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class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Presidential suspension of <i>habeas corpus</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Presidential_suspension_of_habeas_corpus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Congressional_suspension_of_habeas_corpus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Congressional_suspension_of_habeas_corpus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Congressional suspension of <i>habeas corpus</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Congressional_suspension_of_habeas_corpus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Confederacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Confederacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>In the Confederacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Confederacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suspension_during_Reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suspension_during_Reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Suspension during Reconstruction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suspension_during_Reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suspension_in_the_Philippines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suspension_in_the_Philippines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Suspension in the Philippines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suspension_in_the_Philippines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habeas_corpus_during_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habeas_corpus_during_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span><i>Habeas corpus</i> during World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habeas_corpus_during_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antiterrorism_and_Effective_Death_Penalty_Act" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiterrorism_and_Effective_Death_Penalty_Act"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiterrorism_and_Effective_Death_Penalty_Act-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habeas_corpus_in_the_21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habeas_corpus_in_the_21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span><i>Habeas corpus</i> in the 21st century</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Habeas_corpus_in_the_21st_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle <i>Habeas corpus</i> in the 21st century subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Habeas_corpus_in_the_21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-2020s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2020s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>2020s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2020s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_in_post-trial_actions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_in_post-trial_actions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Differences in post-trial actions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_in_post-trial_actions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_habeas_corpus_statistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_habeas_corpus_statistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Federal <i>habeas corpus</i> statistics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Federal_habeas_corpus_statistics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Federal <i>habeas corpus</i> statistics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Federal_habeas_corpus_statistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Number_of_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number_of_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Number of cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number_of_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_cases_in_which_petitions_are_filed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_cases_in_which_petitions_are_filed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Types of cases in which petitions are filed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_cases_in_which_petitions_are_filed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Success_rates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Success_rates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Success rates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Success_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disposition_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disposition_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.4</span> <span>Disposition time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disposition_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Filing_rates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Filing_rates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.5</span> <span>Filing rates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Filing_rates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Recourse in US law against unlawful detention</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/United_States_law" class="mw-redirect" title="United States law">United States law</a>, <i><b>habeas corpus</b></i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'h' in 'hi'">h</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span><span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɔːr/: 'ar' in 'war'">ɔːr</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>) is a <a href="/wiki/Legal_recourse" title="Legal recourse">recourse</a> challenging the reasons or conditions of a person's <a href="/wiki/Detention_(imprisonment)" title="Detention (imprisonment)">confinement</a> under <a href="/wiki/Color_(law)" title="Color (law)">color of law</a>. A petition for <i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a></i> is filed with a court that has <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">jurisdiction</a> over the custodian, and if granted, a <a href="/wiki/Writ" title="Writ">writ</a> is issued directing the custodian to bring the confined person before the court for examination into those reasons or conditions. The <a href="/wiki/Suspension_Clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Suspension Clause">Suspension Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> specifically included the English <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> procedure in <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article One</a>, Section 9, clause 2, which demands that "The privilege of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it." </p><p>United States law affords persons the right to petition the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal courts</a> for a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. Individual states also afford persons the ability to petition their own <a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">state court systems</a> for <i>habeas corpus</i> pursuant to their respective <a href="/wiki/State_constitution_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="State constitution (United States)">constitutions</a> and <a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">laws</a> when held or sentenced by state authorities. </p><p>Federal <i>habeas</i> review did not extend to those in state custody until almost a century after the nation's founding until the <a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_of_1867" title="Habeas Corpus Act of 1867">Habeas Corpus Act of 1867</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gregory_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gregory-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Reconstruction</a>, as later during the <a href="/wiki/War_on_Terrorism" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Terrorism">War on Terrorism</a>, the right to petition for a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> was substantially curtailed for persons accused of engaging in certain conduct. In reaction to the former, and to ensure state courts enforced federal law, a Reconstruction Act for the first time extended the right of federal court <i>habeas</i> review to those in the custody of state courts (prisons and jails), expanding the writ essentially to all imprisoned on American soil. The federal <i>habeas</i> statute that resulted, with substantial amendments, is now at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title28-section2241&num=0&edition=prelim">28 U.S.C. § 2241</a>. For many decades, the great majority of habeas petitions reviewed in federal court have been filed by those confined in state prisons by sentence of a state court for state crimes (e.g., murder, rape, robbery, etc.), since in the American system, most crimes have historically been a matter of state law. </p><p>The right of <i>habeas corpus</i> is not a right against unlawful <a href="/wiki/Arrest" title="Arrest">arrest</a>, but rather a right to be released from imprisonment after such arrest. If one believes the arrest is without legal merit and subsequently refuses to come willingly, he still may be guilty of <a href="/wiki/Resisting_arrest" class="mw-redirect" title="Resisting arrest">resisting arrest</a>, which can sometimes be a crime in and of itself (even if the initial arrest itself was illegal) depending on the state. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Habeas corpus</i> derives from the English common law where the first recorded usage was in 1305, in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Edward_I_of_England" title="Edward I of England">King Edward I</a> of England. The procedure for the issuing of writs of <i>habeas corpus</i> was first codified by the <a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_1679" title="Habeas Corpus Act 1679">Habeas Corpus Act 1679</a>, following judicial rulings which had restricted the effectiveness of the writ. A previous act had been passed in 1640 to overturn a ruling that the command of the Queen was a sufficient answer to a petition of <i>habeas corpus</i>. <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a>, in his chapter on the <a href="/wiki/English_Common_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="English Common Law">English Common Law</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_the_English_Speaking_Peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="A History of the English Speaking Peoples">The Birth of Britain</a></i>, explains the process thus: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Only the King had a right to summon a jury. <a href="/wiki/Henry_II_of_England" title="Henry II of England">Henry</a> [II] accordingly did not grant it to private courts ... But all this was only a first step. Henry also had to provide means whereby the litigant, eager for royal justice, could remove his case out of the court of his lord into the court of the King. The device which Henry used was the royal writ ... and any man who could by some fiction fit his own case to the wording of one of the royal writs might claim the King's justice.