2BIll%2BTreatment.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-whatsonxiamen-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-whatsonxiamen_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100807012735/http://www.whatsonxiamen.com/news13800.html">"Sex worker Ye Haiyan held in China's 1st rally to legalize prostitution - What's On Xiamen"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whatsonxiamen.com/news13800.html">the original</a> on 7 August 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 October</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sex+worker+Ye+Haiyan+held+in+China%27s+1st+rally+to+legalize+prostitution+-+What%27s+On+Xiamen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whatsonxiamen.com%2Fnews13800.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zhang Beichuan, Chen Guanzhi, Li Kefu and Li Xiufang "Zhonggguo mou chengshi jinü diaocha" [中国某城市妓女调查: "A survey of female prostitutes in a Chinese city"], note 6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See for example Suiming (1996), note 6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Li Dun (1996) "Dui aizibing yu maiyin de zhengce he falü pingjia" [对艾滋病与卖淫的政策和法律评价: "An evaluation of China's policies and laws concerning AIDS and prostitution"] note 6 at 16–17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhiping200028–33-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEZhiping200028–33_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZhiping2000">Zhiping 2000</a>, pp. 28–33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSettle2004" class="citation web cs1">Settle, Edmund (29 July 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060212065702/http://casy.org/engdocs/SCMP_Oped_072904.pdf">"Legalise prostitution in China"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>South China Morning Post</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 August</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+China+Morning+Post&rft.atitle=Legalise+prostitution+in+China&rft.date=2004-07-29&rft.aulast=Settle&rft.aufirst=Edmund&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcasy.org%2Fengdocs%2FSCMP_Oped_072904.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peratis, K. and Flores, J.R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_26_16/ai_63583825">Symposium (voluntary prostitution)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070130004126/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_26_16/ai_63583825">Archived</a> 30 January 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Insight on the News</i>, 17 July 2000. Retrieved 2 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pan_Suiming" title="Pan Suiming">Pan Suiming</a>, cited in Zhiping (2000), note 50 at pp 32–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2004128,_note_7-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJeffreys2004128,_note_7_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJeffreys2004">Jeffreys 2004</a>, p. 128, note 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnn_report-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cnn_report_145-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cnn_report_145-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/06/19/china.aids.prostitutes/">"China tries to stop spread of HIV/AIDS among prostitutes"</a>. CNN. 21 June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 November</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=China+tries+to+stop+spread+of+HIV%2FAIDS+among+prostitutes&rft.date=2009-06-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2009%2FWORLD%2Fasiapcf%2F06%2F19%2Fchina.aids.prostitutes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-elderly-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-elderly_146-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-elderly_146-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/life/2010-01/11/content_9297255.htm">"AIDS and the elderly"</a>. China Daily. 11 January 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 January</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AIDS+and+the+elderly&rft.pub=China+Daily&rft.date=2010-01-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinadaily.com.cn%2Flife%2F2010-01%2F11%2Fcontent_9297255.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.people.com.cn/200309/27/eng20030927_125049.shtml">Japanese orgy in Zhuhai hotel sparks Chinese fury</a>, <i>People's Daily</i>, 27 September 2003. Retrieved 2 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zheng Caixiong, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-08/18/content_366425.htm">HK LegCo candidate arrested for taking prostitutes</a>, <i>China Daily</i>, 18 August 2004. Retrieved 2 December 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jiu Dan, <i>Wuya</i> [乌鸦: Crows] (Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, 2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-state18-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-state18_150-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-state18_150-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-state18_150-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-state18_150-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180726234125/https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2018/282632.htm">"China 2018 Trafficking in Persons Report"</a>. <i>U.S. Department of State</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.state.gov/j/tip/rls/tiprpt/countries/2018/282632.htm">the original</a> on 26 July 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Department+of+State&rft.atitle=China+2018+Trafficking+in+Persons+Report&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.state.gov%2Fj%2Ftip%2Frls%2Ftiprpt%2Fcountries%2F2018%2F282632.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrewBushnell2006" class="citation cs2">Andrew, Elizabeth Wheeler; Bushnell, Katharine Caroline (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vv_qNljtPtUC&q=tanka+tribes+aboriginal&pg=PA11"><i>Heathen Slaves and Christian Rulers</i></a>, Echo Library, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781406804317" title="Special:BookSources/9781406804317"><bdi>9781406804317</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heathen+Slaves+and+Christian+Rulers&rft.pub=Echo+Library&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781406804317&rft.aulast=Andrew&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Wheeler&rft.au=Bushnell%2C+Katharine+Caroline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvv_qNljtPtUC%26q%3Dtanka%2Btribes%2Baboriginal%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellér-Hann2008" class="citation cs2">Bellér-Hann, Ildikó (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC"><i>Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880-1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur</i></a>, BRILL, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004166752" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004166752"><bdi>978-9004166752</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Community+Matters+in+Xinjiang%2C+1880-1949%3A+Towards+a+Historical+Anthropology+of+the+Uyghur&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-9004166752&rft.aulast=Bell%C3%A9r-Hann&rft.aufirst=Ildik%C3%B3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcF4lMj8skvoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll2013" class="citation cs2">Carroll, John M. 