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aria-controls="toc-Later_work-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Later work subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Later_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lamb_shift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lamb_shift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Lamb shift </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lamb_shift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astrophysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astrophysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Astrophysics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astrophysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_stances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_stances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Political stances </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_stances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Personal life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honors_and_awards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honors_and_awards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Honors and awards </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honors_and_awards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Selected publications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Hans Bethe</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" > 86 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%87" title="هانز بيته – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="هانز بيته" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87" title="هانس بته – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="هانس بته" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87" title="হান্স বেটে – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হান্স বেটে" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81_%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%85%D1%82_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8D" title="Ханс Альбрэхт Бетэ – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ханс Альбрэхт Бетэ" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Ханс Бете – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ханс Бете" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe" title="Hans Albrecht Bethe – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hans Albrecht Bethe" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%82_%CE%9C%CF%80%CE%AD%CF%84%CE%B5" title="Χανς Μπέτε – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χανς Μπέτε" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe" title="Hans Albrecht Bethe – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hans Albrecht Bethe" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%87" title="هانس بیته – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هانس بیته" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%9C%EC%8A%A4_%EB%B2%A0%ED%85%8C" title="한스 베테 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="한스 베테" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BD_%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A5" title="Հանս Բետե – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հանս Բետե" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%87" title="हांस बेथे – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हांस बेथे" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe" title="Hans Albrecht Bethe – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hans Albrecht Bethe" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe" title="Hans Albrecht Bethe – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Hans Albrecht Bethe" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%A1_%D7%91%D7%AA%D7%94" title="הנס בתה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הנס בתה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%94" title="ჰანს ბეთე – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჰანს ბეთე" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81_%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D1%82_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Ханс Альбрехт Бете – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ханс Альбрехт Бете" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe" title="Hans Albrecht Bethe – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Hans Albrecht Bethe" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannes_Bethe" title="Ioannes Bethe – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ioannes Bethe" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanss_B%C4%93te" title="Hanss Bēte – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Hanss Bēte" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe" title="Hans Albrecht Bethe – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hans Albrecht Bethe" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Ханс Бете – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ханс Бете" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AC%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%86" title="ഹാൻസ് ബെതെ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഹാൻസ് ബെതെ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A5" title="हान्स बेथ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="हान्स बेथ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%94" title="ჰანს ბეთე – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჰანს ბეთე" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%A7" title="هانز بيتا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="هانز بيتا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%AA%D9%87" title="هانس بته – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="هانس بته" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%87" title="हान्स बेथे – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="हान्स बेथे" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%8F%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%99%E3%83%BC%E3%83%86" title="ハンス・ベーテ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ハンス・ベーテ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B8_%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%A5" title="ਹੰਸ ਬੇਥ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਹੰਸ ਬੇਥ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B2_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AA%DA%BE%DB%92" title="ہانز بیتھے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہانز بیتھے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe" title="Hans Albrecht Bethe – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Hans Albrecht Bethe" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5,_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81" title="Бете, Ханс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бете, Ханс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%87" title="हान्स बेथे – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="हान्स बेथे" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe" title="Hans Albrecht Bethe – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hans Albrecht Bethe" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Ханс Бете – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ханс Бете" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81" title="அன்சு பேத்து – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அன்சு பேத்து" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD" title="ฮันส์ เบเทอ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฮันส์ เบเทอ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Ҳанс Бете – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ҳанс Бете" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81_%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Ганс Бете – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ганс Бете" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%AA%DA%BE" title="ہنس بیتھ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہنس بیتھ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target">Volapük</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%B4%9D%E7%89%B9" title="汉斯·贝特 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="汉斯·贝特" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Hans Bethe" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%BC%A2%E6%96%AF%E8%B2%9D%E7%89%B9" title="漢斯貝特 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="漢斯貝特" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B1%89%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E8%B4%9D%E7%89%B9" title="汉斯·贝特 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="汉斯·贝特" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Hans Bethe</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_Member_of_the_Royal_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Member of the Royal Society">ForMemRS</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Bethe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hans_Bethe.jpg/220px-Hans_Bethe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hans_Bethe.jpg/330px-Hans_Bethe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Hans_Bethe.jpg/440px-Hans_Bethe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="730" data-file-height="913" /></a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Hans Albrecht Bethe</div> (1906-07-02)July 2, 1906 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Stra%C3%9Fburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Straßburg">Straßburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alsace%E2%80%93Lorraine" title="Alsace–Lorraine">Alsace–Lorraine</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">March 6, 2005(2005-03-06) (aged 98) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category">Germany United States (1941–2005)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_Goethe_University_Frankfurt_am_Main" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main">University of Frankfurt</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Munich" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Munich">University of Munich</a> (<a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bethe_ansatz" title="Bethe ansatz">Bethe ansatz</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bethe_formula" title="Bethe formula">Bethe formula</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bethe_lattice" title="Bethe lattice">Bethe lattice</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bethe%E2%80%93Slater_curve" title="Bethe–Slater curve">Bethe–Slater curve</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bethe%E2%80%93Salpeter_equation" title="Bethe–Salpeter equation">Bethe–Salpeter equation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bethe%E2%80%93Feynman_formula" title="Bethe–Feynman formula">Bethe–Feynman formula</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bethe%E2%80%93Weizs%C3%A4cker_formula" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethe–Weizsäcker formula">Bethe–Weizsäcker formula</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Bethe%E2%80%93Weizs%C3%A4cker_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethe–Weizsäcker process">Bethe–Weizsäcker process</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mott%E2%80%93Bethe_formula" title="Mott–Bethe formula">Mott–Bethe formula</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_perturbation_theory" title="Cavity perturbation theory">Cavity perturbation theory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_field_theory" title="Crystal field theory">Crystal field theory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Double_group" title="Double group">Double group</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar nucleosynthesis</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Rose Ewald</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1939)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Draper_Medal" title="Henry Draper Medal">Henry Draper Medal</a> (1947)</li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1957" title="List of fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1957">ForMemRS (1957)</a><a href="#cite_note-frs-1">[1]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Medal" title="Franklin Medal">Franklin Medal</a> (1959)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Eddington_Medal" title="Eddington Medal">Eddington Medal</a> (1961)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Award" title="Enrico Fermi Award">Enrico Fermi Award</a> (1961)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Rumford_Prize" title="Rumford Prize">Rumford Prize</a> (1963)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> (1967)</li><li><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> (1975)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Lomonosov_Gold_Medal" title="Lomonosov Gold Medal">Lomonosov Gold Medal</a> (1989)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Oersted_Medal" title="Oersted Medal">Oersted Medal</a> (1993)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Medal" title="Bruce Medal">Bruce Medal</a> (2001)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Medal_(American_Philosophical_Society)" title="Benjamin Franklin Medal (American Philosophical Society)">Benjamin Franklin Medal</a> (2005)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a> <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical physics">Theoretical physics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen" title="University of Tübingen">University of Tübingen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Bristol" title="University of Bristol">University of Bristol</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldcat.org/en/title/793769538">Theorie der Beugung von Elektronen an Kristallen</a> (1928)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Doctoral students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Baranger" title="Michel Baranger">Michel Baranger</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/David_Breed_Beard" title="David Breed Beard">David Breed Beard</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hildred_Blewett" title="Hildred Blewett">Hildred Blewett</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_A._Carruthers" title="Peter A. Carruthers">Peter A. Carruthers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ajoy_Ghatak" title="Ajoy Ghatak">Ajoy Ghatak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Goldstone" title="Jeffrey Goldstone">Jeffrey Goldstone</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jackiw" title="Roman Jackiw">Roman Jackiw</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_E._Low" title="Francis E. Low">Francis E. Low</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Eugene_Marshak" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Eugene Marshak">Robert Eugene Marshak</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Walter_McAfee" title="Walter McAfee">Walter McAfee</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Boyce_McDaniel" title="Boyce McDaniel">Boyce McDaniel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Asoke_Nath_Mitra" title="Asoke Nath Mitra">Asoke Nath Mitra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Nauenberg" title="Michael Nauenberg">Michael Nauenberg</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_W._Negele" title="John W. Negele">John W. Negele</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Nelkin" title="Mark Nelkin">Mark Nelkin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ramamurti_Rajaraman" title="Ramamurti Rajaraman">Ramamurti Rajaraman</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Sakurai" title="J. J. Sakurai">J. J. Sakurai</a></li><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gordon_Shaw&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gordon Shaw (page does not exist)">Gordon Shaw</a> [<a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Shaw" class="extiw" title="it:Gordon Shaw">it</a>]</li><li><a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Thouless">David J. Thouless</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Bethe_(signature).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Hans_Bethe_%28signature%29.jpg/150px-Hans_Bethe_%28signature%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Hans_Bethe_%28signature%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="202" data-file-height="56" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> Hans Albrecht Bethe (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈbɛθə/</a>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>German: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[ˈhans ˈbeːtə]</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/f\/f2\/De-Hans_Bethe.ogg\/De-Hans_Bethe.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"De-Hans Bethe.ogg"},"classes":["noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/De-Hans_Bethe.ogg/De-Hans_Bethe.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:De-Hans_Bethe.ogg" title="File:De-Hans Bethe.ogg">ⓘ</a>; July 2, 1906 – March 6, 2005) was a German-American <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> who made major contributions to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physics" title="Solid-state physics">solid-state physics</a>, and received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1967 for his work on the theory of <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar nucleosynthesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-frs-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> For most of his career, Bethe was a professor at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Keck1947-5">[5]</a> In 1939, Bethe published a paper which established the <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a> as the primary energy source for heavier stars in the <a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">main sequence</a> classification of stars, which earned him a Nobel Prize in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Bethe was head of the Theoretical Division at the secret <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a> that <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">developed</a> the first <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bombs</a>. There he played a key role in calculating the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass_(nuclear)" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical mass (nuclear)">critical mass</a> of the weapons and developing the theory behind the <a href="/wiki/Implosion-type_nuclear_weapon" class="mw-redirect" title="Implosion-type nuclear weapon">implosion method</a> used in both the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity test</a> and the "<a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a>" weapon <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">dropped on Nagasaki in August 1945</a>. After the war, Bethe played an important role in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a>, as he also served as the head of the theoretical division for the project, although he had originally joined the project with the hope of proving it could not be made.