</p></blockquote> <p>The writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> was issued by a superior court in the name of the Monarch, and commanded the addressee (a lower court, sheriff, or private subject) to produce the prisoner before the Royal courts of law. Petitions for <i>habeas corpus</i> could be made by the prisoner himself or by a third party on his behalf, and as a result of the Habeas Corpus Acts could be made regardless of whether the court was in session, by presenting the petition to a judge. </p><p>The 1679 Act remains important in 21st century cases. This Act and the historical body of British practice that relies upon it has been used to interpret the <i>habeas</i> rights granted by the United States Constitution, while taking into account the understanding of the writ held by the framers of the Constitution. </p><p>At the 1787 <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Constitutional Convention</a> <i>habeas corpus</i> was first introduced with a series of propositions on August 20 by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a>, a delegate from <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Habeas corpus</i> was discussed and voted on substantively on August 28, 1787,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the first vote of the motion in favor of <i>habeas corpus</i> passed unanimously, and the second part passed by a vote of 7 to 3,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for making <i>habeas corpus</i> Constitutionally-recognized. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Federal_law">Federal law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Federal law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Suspension Clause of Article One does not <i>expressly</i> establish a right to the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>; rather, it prevents Congress from restricting it. There has been much scholarly debate over whether the Clause positively establishes a right under the federal constitution, merely exists to prevent Congress from prohibiting state courts from granting the writ, or protects a pre-existing common law right enforceable by federal judges.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Antiterrorism_and_Effective_Death_Penalty_Act_of_1996" title="Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996">Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996</a> (AEDPA) limited the use of the federal writ by imposing a one-year statute of limitations and dramatically increasing the federal judiciary's deference to decisions previously made in state court proceedings either on appeal or in a state court <i>habeas corpus</i> action. One of AEDPA's most controversial changes is the requirement that any constitutional right invoked to vacate a state court conviction rooted in a mistake of law by the state court must have "resulted in a decision that was contrary to, or involved an unreasonable application of, clearly established Federal law, <i>as determined by the Supreme Court of the United States</i>" (emphasis added). Thus, a U.S. Court of Appeals must ignore its own precedents and affirm a state court decision contrary to its precedents, if the U.S. Supreme Court has never squarely addressed a particular issue of federal law.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, in the cases of <i><a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service_v._St._Cyr" title="Immigration and Naturalization Service v. St. Cyr">Immigration and Naturalization Service v. St. Cyr</a></i> (2001),<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Boumediene_v._Bush" title="Boumediene v. Bush">Boumediene v. Bush</a></i> (2008)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> suggested that the Suspension Clause protects "the writ as it existed in 1789", that is, as a writ which federal judges could issue in the exercise of their common law authority. In <i>St. Cyr</i> the Court ruled that AEDPA and the <a href="/wiki/Illegal_Immigration_Reform_and_Immigrant_Responsibility_Act_of_1996" title="Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996">Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996</a> do not <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction_stripping" title="Jurisdiction stripping">strip habeas jurisdiction</a> belonging to the federal district courts. After <i>St. Cyr</i> Congress made changes to the law to strip habeas jurisdiction and limit judicial review of orders of removal and provide an "adequate substitute" for habeas review in accordance with the <i>St. Cyr</i> decision. This "Limited Review Provision"<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> permits "review of constitutional claims or questions of law" for aliens who are removable because they have committed a crime.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regardless of whether the writ is positively guaranteed by the constitution, <i>habeas corpus</i> was first established by statute in the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_of_1789" title="Judiciary Act of 1789">Judiciary Act of 1789</a>. This statutory writ applied only to those who "are in custody, under or by colour of the authority of the United States, or are committed for trial before some court of the same, or are necessary to be brought into court to testify" and not to those held by state governments, which independently afford <i>habeas corpus</i> pursuant to their respective constitutions and laws. From 1789 until 1866, the federal writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> was largely restricted to prisoners in federal custody, at a time when no direct appeals from federal criminal convictions were provided for by law. <i>Habeas corpus</i> remained the only means for judicial review of federal capital convictions until 1889, and the only means for review of federal convictions for other "infamous crimes" until 1891.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> remained the only way that decisions of military courts could be reviewed by the Supreme Court until the passage of the Military Justice Act of 1983, which extended it to the writ of certiorari. </p><p>The authority of federal courts to review the claims of prisoners in state custody was not clearly established until Congress adopted a statute (28 U.S.C. § 2254)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> granting federal courts that authority in 1867, as part of the post-Civil War <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction era of the United States">Reconstruction</a>. The U.S. Supreme Court in the case of <i>Waley v. Johnson</i> (1942)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> interpreted this authority broadly to allow the writ to be used to challenge convictions or sentences in violation of a defendant's constitutional rights where no other remedy was available. </p><p>The U.S. Congress grants federal district courts, the Supreme Court, and all Article III federal judges, acting in their own right, jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 2241<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to issue writs of <i>habeas corpus</i> to release prisoners held by any government entity within the country from custody, subject to certain limitations, if the prisoner –  </p> <ul><li>Is in custody under or by color of the authority of the United States or is committed for trial before some court thereof; or</li> <li>Is in custody for an act done or omitted in pursuance of an Act of Congress, or an order, process, judgment or decree court or judge of the United States; or</li> <li>Is in custody in violation of the Constitution or laws or treaties of the United States; or</li> <li>Being a citizen of a foreign state and domiciled therein is in custody for an act done or omitted under any alleged right, title, authority, privilege, protection, or exemption claimed under the commission, order or sanction of any foreign state, or under color thereof, the validity and effect of which depend upon the law of nations; or</li> <li>It is necessary to bring said persons into court to testify or for trial.</li></ul> <p>In the 1950s and 1960s, decisions by the <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Warren</a> Court greatly expanded the use and scope of the federal writ largely due to the "constitutionalizing" of criminal procedure by applying the Bill of Rights, in part, to state courts using the <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_doctrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporation doctrine">incorporation doctrine</a>. This afforded state prisoners many more opportunities to claim that their convictions were unconstitutional, which provided grounds for <i>habeas corpus</i> relief. In the last thirty years, decisions by the <a href="/wiki/Warren_Burger" class="mw-redirect" title="Warren Burger">Burger</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Rehnquist" title="William Rehnquist">Rehnquist</a> Courts have somewhat narrowed the writ. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a> at <a href="/wiki/Title_25_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 25 of the United States Code">25 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/25/1303">§ 1303</a> makes <i>habeas corpus</i> available in federal court to test the legality of detention by <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American tribes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suspension_during_the_Civil_War">Suspension during the Civil War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Suspension during the Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Presidential_suspension_of_habeas_corpus">Presidential suspension of <i>habeas corpus</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Presidential suspension of habeas corpus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On April 27, 1861, the right of <i>habeas corpus</i> was unilaterally suspended by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">President Abraham Lincoln</a> in <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. Lincoln had received word that anti-war Maryland officials intended to destroy the railroad tracks between Annapolis and Philadelphia, which was a vital supply line for the army preparing to fight the South. Indeed, soon after, the Maryland legislature would simultaneously vote to stay in the Union and to close these rail lines, in an apparent effort to prevent war between its northern and southern neighbors.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincoln did not issue a sweeping order; it only applied to the Maryland route.