CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Public law - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"6a81faff-96b9-4b0e-ba5b-d165902a70ee","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Public_law","wgTitle":"Public law","wgCurRevisionId":1267118358,"wgRevisionId":1267118358,"wgArticleId":287860,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Harv and Sfn no-target errors","CS1: long volume value","CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use mdy dates from August 2021","Articles lacking in-text citations from April 2014","All articles lacking in-text citations","All articles with vague or ambiguous time","Vague or ambiguous time from July 2020","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2020","Public law"], "wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Public_law","wgRelevantArticleId":287860,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":20000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q207892","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture", "bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp", "ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Public law - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_law"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_law"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Public_law rootpage-Public_law skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Public+law" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Public+law" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Public+law" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Public+law" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_public_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_public_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History of public law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_public_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_law_in_civil_law_and_common_law_jurisdictions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_law_in_civil_law_and_common_law_jurisdictions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Public law in civil law and common law jurisdictions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_law_in_civil_law_and_common_law_jurisdictions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Areas_of_public_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Areas_of_public_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Areas of public law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Areas_of_public_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Areas of public law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Areas_of_public_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constitutional_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutional_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Constitutional law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutional_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administrative_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administrative_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Administrative law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Administrative_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criminal_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Criminal law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tax_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tax_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Tax law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tax_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theoretical_distinction_between_private_and_public_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theoretical_distinction_between_private_and_public_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Theoretical distinction between private and public law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theoretical_distinction_between_private_and_public_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Public law</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96ffentliches_Recht" title="Öffentliches Recht – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Öffentliches Recht" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85_(%D9%85%D9%81%D9%87%D9%88%D9%85)" title="قانون عام (مفهوم) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قانون عام (مفهوم)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derechu_p%C3%BAblicu" title="Derechu públicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Derechu públicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B6vl%C9%99t_h%C3%BCququ" title="Dövlət hüququ – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dövlət hüququ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Публічнае права – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Публічнае права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Публично право – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Публично право" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dret_p%C3%BAblic" title="Dret públic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dret públic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%C4%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%C4%95%C3%A7-%D0%B8%D1%80%C4%95%D0%BA" title="Публикăлла тивĕç-ирĕк – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Публикăлла тивĕç-ирĕк" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C5%99ejn%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Veřejné právo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Veřejné právo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offentlig_ret" title="Offentlig ret – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Offentlig ret" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96ffentliches_Recht" title="Öffentliches Recht – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Öffentliches Recht" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalik_%C3%B5igus" title="Avalik õigus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Avalik õigus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B7%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF_%CE%B4%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Δημόσιο δίκαιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δημόσιο δίκαιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_p%C3%BAblico" title="Derecho público – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Derecho público" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publika_juro" title="Publika juro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Publika juro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zuzenbide_publiko" title="Zuzenbide publiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zuzenbide publiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="حقوق عمومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حقوق عمومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_public" title="Droit public – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit public" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publykrjocht" title="Publykrjocht – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Publykrjocht" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EB%B2%95" title="공법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%84" title="Հանրային իրավունք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հանրային իրավունք" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF" title="सार्वजनिक विधि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सार्वजनिक विधि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publika_yurocienco" title="Publika yurocienco – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Publika yurocienco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iwu_%E1%BB%8Dha_na_eze" title="Iwu ọha na eze – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Iwu ọha na eze" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_publik" title="Hukum publik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hukum publik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diritto_pubblico" title="Diritto pubblico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diritto pubblico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98_%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99" title="משפט ציבורי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="משפט ציבורי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ius_publicum" title="Ius publicum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ius publicum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publisk%C4%81s_ties%C4%ABbas" title="Publiskās tiesības – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Publiskās tiesības" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vie%C5%A1oji_teis%C4%97" title="Viešoji teisė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viešoji teisė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6zjog" title="Közjog – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Közjog" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreito_p%C3%BAblico" title="Dreito público – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Dreito público" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publiekrecht" title="Publiekrecht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Publiekrecht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B3%95" title="公法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="公法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offentlig_rett" title="Offentlig rett – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Offentlig rett" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offentleg_rett" title="Offentleg rett – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Offentleg rett" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drech_public" title="Drech public – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Drech public" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prawo_publiczne" title="Prawo publiczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Prawo publiczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direito_p%C3%BAblico" title="Direito público – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Direito público" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drept_public" title="Drept public – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Drept public" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Публичное право – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Публичное право" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Public law" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Public law" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verejn%C3%A9_pr%C3%A1vo" title="Verejné právo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Verejné právo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javno_pravo" title="Javno pravo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Javno pravo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javno_pravo" title="Javno pravo – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Javno pravo" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julkisoikeus" title="Julkisoikeus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Julkisoikeus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offentlig_r%C3%A4tt" title="Offentlig rätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Offentlig rätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பொதுவுடைமைச் சட்டம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பொதுவுடைமைச் சட்டம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8E%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%99" title="กฎหมายมหาชน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กฎหมายมหาชน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamu_hukuku" title="Kamu hukuku – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kamu hukuku" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Публічне право – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Публічне право" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derito_p%C3%B9blego" title="Derito pùblego – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Derito pùblego" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%E1%BA%ADt_c%C3%B4ng" title="Luật công – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Luật công" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofin_ti_gbogbo_eniyan" title="Ofin ti gbogbo eniyan – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ofin ti gbogbo eniyan" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B3%95" title="公法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="公法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q207892#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Public_law" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Public_law"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Public_law"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Public_law" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Public_law" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&oldid=1267118358" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Public_law&id=1267118358&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPublic_law"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FPublic_law"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Public_law&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_law" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q207892" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Law governing government actions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the area of law. For a "public law" in the United States, see <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a>. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Public_Law_(journal)" title="Public Law (journal)">Public Law (journal)</a>. For all other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Public_law_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Public law (disambiguation)">Public law (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_footnotes_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-More_footnotes_needed" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#General_references" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">general references</a>, but <b>it lacks sufficient corresponding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">inline citations</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Reliability" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Reliability">improve</a> this article by <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:When_to_cite" title="Wikipedia:When to cite">introducing</a> more precise citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Public law</b> is the part of law that governs relations and affairs between <a href="/wiki/Legal_person" title="Legal person">legal persons</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">government</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-oxdic_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxdic-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> between different institutions within a <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">different branches of governments</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-PubLaw_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PubLaw-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as relationships between persons that are of direct concern to society. Public law comprises <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">constitutional law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">tax law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-oxdic_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxdic-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as all <a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">procedural law</a>. Laws concerning relationships between individuals belong to <a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a>. </p><p>The relationships public law governs are asymmetric and unequalized. Government bodies (central or local) can make decisions about the rights of persons. However, as a consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule-of-law</a> doctrine, authorities may only act within the law (<i>secundum et intra legem</i>). The government must obey the law. For example, a citizen unhappy with a decision of an administrative authority can ask a court for <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">judicial review</a>. </p><p>The distinction between public law and private law dates back to <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> jurist <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 170 – 228) first noted it.