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> He later campaigned with <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Committee_of_Atomic_Scientists" title="Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists">Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists</a> against <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear testing</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">nuclear arms race</a>. He helped persuade the <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy administration">Kennedy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nixon_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Nixon administration">Nixon administrations</a> to sign, respectively, the 1963 <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a> and 1972 <a href="/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty" title="Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty">Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty</a> (<a href="/wiki/SALT_I" class="mw-redirect" title="SALT I">SALT I</a>). In 1947, he wrote an important paper which provided the calculation of the <a href="/wiki/Lamb_shift" title="Lamb shift">Lamb shift</a>, which is credited with revolutionizing quantum electrodynamics and further "opened the way to the modern era of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Bethe_1947-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006118,_161-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-10">[10]</a> He contributed to the understanding of <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrinos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> and was key in the solving of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem" title="Solar neutrino problem">solar neutrino problem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> He contributed to the understanding of <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovas</a> and their processes.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> His scientific research never ceased and he was publishing papers well into his nineties, making him one of the few scientists to have published at least one major paper in his field during every decade of his career, which in Bethe's case spanned nearly seventy years. Physicist <a href="/wiki/Freeman_Dyson" title="Freeman Dyson">Freeman Dyson</a>, once his doctoral student, called him "the supreme problem-solver of the 20th century",<a href="#cite_note-Wark2007-14">[14]</a> and cosmologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Kolb" title="Edward Kolb">Edward Kolb</a> called him "the last of the old masters" of physics.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life">edit</a>]</div> Bethe was born in <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>, which at the time was part of the <a href="/wiki/Reichsland_Elsa%C3%9F-Lothringen" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen">Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, on July 2, 1906, the only child of Anna (née Kuhn) and Albrecht Bethe, a <a href="/wiki/Privatdozent" title="Privatdozent">Privatdozent</a> of physiology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Strasbourg" title="University of Strasbourg">University of Strasbourg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein19807-16">[16]</a> Although his mother, the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Kuhn" title="Abraham Kuhn">Abraham Kuhn</a>, professor at the University of Strasbourg, had a <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> background,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein19808-17">[17]</a> Bethe was raised <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a>, like his father;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber201232–34-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> and he became an <a href="/wiki/Atheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Atheist">atheist</a> later in life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrian2001117-20">[20]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Bethe,_aged_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Hans_Bethe%2C_aged_12.jpg/220px-Hans_Bethe%2C_aged_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Hans_Bethe%2C_aged_12.jpg/330px-Hans_Bethe%2C_aged_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Hans_Bethe%2C_aged_12.jpg/440px-Hans_Bethe%2C_aged_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption>Hans Bethe, aged 12, with his parents</figcaption></figure> His father accepted a position as professor and director of the Institute of Physiology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Kiel" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Kiel">University of Kiel</a> in 1912, and the family moved into the director's apartment at the institute. Initially, he was schooled privately by a professional teacher as part of a group of eight girls and boys.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber201230–31-21">[21]</a> The family moved again in 1915 when his father became the head of the new Institute of Physiology at the <a href="/wiki/Goethe_University_Frankfurt" title="Goethe University Frankfurt">Goethe University Frankfurt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber201232–34-18">[18]</a> Bethe attended the <a href="/wiki/Goethe-Gymnasium,_Frankfurt" title="Goethe-Gymnasium, Frankfurt">Goethe-Gymnasium</a> in <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt" title="Frankfurt">Frankfurt</a>, Germany. His education was interrupted in 1916, when he contracted <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, and he was sent to <a href="/wiki/Bad_Kreuznach" title="Bad Kreuznach">Bad Kreuznach</a> to recuperate. By 1917, he had recovered sufficiently to attend the local <a href="/wiki/Realschule" class="mw-redirect" title="Realschule">Realschule</a> and the following year, he was sent to the <a href="/wiki/Odenwaldschule" title="Odenwaldschule">Odenwaldschule</a>, a private, coeducational <a href="/wiki/Boarding_school" title="Boarding school">boarding school</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber201236–40-22">[22]</a> He attended the Goethe-Gymnasium again for his final three years of secondary schooling, from 1922 to 1924.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber201245-23">[23]</a> Having passed his <a href="/wiki/Abitur" title="Abitur">Abitur</a>, Bethe entered the University of Frankfurt in 1924. He decided to major in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>. The instruction in physics was poor, and while there were distinguished mathematicians in Frankfurt such as <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ludwig_Siegel" title="Carl Ludwig Siegel">Carl Ludwig Siegel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Sz%C3%A1sz" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Szász">Otto Szász</a>, Bethe disliked their approaches, which presented mathematics without reference to the other sciences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198011–12-24">[24]</a> Bethe found that he was a poor experimentalist who destroyed his lab coat by spilling <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> on it, but he found the advanced physics taught by the associate professor, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Gerlach" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Gerlach">Walter Gerlach</a>, more interesting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198011–12-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber201270–73-25">[25]</a> Gerlach left in 1925 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Meissner" title="Karl Meissner">Karl Meissner</a>, who advised Bethe that he should go to a university with a better school of theoretical physics, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">University of Munich</a>, where he could study under <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Sommerfeld" title="Arnold Sommerfeld">Arnold Sommerfeld</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198013-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber201293-27">[27]</a> Bethe entered the University of Munich in April 1926, where Sommerfeld took him on as a student on Meissner's recommendation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012118–119-28">[28]</a> Sommerfeld taught an advanced course on differential equations in physics, which Bethe enjoyed. Because he was such a renowned scholar, Sommerfeld frequently received advance copies of scientific papers, which he put up for discussion at weekly evening seminars. When Bethe arrived, Sommerfeld had just received <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a>'s papers on <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">wave mechanics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198015–16-29">[29]</a> For his <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a> thesis, Sommerfeld suggested that Bethe examine <a href="/wiki/Electron_diffraction" title="Electron diffraction">electron diffraction</a> in <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a>. As a starting point, Sommerfeld suggested <a href="/wiki/Paul_Peter_Ewald" title="Paul Peter Ewald">Paul Ewald</a>'s 1914 paper on <a href="/wiki/X-ray_diffraction" title="X-ray diffraction">X-ray diffraction</a> in crystals. Bethe later recalled that he became too ambitious, and, in pursuit of greater accuracy, his calculations became unnecessarily complicated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198020–21-30">[30]</a> When he met <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a> for the first time, Pauli told him: "After Sommerfeld's tales about you, I had expected much better from you than your thesis."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012142-31">[31]</a> "I guess from Pauli," Bethe later recalled, "that was a compliment."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012142-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_work">Early work</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early work">edit</a>]</div> After Bethe received his doctorate, <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Madelung" title="Erwin Madelung">Erwin Madelung</a> offered him an assistantship in Frankfurt, and in September 1928 Bethe moved in with his father, who had recently divorced his mother. His father had met Vera Congehl earlier that year and married her in 1929. They had two children, Doris, born in 1933, and Klaus, born in 1934.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012156–157-32">[32]</a> Bethe did not find the work in Frankfurt very stimulating, and in 1929 he accepted an offer from Ewald at the <a href="/wiki/Technische_Hochschule" title="Technische Hochschule">Technische Hochschule</a> in <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>. While there, he wrote what he considered to be his greatest paper,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198025–27-33">[33]</a> Zur Theorie des Durchgangs schneller Korpuskularstrahlen durch Materie ("The Theory of the Passage of Fast Corpuscular Rays Through Matter").<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Starting from <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>'s interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation" title="Schrödinger equation">Schrödinger equation</a>, Bethe produced a simplified formula for collision problems using a <a href="/wiki/Fourier_transform" title="Fourier transform">Fourier transform</a>, which is known today as the <a href="/wiki/Bethe_formula" title="Bethe formula">Bethe formula</a>. He submitted this paper for his <a href="/wiki/Habilitation" title="Habilitation">habilitation</a> in 1930.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198025–27-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012181-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee20067-36">[36]</a> Sommerfeld recommended Bethe for a <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> Travelling Scholarship in 1929. This provided $150 a month (about $3,000 in 2024 dollars<a href="#cite_note-inflation-US-37">[A]</a>) to study abroad. In 1930, Bethe chose to do postdoctoral work at the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> in England, where he worked under the supervision of <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Fowler" class="mw-redirect" title="Ralph Fowler">Ralph Fowler</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012182–183-38">[37]</a> At the request of <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a>, who was working with <a href="/wiki/Cloud_chamber" title="Cloud chamber">cloud chambers</a>, Bethe created a <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">relativistic</a> version of the Bethe formula.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012187-39">[38]</a> Bethe was known for his sense of humor, and with <a href="/wiki/Guido_Beck" title="Guido Beck">Guido Beck</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wolfgang_Riezler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wolfgang Riezler (page does not exist)">Wolfgang Riezler</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Riezler" class="extiw" title="de:Wolfgang Riezler">de</a>], two other postdoctoral <a href="/wiki/Research_fellow" title="Research fellow">research fellows</a>, created a <a href="/wiki/List_of_scholarly_publishing_stings" title="List of scholarly publishing stings">hoax paper</a> On the Quantum Theory of the Temperature of Absolute Zero where he calculated the <a href="/wiki/Fine_structure_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fine structure constant">fine structure constant</a> from the absolute zero temperature in Celsius units.<a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a> The paper poked fun at a certain class of papers in theoretical physics of the day, which were purely speculative and based on spurious numerical arguments, such as <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a>'s attempts to explain the value of the <a href="/wiki/Fine_structure_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fine structure constant">fine structure constant</a> from fundamental quantities in an earlier paper. They were forced to issue an apology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012190–192-41">[40]</a> For the second half of his scholarship, Bethe chose to go to <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>'s laboratory in Rome in February 1931. He was greatly impressed by Fermi and regretted that he had not gone to Rome first.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012193-42">[41]</a> Bethe developed the <a href="/wiki/Bethe_ansatz" title="Bethe ansatz">Bethe ansatz</a>, a method for finding the exact solutions for the <a href="/wiki/Eigenvalue" class="mw-redirect" title="Eigenvalue">eigenvalues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eigenvector" class="mw-redirect" title="Eigenvector">eigenvectors</a> of certain one-dimensional quantum many-body models.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012199–202-43">[42]</a> He was influenced by Fermi's simplicity and Sommerfeld's rigor in approaching problems and these qualities influenced his own later research.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012195-44">[43]</a> The Rockefeller Foundation offered an extension of Bethe's fellowship, allowing him to return to Italy in 1932.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012202–208-45">[44]</a> In the meantime, Bethe worked for Sommerfeld in Munich as a privatdozent. Since Bethe was fluent in English, Sommerfeld had Bethe supervise all his English-speaking postdoctoral fellows, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lloyd_P._Smith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lloyd P. Smith (page does not exist)">Lloyd P. Smith</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198032-46">[45]</a> Bethe accepted a request from <a href="/wiki/Karl_Scheel" title="Karl Scheel">Karl Scheel</a> to write an article for the Handbuch der Physik on the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> of hydrogen and helium. Reviewing the article decades later, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a> noted that it was unusual in the depth and breadth of its treatment of the subject that required very little updating for the 1959 edition. Bethe was then asked by Sommerfeld to help him with the handbuch article on electrons in metals. The article covered the basis of what is now called <a href="/wiki/Solid_state_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid state physics">solid state physics</a>. Bethe took a very new field and provided a clear, coherent, and complete coverage of it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012202–208-45">[44]</a> His work on the handbuch articles occupied most of his time in Rome, but he also co-wrote a paper with Fermi on another new field, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a>, describing the relativistic interactions of charged particles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012211,_220–221-47">[46]</a> In 1932, Bethe accepted an appointment as an assistant professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_T%C3%BCbingen" title="University of Tübingen">University of Tübingen</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a> was the professor of experimental physics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198033-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012223–224-49">[48]</a> One of the first laws passed by the new <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> government was the <a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Restoration_of_the_Professional_Civil_Service" title="Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service">Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service</a>. Due to his Jewish background, Bethe was dismissed from his job at the university, which was a government post. Geiger refused to help, but Sommerfeld immediately gave Bethe back his fellowship at Munich. Sommerfeld spent much of the summer term of 1933 finding places for Jewish students and colleagues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198035-50">[49]</a> Bethe left Germany in 1933, moving to England after receiving an offer for a position as lecturer at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> for a year through Sommerfeld's connection to <a href="/wiki/William_Lawrence_Bragg" class="mw-redirect" title="William Lawrence Bragg">William Lawrence Bragg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198035-50">[49]</a> He moved in with his friend <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Peierls" title="Rudolf Peierls">Rudolf Peierls</a> and Peierls' wife Genia. Peierls was a fellow German physicist who had also been barred from academic positions in Germany because he was Jewish. This meant that Bethe had someone to speak to in German and he did not have to eat English food.