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincoln chose to suspend the writ over a proposal to bombard Baltimore, favored by his <a href="/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Commanding General of the United States Army">General-in-Chief</a> <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincoln was also motivated by requests by generals to set up military courts to rein in his political opponents, "<a href="/wiki/Copperheads_(politics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Copperheads (politics)">Copperheads</a>", or Peace Democrats, so named because they did not want to resort to war to force the southern states back into the Union, as well as to intimidate those in the Union who supported the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate</a> cause. Congress was not yet in session to consider a suspension of the writs; however, when it came into session it failed to pass a bill favored by Lincoln to sanction his suspensions.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period <a href="/wiki/Henry_May_(Maryland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry May (Maryland)">one sitting U.S. Congressman</a> from the opposing party, as well as the mayor, police chief, entire Board of Police, and the city council of <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a> were arrested without charge and imprisoned indefinitely without trial.<sup id="cite_ref-baltimoresun.com_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baltimoresun.com-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lincoln's action was rapidly challenged in court and overturned by the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Maryland (led by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, <a href="/wiki/Roger_B._Taney" title="Roger B. Taney">Roger B. Taney</a>) in <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Merryman" title="Ex parte Merryman">Ex parte Merryman</a></i>. Chief Justice Taney ruled the suspension unconstitutional, stating that only Congress could suspend <i>habeas corpus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincoln and his Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Edward_Bates" title="Edward Bates">Edward Bates</a> not only ignored the Chief Justice's order,<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but when Lincoln's dismissal of the ruling was criticized in an editorial by prominent Baltimore newspaper editor <a href="/wiki/Frank_Key_Howard" title="Frank Key Howard">Frank Key Howard</a>, they had the editor also arrested by federal troops without charge or trial. The troops imprisoned Howard, who was <a href="/wiki/Francis_Scott_Key" title="Francis Scott Key">Francis Scott Key</a>'s grandson, in <a href="/wiki/Fort_McHenry" title="Fort McHenry">Fort McHenry</a>, which, as he noted, was the same fort where the <a href="/wiki/Star_Spangled_Banner" class="mw-redirect" title="Star Spangled Banner">Star Spangled Banner</a> had been waving "o'er the land of the free" in his grandfather's song.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1863, Howard wrote about his experience as a "political prisoner" at Fort McHenry in the book <i>Fourteen Months in the American Bastille</i>;<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> two of the publishers selling the book were then arrested.<sup id="cite_ref-baltimoresun.com_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-baltimoresun.com-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> convened in July 1861 it failed to support Lincoln's unilateral suspension of <i>habeas corpus</i>. A <a href="/wiki/Joint_resolution" title="Joint resolution">joint resolution</a> was introduced into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> to approve of the president's suspension of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>, but <a href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibustering</a> by Senate Democrats, who did not support it, and opposition to its imprecise wording by Senator <a href="/wiki/Lyman_Trumbull" title="Lyman Trumbull">Lyman Trumbull</a> prevented a vote on the resolution before the end of the first session, and the resolution was not taken up again.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trumbull himself introduced a bill to suspend <i>habeas corpus</i>, but failed on getting a vote before the end of the first session.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shortly thereafter, on September 17, 1861, the day the Maryland legislature was to reconvene, Lincoln imprisoned pro-Confederate members of the <a href="/wiki/Maryland_General_Assembly" title="Maryland General Assembly">Maryland General Assembly</a> without charges or hearings in further defiance of the Chief Justice's ruling.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, the legislative session had to be cancelled.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On February 14, 1862, the war was firmly in progress and Lincoln ordered most prisoners released,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> putting an end to court challenges for the time being. He again suspended <i>habeas corpus</i> on his own authority in September that same year, however, in response to resistance to his calling up of the <a href="/wiki/Militia_(United_States)" title="Militia (United States)">militia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Congressional_suspension_of_habeas_corpus">Congressional suspension of <i>habeas corpus</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Congressional suspension of habeas corpus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When Congress met again in December 1862, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> passed a bill indemnifying the president for his suspension of <i>habeas corpus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Senate amended the bill,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the compromise reported out of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_conference_committee" title="United States congressional conference committee">conference committee</a> altered it to remove the indemnity and to suspend <i>habeas corpus</i> on Congress's own authority.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That bill, the <a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Suspension_Act_1863" class="mw-redirect" title="Habeas Corpus Suspension Act 1863">Habeas Corpus Suspension Act</a>, was signed into law March 3, 1863.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincoln exercised his powers under it in September, suspending <i>habeas corpus</i> throughout the Union in any case involving prisoners of war, spies, traitors, or military personnel.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The suspension of <i>habeas corpus</i> remained in effect until <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> revoked it on December 1, 1865.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>General <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_E._Burnside" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrose E. Burnside">Ambrose E. Burnside</a> had former Congressman <a href="/wiki/Clement_Vallandigham" title="Clement Vallandigham">Clement Vallandigham</a> arrested in May 1863 for continuing to express sympathy for the Confederate cause after having been warned to cease doing so. Vallandigham was tried by a <a href="/wiki/Military_tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="Military tribunal">military tribunal</a> and sentenced to two years in a military prison. Lincoln quickly <a href="/wiki/Commutation_of_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Commutation of sentence">commuted</a> his sentence to banishment to the Confederacy. Vallandigham appealed his sentence, arguing that the <a href="/wiki/Enrollment_Act" title="Enrollment Act">Enrollment Act</a> did not authorize his trial by a military tribunal rather than in ordinary civilian courts, that he was not ordinarily subject to court martial, and that Gen. Burnside could not expand the jurisdiction of military courts on his own authority. The Supreme Court did not address the substance of Vallandigham's appeal, instead denying that it possessed the jurisdiction to review the proceedings of military tribunals without explicit congressional authorization.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1864, <a href="/wiki/Lambdin_P._Milligan" title="Lambdin P. Milligan">Lambdin P. Milligan</a> and four others were accused of planning to steal Union weapons and invade Union prisoner-of-war camps and were sentenced to hang by a military court. However, their execution was not set until May 1865, so they were able to argue the case after the war ended. In <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Milligan" title="Ex parte Milligan">Ex parte Milligan</a></i> (1866),<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the U.S. Supreme Court decided that Congress's 1863 suspension of the writ did not empower the President to try to convict citizens before military tribunals where the civil courts were open and operational. This was one of the key <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Cases_of_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court Cases of the American Civil War">Supreme Court Cases of the American Civil War</a> that dealt with wartime civil liberties and martial law. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Confederacy">In the Confederacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In the Confederacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Confederacy, <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Jefferson Davis</a> also suspended <i>habeas corpus</i> and imposed martial law.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after his inauguration as <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="President of the Confederacy">president of the Confederacy</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an act of the Confederate Congress of February 27, 1862, was passed authorizing Davis to suspend the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> and declare martial law "in such towns, cities, and military districts as shall, in his judgment, be in such danger of attack by the enemy".<sup id="cite_ref-Tyler_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Confederate Congress passed a limiting act two months to restrict the suspension of the writ "to arrests made by the authorities of the Confederate Government, or for offences against the same" and to add a <a href="/wiki/Sunset_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunset clause">sunset clause</a> providing that authorization to suspend <i>habeas corpus</i> would expire 30 days after the next meeting of Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-Tyler_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In various proclamations and orders beginning in 1862, Davis suspended the writ and declared martial law in parts of <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> (including the Confederate capital of <a href="/wiki/Richmond,_Virginia" title="Richmond, Virginia">Richmond</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norfolk,_Virginia" title="Norfolk, Virginia">Norfolk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth,_Virginia" title="Portsmouth, Virginia">Portsmouth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petersburg,_Virginia" title="Petersburg, Virginia">Petersburg</a>, and elsewhere).