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Miers, Suzanne (1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f5o_t7VxHYAC"><i>Women and Chinese Patriarchy: Submission, Servitude and Escape</i></a>, Zed Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781856491266" title="Special:BookSources/9781856491266"><bdi>9781856491266</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Chinese+Patriarchy%3A+Submission%2C+Servitude+and+Escape&rft.pub=Zed+Books&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9781856491266&rft.aulast=Jaschok&rft.aufirst=Maria&rft.au=Miers%2C+Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df5o_t7VxHYAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffreys2004" class="citation cs2">Jeffreys, Elaine (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxJjMAEACAAJ"><i>China, Sex and Prostitution</i></a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415646567" title="Special:BookSources/9780415646567"><bdi>9780415646567</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%2C+Sex+and+Prostitution&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780415646567&rft.aulast=Jeffreys&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrxJjMAEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKamal2000" class="citation cs2">Kamal, Ahmad (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bM2fGu9nnPUC&pg=PA102"><i>Land Without Laughter</i></a>, iUniverse, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780595010059" title="Special:BookSources/9780595010059"><bdi>9780595010059</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Land+Without+Laughter&rft.pub=iUniverse&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780595010059&rft.aulast=Kamal&rft.aufirst=Ahmad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbM2fGu9nnPUC%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitchcock2009" class="citation cs2">Hitchcock, Michael (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H0PXkzgcdRQC"><i>Tourism in Southeast Asia: Challenges and New Directions</i></a>, NIAS Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788776940348" title="Special:BookSources/9788776940348"><bdi>9788776940348</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tourism+in+Southeast+Asia%3A+Challenges+and+New+Directions&rft.pub=NIAS+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9788776940348&rft.aulast=Hitchcock&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH0PXkzgcdRQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHo2005" class="citation cs2">Ho, Virgil K. 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The prohibition of prostitution: whom does it serve?]", <i>艾滋病：社会、伦理和法律问题专家研讨会 [Aizibing: shehui, lunli he falü wenti zhuanjia yantaohui: Report of the Expert Workshop on HIV and Prostitution: Social, Ethical and Legal Issues]</i> (29–31 October)</cite><span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Qunyan+Chubanshe&rft.atitle=Cunzai+yu+huangmiu%3A+zhongguo+dixia+xingchanye+kaocha&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Suiming&rft.aufirst=Pan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTamm2011" class="citation cs2">Tamm, Eric Enno (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XfT6QryQ47MC"><i>The Horse that Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road, and the Rise of Modern China</i></a>, Counterpoint Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781582437347" title="Special:BookSources/9781582437347"><bdi>9781582437347</bdi></a></cite><span 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEJEAS2001" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vG0MAQAAMAAJ&q=at+least+one+case+of+such+career+advancement+that+occurred+to+a+Tanka+(boat-people)+prostitute+in+Canton.44+To+say"><i>European Journal of East Asian Studies</i></a>. Vol. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2. Brill. 2001.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Journal+of+East+Asian+Studies&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvG0MAQAAMAAJ%26q%3Dat%2Bleast%2Bone%2Bcase%2Bof%2Bsuch%2Bcareer%2Badvancement%2Bthat%2Boccurred%2Bto%2Ba%2BTanka%2B%28boat-people%29%2Bprostitute%2Bin%2BCanton.44%2BTo%2Bsay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIOAS1993" class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bj9uAAAAMAAJ&q=tanka+foreigners+household"><i>East Asian History</i></a>. Vol. <span class="nowrap">5–</span>6. Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National University. 1993.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asian+History&rft.pub=Institute+of+Advanced+Studies%2C+Australian+National+University&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBj9uAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dtanka%2Bforeigners%2Bhousehold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li>Boittin, Margaret L. (2024). <i>The Regulation of Prostitution in China: Law in the Everyday Lives of Sex Workers, Police Officers, and Public Health Officials</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilAnderson1998" class="citation journal cs1">Gil, V.E.; Anderson, A.F. (1998). "State-sanctioned aggression and the control of prostitution in the People's Republic of China: a review". <i>Aggression and Violent Behavior</i>. <b>3</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">129–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs1359-1789%2897%2900008-6">10.1016/s1359-1789(97)00008-6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aggression+and+Violent+Behavior&rft.atitle=State-sanctioned+aggression+and+the+control+of+prostitution+in+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China%3A+a+review&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E129-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs1359-1789%2897%2900008-6&rft.aulast=Gil&rft.aufirst=V.E.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+A.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProstitution+in+China" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gail_Hershatter" title="Gail Hershatter">Hershatter, G.</a>, <i>Dangerous Pleasures: Prostitution and Modernity in Twentieth-Century Shanghai</i> (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press).</li> <li>Ruan, F. (1991) <i>Sex in China: Studies in Sexology in Chinese Culture</i>, New York: Plenum Press.</li> <li>Shan Guangnai, <i>Zhongguo changji - guoqu he xianzai</i> (中国娼妓过去和现在: "Chinese Prostitution - Past and Present") (Beijing: Falü chubanshe, 1995).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Prostitution_in_China" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Prostitution in China">Prostitution in China</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <ul><li>All-China Women's Federation, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051124040620/http://www.women.org.cn/english/english/laws/07.htm">Excerpts from the Criminal Law of the PRC</a>. See in particular articles 358–362.</li> <li>Jeffreys, E., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/chinapolicy/www/conference1/jeffreys.pdf">A Matter of Choice: Feminist Prostitution Debates and the Example of China</a>.</li> <li>Xin Ren, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150402053308/http://www.lolapress.org/artenglish/xinre13.htm">Prostitution and Employment Opportunities for Women under China's Economic Reform</a>.