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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Element</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Element-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Compound" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compound"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Compound</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compound-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Molecule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Molecule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Molecule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Molecule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Substance_and_mixture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Substance_and_mixture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Substance and mixture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Substance_and_mixture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mole_and_amount_of_substance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mole_and_amount_of_substance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.6</span> <span>Mole and amount of substance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mole_and_amount_of_substance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Phase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bonding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bonding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Bonding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bonding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Energy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ions_and_salts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ions_and_salts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Ions and salts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ions_and_salts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acidity_and_basicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acidity_and_basicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Acidity and basicity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acidity_and_basicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Redox" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Redox"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Redox</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Redox-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equilibrium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equilibrium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Equilibrium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equilibrium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_laws" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_laws"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Chemical laws</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_laws-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Definition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Practice</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practice-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Practice subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Subdisciplines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subdisciplines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Subdisciplines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subdisciplines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interdisciplinary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interdisciplinary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Interdisciplinary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interdisciplinary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professional_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professional_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Professional societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professional_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Chemistry</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 235 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-235" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">235 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemie" title="Chemie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chemie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemie" title="Chemie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Chemie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%A8%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%95%E1%89%B0_%E1%8A%95%E1%8C%A5%E1%88%AD_%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%93%E1%89%B5" title="የጥንተ ንጥር ጥናት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="የጥንተ ንጥር ጥናት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="रसायनशास्त्र – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="रसायनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="كيمياء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كيمياء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quimica" title="Quimica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Quimica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9F%DC%9D%DC%A1%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܟܝܡܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܟܝܡܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D5%A1%D6%80%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տարրաբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Տարրաբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie" title="Chimie – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Chimie" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C2%B7imie" title="Ch·imie – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Ch·imie" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ৰসায়ন বিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ৰসায়ন বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica" title="Química – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Química" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="रसायनशास्‍त्र – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="रसायनशास्‍त्र" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADmika" title="Kímika – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kímika" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimya" title="Kimya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kimya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="شیمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="شیمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A8" title="রসায়ন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রসায়ন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B2a-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Hòa-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hòa-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Хімія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Хімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Хімія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Хімія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="रसायनशास्‍त्र – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="रसायनशास्‍त्र" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika" title="Kimika – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kimika" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemistri" title="Kemistri – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Kemistri" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemii" title="Kemii – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Kemii" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BE%AB%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%82%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="རྫས་འགྱུར་རིག་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རྫས་འགྱུར་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemija" title="Hemija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hemija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimiezh" title="Kimiezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kimiezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Хими – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Хими" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica" title="Química – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Química" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Хими – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Хими" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika" title="Kimika – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Kimika" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemie" title="Chemie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chemie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quimica" title="Quimica – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Quimica" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemishonga" title="Chemishonga – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chemishonga" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemistre" title="Kemistre – Tumbuka" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Kemistre" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="Tumbuka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica" title="Chimica – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Chimica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cemeg" title="Cemeg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cemeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemi" title="Kemi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kemi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A" title="شيمي – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="شيمي" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemie" title="Chemie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chemie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%86%DE%A9%DE%89%DE%A8%DE%87%DE%A7%DE%87%DE%A9_%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%89%DE%AA" title="ކީމިއާއީ އިލްމު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ކީމިއާއީ އިލްމު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keemia" title="Keemia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Keemia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A7%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Χημεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Χημεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A9mmica" title="Chémmica – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Chémmica" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica" title="Química – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Química" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemio" title="Kemio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kemio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica" title="Química – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Química" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika" title="Kimika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kimika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C" title="شیمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شیمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasayan_vigyan" title="Rasayan vigyan – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Rasayan vigyan" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evnafr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Evnafrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Evnafrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie" title="Chimie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chimie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiekunde" title="Skiekunde – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Skiekunde" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimiche" title="Chimiche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Chimiche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceimic" title="Ceimic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ceimic" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemmig" title="Kemmig – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Kemmig" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceimigeachd" title="Ceimigeachd – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Ceimigeachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica" title="Química – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Química" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Хими – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Хими" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="化學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemu" title="Kemu – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Kemu" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%A3_%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0" title="રસાયણ શાસ્ત્ર – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="રસાયણ શાસ્ત્ર" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Fa-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Fa-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%ED%95%99" title="화학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimiyya" title="Kimiyya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kimiyya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemika" title="Kemika – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kemika" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Քիմիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քիմիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="रसायन विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रसायन विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemija" title="Kemija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kemija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemio" title="Kemio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kemio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADmika" title="Kímika – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kímika" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimia" title="Chimia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Chimia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie" title="Chimie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Chimie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Хими – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Хими" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/IKhemistri" title="IKhemistri – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="IKhemistri" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umchazatho" title="Umchazatho – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umchazatho" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efnafr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Efnafræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Efnafræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica" title="Chimica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chimica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="כימיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כימיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siimii_l%C9%9B%C9%A3t%CA%8B" title="Siimii lɛɣtʋ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Siimii lɛɣtʋ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ქიმია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ქიმია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%9A%D9%86" title="رسایٚن – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="رسایٚن" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemij%C3%B4" title="Chemijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Chemijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kymystry" title="Kymystry – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Kymystry" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemia" title="Kemia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kemia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Razopa" title="Razopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Razopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimi" title="Chimi – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Chimi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimi" title="Chimi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Chimi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%AEmya" title="Kîmya – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kîmya" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica" title="Chimica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Chimica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemika" title="Kemika – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Kemika" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B5%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ເຄມີສາດ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ເຄມີສາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemia" title="Chemia – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Chemia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B6%C4%ABmija" title="Ķīmija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ķīmija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie" title="Chimie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Chimie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemija" title="Chemija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Chemija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimica" title="Chimica – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Chimica" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemie" title="Chemie – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Chemie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9mi" title="Kémi – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Kémi" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimica" title="Cimica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Cimica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/xumske" title="xumske – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="xumske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebyobuziba" title="Ebyobuziba – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Ebyobuziba" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ADmica" title="Chímica – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Chímica" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9mia" title="Kémia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kémia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E2%80%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="रसायनशास्‍त्र – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="रसायनशास्‍त्र" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хемија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хемија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simia" title="Simia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Simia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="രസതന്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="രസതന്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika" title="Kimika – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Kimika" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mi mw-list-item"><a href="https://mi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C4%81tauranga_mat%C5%AB" title="Mātauranga matū – Māori" lang="mi" hreflang="mi" data-title="Mātauranga matū" data-language-autonym="Māori" data-language-local-name="Māori" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Māori</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="रसायनशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रसायनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A5%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ქიმია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ქიმია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="كيميا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كيميا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="کیمیا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کیمیا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%84%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%A0%EA%AF%87%EA%AF%A4%EA%AF%9F%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯄꯣꯠꯇꯤꯟꯂꯣꯟ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯄꯣꯠꯇꯤꯟꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hu%C3%A1-h%C5%8Fk" title="Huá-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Huá-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica" title="Química – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Química" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Химиясь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Химиясь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Хими – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Хими" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဓာတုဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဓာတုဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemisitiri" title="Kemisitiri – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Kemisitiri" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheikunde" title="Scheikunde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Scheikunde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheikunde" title="Scheikunde – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Scheikunde" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="रसायनशास्त्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रसायनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="रसायनशास्त्र – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="रसायनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%A6" title="化学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="化学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemii" title="Chemii – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Chemii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemistrii" title="Kemistrii – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Kemistrii" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjemi" title="Kjemi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjemi" title="Kjemi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjemi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie" title="Chimie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Chimie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemie" title="Kemie – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Kemie" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quimia" title="Quimia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Quimia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Химий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Химий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AD%9F%E0%AC%A8_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ରସାୟନ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ରସାୟନ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemistirii" title="Kemistirii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Kemistirii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimyo" title="Kimyo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kimyo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A3_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਰਸਾਇਣ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰਸਾਇਣ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="کیمسٹری – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کیمسٹری" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%93%E1%80%AC%E1%80%90%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဓာတုဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ဓာတုဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="کيميا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کيميا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimischri" title="Kimischri – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kimischri" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6" title="គីមីវិទ្យា – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="គីមីវិទ្យា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A9mie" title="Kémie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Kémie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemistri" title="Kemistri – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Kemistri" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemie" title="Chemie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Chemie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemia" title="Chemia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chemia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%C3%ADmica" title="Química – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Química" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ximiya" title="Ximiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Ximiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himiya" title="Himiya – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Himiya" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimie" title="Chimie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Chimie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaqllisinchi" title="Chaqllisinchi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chaqllisinchi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Хемія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Хемія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemisi" title="Kemisi – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Kemisi" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="रसतन्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="रसतन्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="کیمسٹری – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="کیمسٹری" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ACmica" title="Chìmica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Chìmica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistrie" title="Chemistrie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Chemistrie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemie" title="Chemie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Chemie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nso mw-list-item"><a href="https://nso.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khemistri" title="Khemistri – Northern Sotho" lang="nso" hreflang="nso" data-title="Khemistri" data-language-autonym="Sesotho sa Leboa" data-language-local-name="Northern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho sa Leboa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ACmica" title="Chìmica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Chìmica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="රසායන විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="රසායන විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chemistry" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%DA%AA%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="علم ڪيميا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="علم ڪيميا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikhemisi" title="Ikhemisi – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Ikhemisi" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>SiSwati</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A9mia" title="Chémia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chémia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemija" title="Kemija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kemija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chymij%C5%8F" title="Chymijŏ – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Chymijŏ" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimisteri" title="Kimisteri – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Kimisteri" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="کیمیا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کیمیا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Хемија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хемија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemija" title="Hemija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hemija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemia" title="Kemia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kemia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemi" title="Kemi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kemi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimika" title="Kimika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kimika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="வேதியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வேதியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takimit" title="Takimit – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Takimit" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takrura" title="Takrura – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Takrura" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%A8_%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="రసాయన శాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రసాయన శాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADmika" title="Kímika – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Kímika" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="Tetum" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tetun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B5" title="เคมี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เคมี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C3%B6c%C3%ABk%C3%A4ti%C9%94%C9%94p" title="Piöcëkätiɔɔp – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Piöcëkätiɔɔp" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Thuɔŋjäŋ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%91" title="Кимиё – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Кимиё" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-to mw-list-item"><a href="https://to.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemi" title="Kemi – Tongan" lang="to" hreflang="to" data-title="Kemi" data-language-autonym="Lea faka-Tonga" data-language-local-name="Tongan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lea faka-Tonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%91%E1%8F%B0%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%A7%E1%8F%93%E1%8E%B4%E1%8E%B2%E1%8F%93%E1%8F%85%E1%8F%AC%E1%8F%98" title="ᎠᏑᏰᏗᏧᏓᎴᎲᏓᏅᏬᏘ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᏑᏰᏗᏧᏓᎴᎲᏓᏅᏬᏘ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%82_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಭೂ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಭೂ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimya" title="Kimya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kimya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himi%C3%BDa" title="Himiýa – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Himiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Химия – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Химия" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Удмурт</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Хімія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хімія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="کیمیا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کیمیا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vayoz" title="Vayoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Vayoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%ACmega" title="Chìmega – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Chìmega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himii" title="Himii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Himii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B3a_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Hóa học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hóa học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiemav" title="Kiemav – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Kiemav" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keemi%C3%A4" title="Keemiä – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Keemiä" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tchimeye" title="Tchimeye – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Tchimeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achajaya" title="Achajaya – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Achajaya" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="化學" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADmika" title="Kímika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kímika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="化學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntivo-Mirhi" title="Ntivo-Mirhi – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ntivo-Mirhi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A2%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A2" title="כעמיע – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="כעמיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E1%BA%B9%CC%81m%C3%ADstr%C3%AC" title="Kẹ́místrì – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Kẹ́místrì" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="化學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimya" title="Kimya – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Kimya" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheikunde" title="Scheikunde – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Scheikunde" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kem%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Kemėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Kemėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%96%E5%AD%B8" title="化學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="化學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimia" title="Kimia – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Kimia" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimj%C9%99" title="Kimjə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Kimjə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%BD%E2%B5%94%E2%B5%93%E2%B5%94%E2%B4%B0" title="ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⴽⵔⵓⵔⴰ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2329#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #A2B8BF"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:175%; font-weight:bold;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemistry</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gnome-applications-science.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gnome-applications-science.svg/100px-Gnome-applications-science.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gnome-applications-science.svg/150px-Gnome-applications-science.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Gnome-applications-science.svg/200px-Gnome-applications-science.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="padding:0 0 0.8em;"><b>The science of matter</b></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.15em 0.15em 0.25em; display:block; background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles" title="Index of chemistry articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry" title="Outline of chemistry">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Glossary</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Key components</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)"> Phase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond"> Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction" title="Acid–base reaction">Acid–base reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">Redox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">Chemical equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_law" title="Chemical law">Chemical law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Branches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-bottom:1px solid #A2B8BF"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Research</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">Chemist</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_chemists" title="List of chemists">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemistry_awards" title="List of chemistry awards">List of chemistry awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals" title="List of chemistry journals">List of journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry" title="List of unsolved problems in chemistry">List of unsolved problems</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/16px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/24px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg/32px-Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Chemistry" title="Portal:Chemistry">Chemistry portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Chemistry" title="Category:Chemistry">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry" title="Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:TopicTOC-Chemistry" title="Template talk:TopicTOC-Chemistry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:TopicTOC-Chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Chemistry</b> is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-brown2018_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brown2018-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a <a href="/wiki/Physical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical science">physical science</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a> that studies the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> that make up matter and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compounds</a> made of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">reactions</a> with other <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">substances</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-definition_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-definition-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemistry also addresses the nature of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonds</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">chemical compounds</a>. </p><p>In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">the central science</a> because it provides a foundation for understanding both <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied</a> scientific disciplines at a fundamental level.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth (<a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>), the formation of igneous rocks (<a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded (<a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a>), the properties of the soil on the Moon (<a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">cosmochemistry</a>), how medications work (<a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>), and how to collect <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> evidence at a crime scene (<a href="/wiki/Forensic" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic">forensics</a>). </p><p>Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study. The applications of various fields of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemical industry</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etymology_of_chemistry" title="Etymology of chemistry">Etymology of chemistry</a></div> <p>The word <i><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_(word)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemistry (word)">chemistry</a></i> comes from a modification during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> of the word <i><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>,</i> which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. Alchemy is often associated with the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though <a href="/wiki/Alchemists" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemists">alchemists</a> were also interested in many of the questions of modern chemistry. <sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern word <i>alchemy</i> in turn is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> word <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-kīmīā</i></span> (<span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">الكیمیاء</span></span>). This may have <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a> origins since <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-kīmīā</i></span> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">χημία</span></span>, which is in turn derived from the word <span title="Ancient Egyptian-language text"><i lang="egy"><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Name of Egypt">Kemet</a></i></span>, which is the ancient name of Egypt in the Egyptian language.