<sup id="cite_ref-Tyler_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Davis also suspended the writ in <a href="/wiki/East_Tennessee" title="East Tennessee">East Tennessee</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Tyler_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in this region, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_A.R._Nelson" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas A.R. Nelson">Thomas A.R. Nelson</a> was arrested by the Confederate military and held as a <a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">political prisoner</a> before being released on the condition that he cease criticizing the Confederate government.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Suspensions of civil process in the confederacy were used against suspected <a href="/wiki/Southern_Unionist" title="Southern Unionist">Unionists</a>, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">border states</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Young_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Barton A. Myers notes that after the Confederacy imposed nationwide <a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">conscription</a>, "the difference between arrest for political dissidence and conscription into the military became largely semantic, as anyone accused of Unionism was almost always first taken to a training camp where they were monitored and hazed under guard."<sup id="cite_ref-Myers63_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myers63-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Davis also suspended the writ in North Carolina (June 1862) and <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Atlanta in the American Civil War">in Atlanta</a> (in September 1862).<sup id="cite_ref-Tyler_41-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Confederate Congress passed re-authorizing legislation twice more, in October 1862 and February 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-Tyler_41-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Davis suspended <i>habeas corpus</i> in <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Indian Territory</a> in January 1863.<sup id="cite_ref-Young_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neely16162_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neely16162-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Davis had initially been resistant to the idea, he suspended the writ after receiving a telegram from General <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Holmes" title="Theophilus Holmes">Theophilus Holmes</a> complaining that his region was filled with disloyal persons and deserters, and that he could not enforce conscription.<sup id="cite_ref-Neely16162_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neely16162-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At least 2,672 civilians were subject to military arrest in the Confederacy over the course of its history, although this is likely an undercount given the incompleteness of records.<sup id="cite_ref-Myers63_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myers63-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civil War historian <a href="/wiki/Mark_E._Neely_Jr." title="Mark E. Neely Jr.">Mark E. Neely Jr.</a> suggests that "there seems to be no difference in the arrest rate in those periods when the Confederate Congress refuse to authorization suspension of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> and those periods was authorized. ... civilian prisoners trickled into Confederate military prisons whether the writ of habeas corpus was suspended or not."<sup id="cite_ref-Myers63_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Myers63-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A final suspension act was proposed in February 1864, when Jefferson Davis requested the Congress to gain give him the authority to suspend the writ. On February 4, the House Judiciary Committee reported out a suspension bill which was passed the next day by a 58 to 20 majority. The Senate took it up on February 6, and passed it by 14 to 10 on February 11. Davis signed it on February 15. The more conservative Senate had made the bill much more limited than the previous acts. The act authorized the suspension of the writ for thirteen specific offenses, including treason, conspiracies to overthrow the government, assisting the enemy, encouraging servile insurrection, encouraging desertion, espionage, holding concourse with the enemy, trading with the enemy, conspiracy to liberate prisoners of war, conspiracy to aid the enemy, resisting or abandoning the Confederate States, burning bridges or destroying any lines of communication, and destroying any military property. Most significant was the language “Such suspension shall apply only to the cases of persons arrested or detained by Order of the President, Secretary of War, or the General Commanding the Trans-Mississippi Department.” The President was required to appoint officers to investigate the cases of all persons arrested in order for them to be released if improperly detained, unless they could be speedily tried “in the due course of law.” The act did not prevent a court from issuing a writ, but the officer holding the prisoner was not required to answer or deliver the prisoners to any court if he certified under oath that the prisoner was held under the authority of the suspension act. This language would become critical to its interpretation in the courts. The act took effect on its signing and expired automatically on August 1, 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General <a href="/wiki/John_Bankhead_Magruder" class="mw-redirect" title="John Bankhead Magruder">John Bankhead Magruder</a> illegally attempted to invoke the act in April 1864 against three individuals who had published an anti-war broadside in the fall of 1863. His clumsy tactics led to a Constitutional Crisis between the General and the Texas Supreme Court who held Magruder in contempt in May 1864 in State V. J. H. Sparks, 27 Texas Reports 502 (1864). </p><p>The last suspension lapsed on August 1, 1864, amid deep domestic opposition to the suspension, including from the <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America" title="Vice President of the Confederate States of America">Confederate vice president</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Alexander H. Stephens</a>, Davis's political rival.<sup id="cite_ref-Tyler_41-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Citing "discontent, disaffection, and disloyalty",<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Davis made entreaties in late 1864 and 1865 about the necessity of suspension, but bills to further suspend <i>habeas corpus</i> failed in the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate Senate">Confederate Senate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tyler_41-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tyler-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suspension_during_Reconstruction">Suspension during Reconstruction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Suspension during Reconstruction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Act of 1871">Civil Rights Act of 1871</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2011</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan_Act_of_1871" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871">Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871</a></b></div></div></div> </div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Proclamation_201" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Proclamation 201">Proclamation 201</a></b></div></div></div> </div><p>Following the end of the Civil War, numerous groups arose in the South to oppose <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era of the United States">Reconstruction</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a>. In response, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Acts" title="Enforcement Acts">Enforcement Acts</a> in 1870–71. One of these, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1871" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Act of 1871">Civil Rights Act of 1871</a>, permitted the president to suspend <i>habeas corpus</i> if conspiracies against federal authority were so violent that they could not be checked by ordinary means. That same year, President <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> suspended the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> in nine South Carolina counties;<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Act's <a href="/wiki/Sunset_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunset clause">sunset clause</a> ended that suspension with the close of the next regular session of Congress. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Suspension_in_the_Philippines">Suspension in the Philippines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Suspension in the Philippines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2011</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In response to continuing unrest, the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Commission" title="Philippine Commission">Philippine Commission</a> availed itself of an option in the <a href="/wiki/Philippine_Organic_Act_(1902)" title="Philippine Organic Act (1902)">Philippine Organic Act of 1902</a>, 32 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-32-692">692</a>, and on January 31, 1905, requested that <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_the_Philippines" title="Governor-General of the Philippines">Governor-General</a> <a href="/wiki/Luke_Edward_Wright" title="Luke Edward Wright">Luke Edward Wright</a> suspend the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. He did so the same day, and <i>habeas corpus</i> was suspended until he revoked his proclamation on October 15, 1905.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The suspension gave rise to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> case <i>Fisher v. Baker</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_203" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 203">203</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/203/174/">174</a> (1906). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habeas_corpus_during_World_War_II"><i>Habeas corpus</i> during World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Habeas corpus during World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Immediately following the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Hawaii" title="Governor of Hawaii">governor</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawaii Territory">Hawaii Territory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Poindexter" title="Joseph Poindexter">Joseph Poindexter</a>, at the specific request by Lieutenant General Walter Short, US Army, invoked the <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Organic_Act" title="Hawaiian Organic Act">Hawaiian Organic Act</a>, 31 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">Stat.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legislink.org/us/stat-31-141">141</a> (1900), suspended <i>habeas corpus</i>, and declared <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a>. Short was recalled to Washington, D.C. two weeks after the attack and subsequently Hawaii was governed by US Army Lieutenant Generals <a href="/wiki/Delos_Emmons" class="mw-redirect" title="Delos Emmons">Delos Emmons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_C._Richardson_Jr." title="Robert C. Richardson Jr.">Robert C. Richardson Jr.</a> for the remainder of the war. In <i><a href="/wiki/Duncan_v._Kahanamoku" title="Duncan v. Kahanamoku">Duncan v. Kahanamoku</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_327" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 327">327</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/327/304/">304</a> (1946), the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> held that the declaration of martial law did not permit the trial of civilians in military tribunals for offenses unrelated to the military (in this case, public drunkenness). </p><p>In 1942, eight German <a href="/wiki/Saboteurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Saboteurs">saboteurs</a>, including two U.S. citizens, who had secretly entered the United States to attack its civil infrastructure as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Pastorius" title="Operation Pastorius">Operation Pastorius</a>, were convicted by a secret <a href="/wiki/Military_tribunal" class="mw-redirect" title="Military tribunal">military tribunal</a> set up by President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>. In <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Quirin" title="Ex parte Quirin">Ex parte Quirin</a></i> (1942),<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the U.S. Supreme Court decided that the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> did not apply, and that the military tribunal had jurisdiction to try the saboteurs, due to their status as <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_combatant" title="Unlawful combatant">unlawful combatants</a>. </p><p>The period of martial law in Hawaii ended in October 1944. It was held in <i><a href="/wiki/Duncan_v._Kahanamoku" title="Duncan v. Kahanamoku">Duncan v. Kahanamoku</a></i> (1946)<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that, although the initial imposition of martial law in December 1941 may have been lawful, due to the Pearl Harbor attack and threat of imminent invasion, by 1944 the imminent threat had receded and civilian courts could again function in Hawaii. The Organic Act therefore did not authorize the military to continue to keep civilian courts closed. </p><p>After the end of the war, several German prisoners held in American-occupied Germany petitioned the District Court for the District of Columbia for a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. In <i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._Eisentrager" title="Johnson v. Eisentrager">Johnson v. Eisentrager</a></i> (1950),<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the U.S. Supreme Court decided that the American court system had no jurisdiction over German war criminals who had been captured in Germany, and had never entered U.S. soil. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antiterrorism_and_Effective_Death_Penalty_Act">Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1996, following the <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_City_bombing" title="Oklahoma City bombing">Oklahoma City bombing</a>, Congress passed (91–8 in the Senate, 293–133 in the House) and President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Clinton</a> signed into law the <a href="/wiki/Antiterrorism_and_Effective_Death_Penalty_Act_of_1996" title="Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996">Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996</a> (AEDPA). The AEDPA was intended to "deter terrorism, provide justice for victims, provide for an effective death penalty, and for other purposes." The AEDPA introduced one of the few limitations on <i>habeas corpus</i>. For the first time, its Section 101 set a <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">statute of limitations</a> of one year following conviction for prisoners to seek the writ. The Act limits the power of federal judges to grant relief unless the state court's adjudication of the claim has resulted in a decision that </p> <ol><li>Is contrary to, or has involved an unreasonable application of clearly established federal law as determined by the Supreme Court of the United States; or</li> <li>Has resulted in a decision that was based on an unreasonable determination of the facts in light of the evidence presented in the state court proceeding.</li></ol> <p>It barred second or successive petitions generally but with several exceptions. Petitioners who had already filed a federal <i>habeas</i> petition were required first to secure authorization from the appropriate United States Court of Appeals, to ensure that such an exception was at least facially made out. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habeas_corpus_in_the_21st_century"><i>Habeas corpus</i> in the 21st century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Habeas corpus in the 21st century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The November 23, 2001 <a href="/wiki/Detention,_Treatment,_and_Trial_of_Certain_Non-Citizens_in_the_War_Against_Terrorism" title="Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism">Presidential Military Order</a> purported to give the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> the power to detain non-citizens suspected of connection to terrorists or terrorism as <a href="/wiki/Enemy_combatants" class="mw-redirect" title="Enemy combatants">enemy combatants</a>. As such, that person could be held indefinitely, without charges being filed against him or her, without a court hearing, and without legal counsel. Many legal and constitutional scholars contended that these provisions were in direct opposition to <i>habeas corpus</i>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">United States Bill of Rights</a> and, indeed, in <i><a href="/wiki/Hamdi_v._Rumsfeld" title="Hamdi v. Rumsfeld">Hamdi v. Rumsfeld</a></i> (2004)<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the U.S. Supreme Court re-confirmed the right of every American citizen to access <i>habeas corpus</i> even when declared to be an enemy combatant. The Court affirmed the basic principle that <i>habeas corpus</i> could not be revoked in the case of a citizen. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Hamdan_v._Rumsfeld" title="Hamdan v. Rumsfeld">Hamdan v. Rumsfeld</a></i> (2006)<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Salim_Ahmed_Hamdan" class="mw-redirect" title="Salim Ahmed Hamdan">Salim Ahmed Hamdan</a> petitioned for a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>, challenging that the <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_military_commission" title="Guantanamo military commission">military commissions</a> set up by the <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="George W. Bush administration">Bush administration</a> to try <a href="/wiki/Guantanamo_Bay_detainment_camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Guantanamo Bay detainment camp">detainees at Guantanamo Bay</a> "violate both the <a href="/wiki/UCMJ" class="mw-redirect" title="UCMJ">UCMJ</a> and the four <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a>." In a 5-3 ruling the Court rejected Congress's attempts to strip the court of jurisdiction over <i>habeas corpus</i> appeals by detainees at Guantánamo Bay. Congress had previously passed the <a href="/wiki/Detainee_Treatment_Act" title="Detainee Treatment Act">Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2006</a> which stated in Section 1005(e), "Procedures for Status Review of Detainees Outside the United States": </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>(1) Except as provided in section 1005 of the <a href="/wiki/Detainee_Treatment_Act_of_2005" class="mw-redirect" title="Detainee Treatment Act of 2005">Detainee Treatment Act of 2005</a>, no court, justice, or judge shall have jurisdiction to hear or consider an application for a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i> filed by or on behalf of an alien detained by the Department of Defense at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. (2)The jurisdiction of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit on any claims with respect to an alien under this paragraph shall be limited to the consideration of whether the status determination ... was consistent with the standards and procedures specified by the Secretary of Defense for Combatant Status Review Tribunals (including the requirement that the conclusion of the Tribunal be supported by a preponderance of the evidence and allowing a rebuttable presumption in favor of the Government's evidence), and to the extent the Constitution and laws of the United States are applicable, whether the use of such standards and procedures to make the determination is consistent with the Constitution and laws of the United States.</p></blockquote> <p>On September 29, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._House" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. House">U.S. House</a> and Senate approved the <a href="/wiki/Military_Commissions_Act_of_2006" title="Military Commissions Act of 2006">Military Commissions Act of 2006</a>, a bill which suspended <i>habeas corpus</i> for any alien determined to be an "unlawful <a href="/wiki/Enemy_combatant" title="Enemy combatant">enemy combatant</a> engaged in hostilities or having supported hostilities against the United States"<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by a vote of 65–34. (This was the result on the bill to approve the military trials for detainees; an amendment to remove the suspension of <i>habeas corpus</i> failed 48–51.