</li> <li>Gifford, R., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=3814207">On the Road in China: Prostitution, Religion Rise</a>, <i>NPR</i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20031018084940/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/korea/ej07dg01.html">North Korea: On The Borderline Part 6</a> – Asia Times article about prostitution in <a href="/wiki/Yanji" title="Yanji">Yanji</a></li></ul> <div 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Tibet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Prostitutes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ah_Toy" title="Ah Toy">Ah Toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ching_Shih" class="mw-redirect" title="Ching Shih">Ching Shih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du_Zhu" title="Du Zhu">Du Zhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Hei%27er" title="Lin Hei'er">Lin Hei'er</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Courtesans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bai_Mudan_(mythology)" title="Bai Mudan (mythology)">Bai Mudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empress_Dowager_Bian" title="Empress Dowager Bian">Empress Dowager Bian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Yuanyuan" title="Chen Yuanyuan">Chen Yuanyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dong_Xiaowan" title="Dong Xiaowan">Dong Xiaowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Beauties_of_Qinhuai" title="Eight Beauties of Qinhuai">Eight Beauties of Qinhuai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Mei" class="mw-redirect" title="Gu Mei">Gu Mei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongfu" title="Hongfu">Hongfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shishi" title="Li Shishi">Li Shishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Xiangjun" title="Li Xiangjun">Li Xiangjun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Ye_(poet)" title="Li Ye (poet)">Li Ye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Rushi" title="Liu Rushi">Liu Rushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Shouzhen" title="Ma Shouzhen">Ma Shouzhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sai_Jinhua" title="Sai Jinhua">Sai Jinhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Xiaoxiao" title="Su Xiaoxiao">Su Xiaoxiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Wei_(courtesan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wang Wei (courtesan)">Wang Wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xue_Susu" title="Xue Susu">Xue Susu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xue_Tao" title="Xue Tao">Xue Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Xuanji" title="Yu Xuanji">Yu Xuanji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gai_Shanxi_and_Her_Sisters" title="Gai Shanxi and Her Sisters">Gai Shanxi and Her Sisters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_China" title="Sex trafficking in China">Sex trafficking in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sing-song_girls" title="Sing-song girls">Sing-song girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geji" title="Geji">Geji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Health_in_China200" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Health_in_China" title="Template:Health in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Health_in_China" title="Template talk:Health in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Health_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Health in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Health_in_China200" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">Healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_China" title="Health in China">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance_in_China" title="Disease surveillance in China">Disease surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_reform_in_China" title="Healthcare reform in China">Healthcare system reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_China" title="Women's health in China">Women's health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_informatics_in_China" title="Health informatics in China">Health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barefoot_doctor" title="Barefoot doctor">Barefoot doctor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriotic_Health_Campaign" title="Patriotic Health Campaign">Patriotic Health Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Welfare_Institute" title="China Welfare Institute">China Welfare Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_China" title="List of hospitals in China">Hospitals in China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Chinese_hospitals" title="Classification of Chinese hospitals">Classification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_schools_in_China" title="Category:Medical schools in China">Medical schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation_in_China" title="Organ transplantation in China">Organ transplantation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_China" title="Medicine in China">Medicine in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_in_China" title="Pharmacy in China">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry_in_China" title="Pharmaceutical industry in China">Pharmaceutical industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_industry_in_China" title="Biotechnology industry in China">Biotechnology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">Diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avian_influenza" title="Avian influenza">Avian influenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betaarterivirus_suid_1" title="Betaarterivirus suid 1">Blue-ear disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease_in_China" title="Cardiovascular disease in China">Cardiovascular disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_disease_in_China" title="Chronic disease in China">Chronic diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enterovirus" title="Enterovirus">Enterovirus 71 (EV71)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fujian_flu" title="Fujian flu">Fujian flu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B_in_China" title="Hepatitis B in China">Hepatitis B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_China" title="HIV/AIDS in China">HIV/AIDS</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_Economy" title="Plasma Economy">Plasma Economy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iodine_deficiency_in_China" title="Iodine deficiency in China">Iodine deficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Chinese_lead_poisoning_scandal" title="2009 Chinese lead poisoning scandal">lead poisoning scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_in_China" title="Leprosy in China">Leprosy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_China" title="Mental health in China">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_China" title="Obesity in China">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_opium_in_China" title="History of opium in China">Opium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumonic_plague#China" title="Pneumonic plague">Pneumonic