<sup id="cite_ref-oed_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oed-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternately, <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-kīmīā</i></span> may derive from <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">χημεία</span></span> 'cast together'.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_principles">Modern principles</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lab_bench.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Lab_bench.jpg/250px-Lab_bench.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Lab_bench.jpg/375px-Lab_bench.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Lab_bench.jpg/500px-Lab_bench.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">Laboratory</a>, Institute of Biochemistry, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cologne" title="University of Cologne">University of Cologne</a> in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The current model of atomic structure is the <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanical_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum mechanical model">quantum mechanical model</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditional chemistry starts with the study of <a href="/wiki/Elementary_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Elementary particles">elementary particles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">substances</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a> and other aggregates of <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>. Matter can be studied in solid, liquid, gas and plasma <a href="/wiki/States_of_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="States of matter">states</a>, in isolation or in combination. The interactions, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">reactions</a> and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonds</a> which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratory</a>. </p><p>The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_glassware" title="Laboratory glassware">laboratory glassware</a>. However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemicals_in_flasks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Chemicals_in_flasks.jpg/220px-Chemicals_in_flasks.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Chemicals_in_flasks.jpg/330px-Chemicals_in_flasks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Chemicals_in_flasks.jpg/440px-Chemicals_in_flasks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1818" /></a><figcaption>Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_hydroxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonium hydroxide">ammonium hydroxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a>, illuminated in different colors</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation">chemical equation</a>, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reaction</a> or <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a>.) The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as <a href="/wiki/Chemical_law" title="Chemical law">chemical laws</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their <a href="/wiki/Structure" title="Structure">structure</a>, phase, as well as their <a href="/wiki/Chemical_composition" title="Chemical composition">chemical compositions</a>. They can be analyzed using the tools of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical analysis">chemical analysis</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">chromatography</a>. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as <a href="/wiki/Chemists" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemists">chemists</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Matter">Matter</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a></div> <p>In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has <a href="/wiki/Invariant_mass" title="Invariant mass">rest mass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a> (it takes up space) and is made up of <a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a>. The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all particles have rest mass, such as the <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>. Matter can be a pure <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substance</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a> of substances.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Atom">Atom</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atom_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Atom_Diagram.svg/170px-Atom_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Atom_Diagram.svg/255px-Atom_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Atom_Diagram.svg/340px-Atom_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of an atom based on the <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_model" title="Rutherford model">Rutherford model</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> surrounded by a space occupied by an <a href="/wiki/Electron_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron cloud">electron cloud</a>. The nucleus is made up of positively charged <a href="/wiki/Protons" class="mw-redirect" title="Protons">protons</a> and uncharged <a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a> (together called <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a>), while the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> cloud consists of negatively charged <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus is dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrowsHolmanParsonsPilling200913_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrowsHolmanParsonsPilling200913-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHousecroftSharpe20082_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHousecroftSharpe20082-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical properties">chemical properties</a> of the element, such as <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ionization_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionization potential">ionization potential</a>, preferred <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a>(s), <a href="/wiki/Coordination_number" title="Coordination number">coordination number</a>, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metallic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ionic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Covalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Covalent">covalent</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Element">Element</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.svg/300px-Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.svg/450px-Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.svg/600px-Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1205" data-file-height="638" /></a><figcaption>Standard form of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> of chemical elements. The colors represent different <a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">blocks</a> of elements.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></div> <p>A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> and represented by the symbol <i>Z</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a> is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a>. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHousecroftSharpe20082_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHousecroftSharpe20082-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic table group">groups</a>, or columns, and <a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">periods</a>, or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying <a href="/wiki/Periodic_trends" title="Periodic trends">periodic trends</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrowsHolmanParsonsPilling2009110_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrowsHolmanParsonsPilling2009110-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Compound">Compound</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carbon_dioxide_structure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carbon_dioxide_structure.png/130px-Carbon_dioxide_structure.png" decoding="async" width="130" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Carbon_dioxide_structure.png 1.5x" data-file-width="195" data-file-height="167" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a> (CO<sub>2</sub>), an example of a chemical compound</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></div> <p>A <i>compound</i> is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrowsHolmanParsonsPilling200912_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrowsHolmanParsonsPilling200912-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</a> (IUPAC). <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a> are named according to the <a href="/wiki/Organic_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic nomenclature">organic nomenclature</a> system.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The names for <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_compound" title="Inorganic compound">inorganic compounds</a> are created according to the <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_nomenclature" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic nomenclature">inorganic nomenclature</a> system. When a compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the electropositive and the electronegative components.<sup id="cite_ref-IUPAC_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUPAC-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_Abstracts_Service" title="Chemical Abstracts Service">Chemical Abstracts Service</a> has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its <a href="/wiki/CAS_registry_number" class="mw-redirect" title="CAS registry number">CAS registry number</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Molecule">Molecule</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Caffeine_(1)_3D_ball.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Caffeine_%281%29_3D_ball.png/230px-Caffeine_%281%29_3D_ball.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Caffeine_%281%29_3D_ball.png/345px-Caffeine_%281%29_3D_ball.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Caffeine_%281%29_3D_ball.png/460px-Caffeine_%281%29_3D_ball.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>A ball-and-stick representation of the <a href="/wiki/Caffeine" title="Caffeine">caffeine</a> molecule (C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>10</sub>N<sub>4</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)</figcaption></figure> <p>A <i>molecule</i> is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substance</a> that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bonds</a>, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in <a href="/wiki/Lone_pair" title="Lone pair">lone pairs</a>. </p><p>Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular ion">molecular ion</a> or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass spectrometer">mass spectrometer</a>. Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry. Some molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">radicals</a>. Most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benzene-2D-full.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Benzene-2D-full.svg/150px-Benzene-2D-full.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Benzene-2D-full.svg/225px-Benzene-2D-full.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Benzene-2D-full.svg/300px-Benzene-2D-full.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>A 2-D <a href="/wiki/Structural_formula" title="Structural formula">structural formula</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a> molecule (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)</figcaption></figure> <p>The "inert" or <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gas elements</a> (<a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">krypton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a>) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical">pharmaceuticals</a>. </p><p>However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as <a href="/wiki/Ionic_compounds" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic compounds">ionic compounds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Network_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Network solids">network solids</a>, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules <i>per se</i>. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of <a href="/wiki/Formula_unit" title="Formula unit">formula units</a> or <a href="/wiki/Unit_cell" title="Unit cell">unit cells</a> as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as <a href="/wiki/Table_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Table salt">table salt</a>), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silicate_minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicate minerals">silicate minerals</a> such as quartz and granite. </p><p>One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its <a href="/wiki/Molecular_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular structure">structure</a>. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra-atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Substance_and_mixture">Substance and mixture</h4></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:C%C3%ADn.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/C%C3%ADn.png/100px-C%C3%ADn.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/C%C3%ADn.png/150px-C%C3%ADn.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/C%C3%ADn.png/200px-C%C3%ADn.png 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="1381" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulfur-sample.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sulfur-sample.jpg/100px-Sulfur-sample.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sulfur-sample.jpg/150px-Sulfur-sample.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Sulfur-sample.jpg/200px-Sulfur-sample.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="1444" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diamants_macl%C3%A9s_2(R%C3%A9publique_d%27Afrique_du_Sud).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Diamants_macl%C3%A9s_2%28R%C3%A9publique_d%27Afrique_du_Sud%29.jpg/100px-Diamants_macl%C3%A9s_2%28R%C3%A9publique_d%27Afrique_du_Sud%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Diamants_macl%C3%A9s_2%28R%C3%A9publique_d%27Afrique_du_Sud%29.jpg/150px-Diamants_macl%C3%A9s_2%28R%C3%A9publique_d%27Afrique_du_Sud%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Diamants_macl%C3%A9s_2%28R%C3%A9publique_d%27Afrique_du_Sud%29.jpg/200px-Diamants_macl%C3%A9s_2%28R%C3%A9publique_d%27Afrique_du_Sud%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sugar_2xmacro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sugar_2xmacro.jpg/100px-Sugar_2xmacro.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sugar_2xmacro.jpg/150px-Sugar_2xmacro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Sugar_2xmacro.jpg/200px-Sugar_2xmacro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sal_(close).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Sal_%28close%29.jpg/100px-Sal_%28close%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Sal_%28close%29.jpg/150px-Sal_%28close%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Sal_%28close%29.jpg/200px-Sal_%28close%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="770" /></a></span> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sodium_bicarbonate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Sodium_bicarbonate.jpg/100px-Sodium_bicarbonate.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Sodium_bicarbonate.jpg/150px-Sodium_bicarbonate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Sodium_bicarbonate.jpg/200px-Sodium_bicarbonate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1722" data-file-height="1029" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Examples of pure chemical substances. From left to right: the elements <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> (Sn) and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> (S), <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> (an <a href="/wiki/Allotrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotrope">allotrope</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> (pure sugar), and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> (salt) and <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bicarbonate" title="Sodium bicarbonate">sodium bicarbonate</a> (baking soda), which are both ionic compounds.</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite <a href="/wiki/Chemical_composition" title="Chemical composition">composition</a> and set of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_properties" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical properties">properties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A collection of substances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">air</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mole_and_amount_of_substance">Mole and amount of substance</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mole_(unit)" title="Mole (unit)">Mole</a></div> <p>The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an <a href="/wiki/Amount_of_substance" title="Amount of substance">amount of substance</a> (also called chemical amount). One mole is defined to contain exactly <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7023602214076000000♠"></span>6.022<span style="margin-left:.25em;">140</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">76</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>23</sup></span> particles (<a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>), where the <a href="/wiki/Particle_number" title="Particle number">number of particles</a> per mole is known as the <a href="/wiki/Avogadro_constant" title="Avogadro constant">Avogadro constant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurrowsHolmanParsonsPilling200916_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurrowsHolmanParsonsPilling200916-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Molar_concentration" title="Molar concentration">Molar concentration</a> is the amount of a particular substance per volume of <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>, and is commonly reported in mol/<a href="/wiki/Decimetre" title="Decimetre">dm</a><sup>3</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtkinsde_Paula20099_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkinsde_Paula20099-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phase">Phase</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase_changes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Phase_changes.svg/280px-Phase_changes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Phase_changes.svg/420px-Phase_changes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Phase_changes.svg/560px-Phase_changes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing relationships among the phases and the terms used to describe phase changes</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a></div> <p>In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A <i>phase</i> is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> or <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>. </p><p>Physical properties, such as <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> and <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the <i><a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a></i>, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. </p><p>Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary' in this case the matter is considered to be in a <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical</a> state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a <a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">triple point</a> and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions. </p><p>The most familiar examples of phases are <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a>. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">crystal structure</a>, or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the <i>aqueous</i> phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in <a href="/wiki/Aqueous_solution" title="Aqueous solution">aqueous solution</a> (that is, in water). </p><p>Less familiar phases include <a href="/wiki/Plasma_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma physics">plasmas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bose%E2%80%93Einstein_condensate" title="Bose–Einstein condensate">Bose–Einstein condensates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fermionic_condensate" title="Fermionic condensate">fermionic condensates</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">paramagnetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetism" title="Ferromagnetism">ferromagnetic</a> phases of <a href="/wiki/Magnet" title="Magnet">magnetic</a> materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bonding">Bonding</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ionic_bonding_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Ionic_bonding_animation.gif/250px-Ionic_bonding_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="250" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Ionic_bonding_animation.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="151" /></a><figcaption>An animation of the process of ionic bonding between <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> (Na) and <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> (Cl) to form <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>, or common table salt. Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent bonding).</figcaption></figure> <p>Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the <a href="/wiki/Multipole" class="mw-redirect" title="Multipole">multipole</a> balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom. </p><p>The chemical bond can be a <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent bond</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic bond</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">hydrogen bond</a> or just because of <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">Van der Waals force</a>. Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> or <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a>. In many simple compounds, <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond theory</a>, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (<a href="/wiki/VSEPR" class="mw-redirect" title="VSEPR">VSEPR</a>), and the concept of <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation number">oxidation number</a> can be used to explain molecular structure and composition. </p><p>An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between them. For example, <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na<sup>+</sup> cation while <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> (Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl<sup>−</sup>. The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a> (NaCl), or common table salt, is formed. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elektronenformel_Punkte_CH4.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Elektronenformel_Punkte_CH4.svg/170px-Elektronenformel_Punkte_CH4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Elektronenformel_Punkte_CH4.svg/255px-Elektronenformel_Punkte_CH4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Elektronenformel_Punkte_CH4.svg/340px-Elektronenformel_Punkte_CH4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>In the <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> molecule (CH<sub>4</sub>), the carbon atom shares a pair of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms. Thus, the octet rule is satisfied for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its valence shell) and the duet rule is satisfied for the H-atoms (they have two electrons in their valence shells).</figcaption></figure> <p>In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">valence electrons</a> are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a>. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gas</a> electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the <a href="/wiki/Octet_rule" title="Octet rule">octet rule</a>. However, some elements like <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a> need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the <i>duet rule</i>, and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, which has two electrons in its outer shell. </p><p>Similarly, theories from <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a> can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as <a href="/wiki/Complex_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex (chemistry)">metal complexes</a>, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital" title="Molecular orbital">molecular orbital</a> theory, are generally used. See diagram on electronic orbitals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy">Energy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></div> <p>In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its <a href="/wiki/Atomic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic structure">atomic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular structure">molecular</a> or aggregate <a href="/wiki/Chemical_structure" title="Chemical structure">structure</a>. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an <a href="/wiki/Endothermic_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic reaction">increase</a> or <a href="/wiki/Exothermic_reaction" title="Exothermic reaction">decrease</a> of <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or <a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">light</a>; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. </p><p>A reaction is said to be <a href="/wiki/Exergonic_reaction" title="Exergonic reaction">exergonic</a> if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of <a href="/wiki/Endergonic_reaction" title="Endergonic reaction">endergonic reactions</a> the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be <a href="/wiki/Exothermic_reaction" title="Exothermic reaction">exothermic</a> if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of <a href="/wiki/Endothermic_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic reaction">endothermic reactions</a>, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings. </p><p>Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the <a href="/wiki/Activation_energy" title="Activation energy">activation energy</a>. The <i>speed</i> of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle e^{-E/kT}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>e</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle e^{-E/kT}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/545b9d57cd9d78a7a52e5ebbf7e2232086459834" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.685ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle e^{-E/kT}}"></span> – that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the <a href="/wiki/Arrhenius_equation" title="Arrhenius equation">Arrhenius equation</a>. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light, <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> or mechanical <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A related concept <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_free_energy" title="Thermodynamic free energy">free energy</a>, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in <a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">chemical thermodynamics</a>. A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a> is negative, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Delta G\leq 0\,}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>G</mi> <mo>≤</mo> <mn>0</mn> <mspace width="thinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Delta G\leq 0\,}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/479cec508ccea07f79bdddc083d68203e1de2f6c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:8.411ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Delta G\leq 0\,}"></span>; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a>. </p><p>There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, which require <a href="/wiki/Quantization_(physics)" title="Quantization (physics)">quantization</a> of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions. </p><p>The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the <a href="/wiki/Intermolecular_force" title="Intermolecular force">intermolecular forces</a> of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H<sub>2</sub>O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bonds">hydrogen bonds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> (H<sub>2</sub>S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker <a href="/wiki/Dipole%E2%80%93dipole_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Dipole–dipole interaction">dipole–dipole interactions</a>. </p><p>The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the <i>size</i> of energy <a href="/wiki/Quantum" title="Quantum">quanta</a> emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the <a href="/wiki/Phonons" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonons">phonons</a> responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than <a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">photons</a> invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy. </p><p>The existence of characteristic energy levels for different <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemical substances</a> is useful for their identification by the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Spectral_lines" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectral lines">spectral lines</a>. Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microwave_spectroscopy" title="Microwave spectroscopy">microwave</a>, <a href="/wiki/NMR" class="mw-redirect" title="NMR">NMR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electron_spin_resonance" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron spin resonance">ESR</a>, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects – like stars and distant galaxies – by analyzing their radiation spectra. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emission_spectrum-Fe.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Emission_spectrum-Fe.svg/480px-Emission_spectrum-Fe.svg.png" decoding="async" width="480" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Emission_spectrum-Fe.svg/720px-Emission_spectrum-Fe.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Emission_spectrum-Fe.svg/960px-Emission_spectrum-Fe.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="124" /></a><figcaption>Emission spectrum of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The term <a href="/wiki/Energy#Chemical_energy" title="Energy">chemical energy</a> is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reaction</a> or to transform other chemical substances. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reaction">Reaction</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VysokePece1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/VysokePece1.jpg/220px-VysokePece1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/VysokePece1.jpg/330px-VysokePece1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/VysokePece1.jpg/440px-VysokePece1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and form, resulting in different substances with different properties. In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">compound</a>, reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a>, and carbon dioxide.</figcaption></figure> <p>When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A <i>chemical reaction</i> is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often <a href="/wiki/Laboratory_glassware" title="Laboratory glassware">laboratory glassware</a>. </p><p>Chemical reactions can result in the formation or <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(chemistry)" title="Dissociation (chemistry)">dissociation</a> of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more molecules or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">Oxidation, reduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(chemistry)" title="Dissociation (chemistry)">dissociation</a>, acid–base <a href="/wiki/Neutralization_(chemistry)" title="Neutralization (chemistry)">neutralization</a> and molecular <a href="/wiki/Rearrangement_reaction" title="Rearrangement reaction">rearrangement</a> are some examples of common chemical reactions. </p><p>A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation">chemical equation</a>. While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its <a href="/wiki/Reaction_mechanism" title="Reaction mechanism">mechanism</a>. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many <a href="/wiki/Reaction_intermediates" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaction intermediates">reaction intermediates</a> with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">kinetics</a> and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many <a href="/wiki/Chemists" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemists">physical chemists</a> specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the <a href="/wiki/Woodward%E2%80%93Hoffmann_rules" title="Woodward–Hoffmann rules">Woodward–Hoffmann rules</a> often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a> gold book, a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an <a href="/wiki/Elementary_reaction" title="Elementary reaction">elementary reaction</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Stepwise_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Stepwise reaction">stepwise reaction</a>. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the <a href="/wiki/Conformational_isomerism" title="Conformational isomerism">interconversion of conformers</a> is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events'). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ions_and_salts">Ions and salts</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Potassium-chloride-3D-ionic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Potassium-chloride-3D-ionic.png/170px-Potassium-chloride-3D-ionic.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Potassium-chloride-3D-ionic.png/255px-Potassium-chloride-3D-ionic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Potassium-chloride-3D-ionic.png/340px-Potassium-chloride-3D-ionic.png 2x" data-file-width="1035" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>The crystal lattice structure of <a href="/wiki/Potassium_chloride" title="Potassium chloride">potassium chloride</a> (KCl), a salt which is formed due to the attraction of K<sup>+</sup> cations and Cl<sup>−</sup> anions. The overall charge of the ionic compound is zero.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></div> <p>An <i>ion</i> is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or <a href="/wiki/Cation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cation">cation</a>. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or <a href="/wiki/Anion" class="mw-redirect" title="Anion">anion</a>. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salts</a>, such as the Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>−</sup> ions forming <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>, or NaCl. Examples of <a href="/wiki/Polyatomic_ion" title="Polyatomic ion">polyatomic ions</a> that do not split up during <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction" title="Acid–base reaction">acid–base reactions</a> are <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxide</a> (OH<sup>−</sup>) and <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> (PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a> is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acidity_and_basicity">Acidity and basicity</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrogen-bromide-3D-vdW.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Hydrogen-bromide-3D-vdW.svg/180px-Hydrogen-bromide-3D-vdW.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Hydrogen-bromide-3D-vdW.svg/270px-Hydrogen-bromide-3D-vdW.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Hydrogen-bromide-3D-vdW.svg/360px-Hydrogen-bromide-3D-vdW.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="623" data-file-height="586" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bromide" title="Hydrogen bromide">Hydrogen bromide</a> exists in the gas phase as a diatomic molecule.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Acid%E2%80%93base_reaction" title="Acid–base reaction">Acid–base reaction</a></div> <p>A substance can often be classified as an <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acid</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">base</a>. There are several different theories which explain acid–base behavior. The simplest is <a href="/wiki/Arrhenius_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arrhenius acid">Arrhenius theory</a>, which states that acid is a substance that produces <a href="/wiki/Hydronium_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydronium ion">hydronium ions</a> when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxide ion">hydroxide ions</a> when dissolved in water. According to <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%B8nsted%E2%80%93Lowry_acid%E2%80%93base_theory" title="Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory">Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory</a>, acids are substances that donate a positive <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ion</a> to another substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion. </p><p>A third common theory is <a href="/wiki/Lewis_acids_and_bases" title="Lewis acids and bases">Lewis acid–base theory</a>, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond. There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods. One measurement, based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, is <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithmic</a> scale. Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration and can be said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based on the Brønsted–Lowry definition, is the <a href="/wiki/Acid_dissociation_constant" title="Acid dissociation constant">acid dissociation constant</a> (K<sub>a</sub>), which measures the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the Brønsted–Lowry definition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher K<sub>a</sub> are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower K<sub>a</sub> values. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Redox">Redox</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">Redox</a></div> <p>Redox (<em>red</em>uction-<em>ox</em>idation) reactions include all <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> in which atoms have their <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a> changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as <a href="/wiki/Oxidizing_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidizing agents">oxidizing agents</a>, oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as <a href="/wiki/Reducing_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing agents">reducing agents</a>, reductants, or reducers. </p><p>A reductant transfers electrons to another substance and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation number">oxidation number</a>, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equilibrium">Equilibrium</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">Chemical equilibrium</a></div> <p>Although the concept of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a> is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind of phase. </p><p>A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, is most often not <a href="/wiki/Static_equilibrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Static equilibrium">static</a>; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_equilibrium" title="Dynamic equilibrium">dynamic equilibrium</a>. Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_laws">Chemical laws</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_law" title="Chemical law">Chemical law</a></div> <p>Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some of them are: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avogadro%27s_law" title="Avogadro's law">Avogadro's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer%E2%80%93Lambert_law" title="Beer–Lambert law">Beer–Lambert law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law" title="Boyle's law">Boyle's law</a> (1662, relating pressure and volume)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles%27s_law" title="Charles's law">Charles's law</a> (1787, relating volume and temperature)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fick%27s_laws_of_diffusion" title="Fick's laws of diffusion">Fick's laws of diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Pressure law">Gay-Lussac's law</a> (1809, relating pressure and temperature)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Chatelier%27s_principle" title="Le Chatelier's principle">Le Chatelier's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry%27s_law" title="Henry's law">Henry's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hess%27s_law" title="Hess's law">Hess's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">Law of conservation of energy</a> leads to the important concepts of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">kinetics</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_conservation_of_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of conservation of mass">Law of conservation of mass</a> continues to be conserved in <a href="/wiki/Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">isolated systems</a>, even in modern physics. However, <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> shows that due to <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass–energy equivalence</a>, whenever non-material "energy" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">nuclear chemistry</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_definite_composition" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of definite composition">Law of definite composition</a>, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_multiple_proportions" title="Law of multiple proportions">Law of multiple proportions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoult%27s_law" title="Raoult's law">Raoult's law</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a>.</div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">history of chemistry</a> spans a period from the ancient past to the present. Since several millennia BC, civilizations were using technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ores</a>, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into <a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">soap</a>, making <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a>, and making <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> like <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a>. </p><p>Chemistry was preceded by its protoscience, <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>, which operated a non-scientific approach to understanding the constituents of matter and their interactions. Despite being unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry by performing experiments and recording the results. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, although skeptical of elements and convinced of alchemy, played a key part in elevating the "sacred art" as an independent, fundamental and philosophical discipline in his work <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist" title="The Sceptical Chymist">The Sceptical Chymist</a></i> (1661).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, the crucial difference was given by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> that <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemists</a> employed in their work. Chemistry, as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy, became an established science with the work of <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a>, who developed a law of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">conservation of mass</a> that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. The history of chemistry afterwards is intertwined with the <a href="/wiki/History_of_thermodynamics" title="History of thermodynamics">history of thermodynamics</a>, especially through the work of <a href="/wiki/Willard_Gibbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Willard Gibbs">Willard Gibbs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Definition">Definition</h3></div> <p>The definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1663, the chemist <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Glaser" title="Christopher Glaser">Christopher Glaser</a> described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Ernst_Stahl" title="Georg Ernst Stahl">Georg Ernst Stahl</a>, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1837, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Dumas" title="Jean-Baptiste Dumas">Jean-Baptiste Dumas</a> considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances – a characterization accepted by <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recently, in 1998, Professor <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Chang_(chemist)" title="Raymond Chang (chemist)">Raymond Chang</a> broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Epicurus_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Epicurus_Louvre.jpg/180px-Epicurus_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Epicurus_Louvre.jpg/270px-Epicurus_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Epicurus_Louvre.jpg/360px-Epicurus_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a>' atomist philosophy was later adopted by <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> (341–270 BCE).</figcaption></figure> <p>Early civilizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Babylonians</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_metallurgy_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent">Indians</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but did not develop a systematic theory. </p><p>A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a> with the theory of <a href="/wiki/Four_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Four elements">four elements</a> as propounded definitively by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> stating that <a href="/wiki/Fire_(classical_element)" title="Fire (classical element)">fire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Air_(classical_element)" title="Air (classical element)">air</a>, <a href="/wiki/Earth_(classical_element)" title="Earth (classical element)">earth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_(classical_element)" title="Water (classical element)">water</a> were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>. In 50 BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> expanded upon the theory in his poem <i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> (On The Nature of Things).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An early form of the idea of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">conservation of mass</a> is the notion that "<a href="/wiki/Creatio_ex_materia" title="Creatio ex materia">Nothing comes from nothing</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a>, which can be found in <a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> (approx. 4th century BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed."<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> (3rd century BC), who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/180px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/270px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg/360px-Al-Jaahith_-_African_Arab_Naturalist_-_Basra_-_al_jahiz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="922" /></a><figcaption>15th-century artistic impression of <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān">Jābir ibn Hayyān</a> (Geber), a <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in Islam">Perso-Arab alchemist</a> and pioneer in <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic world">Hellenistic world</a> the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and discovering the elixir of eternal life.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Work, particularly the development of <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>, continued in the early <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Zosimos_of_Panopolis" title="Zosimos of Panopolis">Zosimos of Panopolis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and from there, and from the Byzantine remnants,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> diffused into medieval and <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> Europe through Latin translations. </p><p>The Arabic works attributed to <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a> introduced a systematic classification of chemical substances, and provided instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (<a href="/wiki/Sal_ammoniac" class="mw-redirect" title="Sal ammoniac">sal ammoniac</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ammonium_chloride" title="Ammonium chloride">ammonium chloride</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic substances</a> (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_of_names" title="Latinisation of names">Latinized</a> name "Geber",<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Geber" title="Pseudo-Geber">pseudo-Geber</a>, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later influential Muslim philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_al-Rayh%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī">Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> disputed the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the <a href="/wiki/Philosopher%27s_stone" title="Philosopher's stone">transmutation of metals</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Georgius_Agricola.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg/180px-Georgius_Agricola.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg/270px-Georgius_Agricola.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/Georgius_Agricola.jpg 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Georgius_Agricola" title="Georgius Agricola">Georgius Agricola</a>, author of <a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica">De re metallica</a>, was the first to drop the Arabic definite article <i>al-</i>, exclusively writing <i>chymia</i> and <i>chymista</i>, giving chemistry its modern name.<sup id="cite_ref-Hexagon2005_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hexagon2005-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-berk_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berk-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._10_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._10-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Improvements of the refining of ores and their extractions to smelt metals was widely used source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them <a href="/wiki/Georg_Agricola" class="mw-redirect" title="Georg Agricola">Georg Agricola</a> (1494–1555), who published his major work <a href="/wiki/De_re_metallica" title="De re metallica">De re metallica</a> in 1556. His work, describing highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores and metal extraction, were the pinnacle of metallurgy during that time. His approach removed all mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could and would build. The work describes the many kinds of furnace used to smelt ore, and stimulated interest in minerals and their composition. Agricola has been described as the "father of metallurgy" and the founder of <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> as a scientific discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-berk_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-berk-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._10_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._10-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">new empirical methods</a> propounded by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Bacon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Francis Bacon">Sir Francis Bacon</a> and others, a group of chemists at <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Mayow" title="John Mayow">John Mayow</a> began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline. Boyle in particular questioned some commonly held chemical theories and argued for chemical practitioners to be more "philosophical" and less commercially focused in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist" title="The Sceptical Chymist">The Sceptical Chemyst</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He formulated <a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law" title="Boyle's law">Boyle's law</a>, rejected the classical "four elements" and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> that could be subject to rigorous experiment.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_%28cropped%29.jpg/270px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1097" data-file-height="1266" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antoine-Laurent_de_Lavoisier" class="mw-redirect" title="Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier">Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier</a> is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the following decades, many important discoveries were made, such as the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases. The Scottish chemist <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a> and the Flemish <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754; <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cavendish" title="Henry Cavendish">Henry Cavendish</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and elucidated its properties and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a> and, independently, <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele" title="Carl Wilhelm Scheele">Carl Wilhelm Scheele</a> isolated pure <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. The theory of <a href="/wiki/Phlogiston" class="mw-redirect" title="Phlogiston">phlogiston</a> (a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German <a href="/wiki/Georg_Ernst_Stahl" title="Georg Ernst Stahl">Georg Ernst Stahl</a> in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a>, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics. Lavoisier did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">conservation of mass</a> and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>English scientist <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> proposed the modern <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">theory of atoms</a>; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights. </p><p>The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a>, made possible by the prior invention of the <a href="/wiki/Voltaic_pile" title="Voltaic pile">voltaic pile</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>. Davy discovered nine new elements including the <a href="/wiki/Alkali_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali metals">alkali metals</a> by extracting them from their <a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxides</a> with electric current.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_4.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_4.gif/220px-%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_4.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_4.gif/330px-%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_4.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_4.gif/440px-%D0%94%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%98%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B5%D0%B2_4.gif 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>In his periodic table, <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a> predicted the existence of 7 new elements,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and placed all 60 elements known at the time in their correct places.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>British <a href="/wiki/William_Prout" title="William Prout">William Prout</a> first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. <a href="/wiki/J.A.R._Newlands" class="mw-redirect" title="J.A.R. Newlands">J.A.R. Newlands</a> devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> of elements<sup id="cite_ref-WebElements_dot_com_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WebElements_dot_com-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 1860s by <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a> and independently by several other scientists including <a href="/wiki/Julius_Lothar_Meyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Lothar Meyer">Julius Lothar Meyer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inert gases, later called the <a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">noble gases</a> were discovered by <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a> in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Lord_Rayleigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg/170px-Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg/255px-Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg/340px-Rutherford_gold_foil_experiment_results.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption><i>Top:</i> Expected results: <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a> passing through the <a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">plum pudding model</a> of the atom undisturbed.<br /> <i>Bottom:</i> Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">a small, concentrated charge</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms. In 1897, <a href="/wiki/J.J._Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="J.J. Thomson">J.J. Thomson</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> and soon after the French scientist <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">Becquerel</a> as well as the couple <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> investigated the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>. In a series of pioneering scattering experiments <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmuted</a> the first element by bombarding <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> with <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>. </p><p>His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a>, the Englishman <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a> and the German <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a>, who went on to father the emerging <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">nuclear chemistry</a> and discovered <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. The electronic theory of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">chemical bonds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_orbital" title="Molecular orbital">molecular orbitals</a> was developed by the American scientists <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert N. Lewis</a>. </p><p>The year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the International Year of Chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was an initiative of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities. </p><p>Organic chemistry was developed by <a href="/wiki/Justus_von_Liebig" title="Justus von Liebig">Justus von Liebig</a> and others, following <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a>'s synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding (<a href="/wiki/Edward_Frankland" title="Edward Frankland">Edward Frankland</a> in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry (<a href="/wiki/J._W._Gibbs" class="mw-redirect" title="J. W. Gibbs">J. W. Gibbs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a> in the 1870s). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practice">Practice</h2></div> <p>In the practice of chemistry, <b>pure chemistry</b> is the study of the fundamental principles of chemistry, while <b>applied chemistry</b> applies that knowledge to develop technology and solve real-world problems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subdisciplines">Subdisciplines</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry#Branches_of_chemistry" title="Outline of chemistry">Outline of chemistry § Branches of chemistry</a></div><p>Chemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical chemistry</a> is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their <a href="/wiki/Chemical_composition" title="Chemical composition">chemical composition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_structure" title="Chemical structure">structure</a>. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg/310px-DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg/465px-DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg/620px-DU640_spectrophotometer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3984" data-file-height="2298" /></a><figcaption>In analytical chemistry, <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> studies interactions between electromagnetic radiation (light) and matter.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">spectrophotometer</a> is a machine used to measure the effect light has on matter. The model pictured is the Beckman DU-640</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">chemicals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">chemical reactions</a> and interactions that take place at a molecular level in living <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. Biochemistry is highly interdisciplinary, covering <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">medicinal chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">neurochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant science">plant science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic chemistry</a> is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds, such as metals and minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">organometallic chemistry</a>.<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metallocenes3.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Metallocenes3.png/350px-Metallocenes3.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Metallocenes3.png 1.5x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="166" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kaminsky_catalyst" title="Kaminsky catalyst">Kaminsky catalyst</a> is an organometallic complex that features either <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a> metal centers. Depending on the placement of the catalyst's <a href="/wiki/Cyclopentadiene" title="Cyclopentadiene">cyclopentadiene</a> <a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">ligands</a>, it can produce <a href="/wiki/Polypropylene" title="Polypropylene">polypropylenes</a> with different <a href="/wiki/Tacticity" title="Tacticity">tacticity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><b>1</b> creates atactic polypropylene, which is soft and <a href="/wiki/Amorphous_solid" title="Amorphous solid">amorphous</a> with a free-flowing composition. <b>2</b> creates isotactic polypropylene, which is hard and used in re-usable plastic containers. <b>3</b> creates syndiotactic polypropylene, which is rubbery and semi-crystalline.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_Chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Materials Chemistry">Materials chemistry</a> is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of solid state components or devices with a useful current or future function.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry like <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">inorganic chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallography</a> with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to <a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">materials</a>. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, <a href="/wiki/Polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymers">polymers</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Interface_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interface (chemistry)">interfaces</a> between different phases.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Neurochemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurochemicals">neurochemicals</a>; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmutation</a> is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the <a href="/wiki/Table_of_nuclides" title="Table of nuclides">table of nuclides</a> is an important result and tool for this field. In addition to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">medical applications</a>, nuclear chemistry encompasses <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">nuclear engineering</a> which explores the topic of using <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> sources for generating energy<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Little_boy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/310px-Little_boy.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/465px-Little_boy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/620px-Little_boy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2860" data-file-height="1812" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Little_Boy" title="Little Boy">Little Boy</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">atomic bomb</a> utilizing a <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission reaction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By firing sub-critical uranium into another mass of sub-critical uranium within the bomb, a self-sustaining nuclear reaction (the <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a>). It generated an explosive force of over 15,000 tons of equivalent TNT</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic chemistry</a> is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">reactions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a>. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Organic compounds can be classified, organized and understood in reactions by their <a href="/wiki/Functional_group" title="Functional group">functional groups</a>, unit atoms or molecules that show characteristic chemical properties in a compound.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:4-Hydroxybutanal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/4-Hydroxybutanal.svg/290px-4-Hydroxybutanal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/4-Hydroxybutanal.svg/435px-4-Hydroxybutanal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/4-Hydroxybutanal.svg/580px-4-Hydroxybutanal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="217" /></a><figcaption>4-Hydroxybutanal is an <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compound</a> with an <a href="/wiki/Aldehyde" title="Aldehyde">aldehyde</a> (right) functional group and an <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohol</a> (left) functional group.</figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a> is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include <a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">chemical thermodynamics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">chemical kinetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>, and more recently, <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">astrochemistry</a>. Physical chemistry has large overlap with <a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">molecular physics</a>. Physical chemistry involves the use of <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">infinitesimal calculus</a> in deriving equations. It is usually associated with <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">quantum chemistry</a> and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from <a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">chemical physics</a>, but again, there is very strong overlap.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical chemistry</a> is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> or <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>). In particular the application of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> to chemistry is called <a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">quantum chemistry</a>. Since the end of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of <a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">computational chemistry</a>, which is the art of developing and applying <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">computer programs</a> for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) <a href="/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics" title="Condensed matter physics">condensed matter physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">molecular physics</a>.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/350px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/525px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Solvay_conference_1927.jpg/700px-Solvay_conference_1927.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2171" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Solvay_Conference" title="Solvay Conference">Solvay Conference of 1927</a> featured foundational scientists to the field of theoretical chemistry and physics. This conference discussed <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a></figcaption></figure></li></ul> <p>Others subdivisions include <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">femtochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flavoring" title="Flavoring">flavor chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flow_chemistry" title="Flow chemistry">flow chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">immunohistochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrogenation" title="Hydrogenation">hydrogenation chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">mathematical chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">molecular mechanics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_product_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural product chemistry">natural product chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">organometallic chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">petrochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">photochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">physical organic chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">polymer chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">radiochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">sonochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">supramolecular chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic chemistry">synthetic chemistry</a>, and many others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interdisciplinary">Interdisciplinary</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a> fields include <a href="/wiki/Agrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrochemistry">agrochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">astrochemistry</a> (and <a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">cosmochemistry</a>), <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">atmospheric chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">chemical engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">chemical biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemo-informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemo-informatics">chemo-informatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">environmental chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">geochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">green chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunochemistry" title="Immunochemistry">immunochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">marine chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">mechanochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">medicinal chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oenology" title="Oenology">oenology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">phytochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">solid-state chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">surface science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">thermochemistry</a>, and many others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry">Industry</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">Chemical industry</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_industry" title="Chemical industry">chemical industry</a> represents an important economic activity worldwide. The <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_chemical_producers" title="List of largest chemical producers">global top 50 chemical producers</a> in 2013 had sales of <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%.<sup id="cite_ref-c&en2013_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c&en2013-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Professional_societies">Professional societies</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_Neurochemistry" title="American Society for Neurochemistry">American Society for Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_Institute_of_Canada" title="Chemical Institute of Canada">Chemical Institute of Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_Society_of_Peru" title="Chemical Society of Peru">Chemical Society of Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Australian_Chemical_Institute" title="Royal Australian Chemical Institute">Royal Australian Chemical Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Netherlands_Chemical_Society" title="Royal Netherlands Chemical Society">Royal Netherlands Chemical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry" title="Royal Society of Chemistry">Royal Society of Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Chemical_Industry" title="Society of Chemical Industry">Society of Chemical Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Association_of_Theoretical_and_Computational_Chemists" title="World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists">World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies" title="List of chemistry societies">List of chemistry societies</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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title="Outline of chemistry">Outline of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_systems_of_small_molecules" title="Periodic systems of small molecules">Periodic systems of small molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Philosophy of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_tourism" title="Science tourism">Science tourism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-brown2018-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brown2018_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrownLeMayBurstenMurphey2018" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Theodore L.; LeMay, H. 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(1999). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-010310-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-010310-1">0-13-010310-1</a>. pp. 3–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/chemistry/Chemistry-and-society">"Chemistry – Chemistry and society"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230506122546/https://www.britannica.com/science/chemistry/Chemistry-and-society">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Statique chimique", Paris, France: Académie des Sciences.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPauling1947" class="citation book cs1">Pauling, Linus (1947). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/generalchemistry00paul_0"><i>General Chemistry</i></a>. Dover Publications, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65622-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-65622-9"><bdi>978-0-486-65622-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Chemistry&rft.pub=Dover+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1947&rft.isbn=978-0-486-65622-9&rft.aulast=Pauling&rft.aufirst=Linus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgeneralchemistry00paul_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang,_Raymond1998" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Raymond (1998). <i>Chemistry, 6th Ed</i>. New York: McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-115221-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-115221-1"><bdi>978-0-07-115221-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%2C+6th+Ed.&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-07-115221-1&rft.au=Chang%2C+Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16121734.300-first-chemists.html">First chemists</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150108102557/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg16121734.300-first-chemists.html">Archived</a> 8 January 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, February 13, 1999, New Scientist.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2004" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, Ruth (2004). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/textilesindianoc00barn"><i>Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies</i></a></span>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/textilesindianoc00barn/page/n15">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415297660" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415297660"><bdi>978-0415297660</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textiles+in+Indian+Ocean+Societies&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0415297660&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftextilesindianoc00barn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucretius" class="citation web cs1">Lucretius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Carus/nature_things.html">"de Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)"</a>. <i>The Internet Classics Archive</i>. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110629083541/http://classics.mit.edu/Carus/nature_things.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Internet+Classics+Archive&rft.atitle=de+Rerum+Natura+%28On+the+Nature+of+Things%29&rft.au=Lucretius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fclassics.mit.edu%2FCarus%2Fnature_things.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2005" class="citation web cs1">Simpson, David (29 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/lucretiu/">"Lucretius (c. 99–55 BCE)"</a>. <i>The Internet History of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100528115353/http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/lucretiu.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 28 May 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Internet+History+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Lucretius+%28c.