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) President Bush signed the Military Commissions Act of 2006 (MCA) into law on October 17, 2006. With the MCA's passage, the law altered the language from "alien detained ... at Guantanamo Bay": </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Except as provided in section 1005 of the Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, no court, justice, or judge shall have jurisdiction to hear or consider an application for a writ of habeas corpus filed by or on behalf of an alien detained by the United States who has been determined by the United States to have been properly detained as an enemy combatant or is awaiting such determination." §1005(e)(1), 119 Stat. 2742.</p></blockquote> <p>The Supreme Court ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Boumediene_v._Bush" title="Boumediene v. Bush">Boumediene v. Bush</a></i> that the MCA amounts to an unconstitutional encroachment on <i>habeas corpus</i> rights, and established jurisdiction for federal courts to hear petitions for <i>habeas corpus</i> from Guantanamo detainees tried under the Act.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the MCA, the law restricted <i>habeas</i> appeals for only those aliens detained as enemy combatants, or awaiting such determination. Left unchanged was the provision that, after such determination is made, it is subject to appeal in federal courts, including a review of whether the evidence warrants the determination. If the status was upheld, then their imprisonment was deemed lawful; if not, then the government could change the prisoner's status to something else, at which point the <i>habeas</i> restrictions no longer applied. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/40px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/60px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/80px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikinews has related news: <div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/President_Bush_signed_into_law_the_Military_Commissions_Act_of_2006" class="extiw" title="wikinews:President Bush signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006"> President Bush signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006</a></li></ul></div></div></div> </div> <p>There is, however, no legal time limit which would force the government to provide a Combatant Status Review Tribunal hearing. Prisoners were, but are no longer, legally prohibited from petitioning any court for any reason before a CSRT hearing takes place. </p><p>In January 2007, <a href="/wiki/Attorney_General_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Attorney General of the United States">Attorney General</a> <a href="/wiki/Alberto_Gonzales" title="Alberto Gonzales">Alberto Gonzales</a> told the <a href="/wiki/Senate_Judiciary_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate Judiciary Committee">Senate Judiciary Committee</a> that in his opinion: "There is no express grant of <i>habeas</i> in the Constitution. There's a prohibition against taking it away." He was challenged by Sen. <a href="/wiki/Arlen_Specter" title="Arlen Specter">Arlen Specter</a> who asked him to explain how it is possible to prohibit something from being taken away, without first being granted.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Robert Parry wrote in the Baltimore Chronicle & Sentinel: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Applying Gonzales's reasoning, one could argue that the First Amendment doesn't explicitly say Americans have the right to worship as they choose, speak as they wish or assemble peacefully. Ironically, Gonzales may be wrong in another way about the lack of specificity in the Constitution's granting of <i>habeas corpus</i> rights. Many of the legal features attributed to <i>habeas corpus</i> are delineated in a positive way in the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Sixth Amendment</a> ...<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The Department of Justice in the George W. Bush administration took the position in litigation that the Military Commissions Act of 2006 does not amount to a suspension of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. The U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit agreed in a 2-1 decision,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on February 20, 2007,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which the U.S. Supreme Court initially declined to review. The U.S. Supreme Court then reversed its decision to deny review and took up the case in June 2007. In June 2008, the court ruled 5-4 that the act did suspend <i>habeas</i> and found it unconstitutional.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On June 11, 2007, a federal appeals court ruled that <a href="/wiki/Ali_Saleh_Kahlah_al-Marri" title="Ali Saleh Kahlah al-Marri">Ali Saleh Kahlah al-Marri</a>, a legal resident of the United States, could not be detained indefinitely without charge. In a two-to-one ruling by the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fourth_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit">U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit</a>, the Court held the President of the United States lacks legal authority to detain al-Marri without charge; all three judges ruled that al-Marri is entitled to traditional <i>habeas corpus</i> protections which give him the right to challenge his detainment in a U.S. Court. In July 2008, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fourth_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit">U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit</a> ruled that "if properly designated an enemy combatant pursuant to the legal authority of the President, such persons may be detained without charge or criminal proceedings for the duration of the relevant hostilities."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Restoration_Act_of_2007" title="Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007">Habeas Corpus Restoration Act of 2007</a> failed to overcome a Republican filibuster in the United States Senate in September, 2007. </p><p>On October 7, 2008, U.S. District Judge <a href="/wiki/Ricardo_M._Urbina" title="Ricardo M. Urbina">Ricardo M. Urbina</a> ruled that 17 <a href="/wiki/Uyghur_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Uyghur people">Uyghurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Muslims</a> from China's northwestern <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a> region, must be brought to appear in his court in Washington, DC, three days later: "Because the Constitution prohibits indefinite detentions without cause, the continued detention is unlawful."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On January 21, 2009, President Barack Obama issued an executive order regarding the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base and the individuals held there. This order stated that the detainees "have the constitutional privilege of the writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:40%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>"When [U.S. citizens accused of supporting terrorism] say, 'I want my lawyer,' you tell them: 'Shut up. You don't get a lawyer. You are an enemy combatant, and we are going to talk to you about why you joined Al Qaeda.'" </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">– <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senator</a> <a href="/wiki/Lindsey_Graham" title="Lindsey Graham">Lindsey Graham</a>, 2011, to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>Following the December 1, 2011, vote by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> to reject an <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Authorization_Act_for_Fiscal_Year_2012" title="National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2012">NDAA</a> amendment proscribing the <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_detention_without_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Indefinite detention without trial">indefinite detention</a> of U.S. citizens, the <a href="/wiki/ACLU" class="mw-redirect" title="ACLU">ACLU</a> has argued that the legitimacy of <i>Habeas Corpus</i> is threatened: "The Senate voted 38-60 to reject an important amendment [that] would have removed harmful provisions authorizing the U.S. military to pick up and imprison without charge or trial civilians, including American citizens, anywhere in the world... We're disappointed that, despite robust opposition to the harmful detention legislation from virtually the entire national security leadership of the government, the Senate said 'no' to the Udall amendment and 'yes' to indefinite detention without charge or trial."<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> has stated that the vote leaves the constitutional rights of U.S. citizens "ambiguous," with some senators including <a href="/wiki/Carl_Levin" title="Carl Levin">Carl Levin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lindsey_Graham" title="Lindsey Graham">Lindsey Graham</a> arguing that the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> had already approved holding Americans as enemy combatants, and other senators, including <a href="/wiki/Dianne_Feinstein" title="Dianne Feinstein">Dianne Feinstein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dick_Durbin" title="Dick Durbin">Richard Durbin</a>, asserting the opposite.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On March 20, 2015, a <a href="/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court" title="New York Supreme Court">New York Supreme Court</a> justice issued an order to "show cause & writ of <i>habeas corpus"</i> in a proceeding on behalf of two <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> used in research at <a href="/wiki/Stony_Brook_University" title="Stony Brook University">Stony Brook University</a>. The justice, Barbara Jaffe, amended her order later in the day by striking the reference to <i>habeas corpus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2020s">2020s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 2020s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the <i><a href="/wiki/American_Bar_Association_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="American Bar Association Journal">American Bar Association Journal</a></i>, <i>habeas corpus</i> was "effectively eliminated" in 2022 after a 6-3 majority led by Justice <a href="/wiki/Neil_Gorsuch" title="Neil Gorsuch">Neil Gorsuch</a> ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Davenport" title="Brown v. Davenport">Brown v. Davenport</a></i> that it could only be used to challenge convictions made in which the court did not hold jurisdiction, and that it "could not use it to challenge a final judgment of conviction issued by a court of competent jurisdiction".