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012237–240-51">[50]</a> Their relationship was professional as well as personal. Peierls aroused Bethe's interest in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012244-52">[51]</a> After <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">photodisintegration</a> of <a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">deuterium</a>,<a href="#cite_note-53">[52]</a> Chadwick challenged Bethe and Peierls to come up with a theoretical explanation of this phenomenon. This they did on the four-hour train ride from Cambridge back to Manchester.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee20099-54">[53]</a> Bethe would investigate further in the years ahead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012244-52">[51]</a> In 1933, the physics department at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a>, was looking for a new theoretical physicist, and Lloyd Smith strongly recommended Bethe. This was supported by Bragg, who was visiting Cornell at the time. In August 1934, Cornell offered Bethe a position as an acting assistant professor. Bethe had already accepted a fellowship for a year to work with <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Mott" title="Nevill Mott">Nevill Mott</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bristol" title="University of Bristol">University of Bristol</a> for a semester, but Cornell agreed to let him start in the spring of 1935.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012262–263-55">[54]</a> Before leaving for the United States, he visited the <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr_Institute" title="Niels Bohr Institute">Niels Bohr Institute</a> in <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen" title="Copenhagen">Copenhagen</a> in September 1934, where he proposed to <a href="/wiki/Hilde_Levi" title="Hilde Levi">Hilde Levi</a>, who accepted. The match was opposed by Bethe's mother, who despite having a Jewish background, did not want him to marry a Jewish woman.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012279-56">[55]</a> A few days before their wedding date in December, Bethe broke off their engagement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012272–275-57">[56]</a> <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a> were so shocked by this action by Bethe that he was not invited to the institute again until after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012279-56">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> Bethe arrived in the United States in February 1935, and joined the faculty at Cornell University on a salary of $3,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006136-58">[57]</a> Bethe's appointment was part of a deliberate effort on the part of the new head of its physics department, <a href="/wiki/Roswell_Clifton_Gibbs" title="Roswell Clifton Gibbs">Roswell Clifton Gibbs</a>, to move into nuclear physics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012296–298-59">[58]</a> Gibbs had hired <a href="/wiki/Milton_S._Livingston" class="mw-redirect" title="Milton S. Livingston">Stanley Livingston</a>, who had worked with <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a>, to build a <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> at Cornell.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012296–298-59">[58]</a> To complete the team, Cornell needed an experimentalist, and, on the advice of Bethe and Livingston, recruited <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a>. Bethe received requests to visit <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> from <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a> from <a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Rochester" title="University of Rochester">University of Rochester</a> from <a href="/wiki/Lee_DuBridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee DuBridge">Lee DuBridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Purdue_University" title="Purdue University">Purdue University</a> from <a href="/wiki/Karl_Lark-Horovitz" title="Karl Lark-Horovitz">Karl Lark-Horovitz</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana%E2%80%93Champaign" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign">University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign</a> from <a href="/wiki/Francis_Wheeler_Loomis" title="Francis Wheeler Loomis">Francis Wheeler Loomis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> from <a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">John Hasbrouck Van Vleck</a>. Gibbs moved to prevent Bethe from being poached by having him appointed as a regular assistant professor in 1936, with an assurance that promotion to professor would soon follow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012305–307-60">[59]</a> Together with Bacher and Livingston, Bethe published a series of three articles,<a href="#cite_note-61">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[62]</a> which summarized most of what was known on the subject of nuclear physics until that time, an account that became known informally as "Bethe's Bible". It remained the standard work on the subject for many years. In this account, he also continued where others left off, filling in gaps in the older literature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee200911-64">[63]</a> Loomis offered Bethe a full professorship at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, but Cornell matched the position offered, and the salary of $6,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012313-65">[64]</a> He wrote to his mother: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">I am about the leading theoretician in America. That does not mean the best. <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a> is certainly better and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Oppenheimer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Teller</a> probably just as good. But I do more and talk more and that counts too.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012370-66">[65]</a> </blockquote> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg/220px-Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="314" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg/330px-Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg/440px-Fusion_in_the_Sun.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Illustration of the proton–proton chain reaction sequence</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:CNO_Cycle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CNO_Cycle.svg/220px-CNO_Cycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CNO_Cycle.svg/330px-CNO_Cycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/CNO_Cycle.svg/440px-CNO_Cycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Overview of the CNO-I cycle – the helium nucleus is released at the top-left step</div></div></div></div></div> On March 17, 1938, Bethe attended the <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Institution_for_Science" title="Carnegie Institution for Science">Carnegie Institute</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_University" title="George Washington University">George Washington University</a>'s fourth annual <a href="/wiki/Washington_Conference_on_Theoretical_Physics" title="Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics">Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics</a>. There were only 34 invited attendees, but they included <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Breit" title="Gregory Breit">Gregory Breit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donald_Menzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Menzel">Donald Menzel</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bengt_Str%C3%B6mgren" title="Bengt Strömgren">Bengt Strömgren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Merle_Tuve" title="Merle Tuve">Merle Tuve</a>. Bethe initially declined the invitation to attend, because the conference's topic, <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">stellar energy generation</a>, did not interest him, but Teller persuaded him to go. At the conference, Strömgren detailed what was known about the temperature, density, and chemical composition of the Sun, and challenged the physicists to come up with an explanation. Gamow and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_von_Weizs%C3%A4cker" title="Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker">Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker</a> had proposed in a 1937 paper that the Sun's energy was the result of a <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–proton chain reaction">proton–proton chain reaction</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198045–47-67">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012345–347-68">[67]</a> <table border="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr style="height:2em;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton"> p </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton"> p </a></td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium-2">2 1D </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron"> e+ </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino"> ν e</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> But this did not account for the observation of elements heavier than helium. By the end of the conference, Bethe, working in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a>, had come up with a series of subsequent nuclear reactions that explained how the Sun shines:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012347-69">[68]</a> <table border="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Deuterium-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium-2">2 1D </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton"> p </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray"> γ </a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">3 2He </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Beryllium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Beryllium-7">7 4Be </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray"> γ </a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Beryllium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Beryllium-7">7 4Be </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron"> e− </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-7">7 3Li </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino"> ν e</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lithium-7" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithium-7">7 3Li </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton"> p </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td>2 <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td></tr></tbody></table> That this did not explain the processes in heavier stars was not overlooked. At the time there were doubts about whether the proton–proton cycle described the processes in the Sun, but more recent measurements of the Sun's core temperature and luminosity show that it does.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198045–47-67">[66]</a> When he returned to Cornell, Bethe studied the relevant <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a> and reaction <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)" title="Cross section (physics)">cross sections</a>, leading to his discovery of the <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle (CNO cycle)</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012348–350-70">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> <table border="0" align="center"> <tbody><tr style="height:2em;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon-12" title="Carbon-12">12 6C </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton"> p </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-13" title="Nitrogen-13">13 7N </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray"> γ </a> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-13" title="Nitrogen-13">13 7N </a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon-13" title="Carbon-13">13 6C </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron"> e+ </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino"> ν e</a> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon-13" title="Carbon-13">13 6C </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton"> p </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-14">14 7N </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray"> γ </a> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-14" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-14">14 7N </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton"> p </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-15" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen-15">15 8O </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray"> γ </a> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-15" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen-15">15 8O </a> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-15" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-15">15 7N </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron"> e+ </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino"> ν e</a> </td></tr> <tr style="height:2em;"> <td><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen-15" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen-15">15 7N </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton"> p </a> </td> <td>→ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Carbon-12" title="Carbon-12">12 6C </a> </td> <td>+ </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">4 2He </a> </td></tr></tbody></table> The two papers, one on the proton–proton cycle, co-authored with Critchfield, and the other on the carbon-oxygen-nitrogen (CNO) cycle, were sent to the <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a> for publication.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012351–352-72">[71]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Kristallnacht" title="Kristallnacht">Kristallnacht</a>, Bethe's mother had become afraid to remain in Germany. Taking advantage of her Strasbourg origin, she was able to emigrate to the United States in June 1939 on the French quota, rather than the German one, which was full.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198039-73">[72]</a> Bethe's graduate student <a href="/wiki/Robert_Marshak" title="Robert Marshak">Robert Marshak</a> noted that the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Academy_of_Sciences" title="New York Academy of Sciences">New York Academy of Sciences</a> was offering a $500 prize for the best unpublished paper on the topic of solar and stellar energy. So Bethe, in need of $250 to release his mother's furniture, withdrew the CNO cycle paper and sent it in to the New York Academy of Sciences. It won the prize, and Bethe gave Marshak $50 finder's fee and used $250 to release his mother's furniture. The paper was subsequently published in the Physical Review in March. It was a breakthrough in the understanding of the stars, and would win Bethe the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1967.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198051–52-74">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012351–352-72">[71]</a> In 2002, at age 96, Bethe sent a handwritten note to <a href="/wiki/John_N._Bahcall" title="John N. Bahcall">John N. Bahcall</a> congratulating him on the use of solar neutrino observations to show that the CNO cycle accounts for approximately 7% of the Sun's energy; the neutrino observations had started with <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Raymond Davis Jr.</a>, whose experiment was based on Bahcall's calculations and encouragement, and the note led to Davis's receiving a share of the 2002 Nobel Prize.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006149-75">[74]</a> Bethe married Rose Ewald, the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Peter_Ewald" title="Paul Peter Ewald">Paul Ewald</a>, on September 13, 1939, in a simple civil ceremony.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198054–55-76">[75]</a> She had emigrated to the United States and was a student at Duke University and they met while Bethe was lecturing there in 1937. They had two children, Henry and Monica.<a href="#cite_note-Nobel-77">[76]</a> (Henry was a <a href="/wiki/Contract_bridge" title="Contract bridge">contract bridge</a> expert and former husband of <a href="/wiki/Kitty_Munson_Cooper" class="mw-redirect" title="Kitty Munson Cooper">Kitty Munson Cooper</a>.)<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> Bethe became a <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalized citizen">naturalized citizen</a> of the United States in March 1941.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2012382-79">[78]</a> Writing to Sommerfeld in 1947, Bethe confided that "I am much more at home in America than I ever was in Germany. As if I was born in Germany only by mistake, and only came to my true homeland at 28."