+99%E2%80%9355+BCE%29&rft.date=2005-06-29&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Flucretiu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrodach2012" class="citation book cs1">Strodach, George K. (2012). <i>The Art of Happiness</i>. New York: Penguin Classics. pp. 7–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-310721-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-310721-7"><bdi>978-0-14-310721-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Happiness&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=7-8&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-14-310721-7&rft.aulast=Strodach&rft.aufirst=George+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fr. 12; see pp. 291–292 of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkRavenSchofield1983" class="citation book cs1">Kirk, G. S.; Raven, J. E.; Schofield, Malcolm (1983). <i>The Presocratic Philosophers</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27455-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27455-5"><bdi>978-0-521-27455-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presocratic+Philosophers&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27455-5&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.aufirst=G.+S.&rft.au=Raven%2C+J.+E.&rft.au=Schofield%2C+Malcolm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLongSedley1987" class="citation book cs1">Long, A. A.; Sedley, D. N. (1987). "Epicureanism: The principals of conservation". <i>The Hellenistic Philosophers. Vol 1: Translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27556-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27556-9"><bdi>978-0-521-27556-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epicureanism%3A+The+principals+of+conservation&rft.btitle=The+Hellenistic+Philosophers.+Vol+1%3A+Translations+of+the+principal+sources+with+philosophical+commentary&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=25-26&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27556-9&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rft.au=Sedley%2C+D.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130615150135/http://www.laboratory-journal.com/science/chemistry-physics/international-year-chemistry-history-chemistry">"International Year of Chemistry – The History of Chemistry"</a>. G.I.T. Laboratory Journal Europe. 25 February 2011. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.laboratory-journal.com/science/chemistry-physics/international-year-chemistry-history-chemistry">the original</a> on 15 June 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=International+Year+of+Chemistry+%E2%80%93+The+History+of+Chemistry&rft.pub=G.I.T.+Laboratory+Journal+Europe&rft.date=2011-02-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.laboratory-journal.com%2Fscience%2Fchemistry-physics%2Finternational-year-chemistry-history-chemistry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunchHellemans2004" class="citation book cs1">Bunch, Bryan H. & Hellemans, Alexander (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88"><i>The History of Science and Technology</i></a>. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780618221233/page/88">88</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-22123-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-22123-3"><bdi>978-0-618-22123-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Science+and+Technology&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-618-22123-3&rft.aulast=Bunch&rft.aufirst=Bryan+H.&rft.au=Hellemans%2C+Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780618221233%2Fpage%2F88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Morris_Kline" title="Morris Kline">Morris Kline</a> (1985) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f-e0bro-0FUC&pg=PA284"><i>Mathematics for the nonmathematician</i></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905200134/https://books.google.com/books?id=f-e0bro-0FUC&pg=PA284&dq&hl=en">Archived</a> 5 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Courier Dover Publications. p. 284. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-24823-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-24823-2">0-486-24823-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Marcelin_Berthelot" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcelin Berthelot">Marcelin Berthelot</a>, <a href="//archive.org/details/collectiondesanc01bert" class="extiw" title="iarchive:collectiondesanc01bert"><i>Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs</i></a> (3 vol., Paris, France, 1887–1888, p. 161); F. Sherwood Taylor, "The Origins of Greek Alchemy", <i>Ambix</i> 1 (1937), p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStapletonAzoHidayat_Husain1927" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ernest_Stapleton" title="Henry Ernest Stapleton">Stapleton, Henry Enest</a>; Azo, R. F.; Hidayat Husain, M. (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100203/231270">"Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D."</a> <i>Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal</i>. <b>VIII</b> (6): 317–418. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/706947607">706947607</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Bengal&rft.atitle=Chemistry+in+Iraq+and+Persia+in+the+Tenth+Century+A.D.&rft.volume=VIII&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=317-418&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F706947607&rft.aulast=Stapleton&rft.aufirst=Henry+Enest&rft.au=Azo%2C+R.+F.&rft.au=Hidayat+Husain%2C+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.southasiaarchive.com%2FContent%2Fsarf.100203%2F231270&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span> pp. 338–340; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraus1942–1943" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kraus_(Arabist)" title="Paul Kraus (Arabist)">Kraus, Paul</a> (1942–1943). <i>Jâbir ibn Hayyân: Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque</i>. Cairo: Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-487-09115-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-487-09115-0"><bdi>978-3-487-09115-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/468740510">468740510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=J%C3%A2bir+ibn+Hayy%C3%A2n%3A+Contribution+%C3%A0+l%27histoire+des+id%C3%A9es+scientifiques+dans+l%27Islam.+I.+Le+corpus+des+%C3%A9crits+j%C3%A2biriens.+II.+J%C3%A2bir+et+la+science+grecque&rft.place=Cairo&rft.pub=Institut+Fran%C3%A7ais+d%27Arch%C3%A9ologie+Orientale&rft.date=1942%2F1943&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F468740510&rft.isbn=978-3-487-09115-0&rft.aulast=Kraus&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span> vol. II, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Darmstaedter, Ernst. "Liber Misericordiae Geber: Eine lateinische Übersetzung des gröβeren Kitâb l-raḥma", <i>Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin</i>, 17/4, 1925, pp. 181–197; Berthelot, Marcellin. "Archéologie et Histoire des sciences", <i>Mémoires de l'Académie des sciences de l'Institut de France</i>, 49, 1906, pp. 308–363; see also Forster, Regula. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/jabir-b-hayyan-COM_32665">"Jābir b. Ḥayyān"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418013644/https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/jabir-b-hayyan-COM_32665">Archived</a> 18 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newman, William R. "New Light on the Identity of Geber", <i>Sudhoffs Archiv</i>, 1985, 69, pp. 76–90; Newman, William R. <i>The Summa perfectionis of Pseudo-Geber: A critical ed., translation and study</i>, Leiden: Brill, 1991, pp. 57–103. It has been argued by Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan that the pseudo-Geber works were actually translated into Latin from the Arabic (see Al-Hassan, Ahmad Y. "The Arabic Origin of the <i>Summa</i> and Geber Latin Works: A Refutation of Berthelot, Ruska, and Newman Based on Arabic Sources", in: Ahmad Y. Al-Hassan. <i>Studies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry</i>. Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 2009, pp. 53–104; also available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history-science-technology.com/geber/geber%2004.html">online</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225044920/http://www.history-science-technology.com/geber/geber%2004.html">Archived</a> 25 February 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarmuraNasr1965" class="citation journal cs1">Marmura, Michael E.; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1965). <a href="/wiki/Hossein_Nasr" class="mw-redirect" title="Hossein Nasr">"<i>An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina</i> by Seyyed Hossein Nasr"</a>. <i>Speculum</i>. <b>40</b> (4): 744–746. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2851429">10.2307/2851429</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2851429">2851429</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Speculum&rft.atitle=An+Introduction+to+Islamic+Cosmological+Doctrines.+Conceptions+of+Nature+and+Methods+Used+for+Its+Study+by+the+Ikhwan+Al-Safa%27an%2C+Al-Biruni%2C+and+Ibn+Sina+by+Seyyed+Hossein+Nasr&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=744-746&rft.date=1965&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2851429&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2851429%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Marmura&rft.aufirst=Michael+E.&rft.au=Nasr%2C+Seyyed+Hossein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Briffault" title="Robert Briffault">Robert Briffault</a> (1938). <i>The Making of Humanity</i>, pp. 196–197.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hexagon2005-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hexagon2005_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshallMarshall2005" class="citation journal cs1">Marshall, James L.; Marshall, Virginia R. (Autumn 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chemistry.unt.edu/sites/default/files/users/owj0001/agricola.pdf">"Rediscovery of the Elements: Agricola"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Hexagon</i>. <b>96</b> (3). Alpha Chi Sigma: 59. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0164-6109">0164-6109</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4478114">4478114</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hexagon&rft.atitle=Rediscovery+of+the+Elements%3A+Agricola&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=59&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4478114&rft.issn=0164-6109&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft.au=Marshall%2C+Virginia+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchemistry.unt.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fusers%2Fowj0001%2Fagricola.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-berk-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-berk_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-berk_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/agricola.html">"Georgius Agricola"</a>. University of California – Museum of Paleontology<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Georgius+Agricola&rft.pub=University+of+California+%E2%80%93+Museum+of+Paleontology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fucmp.berkeley.edu%2Fhistory%2Fagricola.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rafferty_2012_p._10-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._10_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rafferty_2012_p._10_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rafferty, John P. (2012). <i>Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks</i>. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781615305445" title="Special:BookSources/9781615305445">9781615305445</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Alfred_von_Zittel" title="Karl Alfred von Zittel">Karl Alfred von Zittel</a> (1901). <i>History of Geology and Palaeontology</i>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/boyle_robert.shtml">"History – Robert Boyle (1627–1691)"</a>. BBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110109090458/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/boyle_robert.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 9 January 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+%E2%80%93+Robert+Boyle+%281627%E2%80%931691%29&rft.pub=BBC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fhistoric_figures%2Fboyle_robert.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEagleSloan1998" class="citation journal cs1">Eagle, Cassandra T.; Sloan, Jennifer (1998). "Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chemistry". <i>The Chemical Educator</i>. <b>3</b> (5): 1–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00897980249a">10.1007/s00897980249a</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:97557390">97557390</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Chemical+Educator&rft.atitle=Marie+Anne+Paulze+Lavoisier%3A+The+Mother+of+Modern+Chemistry&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1-18&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00897980249a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A97557390%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Eagle&rft.aufirst=Cassandra+T.&rft.au=Sloan%2C+Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2003" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/affinitythatelus00kimm_807"><i>Affinity, that Elusive Dream: A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution</i></a></span>. MIT Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/affinitythatelus00kimm_807/page/n454">440</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-11273-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-11273-4"><bdi>978-0-262-11273-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Affinity%2C+that+Elusive+Dream%3A+A+Genealogy+of+the+Chemical+Revolution&rft.pages=440&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-262-11273-4&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Mi+Gyung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Faffinitythatelus00kimm_807&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavy1808" class="citation journal cs1">Davy, Humphry (1808). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ">"On some new Phenomena of Chemical Changes produced by Electricity, particularly the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalies, and the Exhibition of the new Substances, which constitute their Bases"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</i>. <b>98</b>: 1–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1808.0001">10.1098/rstl.1808.0001</a></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418022330/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=On+some+new+Phenomena+of+Chemical+Changes+produced+by+Electricity%2C+particularly+the+Decomposition+of+the+fixed+Alkalies%2C+and+the+Exhibition+of+the+new+Substances%2C+which+constitute+their+Bases&rft.volume=98&rft.pages=1-45&rft.date=1808&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1808.0001&rft.aulast=Davy&rft.aufirst=Humphry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKg9GAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://people.wou.edu/~courtna/ch412/perhist.htm">"A Brief History of the Development of Periodic Table"</a>. <i>Chemistry 412 course notes</i>. Western Oregon University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200209103433/https://people.wou.edu/~courtna/ch412/perhist.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 9 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Chemistry+412+course+notes&rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Development+of+Periodic+Table&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpeople.wou.edu%2F~courtna%2Fch412%2Fperhist.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/education/teachers/resources/periodictable/pre16/develop/index.htm">Note</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924141037/http://www.rsc.org/education/teachers/resources/periodictable/pre16/develop/index.htm">Archived</a> 24 September 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. "...it is surely true that had Mendeleev never lived modern chemists would be using a Periodic Table" and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsc.org/education/teachers/resources/periodictable/pre16/develop/mendeleev.htm">"Dmitri Mendeleev"</a>. Royal Society of Chemistry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20140702202659/http://www.rsc.org/education/teachers/resources/periodictable/pre16/develop/mendeleev.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 July 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dmitri+Mendeleev&rft.pub=Royal+Society+of+Chemistry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsc.org%2Feducation%2Fteachers%2Fresources%2Fperiodictable%2Fpre16%2Fdevelop%2Fmendeleev.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WebElements_dot_com-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WebElements_dot_com_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinter" class="citation web cs1">Winter, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.webelements.com/">"WebElements: the periodic table on the web"</a>. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sheffield" title="University of Sheffield">University of Sheffield</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140104110225/http://webelements.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=WebElements%3A+the+periodic+table+on+the+web&rft.pub=The+University+of+Sheffield&rft.aulast=Winter&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.webelements.com%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/julius-lothar-meyer-and-dmitri-ivanovich-mendeleev">"Julius Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev"</a>. Science History Institute. June 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180321130939/https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/julius-lothar-meyer-and-dmitri-ivanovich-mendeleev">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Julius+Lothar+Meyer+and+Dmitri+Ivanovich+Mendeleev&rft.pub=Science+History+Institute&rft.date=2016-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fhistorical-profile%2Fjulius-lothar-meyer-and-dmitri-ivanovich-mendeleev&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"What makes these family likenesses among the elements? In the 1860s everyone was scratching their heads about that, and several scientists moved towards rather similar answers. The man who solved the problem most triumphantly was a young Russian called Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, who visited the salt mine at Wieliczka in 1859." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronowski,_Jacob1973" class="citation book cs1">Bronowski, Jacob (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ascentofmanbron00bron/page/322"><i>The Ascent of Man</i></a>. Little, Brown and Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ascentofmanbron00bron/page/322">322</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-316-10930-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-316-10930-7"><bdi>978-0-316-10930-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ascent+of+Man&rft.pages=322&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-316-10930-7&rft.au=Bronowski%2C+Jacob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fascentofmanbron00bron%2Fpage%2F322&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111008032346/http://www.chemistry2011.org/">"Chemistry"</a>. Chemistry2011.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chemistry2011.org">the original</a> on 8 October 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chemistry&rft.pub=Chemistry2011.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemistry2011.org&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIhde,_Aaron_John1984" class="citation book cs1">Ihde, Aaron John (1984). <i>The Development of Modern Chemistry</i>. Courier Dover Publications. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-64235-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-64235-2"><bdi>978-0-486-64235-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Modern+Chemistry&rft.pages=164&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-486-64235-2&rft.au=Ihde%2C+Aaron+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/chemistry-subdisciplines">"Chemistry Subdisciplines"</a>. <i>www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ahf.nuclearmuseum.org%2F&rft.atitle=Little+Boy+and+Fat+Man+%E2%80%93+Nuclear+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fahf.nuclearmuseum.org%2Fahf%2Fhistory%2Flittle-boy-and-fat-man%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownIversonAnslynFoote2018" class="citation book cs1">Brown, William Henry; Iverson, Brent L.; Anslyn, Eric V.; Foote, Christopher S. (2018). <i>Organic chemistry</i> (8th ed.). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-58035-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-58035-0"><bdi>978-1-305-58035-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organic+chemistry&rft.place=Boston%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=19&rft.edition=8th&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-305-58035-0&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=William+Henry&rft.au=Iverson%2C+Brent+L.&rft.au=Anslyn%2C+Eric+V.&rft.au=Foote%2C+Christopher+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-c&en2013-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-c&en2013_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTullo2014" class="citation news cs1">Tullo, Alexander H. (28 July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i30/CENs-Global-Top-50-Chemical.html">"C&EN's Global Top 50 Chemical Firms For 2014"</a>. <i>Chemical & Engineering News</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115133/http://cen.acs.org/articles/92/i30/CENs-Global-Top-50-Chemical.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Engineering+News&rft.atitle=C%26EN%27s+Global+Top+50+Chemical+Firms+For+2014&rft.date=2014-07-28&rft.aulast=Tullo&rft.aufirst=Alexander+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcen.acs.org%2Farticles%2F92%2Fi30%2FCENs-Global-Top-50-Chemical.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkinsde_Paula2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Atkins" title="Peter Atkins">Atkins, Peter</a>; de Paula, Julio (2009) [1992]. <i>Elements of Physical Chemistry</i> (5th ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922672-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-922672-6"><bdi>978-0-19-922672-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elements+of+Physical+Chemistry&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-922672-6&rft.aulast=Atkins&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=de+Paula%2C+Julio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurrowsHolmanParsonsPilling2009" class="citation book cs1">Burrows, Andrew; Holman, John; Parsons, Andrew; Pilling, Gwen; Price, Gareth (2009). <i>Chemistry<sup>3</sup></i>. Italy: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927789-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-927789-6"><bdi>978-0-19-927789-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%3Csup%3E3%3C%2Fsup%3E&rft.place=Italy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-927789-6&rft.aulast=Burrows&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Holman%2C+John&rft.au=Parsons%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Pilling%2C+Gwen&rft.au=Price%2C+Gareth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHousecroftSharpe2008" class="citation book cs1">Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008) [2001]. <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i> (3rd ed.). Harlow, Essex: <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-175553-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-175553-6"><bdi>978-0-13-175553-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.place=Harlow%2C+Essex&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-13-175553-6&rft.aulast=Housecroft&rft.aufirst=Catherine+E.&rft.au=Sharpe%2C+Alan+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <p><b>Popular reading</b> </p> <ul><li>Atkins, P. W. <i>Galileo's Finger</i> (<a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860941-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-860941-8">0-19-860941-8</a></li> <li>Atkins, P. W. <i>Atkins' Molecules</i> (Cambridge University Press) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-82397-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-82397-8">0-521-82397-8</a></li> <li>Kean, Sam. <i>The Disappearing Spoon – and Other True Tales from the Periodic Table</i> (Black Swan) London, England, 2010 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-552-77750-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-552-77750-6">978-0-552-77750-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primo_Levi" title="Primo Levi">Levi, Primo</a> <i>The Periodic Table</i> (Penguin Books) [1975] translated from the Italian by Raymond Rosenthal (1984) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-139944-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-139944-7">978-0-14-139944-7</a></li> <li>Stwertka, A. <i>A Guide to the Elements</i> (Oxford University Press) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515027-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515027-9">0-19-515027-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080310214753/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-04">"Dictionary of the History of Ideas"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-04">the original</a> on 10 March 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetext.lib.virginia.edu%2Fcgi-local%2FDHI%2Fdhi.cgi%3Fid%3Ddv1-04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Chemistry"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Chemistry">"Chemistry" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 33–76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chemistry&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=33-76&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <p><b>Introductory undergraduate textbooks</b> </p> <ul><li>Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F. <i>Shriver and Atkins Inorganic Chemistry</i> (4th ed.) 2006 (Oxford University Press) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926463-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926463-5">0-19-926463-5</a></li> <li>Chang, Raymond. <i>Chemistry</i> 6th ed. Boston, Massachusetts: James M. Smith, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-115221-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-115221-0">0-07-115221-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaydenGreevesWarrenWothers2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Clayden" title="Jonathan Clayden">Clayden, Jonathan</a>; Greeves, Nick; <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Warren" title="Stuart Warren">Warren, Stuart</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Wothers" title="Peter Wothers">Wothers, Peter</a> (2001). <i>Organic Chemistry</i> (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850346-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850346-0"><bdi>978-0-19-850346-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Organic+Chemistry&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850346-0&rft.aulast=Clayden&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft.au=Greeves%2C+Nick&rft.au=Warren%2C+Stuart&rft.au=Wothers%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemistry" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Voet and Voet. <i>Biochemistry</i> (Wiley) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-58651-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-58651-X">0-471-58651-X</a></li></ul> <p><b>Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate textbooks</b> </p> <ul><li>Atkins, P. W. <i>Physical Chemistry</i> (Oxford University Press) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-879285-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-879285-9">0-19-879285-9</a></li> <li>Atkins, P. W. et al. <i>Molecular Quantum Mechanics</i> (Oxford University Press)</li> <li>McWeeny, R. <i>Coulson's Valence</i> (Oxford Science Publications) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-855144-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-855144-4">0-19-855144-4</a></li> <li>Pauling, L. <i>The Nature of the chemical bond</i> (Cornell University Press) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-0333-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-0333-2">0-8014-0333-2</a></li> <li>Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. <i>Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry</i> (Dover Publications) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-64871-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-64871-0">0-486-64871-0</a></li> <li>Smart and Moore. <i>Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction</i> (Chapman and Hall) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-412-40040-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-412-40040-5">0-412-40040-5</a></li> <li>Stephenson, G. <i>Mathematical Methods for Science Students</i> (Longman) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-44416-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-44416-0">0-582-44416-0</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of chemistry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Branches_of_chemistry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">chemistry</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae" title="Glossary of chemical formulae">Glossary of chemical formulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biomolecules" title="List of biomolecules">List of biomolecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds" title="List of inorganic compounds">List of inorganic compounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">Periodic table</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">Analytical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_chemistry" title="Instrumental chemistry">Instrumental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroanalytical_methods" title="Electroanalytical methods">Electroanalytical methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">UV-Vis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_ionization" title="Electron ionization">EI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry" title="Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry">ICP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrix-assisted_laser_desorption/ionization" title="Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization">MALDI</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_chromatography" title="Gas chromatography">GC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_liquid_chromatography" title="High-performance liquid chromatography">HPLC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Characterization_(materials_science)" title="Characterization (materials science)">Characterization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titration" title="Titration">Titration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_chemistry" title="Wet chemistry">Wet chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calorimetry" title="Calorimetry">Calorimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elemental_analysis" title="Elemental analysis">Elemental analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_chemistry" title="Theoretical chemistry">Theoretical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chemistry" title="Quantum chemistry">Quantum chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_chemistry" title="Computational chemistry">Computational chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_chemistry" title="Mathematical chemistry">Mathematical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_modelling" title="Molecular modelling">Molecular modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_mechanics" title="Molecular mechanics">Molecular mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_dynamics" title="Molecular dynamics">Molecular dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_geometry" title="Molecular geometry">Molecular geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">Electrochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spectroelectrochemistry" title="Spectroelectrochemistry">Spectroelectrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoelectrochemistry" title="Photoelectrochemistry">Photoelectrochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermochemistry" title="Thermochemistry">Thermochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_thermodynamics" title="Chemical thermodynamics">Chemical thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_science" title="Surface science">Surface science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interface_and_colloid_science" title="Interface and colloid science">Interface and colloid science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micromeritics" title="Micromeritics">Micromeritics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryochemistry" title="Cryochemistry">Cryochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonochemistry" title="Sonochemistry">Sonochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_chemistry" title="Structural chemistry">Structural chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_physics" title="Chemical physics">Chemical physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_physics" title="Molecular physics">Molecular physics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femtochemistry" title="Femtochemistry">Femtochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_kinetics" title="Chemical kinetics">Chemical kinetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photochemistry" title="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin_chemistry" title="Spin chemistry">Spin chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_chemistry" title="Microwave chemistry">Microwave chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_chemistry" title="Equilibrium chemistry">Equilibrium chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanochemistry" title="Mechanochemistry">Mechanochemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemistry" title="Inorganic chemistry">Inorganic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">Coordination chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetochemistry" title="Magnetochemistry">Magnetochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organometallic_chemistry" title="Organometallic chemistry">Organometallic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organolanthanide_chemistry" title="Organolanthanide chemistry">Organolanthanide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom cluster">Cluster chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_chemistry" title="Solid-state chemistry">Solid-state chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceramic chemistry">Ceramic chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereochemistry" title="Stereochemistry">Stereochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkane_stereochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkane stereochemistry">Alkane stereochemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_organic_chemistry" title="Physical organic chemistry">Physical organic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic reactions">Organic reactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_synthesis" title="Organic synthesis">Organic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrosynthetic_analysis" title="Retrosynthetic analysis">Retrosynthetic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantioselective_synthesis" title="Enantioselective synthesis">Enantioselective synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">Total synthesis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semisynthesis" title="Semisynthesis">Semisynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry" title="Fullerene chemistry">Fullerene chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_chemistry" title="Polymer chemistry">Polymer chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrochemistry">Petrochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_covalent_chemistry" title="Dynamic covalent chemistry">Dynamic covalent chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioorthogonal_chemistry" title="Bioorthogonal chemistry">Bioorthogonal chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">Medicinal chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurochemistry" title="Neurochemistry">Neurochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganic_chemistry" title="Bioorganic chemistry">Bioorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioorganometallic_chemistry" title="Bioorganometallic chemistry">Bioorganometallic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioinorganic_chemistry" title="Bioinorganic chemistry">Bioinorganic chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophysical_chemistry" title="Biophysical chemistry">Biophysical chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_chemistry" title="Radiation chemistry">Radiation chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Astrochemistry" title="Astrochemistry">Astrochemistry</a> / <a href="/wiki/Stellar_chemistry" title="Stellar chemistry">Stellar chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogeochemistry" title="Photogeochemistry">Photogeochemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">Atmospheric chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean chemistry">Ocean chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay_chemistry" title="Clay chemistry">Clay chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbochemistry" title="Carbochemistry">Carbochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Food chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrate chemistry">Carbohydrate chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_physical_chemistry" title="Food physical chemistry">Food physical chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemistry" title="Agricultural chemistry">Agricultural chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_chemistry" title="Soil chemistry">Soil chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry_education" title="Chemistry education">Chemistry education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amateur_chemistry" title="Amateur chemistry">Amateur chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_chemistry" title="General chemistry">General chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry" title="Clandestine chemistry">Clandestine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Forensic chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Forensic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_chemistry" title="Post-mortem chemistry">Post-mortem chemistry</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanochemistry" title="Nanochemistry">Nanochemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supramolecular_chemistry" title="Supramolecular chemistry">Supramolecular chemistry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Chemical synthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">Green chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Click_chemistry" title="Click chemistry">Click chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_chemistry" title="Combinatorial chemistry">Combinatorial chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">Stoichiometry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">Materials science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_engineering" title="Ceramic engineering">Ceramic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymer_science" title="Polymer science">Polymer science</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">Timeline of chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_chemical_elements" title="Discovery of chemical elements">of element discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_central_science" title="The central science">The central science</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">Chemical reaction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">Catalysis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_compound" title="Chemical compound">Chemical compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">Ion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">Chemical substance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" 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