<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was built upon in 2023 when a 6-3 majority led by <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> ruled in <i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Hendrix" title="Jones v. Hendrix">Jones v. Hendrix</a></i> that a prisoner being convicted of an act which is not a crime, and thus being legally innocent, is not sufficient cause to file an appeal under <i>habeas corpus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Differences_in_post-trial_actions">Differences in post-trial actions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Differences in post-trial actions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Habeas corpus</i> is an action often taken after sentencing by a defendant who seeks relief for some perceived error in his criminal trial. There are a number of such post-trial actions and proceedings, their differences being potentially confusing, thus bearing some explanation. Some of the most common are an appeal to which the defendant has as a right, a <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_certiorari" class="mw-redirect" title="Writ of certiorari">writ of certiorari</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Writ_of_coram_nobis" class="mw-redirect" title="Writ of coram nobis">writ of coram nobis</a> and a writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>. </p><p>An appeal to which the defendant has a right cannot be abridged by the court which is, by designation of its jurisdiction, obligated to hear the appeal. In such an appeal, the appellant feels that some error has been made in his trial, necessitating an appeal. A matter of importance is the basis on which such an appeal might be filed: generally appeals as a matter of right may only address issues which were originally raised in trial (as evidenced by documentation in the official record). Any issue not raised in the original trial may not be considered on appeal and will be considered waived via <a href="/wiki/Estoppel" title="Estoppel">estoppel</a>. A convenient test for whether a petition is likely to succeed on the grounds of error is confirming that </p> <ol><li>a mistake was indeed made</li> <li>an objection to that mistake was presented by counsel and</li> <li>that mistake negatively affected the defendant's trial.</li></ol> <p>A writ of certiorari, otherwise known simply as cert, is an order by a higher court directing a lower court to send record of a case for review, and is the next logical step in post-trial procedure. While states may have similar processes, a writ of cert is usually only issued, in the United States, by the Supreme Court, although some states retain this procedure. Unlike the aforementioned appeal, a writ of cert is not a matter of right. A writ of cert will have to be petitioned for, the higher court issuing such writs on limited bases according to constraints such as time. In another sense, a writ of cert is like an appeal in its constraints; it too may only seek relief on grounds raised in the original trial. </p><p>A petition for a writ of error <a href="/wiki/Coram_nobis" title="Coram nobis">coram nobis</a> or error coram vobis challenges a final judgment in a criminal proceeding. Use of this type of petition varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but is usually limited to situations where it was not possible to raise this issue earlier on direct appeal. These petitions focus on issues outside the original premises of the trial, i.e., issues that require new evidence or those that could not otherwise be raised by direct appeal or writs of cert.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These often fall in two logical categories: (1) that the trial lawyer was ineffectual or incompetent or (2) that some constitutional right has been violated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Federal_habeas_corpus_statistics">Federal <i>habeas corpus</i> statistics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Federal habeas corpus statistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Number_of_cases">Number of cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Number of cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2004, there were about 19,000 non-capital federal <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions filed and there were about 210 capital federal <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions filed in U.S. District Court. The vast majority of these were from state prisoners, not from those held in federal prisons. There are about 60 <i>habeas corpus</i> cases filed in the U.S. Supreme Court's original jurisdiction each year. The U.S. Courts of Appeal do not have original jurisdiction over <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_of_cases_in_which_petitions_are_filed">Types of cases in which petitions are filed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Types of cases in which petitions are filed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1992, less than 1% of federal <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions involved <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death penalty</a> sentences, although 21% involved life sentences. At that time about 23% had been convicted of homicide, about 39% had been convicted of other serious violent crimes, about 27% had been convicted of serious non-violent crimes, and about 12% were convicted of other offenses. These are almost exclusively state offenses and thus petitions filed by state prisoners. </p><p>Exhaustion of state-court remedies often takes five to ten years after a conviction, so only state prisoners facing longer prison sentences are able to avail themselves of federal <i>habeas corpus</i> rights without facing a summary dismissal for failure to exhaust state remedies. The lack of state remedies to exhaust also means that the timeline for federal death penalty <i>habeas</i> review is much shorter than the timeline for state death penalty <i>habeas</i> review (which can take decades).<sup id="cite_ref-Gregory2_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gregory2-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2004, the percentage of federal <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions involving state death sentences was still about 1% of the total. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Success_rates">Success rates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Success rates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>About 63% of issues raised in <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions by state court prisoners are dismissed on procedural grounds at the U.S. District Court level, and about 35% of those issues are dismissed based on the allegations in the petition <a href="/wiki/Merit_(law)" title="Merit (law)">on the merits</a> (on the merits has a different meaning than what it's used for here). About 2% are either "remanded" to a state court for further proceedings (which poses an interesting problem of <a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">federalism</a> – the federal court usually issues a writ to the state prison to release the prisoner, but only if the state court does not hold a certain proceeding within a certain time), or, far less frequently, resolved favorably to the prisoner on the merits outright. About 57% of <i>habeas corpus</i> issues dismissed on procedural grounds in 1992 were dismissed for a failure to exhaust state remedies. </p><p>Success rates are not uniform, however. James Liebman, Professor of Law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case that there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabek in a law review article puts the success rate in <i>habeas corpus</i> cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47% of the <i>habeas</i> petitions filed by death row inmates were granted."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most <i>habeas corpus</i> petitioners in death penalty cases are represented by attorneys, but most <i>habeas corpus</i> petitioners in non-death penalty cases represent themselves. This is because federal funds are not available to non-capital state <i>habeas</i> petitioners to pay for attorneys unless there is good cause, there being no federal right to counsel in such matters. However, in state capital cases, the federal government provides funding for the representation of all capital <i>habeas</i> petitioners. </p><p>Thus, about 20% of successful <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions involve death penalty cases. </p><p>These success rates predate major revisions in <i>habeas corpus</i> law that restricted the availability of federal <i>habeas corpus</i> relief when AEDPA was adopted in 1996, over a decade ago. Post-AEDPA, the great disparity in success rates remains, however, with the federal courts' overturning of state capital cases a major reason that many states have been unable to carry out a majority of capital sentences imposed and have long backlog lists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disposition_time">Disposition time</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Disposition time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The time required to adjudicate <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions varies greatly based upon factors including the number of issues raised, whether the adjudication is on procedural grounds or on the merits, and the nature of the claims raised. </p><p>In 1992, U.S. District Courts took an average of two and a half years to adjudicate <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions in death penalty cases raising multiple issues that were resolved on the merits, about half of that time-length for other multiple issue homicide cases, and about nine months in cases resolved on procedural grounds. </p><p>AEDPA was designed to reduce the disposition times of federal <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions. But AEDPA has little impact in non-capital cases, where a majority of cases are dismissed on procedural grounds, very few prisoners prevail and most prisoners are not represented by attorneys. The disposition time in capital cases has actually increased 250% from the time of AEDPA's passage to 2004. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Filing_rates">Filing rates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Filing rates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1991, the average number of federal <i>habeas</i> corpus petitions filed in the United States was 14 per 1,000 people in state prison, but this ranged greatly from state to state from a low of 4 per 1,000 in Rhode Island to a high of 37 per 1,000 in Missouri. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Antiterrorism_and_Effective_Death_Penalty_Act_of_1996" title="Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996">Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996</a> (AEDPA) produced a brief surge in the number of <i>habeas corpus</i> filings by state prisoners, as deadlines imposed by the act encouraged prisoners to file sooner than they might have otherwise done so, but this had run its course by 2000, and by 2004, <i>habeas corpus</i> petition filing rates per 1,000 prisoners was similar to pre-AEDPA filing rates. </p><p>There was a temporary surge in <i>habeas corpus</i> petitions filed by federal prisoners in 2005 as a result of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Booker" title="United States v. Booker"><i>Booker</i> decision</a> by the U.S. Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gregory-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gregory_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGregory2013" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, Anthony (April 15, 2013). <i>The Power of Habeas Corpus in America</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03643-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03643-7"><bdi>978-1-107-03643-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+of+Habeas+Corpus+in+America&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013-04-15&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03643-7&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabeas+corpus+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200616104501/https://www.nytimes.com/1861/06/02/archives/suspension-of-the-habeas-corpus.html">Suspension of the Habeas Corpus.</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, June 2, 1861</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_820.asp">Madison Debates</a>, August 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://npshistory.com/publications/chpi/hrs.pdf">Charles Pinckney National Historic Site</a>, Historic Resource Study, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.du.edu/documents/denver-university-law-review/v86-3/Falkoff.pdf">BACK TO BASICS:HABEAS CORPUS PROCEDURES AND LONG-TERM EXECUTIVE DETENTION</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_828.asp">"Avalon Project - Madison Debates - August 28"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Avalon+Project+-+Madison+Debates+-+August+28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F18th_century%2Fdebates_828.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabeas+corpus+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xrjQR-UOLsIC&pg=PA551">The Constitutional History of the United States</a>, Volume 1, by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Newton_Thorpe" title="Francis Newton Thorpe">Francis Newton Thorpe</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chemerinsky" title="Erwin Chemerinsky">Erwin Chemerinsky</a>, Federal Jurisdiction, Section 15.2 (5th ed. 2007)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=search&case=/data2/circs/9th/9836073.html">"Duhaime v. Ducharme"</a>. <i>FindLaw</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FindLaw&rft.atitle=Duhaime+v.+Ducharme&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2Fscripts%2Fgetcase.pl%3Fnavby%3Dsearch%26case%3D%2Fdata2%2Fcircs%2F9th%2F9836073.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabeas+corpus+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">533 U.S. 289 (2001)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">553 U.S. 723 (2008)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">§1252(2)(D)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scotusblog.com/2020/03/opinion-analysis-court-sides-with-immigrants-on-availability-of-judicial-review-of-removal-orders/">"Opinion analysis: Court sides with immigrants on availability of judicial review of removal orders"</a>. <i>SCOTUS Blog</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 6,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SCOTUS+Blog&rft.atitle=Opinion+analysis%3A+Court+sides+with+immigrants+on+availability+of+judicial+review+of+removal+orders&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotusblog.com%2F2020%2F03%2Fopinion-analysis-court-sides-with-immigrants-on-availability-of-judicial-review-of-removal-orders%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabeas+corpus+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=000&invol=01-687">"FindLaw - Cases and Codes"</a>. <i>findlaw.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=findlaw.com&rft.atitle=FindLaw+-+Cases+and+Codes&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2Fscripts%2Fgetcase.pl%3Fcourt%3DUS%26vol%3D000%26invol%3D01-687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabeas+corpus+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/2254">§ 2254</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">316 U.S. 101 (1942)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/2241">§ 2241</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080111110628/http://teachingamericanhistorymd.net/000001/000000/000017/html/t17.html">"Teaching American History in Maryland – Documents for the Classroom: <i>Arrest of the Maryland Legislature, 1861</i>"</a>. Maryland State Archives. 2005. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://teachingamericanhistorymd.net/000001/000000/000017/html/t17.html">the original</a> on January 11, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 6,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Teaching+American+History+in+Maryland+%E2%80%93+Documents+for+the+Classroom%3A+Arrest+of+the+Maryland+Legislature%2C+1861&rft.pub=Maryland+State+Archives&rft.date=2005&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteachingamericanhistorymd.net%2F000001%2F000000%2F000017%2Fhtml%2Ft17.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabeas+corpus+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goodwin, Doris Kearns <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Team-Rivals-Political-Abraham-Lincoln/dp/0743270754">Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln</a></i> (2005) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-82490-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-82490-6">0-684-82490-6</a> p.354-355</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Neely, p.7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Clarke Sellery, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rQfnAAAAMAAJ&dq=George%20Clarke%20Sellery%2C%20Lincoln's%20suspension%20of%20habeas%20corpus%20as%20viewed%20by%20Congress&pg=PP1">Lincoln's suspension of habeas corpus as viewed by Congress</a></i> (Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1907), 11–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-baltimoresun.com-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-baltimoresun.com_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-baltimoresun.com_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.baltimoresun.com/2001/11/27/a-time-liberties-werent-priority/">"A time liberties weren't priority"</a>. <i>tribunedigital-baltimoresun</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=tribunedigital-baltimoresun&rft.atitle=A+time+liberties+weren%27t+priority&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baltimoresun.com%2F2001%2F11%2F27%2Fa-time-liberties-werent-priority%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabeas+corpus+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">17 F. Cas. 144 (C.C.D. Md. 1861)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Goodwin, p. 355</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward1863" class="citation book cs1">Howard, F. K. (Frank Key) (1863). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fourteenmonthsin00inhowa"><i>Fourteen Months in American Bastiles</i></a>. London: H.F. Mackintosh<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 18,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fourteen+Months+in+American+Bastiles&rft.place=London&rft.pub=H.F.+Mackintosh&rft.date=1863&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=F.+K.+%28Frank+Key%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffourteenmonthsin00inhowa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabeas+corpus+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Globe">Congressional Globe</a></i>, Thirty-Seventh Congress, First Session (1861), pp. 40–50, 64–71, 127, 137–144, 177, 180, 208, 217, 220, 234–235, 288–297, 332–336, 391–395, 451–454.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Globe">Congressional Globe</a></i>, Thirty-Seventh Congress, First Session (1861), pp. 336–343, 364, 372–382.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William C. Harris, <i>Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union</i> (University Press of Kansas, 2011) p. 71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Amnesty_to_Political_or_State_Prisoners" class="extiw" title="s:Amnesty to Political or State Prisoners"><i>Amnesty to Political or State Prisoners</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Proclamation_94" class="extiw" title="s:Proclamation 94"><i>Proclamation 94</i></a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Globe">Congressional Globe</a></i>, Thirty-Seventh Congress, Third Session (1862–63), pp. 14, 20–22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Globe">Congressional Globe</a></i>, Thirty-Seventh Congress, Third Session (1862–63), pp. 529–554.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Congressional Globe">Congressional Globe</a></i>, Thirty-Seventh Congress, Third Session (1862–63), pp. 1354–1358, 1435–1438, 1459–1479, 1489–1494, 1532.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pub. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uscourts.gov/Press_Releases/caseload031307.html">the original</a> on July 5, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=uscourts.gov&rft.atitle=Page+Not+Found&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uscourts.gov%2FPress_Releases%2Fcaseload031307.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHabeas+corpus+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite uses generic title (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_title" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Wert Justin J. <i>Habeas Corpus in America: The Politics of Individual Rights</i> (University Press of Kansas; 2011) 296 pages; how presidents, Congress, interest groups, legal scholars, and others have shaped it.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Habeas_corpus_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Habeas corpus in the United States">Habeas corpus in the United States</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060905000247/http://tides.sfasu.edu/AN18/SHHIV_40.php?culture=2&chrono=5&index=0">Petition for Habeas Corpus April 16, 1843</a> From <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060822022222/http://tides.sfasu.edu/">Texas 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