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006143-80">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manhattan_Project">Manhattan Project</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Manhattan Project">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bethe-hans_a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Bethe-hans_a.jpg/220px-Bethe-hans_a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Bethe-hans_a.jpg/330px-Bethe-hans_a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Bethe-hans_a.jpg/440px-Bethe-hans_a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2036" /></a><figcaption>Bethe's <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos Laboratory</a> ID badge</figcaption></figure> When the Second World War began, Bethe wanted to contribute to the war effort,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198061-81">[80]</a> but was unable to work on classified projects until he became a citizen. Following the advice of the <a href="/wiki/Caltech" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltech">Caltech</a> <a href="/wiki/Aerodynamicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerodynamicist">aerodynamicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_von_K%C3%A1rm%C3%A1n" title="Theodore von Kármán">Theodore von Kármán</a>, Bethe collaborated with his friend Edward Teller on a theory of shock waves that are generated by the passage of a projectile through a gas. Bethe considered it one of their most influential papers. He also worked on a theory of armor penetration, which was immediately classified by the army, thus making it impossible for Bethe (who was not an American citizen at the time) to access further research on the theory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee200913–14-82">[81]</a> After receiving security clearance in December 1941, Bethe joined the <a href="/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory" title="MIT Radiation Laboratory">MIT Radiation Laboratory</a>, where he invented the <a href="/wiki/Bethe-hole_directional_coupler" class="mw-redirect" title="Bethe-hole directional coupler">Bethe-hole directional coupler</a>, which is used in <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> <a href="/wiki/Waveguide" title="Waveguide">waveguides</a> such as those used in <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> sets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee200913-83">[82]</a> In Chicago in June 1942, and then in July at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, he participated in a series of meetings at the invitation of Robert Oppenheimer, which discussed the first designs for the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>. They went over the preliminary calculations by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Robert Serber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stan_Frankel" title="Stan Frankel">Stan Frankel</a>, and others, and discussed the possibilities of using <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>. (Teller then raised the prospect of a thermonuclear device, <a href="/wiki/Teller%27s_%22Super%22_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Teller's "Super" bomb">Teller's "Super" bomb</a>. At one point Teller asked if the nitrogen in the atmosphere could be set alight. It fell to Bethe and <a href="/wiki/Emil_Konopinski" title="Emil Konopinski">Emil Konopinski</a> to perform the calculations demonstrating the virtual impossibility of such an occurrence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall199342–47-84">[83]</a>) "The fission bomb had to be done," he later recalled, "because the Germans were presumably doing it."<a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times-85">[84]</a> When Oppenheimer was put in charge of forming a secret weapons design laboratory, <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos</a>, he appointed Bethe director of the T (Theoretical) Division, the laboratory's smallest, but most prestigious division. This move irked the equally qualified, but more difficult to manage Teller and <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Felix Bloch</a>, who had coveted the job.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall199392–83-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzasz199219–20-87">[86]</a> A series of disagreements between Bethe and Teller between February and June 1944 over the relative priority of Super research led to Teller's group being removed from T Division and placed directly under Oppenheimer. In September it became part of Fermi's new F Division.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993204,_246-88">[87]</a> Bethe's work at Los Alamos included calculating the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a> and efficiency of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> and the multiplication of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> in an exploding atomic bomb. Along with <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>, he developed a formula for calculating the bomb's explosive yield.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993179–184-89">[88]</a> After August 1944, when the laboratory was reorganized and reoriented to solve the problem of the <a href="/wiki/Implosion_(mechanical_process)" title="Implosion (mechanical process)">implosion</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> bomb, Bethe spent much of his time studying the hydrodynamic aspects of implosion, a job that he continued into 1944.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993129-90">[89]</a> In 1945, he worked on the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> initiator, and later, on radiation propagation from an exploding atomic bomb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993308–310-91">[90]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Trinity_nuclear_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity nuclear test">Trinity nuclear test</a> validated the accuracy of T Division's results.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993344–345-92">[91]</a> When it was detonated in the New Mexico desert on July 16, 1945, Bethe's immediate concern was for its efficient operation, and not its moral implications. He is reported to have commented: "I am not a philosopher."<a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrogen_bomb">Hydrogen bomb</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Hydrogen bomb">edit</a>]</div> After the war, Bethe argued that a crash project for the <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bomb</a> should not be attempted,<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> although after President <a href="/wiki/Harry_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="Harry Truman">Harry Truman</a> announced the beginning of such a project and the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, Bethe signed up and played a key role in the weapon's development. Although he saw the project through to its end, Bethe had hoped that it would be impossible to create the hydrogen bomb.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198092–96-95">[94]</a> He later remarked in 1968 on the apparent contradiction in his stance, having first opposed the development of the weapon and later helping to create it: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Just a few months before, the Korean war had broken out, and for the first time I saw direct confrontation with the <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communists</a>. It was too disturbing. The <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">cold war</a> looked as if it were about to get hot. I knew then I had to reverse my earlier position. If I did not work on the bomb, somebody else would—and I had thought if I were around Los Alamos I might still be a force for disarmament. So I agreed to join in developing the <a href="/wiki/H-bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="H-bomb">H-bomb</a>. It seemed quite logical. But sometimes I wish I were a more consistent <a href="/wiki/Idealist" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealist">idealist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2000166-96">[95]</a> </blockquote> As for his own role in the project and its relation to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design#Ulam's_and_Teller's_contributions" title="History of the Teller–Ulam design">dispute over who was responsible for the design</a>, Bethe later said that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">After the H-bomb was made, reporters started to call Teller the father of the H-bomb. For the sake of history, I think it is more precise to say that <a href="/wiki/Stanislaw_Ulam" class="mw-redirect" title="Stanislaw Ulam">Ulam</a> is the father, because he provided the seed, and Teller is the mother, because he remained with the child. As for me, I guess I am the <a href="/wiki/Midwife" title="Midwife">midwife</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber2000166-96">[95]</a> </blockquote> In 1954, Bethe testified on behalf of <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a>. Specifically, Bethe argued that Oppenheimer's stances against developing the hydrogen bomb in the late 1940s had not hindered its development, a topic which was seen as a key motivating factor behind the hearing. Bethe contended that the developments that led to the successful <a href="/wiki/Teller%E2%80%93Ulam_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Teller–Ulam design">Teller–Ulam design</a> were a matter of serendipity and not a question of manpower or logical development of previously existing ideas. During the hearing, Bethe and his wife also tried hard to persuade <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> against testifying. However, Teller did not agree, and his testimony played a major role in the revocation of Oppenheimer's <a href="/wiki/Security_clearance" title="Security clearance">security clearance</a>. While Bethe and Teller had been on very good terms during the prewar years, the conflict between them during the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, and especially during the Oppenheimer episode, permanently marred their relationship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198097–99-97">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_work">Later work</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Later work">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lamb_shift">Lamb shift</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Lamb shift">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bethe_hans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Bethe_hans.jpg/220px-Bethe_hans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Bethe_hans.jpg/330px-Bethe_hans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/ba/Bethe_hans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="338" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption>Hans Bethe lecturing at <a href="/wiki/Dalhousie_University" title="Dalhousie University">Dalhousie University</a>, 1978</figcaption></figure> After the war ended, Bethe returned to Cornell. In June 1947, he participated in the <a href="/wiki/Shelter_Island_Conference" title="Shelter Island Conference">Shelter Island Conference</a>. Sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> and held at the Ram's Head Inn on <a href="/wiki/Shelter_Island_(town),_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelter Island (town), New York">Shelter Island, New York</a>, the conference on the "Foundations of Quantum Mechanics" was the first major physics conference held after the war. It was a chance for American physicists to come together, pick up where they had left off before the war, and establish the direction of post-war research.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006157–158-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee200915-99">[98]</a> A major talking point at the conference was the discovery by <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Willis Lamb</a> and his graduate student, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Retherford" title="Robert Retherford">Robert Retherford</a>, shortly before the conference began that one of the two possible quantum states of hydrogen atoms had slightly more energy than that predicted by the theory of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a>; this became known as the <a href="/wiki/Lamb_shift" title="Lamb shift">Lamb shift</a>. Oppenheimer and Weisskopf suggested that this was a result of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">quantum fluctuations</a> of the electromagnetic field, which gave the electron more energy. According to pre-war <a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">quantum electrodynamics</a> (QED), the energy of the electron consisted of the bare energy it had when uncoupled from an electromagnetic field, and the self-energy resulting from the electromagnetic coupling, but both were unobservable, since the electromagnetic field cannot be switched off. QED gave infinite values for the self-energies; but the Lamb shift showed that they were both real and finite. <a href="/wiki/Hans_Kramers" title="Hans Kramers">Hans Kramers</a> proposed <a href="/wiki/Renormalization" title="Renormalization">renormalization</a> as a solution, but no one knew how to do the calculation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006157–158-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bethe_1947-8">[8]</a> Bethe managed to perform the calculation on the train from New York to <a href="/wiki/Schenectady" class="mw-redirect" title="Schenectady">Schenectady</a>, where he was working for <a href="/wiki/General_Electric" title="General Electric">General Electric</a>. He did so by realising that it was a non-relativistic process, which greatly simplified the calculation. The bare energy was easily removed as it was already included in the observed mass of the electron. The self energy term now increased logarithmically instead of linearly, making it mathematically convergent. Bethe arrived at a value for the Lamb shift of 1040 MHz, extremely close to that obtained experimentally by Lamb and Retherford. His paper, published in the Physical Review in August 1947, was only three pages long and contained just twelve mathematical equations, but was enormously influential. It had been presumed that the infinities indicated that QED was fundamentally flawed, and that a new, radical theory was required; Bethe demonstrated that this was not necessary.<a href="#cite_note-Bethe_1947-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006158–159-100">[99]</a> His calculation of the Lamb shift has been called "the most important discovery in the history of the theory of quantum electrodynamics" by the physicist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a>, while physicist Paul Dirac called it "the most important calculation in physics for decades".<a href="#cite_note-:0-10">[10]</a> One of Bethe's most famous papers is one he never wrote: the 1948 <a href="/wiki/Alpher%E2%80%93Bethe%E2%80%93Gamow_paper" title="Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper">Alpher–Bethe–Gamow paper</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow</a> added Bethe's name (in absentia) without consulting him, knowing that Bethe would not mind, and against <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Ralph Alpher</a>'s wishes. This was apparently a reflection of Gamow's sense of humor, wanting to have a paper title that would sound like the first three letters of the Greek alphabet. As one of the Physical Review's reviewers, Bethe saw the manuscript and struck out the words "in absentia".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein198046-102">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Astrophysics">edit</a>]</div> Bethe believed that the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> was like a <a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula#The_liquid_drop_model_and_its_analysis" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">quantum liquid drop</a>. He investigated the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">nuclear matter</a> problem by considering the work conducted by <a href="/wiki/Keith_Brueckner" title="Keith Brueckner">Keith Brueckner</a> on <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_theory_(quantum_mechanics)" title="Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)">perturbation theory</a>. Working with <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Goldstone" title="Jeffrey Goldstone">Jeffrey Goldstone</a>, he produced a solution for the case where there was an infinite hard-core potential. Then, working with Baird Brandow and Albert Petschek, he came up with an approximation that converted the <a href="/wiki/Scattering_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Scattering theory">scattering</a> equation into an easily solved <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equation</a>. This then led him to the Bethe-Faddeev equation, a generalisation of <a href="/wiki/Ludvig_Faddeev" title="Ludvig Faddeev">Ludvig Faddeev</a>'s approach to three-body scattering. He then used these techniques to examine the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron stars">neutron stars</a>, which have densities similar to those of nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006165–171-103">[102]</a> Bethe continued to do research on <a href="/wiki/Supernovae" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernovae">supernovae</a>, neutron stars, <a href="/wiki/Black_holes" class="mw-redirect" title="Black holes">black holes</a>, and other problems in theoretical astrophysics into his late nineties. In doing this, he collaborated with <a href="/wiki/Gerald_E._Brown" title="Gerald E. Brown">Gerald E. Brown</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stony_Brook_University" title="Stony Brook University">Stony Brook University</a>. In 1978, Brown proposed that they collaborate on supernovae. These were reasonably well understood by this time, but the calculations were still a problem. Using techniques honed from decades of working with nuclear physics, and some experience with calculations involving nuclear explosions, Bethe tackled the problems involved in stellar <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">gravitational collapse</a>, and the way in which various factors affected a supernova explosion. Once again, he was able to reduce the problem to a set of differential equations, and to solve them.