plague</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroke_in_China" title="Stroke in China">Stroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis_in_China" title="Tuberculosis in China">Tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Disease-related_deaths_in_China" title="Category:Disease-related deaths in China">Disease-related deaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_flu_pandemic_in_Asia#China_.28People.27s_Republic_of_China.29" class="mw-redirect" title="2009 flu pandemic in Asia">Swine influenza outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2002%E2%80%932004_SARS_outbreak" title="2002–2004 SARS outbreak">SARS pandemic</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2" title="SARS-CoV-2">SARS-CoV-2</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_mainland_China" title="COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China">COVID-19 pandemic</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Delta_variant" title="SARS-CoV-2 Delta variant">Delta variant</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARS-CoV-2_Omicron_variant" title="SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant">Omicron variant</a> (2022)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_(government_department)" title="Ministry (government department)">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Health_Commission" title="National Health Commission">National Health Commission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Administration_of_Traditional_Chinese_Medicine" title="National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine">National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Administration_of_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="National Administration of Disease Control and Prevention">National Administration of Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Medical_Products_Administration" title="National Medical Products Administration">National Medical Products Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_(Hong_Kong)" title="Department of Health (Hong Kong)"><i>Hong Kong Department of Health</i></a> *</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretariat_for_Social_Affairs_and_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture"><i>Macau Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture</i></a> *</li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Administration_of_Customs" title="General Administration of Customs">General Administration of Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Healthcare_Security_Administration" title="National Healthcare Security Administration">National Healthcare Security Administration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_China" title="Demographics of China">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_Dust" title="Asian Dust">Dust storms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment_of_China" title="Environment of China">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_China" title="Food safety in China">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_China" title="Illegal drug trade in China">Illegal drug trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_in_China" title="Pollution in China">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_China" title="Population history of China">Population history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">Poverty</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_China" title="Smoking in China">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegetarianism in China">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_doctors_in_China" title="Violence against doctors in China">Violence against doctors in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_China" title="Water supply and sanitation in China">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Studies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Cornell%E2%80%93Oxford_Project" title="China–Cornell–Oxford Project">China–Cornell–Oxford Project</a> <i>(<a href="/wiki/The_China_Study" title="The China Study">The China Study</a>)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Family_Panel_Studies" title="China Family Panel Studies">China Family Panel Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Health_and_Retirement_Longitudinal_Study" title="China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study">China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> * only in special administrative regions</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sexuality_and_gender_in_China62" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sexuality_and_gender_in_China" title="Template:Sexuality and gender in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sexuality_and_gender_in_China" title="Template talk:Sexuality and gender in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sexuality_and_gender_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sexuality and gender in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sexuality_and_gender_in_China62" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_China" title="Sexuality in China">Sexuality</a> and gender in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Women_in_China" title="Women in China">Women</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All-China_Women%27s_Federation" title="All-China Women's Federation">All-China Women's Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagongmei" title="Dagongmei">Female migrant workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health_in_China" title="Women's health in China">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_women_in_China" title="Globalization and women in China">Globalization and women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ideals_of_female_beauty" title="Chinese ideals of female beauty">Ideals of female beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_and_imperial_China" title="Women in ancient and imperial China">In ancient and imperial times</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">Foot binding</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Good_Wife,_Wise_Mother" title="Good Wife, Wise Mother">Good Wife, Wise Mother</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Three_Obediences_and_Four_Virtues" title="Three Obediences and Four Virtues">Three Obediences and Four Virtues</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_women_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Missing women of China">Missing women</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_preference_in_China" title="Son preference in China">Son preference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Female_infanticide_in_China" title="Female infanticide in China">Female infanticide</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_marriage" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese marriage">Marriage</a> and family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese-foreign_marriages_in_mainland_China" title="Chinese-foreign marriages in mainland China">Chinese-foreign marriages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_policies_of_China" title="Family planning policies of China">Family planning policies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-child_policy" title="Three-child policy">Three-child policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ghost_marriage" title="Chinese ghost marriage">Ghost marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_modern_China" title="Marriage in modern China">Marriage in modern China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naked_marriage_in_China" title="Naked marriage in China">Naked marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Marriage_Law" title="New Marriage Law">New Marriage Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_Tibet" title="Polyandry in Tibet">Polyandry in Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_marriage" title="Traditional Chinese marriage">Traditional Chinese marriage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">LGBT</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in China">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_in_China" title="Homosexuality in China">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_China" title="Intersex rights in China">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_Beijing" title="LGBTQ culture in Beijing">LGBTQ culture in Beijing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_Chengdu" title="LGBTQ culture in Chengdu">LGBTQ culture in Chengdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_Hong_Kong" title="LGBTQ culture in Hong Kong">LGBTQ culture in Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_culture_in_Shanghai" title="LGBTQ culture in Shanghai">LGBTQ culture in Shanghai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in China">Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_of_same-sex_unions_in_China" title="Recognition of same-sex unions in China">same-sex unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Tibet" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Macau" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgender in China">Transgender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Prostitution_in_Asia416" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Asia_topic" title="Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Asia_topic" title="Template talk:Asia topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Asia_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Asia topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Prostitution_in_Asia416" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Asia" title="Prostitution in Asia">Prostitution in Asia </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Afghanistan" title="Prostitution in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Armenia" title="Prostitution in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Azerbaijan" title="Prostitution in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Bahrain" title="Prostitution in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Bangladesh" title="Prostitution in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Bhutan" title="Prostitution in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Brunei" title="Prostitution in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Cambodia" title="Prostitution in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Cyprus" title="Prostitution in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Egypt" title="Prostitution in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Prostitution in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_India" title="Prostitution in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Indonesia" title="Prostitution in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Iran" title="Prostitution in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Iraq" title="Prostitution in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Israel" title="Prostitution in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Japan" title="Prostitution in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Jordan" title="Prostitution in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Kazakhstan" title="Prostitution in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_North_Korea" title="Prostitution in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="Prostitution in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Kuwait" title="Prostitution in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Prostitution in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Laos" title="Prostitution in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Lebanon" title="Prostitution in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Malaysia" title="Prostitution in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Maldives" title="Prostitution in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Mongolia" title="Prostitution in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Myanmar" title="Prostitution in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Nepal" title="Prostitution in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Oman" title="Prostitution in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Pakistan" title="Prostitution in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Philippines" title="Prostitution in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Qatar" title="Prostitution in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Russia" title="Prostitution in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Prostitution in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Singapore" title="Prostitution in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Prostitution in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Syria" title="Prostitution in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Tajikistan" title="Prostitution in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Thailand" title="Prostitution in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Timor-Leste" title="Prostitution in Timor-Leste">Timor-Leste (East Timor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Turkey" title="Prostitution in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Turkmenistan" title="Prostitution in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Prostitution in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Uzbekistan" title="Prostitution in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Vietnam" title="Prostitution in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Yemen" title="Prostitution in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with<br />limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Abkhazia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitution in Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitution in Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Prostitution in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitution in South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Taiwan" title="Prostitution in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and<br />other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitution in the British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitution in Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitution in the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Hong_Kong" title="Prostitution in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Macau" title="Prostitution in Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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