<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006176–180-105">[104]</a> At age 85, Bethe wrote an important article about the <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem" title="Solar neutrino problem">solar neutrino problem</a>, in which he helped establish the conversion mechanism for <a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron neutrinos</a> into <a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">muon neutrinos</a> proposed by <a href="/wiki/Stanislav_Mikheyev" title="Stanislav Mikheyev">Stanislav Mikheyev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Yuryevich_Smirnov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexei Yuryevich Smirnov">Alexei Smirnov</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Wolfenstein" title="Lincoln Wolfenstein">Lincoln Wolfenstein</a> to explain a vexing discrepancy between theory and experiment. Bethe argued that physics beyond the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> was required to understand the solar neutrino problem, because it presumed that neutrinos have no mass, and therefore, cannot metamorphosize into each other; whereas the MSW effect required this to occur. Bethe hoped that corroborating evidence would be found by the <a href="/wiki/Sudbury_Neutrino_Observatory" title="Sudbury Neutrino Observatory">Sudbury Neutrino Observatory</a> (SNO) in <a href="/wiki/Ontario,_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontario, Canada">Ontario</a> by his 90th birthday, but he did not get the call from SNO until June 2001, when he was nearly 95.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006151–153-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> In 1996, <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Kip Thorne</a> approached Bethe and Brown about <a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">LIGO</a>, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory designed to detect the gravitational waves from merging neutron stars and black holes. Since Bethe and Brown were good at calculating things that could not be seen, could they look at the mergers? The 90-year-old Bethe quickly became enthused and soon began the required calculations. The result was a 1998 paper on the "Evolution of Binary Compact Objects Which Merge", which Brown regarded as the best that the two produced together.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006182-108">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_stances">Political stances</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Political stances">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hans_Albrecht_Bethe_(1906-2005).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe_%281906-2005%29.jpg/220px-Hans_Albrecht_Bethe_%281906-2005%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe_%281906-2005%29.jpg/330px-Hans_Albrecht_Bethe_%281906-2005%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Hans_Albrecht_Bethe_%281906-2005%29.jpg/440px-Hans_Albrecht_Bethe_%281906-2005%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3427" data-file-height="2932" /></a><figcaption>Bethe being interviewed by journalists</figcaption></figure> In 1968, Bethe, along with IBM physicist <a href="/wiki/Richard_Garwin" title="Richard Garwin">Richard Garwin</a>, published an article criticising in detail the anti-<a href="/wiki/ICBM" class="mw-redirect" title="ICBM">ICBM</a> defense system proposed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a>. The two physicists described in the article that nearly any measure taken by the United States would be easily thwarted with the deployment of relatively simple decoys.<a href="#cite_note-110">[109]</a> Bethe was one of the primary voices in the scientific community behind the signing of the 1963 <a href="/wiki/Partial_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial Test Ban Treaty">Partial Test Ban Treaty</a> prohibiting further atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernstein1980107–112-111">[110]</a> During the 1980s and 1990s, Bethe campaigned for the peaceful use of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear energy</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>, Bethe was part of a committee of experts who analysed the incident. They concluded that the reactor suffered from a fundamentally faulty design and also that human error had contributed significantly to the accident. "My colleagues and I established," he explained "that the Chernobyl disaster tells us about the deficiencies of the Soviet political and administrative system rather than about problems with nuclear power."<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> Throughout his life Bethe remained a strong advocate for electricity from nuclear energy, which he described in 1977 as "a necessity, not merely an option."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006266-113">[112]</a> In the 1980s he and other physicists opposed the <a href="/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative" title="Strategic Defense Initiative">Strategic Defense Initiative</a> missile system conceived by the <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> administration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBethe1991113–131-114">[113]</a> In 1995, at the age of 88, Bethe wrote an open letter calling on all scientists to "cease and desist" from working on any aspect of nuclear weapons development and manufacture.<a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> In 2004, he joined 47 other <a href="/wiki/Nobel_laureate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel laureate">Nobel laureates</a> in signing a letter endorsing <a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">John Kerry</a> for President of the United States as someone who would "restore science to its appropriate place in government".<a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Gregg_Herken" title="Gregg Herken">Gregg Herken</a> wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">When Oppenheimer died, Oppie's long-time friend, Hans Bethe, assumed the mantle of the scientist of conscience in this country. Like Jefferson and Adams, Teller and Bethe would live on into the new century which they and their colleagues had done so much to shape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerken2002334-117">[116]</a> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Personal life">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bethe-rose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bethe-rose.jpg/150px-Bethe-rose.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bethe-rose.jpg/225px-Bethe-rose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bethe-rose.jpg/300px-Bethe-rose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1552" data-file-height="2067" /></a><figcaption>Rose Bethe Los Alamos badge</figcaption></figure> Bethe's hobbies included a passion for stamp-collecting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchweber201244-118">[117]</a> He loved the outdoors and was an enthusiastic hiker all his life, exploring the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rockies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee2006126–128-119">[118]</a> He died in his home in <a href="/wiki/Ithaca,_New_York" title="Ithaca, New York">Ithaca, New York</a>, on March 6, 2005, of congestive heart failure.<a href="#cite_note-New_York_Times-85">[84]</a> He was survived by his wife, Rose Ewald Bethe, and their two children.<a href="#cite_note-120">[119]</a> At the time of his death, he was the John Wendell Anderson Professor of Physics, Emeritus, at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honors_and_awards">Honors and awards</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Honors and awards">edit</a>]</div> Bethe received numerous honors and awards in his lifetime and afterward. He became a <a href="/wiki/Honorary_fellow" class="mw-redirect" title="Honorary fellow">Fellow</a> of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1947,<a href="#cite_note-AAAS-122">[121]</a> and that year, he also received the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Henry_Draper_Medal" title="Henry Draper Medal">Henry Draper Medal</a><a href="#cite_note-Draper-123">[122]</a> and was elected to the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a> He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck_Medal" title="Max Planck Medal">Max Planck Medal</a> in 1955, the <a href="/wiki/Franklin_Medal" title="Franklin Medal">Franklin Medal</a> in 1959, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Royal Astronomical Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a> <a href="/wiki/Eddington_Medal" title="Eddington Medal">Eddington Medal</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a> <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi_Award" title="Enrico Fermi Award">Enrico Fermi Award</a> in 1961,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrownLee200917-125">[124]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Rumford_Prize" title="Rumford Prize">Rumford Prize</a> in 1963,<a href="#cite_note-Rumford-126">[125]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1967,<a href="#cite_note-Nobel-77">[76]</a> the <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> in 1975,<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Oersted_Medal" title="Oersted Medal">Oersted Medal</a> in 1993,<a href="#cite_note-128">[127]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Medal" title="Bruce Medal">Bruce Medal</a> in 2001,<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a> and posthumously in 2005, the <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Medal_(American_Philosophical_Society)" title="Benjamin Franklin Medal (American Philosophical Society)">Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences</a> by the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-franklinscience_recipients-130">[129]</a> Bethe was elected <a href="/wiki/List_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_elected_in_1957" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1957">Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1957</a>,<a href="#cite_note-frs-1">[1]</a> and he gave the 1993 <a href="/wiki/Bakerian_Lecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakerian Lecture">Bakerian Lecture</a> at the Royal Society on the Mechanism of Supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> In 1978 he was elected a Member of the <a href="/wiki/German_Academy_of_Sciences_Leopoldina" class="mw-redirect" title="German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina">German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[131]</a> Cornell named the third of five new <a href="/wiki/Residential_college" title="Residential college">residential colleges</a>, each of which is named after a distinguished former member of the Cornell faculty, as the <a href="/wiki/Cornell_West_Campus" title="Cornell West Campus">Hans Bethe House</a> after him.<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> Similarly named after him is the Hans Bethe Center, 322 Fourth Street NE, Washington, D.C., home to the <a href="/wiki/Council_for_a_Livable_World" title="Council for a Livable World">Council for a Livable World</a>, where Bethe was a longtime board member,<a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> as well as the Bethe Center for Theoretical Physics at <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bonn" title="University of Bonn">University of Bonn</a> in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a>, <a href="/wiki/30828_Bethe" class="mw-redirect" title="30828 Bethe">30828 Bethe</a>, that was discovered in 1990 was named after him.<a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Hans Bethe Prize">Hans Bethe Prize</a> was named after him as well.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_publications">Selected publications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Selected publications">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bethe, H. A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4415436-theory-high-frequency-rectification-silicon-crystals">"Theory of High Frequency Rectification by Silicon Crystals"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) Radiation Laboratory, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> (through predecessor agency the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>), (October 29, 1942).</li> <li>Bethe, H. A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4347017-theoretical-estimate-maximum-possible-nuclear-explosion">"Theoretical Estimate of Maximum Possible Nuclear Explosion"</a>, Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory-Schenectady, N.Y., <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> (through predecessor agency the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>), (January 31, 1950).</li> <li>Bethe, H. A.; Rajaraman, R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4505584-three-body-problem-nuclear-matter">"Three-body Problem in Nuclear Matter"</a>, University of Southern California-Los Angeles, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> (through predecessor agency the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>), (1967).</li> <li>Bethe, H. A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4619112-note-inverse-bremsstrahlung-strong-electromagnetic-field">"Note on Inverse Bremsstrahlung in a Strong Electromagnetic Field"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a> (LANL), <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> (through predecessor agency the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>), (September 1972).</li> <li>Bethe, H. A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/4584652-pauli-principle-pion-scattering">"Pauli Principle and Pion Scattering"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a> (LANL), <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> (through predecessor agency the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>), (October 1972).</li> <li>Bethe, H. A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/biblio/5601384-fusion-hybrid-reactor">"Fusion Hybrid Reactor"</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sandia_National_Laboratories" title="Sandia National Laboratories">Sandia National Laboratories</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a>, (August 1981).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_anion" title="Hydrogen anion">Hydrogen anion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">List of Jewish Nobel laureates</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-upper-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-inflation-US-37"><a href="#cite_ref-inflation-US_37-0">^</a> 1634–1699: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44525121.pdf">How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States%3A+Addenda+et+Corrigenda&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44525121.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"> 1700–1799: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCusker1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_J._McCusker" title="John J. McCusker">McCusker, J. J.</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americanantiquarian.org/proceedings/44517778.pdf">How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/American_Antiquarian_Society" title="American Antiquarian Society">American Antiquarian Society</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Much+Is+That+in+Real+Money%3F+A+Historical+Price+Index+for+Use+as+a+Deflator+of+Money+Values+in+the+Economy+of+the+United+States&rft.pub=American+Antiquarian+Society&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=McCusker&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanantiquarian.org%2Fproceedings%2F44517778.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"> 1800–present: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Reserve_Bank_of_Minneapolis" class="citation web cs1">Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minneapolisfed.org/about-us/monetary-policy/inflation-calculator/consumer-price-index-1800-">"Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–"</a>. Retrieved February 29, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Consumer+Price+Index+%28estimate%29+1800%E2%80%93&rft.au=Federal+Reserve+Bank+of+Minneapolis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minneapolisfed.org%2Fabout-us%2Fmonetary-policy%2Finflation-calculator%2Fconsumer-price-index-1800-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-frs-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-frs_1-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeBrown2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, S.; Brown, G. E. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.2007.0018">"Hans Albrecht Bethe. 2 July 1906 -- 6 March 2005: Elected ForMemRS 1957"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biographical_Memoirs_of_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society">Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society</a>. 53: 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.2007.0018">10.1098/rsbm.2007.0018</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Hans+Albrecht+Bethe.+2+July+1906+--+6+March+2005%3A+Elected+ForMemRS+1957&rft.volume=53&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.2007.0018&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=S.&rft.au=Brown%2C+G.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frsbm.2007.0018&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorgan1992" class="citation journal cs1">Horgan, John (1992). "Illuminator of the Stars". Scientific American. 267 (4): 32–40. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992SciAm.267d..32H">1992SciAm.267d..32H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1092-32">10.1038/scientificamerican1092-32</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Illuminator+of+the+Stars&rft.volume=267&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E40&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1092-32&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992SciAm.267d..32H&rft.aulast=Horgan&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerminAshcroft2006" class="citation cs2">Mermin, N. David; Ashcroft, Neil W. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/9789812774507_0013">"Hans Bethe's Contributions to Solid-State Physics"</a>, Hans Bethe and His Physics, WORLD SCIENTIFIC, pp. 189–200, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006hbhp.book..189M">2006hbhp.book..189M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F9789812774507_0013">10.1142/9789812774507_0013</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-256-609-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-256-609-6"><bdi>978-981-256-609-6</bdi></a>, retrieved January 1, 2025</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hans+Bethe+and+His+Physics&rft.atitle=Hans+Bethe%27s+Contributions+to+Solid-State+Physics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E189-%3C%2Fspan%3E200&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F9789812774507_0013&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006hbhp.book..189M&rft.isbn=978-981-256-609-6&rft.aulast=Mermin&rft.aufirst=N.+David&rft.au=Ashcroft%2C+Neil+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldscientific.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1142%2F9789812774507_0013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/online/4553">"Hans Bethe"</a>. Physics Today. 2019 (7): 4553. July 2, 2019. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019PhT..2019g4553.">2019PhT..2019g4553.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2Fpt.6.6.20190702a">10.1063/pt.6.6.20190702a</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Hans+Bethe&rft.volume=2019&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=4553&rft.date=2019-07-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2Fpt.6.6.20190702a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2019PhT..2019g4553.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.aip.org%2Fphysicstoday%2Fonline%2F4553&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Keck1947-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Keck1947_5-0">^</a> Available at www.JamesKeckCollectedWorks.org <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.jameskeckcollectedworks.org">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190509175534/http://www.jameskeckcollectedworks.org/">Archived</a> May 9, 2019, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> are the class notes taken by one of his students at Cornell from the graduate courses on Nuclear Physics and on Applications of Quantum Mechanics he taught in the spring of 1947. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMazumdar2005" class="citation journal cs1">Mazumdar, Indranil (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02867168">"Nucleosynthesis and energy production in stars: Bethe's crowning achievement"</a>. Resonance. 10 (10): 67–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02867168">10.1007/BF02867168</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0971-8044">0971-8044</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Resonance&rft.atitle=Nucleosynthesis+and+energy+production+in+stars%3A+Bethe%27s+crowning+achievement&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E67-%3C%2Fspan%3E77&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02867168&rft.issn=0971-8044&rft.aulast=Mazumdar&rft.aufirst=Indranil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2FBF02867168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarwinGottfried2005" class="citation journal cs1">Garwin, Richard L.; Gottfried, Kurt (October 1, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/58/10/52/396031/Hans-in-War-and-PeaceHans-Bethe-spent-a-lifetime">"Hans in War and Peace"</a>. 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Retrieved July 7, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hans+A.+Bethe+Prize+Prize+for+astrophysics%2C+nuclear+physics%2C+nuclear+astrophysics+and+related+fields&rft.pub=American+Physical+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fprograms%2Fhonors%2Fprizes%2Fbethe.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernstein1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bernstein" title="Jeremy Bernstein">Bernstein, Jeremy</a> (1980). Hans Bethe, Prophet of Energy. New York: Basic Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02903-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02903-7"><bdi>978-0-465-02903-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hans+Bethe%2C+Prophet+of+Energy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02903-7&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethe1991" class="citation book cs1">Bethe, Hans A. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/roadfromlosalamo00beth">The Road from Los Alamos</a>. New York: American Institute of Physics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88318-707-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88318-707-4"><bdi>978-0-88318-707-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+from+Los+Alamos&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Physics&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-88318-707-4&rft.aulast=Bethe&rft.aufirst=Hans+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froadfromlosalamo00beth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Denis_Brian" title="Denis Brian">Brian, Denis</a> (2001). The Voice Of Genius: Conversations With Nobel Scientists And Other Luminaries. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0447-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7382-0447-5"><bdi>978-0-7382-0447-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Voice+Of+Genius%3A+Conversations+With+Nobel+Scientists+And+Other+Luminaries&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Perseus+Pub&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7382-0447-5&rft.aulast=Brian&rft.aufirst=Denis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownLee2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_E._Brown" title="Gerald E. Brown">Brown, Gerald E.</a>; Lee, Sabine (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/bethe-hans.pdf">Hans Albrecht Bethe</a> (PDF). Biographical Memoirs. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved January 13, 2025.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hans+Albrecht+Bethe&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=Biographical+Memoirs&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Gerald+E.&rft.au=Lee%2C+Sabine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2024%2F06%2Fbethe-hans.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownLee2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_E._Brown" title="Gerald E. Brown">Brown, Gerald E.</a>; Lee, Chang-Hwan, eds. (2006). Hans Bethe and his Physics. New Jersey: World Scientific Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-256-609-0" title="Special:BookSources/981-256-609-0"><bdi>981-256-609-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hans+Bethe+and+his+Physics&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pub=World+Scientific+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=981-256-609-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerken2002" class="citation book cs1">Herken, Gregg (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brotherhoodofbom0000herk">Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller</a>. New York: Henry Holt and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8050-6588-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8050-6588-1"><bdi>0-8050-6588-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brotherhood+of+the+Bomb%3A+The+Tangled+Lives+and+Loyalties+of+Robert+Oppenheimer%2C+Ernest+Lawrence%2C+and+Edward+Teller&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Henry+Holt+and+Company&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-8050-6588-1&rft.aulast=Herken&rft.aufirst=Gregg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrotherhoodofbom0000herk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoddesonHenriksenMeadeWestfall1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Hoddeson, Lillian</a>; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Westfall" title="Catherine Westfall">Westfall, Catherine L.</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/criticalassembly0000unse">Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945</a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-44132-3"><bdi>0-521-44132-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26764320">26764320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Assembly%3A+A+Technical+History+of+Los+Alamos+During+the+Oppenheimer+Years%2C+1943%E2%80%931945&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26764320&rft.isbn=0-521-44132-3&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft.au=Henriksen%2C+Paul+W.&rft.au=Meade%2C+Roger+A.&rft.au=Westfall%2C+Catherine+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcriticalassembly0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchweber2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Silvan_S._Schweber" title="Silvan S. Schweber">Schweber, Silvan S.</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/inshadowofbombbe00schw">In the Shadow of the Bomb: Bethe, Oppenheimer, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist</a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04989-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04989-2"><bdi>978-0-691-04989-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+Shadow+of+the+Bomb%3A+Bethe%2C+Oppenheimer%2C+and+the+Moral+Responsibility+of+the+Scientist&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-691-04989-2&rft.aulast=Schweber&rft.aufirst=Silvan+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finshadowofbombbe00schw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchweber2012" class="citation book cs1">Schweber, Silvan S. (2012). Nuclear Forces: The Making of the Physicist Hans Bethe. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06587-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-06587-1"><bdi>978-0-674-06587-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Forces%3A+The+Making+of+the+Physicist+Hans+Bethe&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-674-06587-1&rft.aulast=Schweber&rft.aufirst=Silvan+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzasz1992" class="citation book cs1">Szasz, Ferenc Morton (1992). British Scientists and the Manhattan Project: the Los Alamos Years. New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-06167-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-06167-8"><bdi>978-0-312-06167-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/23901666">23901666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=British+Scientists+and+the+Manhattan+Project%3A+the+Los+Alamos+Years&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F23901666&rft.isbn=978-0-312-06167-8&rft.aulast=Szasz&rft.aufirst=Ferenc+Morton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Hans_Bethe" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikinews-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/40px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/60px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/80px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikinews has related news: <div><ul><li><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Nobel_Laureate_Hans_Bethe_passes_away_at_age_of_98" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Nobel Laureate Hans Bethe passes away at age of 98"> Nobel Laureate Hans Bethe passes away at age of 98</a></li></ul></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/V_4883F5B3D049498CA208AFD5B9545FCC">1986 Video Interview</a> War and Peace in the Nuclear Age</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/hans-bethes-interview">1993 Audio Interview with Hans Bethe by Richard Rhodes</a> Voices of the Manhattan Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/hans-bethes-interview-1982">1982 Audio Interview with Hans Bethe by Martin Sherwin</a> Voices of the Manhattan Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://manhattanprojectvoices.org/oral-histories/rose-bethes-interview">2014 Video Interview with Rose Bethe by Cynthia C. Kelly</a> Voices of the Manhattan Project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bethe.cornell.edu/index.html">Three Lectures by Hans Bethe</a>, from the Cornell University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?1961QJRAS...2..107.">Text of the Eddington Medal award speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obituary" title="Obituary">Obituaries</a> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.economist.com/people/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3764700">Hans Bethe obituary</a> from <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> magazine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/life/science/story/0,12996,1432583,00.html">Hans Bethe obituary</a> from <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> Newspaper</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060426205017/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people%2FBethe%2C+Hans">Annotated bibliography for Hans Bethe from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4503">Oral History interview transcript with Hans Bethe on 17 January 1964, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a> – interviewed by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas S. Kuhn</a> in <a href="/wiki/Dwinelle_Hall" title="Dwinelle Hall">Dwinelle Hall</a> at <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">UC Berkeley</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4504-1">Oral History interview transcript with Hans Bethe on 27 October 1966, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a> – Session I, interviewed by Charles Weiner and <a href="/wiki/Jagdish_Mehra" title="Jagdish Mehra">Jagdish Mehra</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4504-2">Oral History interview transcript with Hans Bethe on 17 November 1967, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a> – Session II, interviewed by Charles Weiner at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4504-3">Oral History interview transcript with Hans Bethe on 8 May 1972, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a> – Session III, interviewed by Charles Weiner at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4505">Oral History interview transcript with Hans Bethe on 29 April 1981, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library and Archives</a> – interviewed by <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Lillian Hoddeson</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/events/1995paulingconference/video-s4-1-schweber.html">Video of a talk entitled "Writing the Biography of a Living Scientist: Hans Bethe,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130514123204/http://osulibrary.orst.edu/specialcollections/events/1995paulingconference/video-s4-1-schweber.html">Archived</a> May 14, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> delivered by S.S. Schweber</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webofstories.com/gl/hans.bethe">Hans Bethe tells his life story</a> at <a href="/wiki/Web_of_Stories" title="Web of Stories">Web of Stories</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Bethe.html">"Hans Bethe"</a>, <a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hans+Bethe&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FBethe.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=48688">Hans Bethe</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Genealogy_Project" title="Mathematics Genealogy Project">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Bowley, Roger; Merrifield, Michael; Padilla, Antonio (Tony). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/alphabetagamma.htm">"αβγ – The Alpha Beta Gamma Paper"</a>. Sixty Symbols. <a href="/wiki/Brady_Haran" title="Brady Haran">Brady Haran</a> for the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Nottingham" title="University of Nottingham">University of Nottingham</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sixty+Symbols&rft.atitle=%CE%B1%CE%B2%CE%B3+%E2%80%93+The+Alpha+Beta+Gamma+Paper&rft.aulast=Bowley&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft.au=Merrifield%2C+Michael&rft.au=Padilla%2C+Antonio+%28Tony%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sixtysymbols.com%2Fvideos%2Falphabetagamma.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHans+Bethe" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/88">Hans Bethe</a> on Nobelprize.org <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q155794#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physics145" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physics" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physics">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1901: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a></li> <li>1902: <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></li> <li>1903: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">P. Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">M. Curie</a></li> <li>1904: <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a></li> <li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Lenard</a></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Michelson</a></li> <li>1908: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann" title="Gabriel Lippmann">Lippmann</a></li> <li>1909: <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Braun</a></li> <li>1910: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wien</a></li> <li>1912: <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Dal%C3%A9n" title="Gustaf Dalén">Dalén</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Kamerlingh Onnes</a></li> <li>1914: <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Laue</a></li> <li>1915: <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">W. L. Bragg</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">W. H. Bragg</a></li> <li>1916</li> <li>1917: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Glover_Barkla" title="Charles Glover Barkla">Barkla</a></li> <li>1918: <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Planck</a></li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Stark</a></li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Guillaume</a></li> <li>1921: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></li> <li>1923: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Millikan</a></li> <li>1924: <a href="/wiki/Manne_Siegbahn" title="Manne Siegbahn">M. Siegbahn</a></li> <li>1925: <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">Franck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Hertz</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Perrin</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">C. Wilson</a></li> <li>1928: <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson" class="mw-redirect" title="Owen Willans Richardson">O. Richardson</a></li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">De Broglie</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></li> <li>1931</li> <li>1932: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></li> <li>1934</li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess" title="Victor Francis Hess">Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">C. D. Anderson</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">G. P. Thomson</a></li> <li>1938: <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li>1939: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li>1940</li> <li>1941</li> <li>1942</li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Stern</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Bridgman</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Victor_Appleton" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Victor Appleton">Appleton</a></li> <li>1948: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Blackett</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Yukawa</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">Powell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Zernike</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Bothe</a></li> <li>1955: <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Lamb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Kusch</a></li> <li>1956: <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Brattain</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">C. N. Yang</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">T. D. Lee</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Cherenkov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Tamm</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Glaser</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_M%C3%B6ssbauer" title="Rudolf Mössbauer">Mössbauer</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Goeppert Mayer</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Basov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov" title="Alexander Prokhorov">Prokhorov</a></li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Tomonaga</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Schwinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></li> <li>1966: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Kastler</a></li> <li>1967: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bethe</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></li> <li>1969: <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Néel</a></li> <li>1971: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Gabor</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a></li> <li>1973: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Esaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Giaever</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Josephson</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Ryle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Hewish</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Roy_Mottelson" title="Ben Roy Mottelson">Mottelson</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">Rainwater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Richter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._C._Ting" title="Samuel C. C. Ting">Ting</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Philip_W._Anderson" title="Philip W. Anderson">P. W. Anderson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" class="mw-redirect" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Mott</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Van Vleck</a></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">R. Wilson</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Glashow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Fitch</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Bloembergen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Schawlow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kai_Siegbahn" title="Kai Siegbahn">K. Siegbahn</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">K. Wilson</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">Fowler</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Rubbia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Van der Meer</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">von Klitzing</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ruska</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Binnig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Rohrer</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a> / <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">Müller</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Lederman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Schwartz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Steinberger</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_Dehmelt" title="Hans Georg Dehmelt">Dehmelt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paul" title="Wolfgang Paul">Paul</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">R. Taylor</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">de Gennes</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Charpak</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">J. Taylor</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Brockhouse" title="Bertram Brockhouse">Brockhouse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shull" title="Clifford Shull">Shull</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Perl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Reines</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/David_Lee_(physicist)" title="David Lee (physicist)">D. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Osheroff" title="Douglas Osheroff">Osheroff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Coleman_Richardson" title="Robert Coleman Richardson">R. Richardson</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Chu" title="Steven Chu">Chu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Claude_Cohen-Tannoudji" title="Claude Cohen-Tannoudji">Cohen-Tannoudji</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Daniel_Phillips" title="William Daniel Phillips">Phillips</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin" title="Robert B. Laughlin">Laughlin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer" title="Horst Ludwig Störmer">Störmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Tsui" title="Daniel C. Tsui">Tsui</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martinus_J._G._Veltman" title="Martinus J. G. Veltman">Veltman</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Alferov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Kroemer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Kilby</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001– present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2001: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Allin_Cornell" title="Eric Allin Cornell">Cornell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Ketterle" title="Wolfgang Ketterle">Ketterle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman" title="Carl Wieman">Wieman</a></li> <li>2002: <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Davis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Koshiba</a> / <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Giacconi</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Abrikosov_(physicist)" title="Alexei Abrikosov (physicist)">Abrikosov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Leggett</a></li> <li>2004: <a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">Gross</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer" title="Hugh David Politzer">Politzer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Roy_J._Glauber" title="Roy J. Glauber">Glauber</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_L._Hall" title="John L. Hall">Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._H%C3%A4nsch" title="Theodor W. Hänsch">Hänsch</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Fert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Grünberg</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Kobayashi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Maskawa</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Kao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Boyle</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">Smith</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Geim</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Novoselov" title="Konstantin Novoselov">Novoselov</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Perlmutter" title="Saul Perlmutter">Perlmutter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adam_Riess" title="Adam Riess">Riess</a> </li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">Wineland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serge_Haroche" title="Serge Haroche">Haroche</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">Englert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Akasaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Amano</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shuji_Nakamura" title="Shuji Nakamura">Nakamura</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Kajita</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">McDonald</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" class="mw-redirect" title="David J. Thouless">Thouless</a> / <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Haldane" title="Duncan Haldane">Haldane</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Kosterlitz" title="J. Michael Kosterlitz">Kosterlitz</a></li> <li>2017: <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Ashkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Mourou</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Strickland</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Peebles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michel_Mayor" title="Michel Mayor">Mayor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Didier_Queloz" title="Didier Queloz">Queloz</a></li> <li>2020: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Genzel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrea_M._Ghez" title="Andrea M. Ghez">Ghez</a></li> <li>2021: <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Parisi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hasselmann" title="Klaus Hasselmann">Hasselmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Syukuro_Manabe" title="Syukuro Manabe">Manabe</a></li> <li>2022: <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Aspect</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">Clauser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></li> <li>2023: <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Agostini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Krausz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">L'Huillier</a></li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">Hopfield</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinton" title="Geoffrey Hinton">Hinton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1967_Nobel_Prize_laureates947" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1967_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1967 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1967_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1967 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1967_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1967 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1967_Nobel_Prize_laureates947" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1967 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manfred_Eigen" title="Manfred Eigen">Manfred Eigen</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_George_Wreyford_Norrish" title="Ronald George Wreyford Norrish">Ronald George Wreyford Norrish</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (Great Britain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1967_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1967 Nobel Prize in Literature">1967</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_%C3%81ngel_Asturias" title="Miguel Ángel Asturias">Miguel Ángel Asturias</a> (Guatemala)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a> (<a href="/wiki/1967_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="1967 Nobel Peace Prize">1967</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>None</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hans Bethe</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</a> (Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Keffer Hartline</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1962_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1962 Nobel Prize winners">1962</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1963_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1963 Nobel Prize winners">1963</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1964_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1964 Nobel Prize winners">1964</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1965_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1965 Nobel Prize winners">1965</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1966_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1966 Nobel Prize winners">1966</a></dd> <dd>1967 </dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1968_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1968 Nobel Prize winners">1968</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1969_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1969 Nobel Prize winners">1969</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1970_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1970 Nobel Prize winners">1970</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1971_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1971 Nobel Prize winners">1971</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1972_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1972 Nobel Prize winners">1972</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society124" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" title="Template:Presidents of the American Physical Society"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" title="Template talk:Presidents of the American Physical Society"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of the American Physical Society"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_American_Physical_Society124" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">Presidents of the American Physical Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1899–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Augustus_Rowland" title="Henry Augustus Rowland">Henry Augustus Rowland</a> (1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Gordon_Webster" title="Arthur Gordon Webster">Arthur Gordon Webster</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Barus" title="Carl Barus">Carl Barus</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Leamington_Nichols" title="Edward Leamington Nichols">Edward Leamington Nichols</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Crew" title="Henry Crew">Henry Crew</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Magie" title="William Francis Magie">William Francis Magie</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Osgood_Peirce" title="Benjamin Osgood Peirce">Benjamin Osgood Peirce</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Merritt" title="Ernest Merritt">Ernest Merritt</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Robert Andrews Millikan</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_A._Bumstead" title="Henry A. Bumstead">Henry A. Bumstead</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Sweetman_Ames" title="Joseph Sweetman Ames">Joseph Sweetman Ames</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Lyman_IV" title="Theodore Lyman IV">Theodore Lyman</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Corwin_Mendenhall" title="Thomas Corwin Mendenhall">Thomas Corwin Mendenhall</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Miller" title="Dayton Miller">Dayton Miller</a> (1925)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Taylor_Compton" title="Karl Taylor Compton">Karl Taylor Compton</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gale_(astrophysicist)" title="Henry Gale (astrophysicist)">Henry Gale</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Francis_Gray_Swann" title="William Francis Gray Swann">William Francis Gray Swann</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_D._Foote" title="Paul D. Foote">Paul D. Foote</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Wood" title="Robert W. Wood">Robert W. Wood</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_K._Richtmyer" title="Floyd K. Richtmyer">Floyd K. Richtmyer</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_M._Randall" title="Harrison M. Randall">Harrison M. Randall</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_James_Briggs" title="Lyman James Briggs">Lyman James Briggs</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Torrence_Tate_Sr." title="John Torrence Tate Sr.">John Torrence Tate Sr.</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zeleny" title="John Zeleny">John Zeleny</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Stewart" title="George W. Stewart">George Stewart</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_W._Hull" title="Albert W. Hull">Albert W. Hull</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Jeffrey_Dempster" title="Arthur Jeffrey Dempster">Arthur Jeffrey Dempster</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Fletcher" title="Harvey Fletcher">Harvey Fletcher</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Condon" title="Edward Condon">Edward Condon</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Alvin_DuBridge" title="Lee Alvin DuBridge">Lee Alvin DuBridge</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Wheeler_Loomis" title="Francis Wheeler Loomis">Francis Wheeler Loomis</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Christian_Lauritsen" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Christian Lauritsen">Charles Christian Lauritsen</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">John Hasbrouck Van Vleck</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> (1953)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">H. Bethe</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Thayer_Birge" title="Raymond Thayer Birge">Raymond Thayer Birge</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">E. Wigner</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Beams" title="Jesse Beams">Jesse Beams</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Uhlenbeck" title="George Uhlenbeck">George Uhlenbeck</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Weisskopf" title="Victor Weisskopf">Victor Weisskopf</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Seitz" title="Frederick Seitz">Frederick Seitz</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_V._Houston" title="William V. Houston">William V. Houston</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Harry_Williams" title="John Harry Williams">John Harry Williams</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Felix Bloch</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Archibald Wheeler</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles H. Townes</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Walter Alvarez</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Edward Mills Purcell</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Serber" title="Robert Serber">Robert Serber</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_M._Morse" title="Philip M. Morse">Philip M. Morse</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Edward_Mayer" title="Joseph Edward Mayer">Joseph Edward Mayer</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pief_Panofsky" title="Pief Panofsky">Pief Panofsky</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">William A. Fowler</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Pake" title="George Pake">George Pake</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_M._Branscomb" title="Lewis M. Branscomb">Lewis M. Branscomb</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Feshbach" title="Herman Feshbach">Herman Feshbach</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Arthur Leonard Schawlow</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Goldhaber" title="Maurice Goldhaber">Maurice Goldhaber</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Marshak" title="Robert Marshak">Robert Marshak</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mildred_Dresselhaus" title="Mildred Dresselhaus">Mildred Dresselhaus</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert R. Wilson</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Drell" title="Sidney Drell">Sidney Drell</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Logsdon Fitch</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Krumhansl" title="James A. Krumhansl">James A. Krumhansl</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_Merzbacher" title="Eugen Merzbacher">Eugen Merzbacher</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_M._Henley" title="Ernest M. Henley">Ernest M. Henley</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_N._Langenberg" title="Donald N. Langenberg">Donald N. Langenberg</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Burton Richter</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar Patel</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">J.R. Schrieffer</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._Allan_Bromley" title="D. Allan Bromley">D. Allan Bromley</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Sessler" title="Andrew Sessler">Andrew Sessler</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Jerome Isaac Friedman</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_S._Langer" title="James S. Langer">James S. Langer</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Trilling" title="George Trilling">George Trilling</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Brinkman" title="William F. Brinkman">William F. Brinkman</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriam_Sarachik" title="Myriam Sarachik">Myriam Sarachik</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Quinn" title="Helen Quinn">Helen Quinn</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_L._Cohen" title="Marvin L. Cohen">Marvin L. Cohen</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">John Hopfield</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Kadanoff" title="Leo Kadanoff">Leo Kadanoff</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Bienenstock" title="Arthur Bienenstock">Arthur Bienenstock</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_A._Murray" title="Cherry A. Murray">Cherry A. Murray</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Callan" title="Curtis Callan">Curtis Callan</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barry Barish</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Byer" title="Robert L. Byer">Robert L. Byer</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_S._Turner" title="Michael S. Turner">Michael S. Turner</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Beasley" title="Malcolm Beasley">Malcolm R. Beasley</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Aronson" title="Sam Aronson">Sam Aronson</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Neal" title="Homer Neal">Homer Neal</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Greene_(physicist)" title="Laura Greene (physicist)">Laura Greene</a> (2017)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Falcone" title="Roger Falcone">Roger Falcone</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">David Gross</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_H._Bucksbaum" title="Philip H. Bucksbaum">Philip H. Bucksbaum</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvester_James_Gates" title="Sylvester James Gates">Sylvester James Gates Jr.</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Hellman" title="Frances Hellman">Frances Hellman</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Rosner" title="Robert Rosner">Robert Rosner</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Manhattan_Project245" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Manhattan_Project" title="Template talk:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan_Project" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Manhattan Project"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Manhattan_Project245" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Manhattan_Project" title="Timeline of the Manhattan Project">Timeline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ames_Project" title="Ames Project">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago</a> (<a href="/wiki/Site_A" title="Site A">Site A</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayton_Project" title="Dayton Project">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanford_Engineer_Works" title="Hanford Engineer Works">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Camel" title="Project Camel">Inyokern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Laboratory" title="Montreal Laboratory">Montreal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Engineer_Works" title="Clinton Engineer Works">Oak Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_Wells_Pilot_Plant" title="Salt Wells Pilot Plant">Salt Wells Pilot Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_(nuclear_test)" title="Trinity (nuclear test)">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendover_Air_Force_Base" title="Wendover Air Force Base">Wendover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-9_Project" title="P-9 Project">Heavy water sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Administrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Arthur Compton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_B._Conant" title="James B. Conant">James B. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscilla_Duffield" title="Priscilla Duffield">Priscilla Duffield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Farrell_(United_States_Army_officer)" title="Thomas Farrell (United States Army officer)">Thomas Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_Groves" title="Leslie Groves">Leslie Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lansdale_Jr." title="John Lansdale Jr.">John Lansdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Ernest Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_C._Marshall" title="James C. Marshall">James Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Matthias" title="Franklin Matthias">Franklin Matthias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_McKibbin" title="Dorothy McKibbin">Dorothy McKibbin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Nichols" title="Kenneth Nichols">Kenneth Nichols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Robert Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Sterling_Parsons" title="William Sterling Parsons">Deak Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Pash" title="Boris Pash">Boris Pash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Purnell" title="William R. Purnell">William Purnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Spedding" title="Frank Spedding">Frank Spedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Allen_Thomas" title="Charles Allen Thomas">Charles Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tibbets" title="Paul Tibbets">Paul Tibbets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_L._Uanna" title="William L. Uanna">Bud Uanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stafford_L._Warren" title="Stafford L. Warren">Stafford Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Westcott" title="Ed Westcott">Ed Westcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Charles_Wilson" title="Roscoe Charles Wilson">Roscoe Wilson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Luis Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bacher" title="Robert Bacher">Robert Bacher</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hans Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">Aage Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norris_Bradbury" title="Norris Bradbury">Norris Bradbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">John Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Critchfield" title="Charles Critchfield">Charles Critchfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Daghlian" title="Harry Daghlian">Harry Daghlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Dunning" title="John R. Dunning">John R. Dunning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Val Fitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">James Franck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaus_Fuchs" title="Klaus Fuchs">Klaus Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Kistiakowsky" title="George Kistiakowsky">George Kistiakowsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Koval" title="George Koval">George Koval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_McMillan" title="Edwin McMillan">Edwin McMillan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Mark Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Pegram" title="George B. Pegram">George B. Pegram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Ramsey_Jr." title="Norman Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Isaac Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">James Rainwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn Seaborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Slotin" title="Louis Slotin">Louis Slotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_DeWolf_Smyth" title="Henry DeWolf Smyth">Henry DeWolf Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Szilard" title="Leo Szilard">Leo Szilard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_Ulam" title="Stanisław Ulam">Stanisław Ulam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">John von Neumann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Archibald_Wheeler" title="John Archibald Wheeler">John Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Wilson" title="Robert R. Wilson">Robert Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leona_Woods" title="Leona Woods">Leona Woods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsos_Mission" title="Alsos Mission">Alsos Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Crossroads" title="Operation Crossroads">Operation Crossroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Peppermint" title="Operation Peppermint">Operation Peppermint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Alberta" title="Project Alberta">Project Alberta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverplate" title="Silverplate">Silverplate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/509th_Composite_Group" title="509th Composite Group">509th Composite Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enola_Gay" title="Enola Gay">Enola Gay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bockscar" title="Bockscar">Bockscar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Artiste" title="The Great Artiste">The Great Artiste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_Man" title="Fat Man">Fat Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumpkin_bomb" title="Pumpkin bomb">Pumpkin bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_Man_(nuclear_bomb)" title="Thin Man (nuclear bomb)">Thin Man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_scientists_and_technicians_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="African-American scientists and technicians on the Manhattan Project">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1946" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1946">Atomic Energy Act of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bismuth_phosphate_process" title="Bismuth phosphate process">Bismuth phosphate process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_contribution_to_the_Manhattan_Project" title="British contribution to the Manhattan Project">British contribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron_Girls" title="Calutron Girls">Calutron Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demon_core" title="Demon core">Demon core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein%E2%80%93Szilard_letter" title="Einstein–Szilard letter">Einstein–Szilard letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franck_Report" title="Franck Report">Franck Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Committee" title="Interim Committee">Interim Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-25" title="K-25">K-25 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_Primer" title="Los Alamos Primer">Los Alamos Primer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_who_worked_on_the_Manhattan_Project" title="List of Nobel laureates who worked on the Manhattan Project">Nobel Prize laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_Agreement" title="Quebec Agreement">Quebec Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RaLa_Experiment" title="RaLa Experiment">RaLa Experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-1_Executive_Committee" title="S-1 Executive Committee">S-1 Executive Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-50_(Manhattan_Project)" title="S-50 (Manhattan Project)">S-50 Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report">Smyth Report</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-10_Graphite_Reactor" title="X-10 Graphite Reactor">X-10 Graphite Reactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calutron" title="Calutron">Y-12 Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Manhattan_Project" title="Category:Manhattan Project">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/26px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/34px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/17px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/26px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/34px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1276" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/19px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/37px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q155794#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3715" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q155794#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata3715" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q155794#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000110237544">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/32057187">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1427179/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJyRFGMfrgBPH9PkhVxv73">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118658662">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n50009103">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12275191v">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12275191v">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00433198">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Project</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=22965780100">Scopus</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:bethe.hans-a">zbMATH</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/36115">MathSciNet</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.leopoldina.org/mitgliederverzeichnis/mitglieder/member/Member/show/hans-a-bethe/">Leopoldina</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/3c517424-eafe-410e-a22a-5d3b6adae533">MusicBrainz</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/143248">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118658662.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118658662">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/031560288">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10582016">NARA</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6pn965q">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&oldid=1272867483">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hans_Bethe&oldid=1272867483</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_American_physicists" title="Category:20th-century American physicists">20th-century American physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20th-century_German_physicists" title="Category:20th-century German 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