<sup id="cite_ref-FundRights_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FundRights-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was later<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (July 2020)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> adopted<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (July 2020)">by whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> to understand the legal systems both of countries that adhere to the <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil-law tradition</a>, and of those that adhere to <a href="/wiki/Common_law_(legal_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common law (legal system)">common-law tradition</a>. </p><p>The borderline between public law and private law is not always clear. Law as a whole cannot neatly be divided into "law for the State" and "law for everyone else". As such, the distinction between public and private law is largely functional rather than factual, classifying laws according to which domain the activities, participants, and principal concerns involved best fit into.<sup id="cite_ref-PubLaw_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PubLaw-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has given rise to attempts to establish a <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">theoretical</a> understanding for the basis of public law. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_public_law">History of public law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of public law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The distinction between public and private law was first made by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Rome_Rome&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ancient Rome Rome (page does not exist)">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist">jurist</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a>, who argues in the <i>Institutes</i> (in a passage preserved by <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Digest_(Roman_law)" title="Digest (Roman law)"><i>Digest</i></a> ) that "[p]ublic law is that which respects the establishment of the Roman commonwealth, private that which respects individuals' interests, some matters being of public and others of private interest." Furthermore, he defines public law as the law concerning religious affairs, the priesthood, and <a href="/wiki/Official" title="Official">offices</a> of the State.<sup id="cite_ref-Digest_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Digest-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Law">Roman Law</a> conceived of the law as a series of relationships between persons and persons, persons and things, and persons and the State. Public law consisted of the latter of these three relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko21-22_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko21-22-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Roman lawyers devoted little attention to this area, and instead focussed largely on areas of private law. It was, however, of great importance in <a href="/wiki/Teutons" title="Teutons">Teutonic</a> society, as noted by German legal historian <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Gierke" title="Otto von Gierke">Otto von Gierke</a>, who defined the Teutons as the fathers of public law.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Drawing a line between public and private law largely fell out of favor in the ensuing millennium,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though, as <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Kantorowicz" title="Ernst Kantorowicz">Ernst Kantorowicz</a> notes, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval</a> jurists saw a concern with the Roman conception of the <i><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">res publica</a></i> inherent in the <a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">legal fiction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">king's two bodies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kantorowicz_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kantorowicz-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">legal philosophers</a> during this period were largely theologians who operated within the realm of <a href="/wiki/Canon_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon Law">Canon Law</a>, and were therefore instead concerned with distinctions between <a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">divine law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Human law">human law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aquinas_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aquinas-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "public/private" divide in law would not return until the 17th and 18th centuries. Through the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a> and new theories of <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a>, notions of a distinctly <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public realm</a> began to crystalize. However, the claims made by monarchs, and later parliaments, to an unrestrained power to make law spurred attempts to establish a distinctly <a href="/wiki/Private_sphere" title="Private sphere">private sphere</a> that would be free from encroaching State power in return.<sup id="cite_ref-Horwitz_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horwitz-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_law_in_civil_law_and_common_law_jurisdictions">Public law in civil law and common law jurisdictions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Public law in civil law and common law jurisdictions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a></div> <p>Traditionally, the division between public and private law has been made in the context of the legal systems found in Continental Europe, whose laws all fall within the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>. However, the public/private divide does not apply strictly to civil law systems. Given public law's emphasis on aspects of the State that are true of all systems of government and law, <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> legal systems acknowledge, even if they do so unconsciously, that actions which must be prohibited by the State need not necessarily be prohibited for private parties as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, legal scholars commenting on common law systems, such as England<sup id="cite_ref-Khushal_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khushal-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Canada,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForcese_''et_al.''_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEForcese_''et_al.''-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have made this distinction as well. </p><p>For many years, public law occupied a marginal position in continental European law. By and large, private law was considered <i>general law</i>. Public law, on the other hand, was considered to consist of exceptions to this general law.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22-23_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22-23-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was not until the second half of the twentieth century that public law began to play a prominent role in European society through the <a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">constitutionalization</a> of private law, as well as the development of <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a> and various functional fields of law, including <a href="/wiki/Labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor law">labor law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_law" title="Medical law">medical law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Consumer_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer law">consumer law</a>. Though this began to blur the distinction between public and private law, it did not erode the former. Instead, it elevated public law from its once marginal state, with an acknowledgment that there are few, if any, areas of the law that are free from potential State intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko23-24_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko23-24-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Italy, for example, the development of public law was considered a project of <a href="/wiki/State-building" title="State-building">state-building</a>, following the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Vittorio_Emanuele_Orlando" title="Vittorio Emanuele Orlando">Vittorio Emanuele Orlando</a>. Indeed, many early Italian public lawyers were also politicians, including Orlando himself.<sup id="cite_ref-NewItal_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NewItal-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Now, in countries such as France,<sup id="cite_ref-PrinciplesFrench_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PrinciplesFrench-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> public law now refers to the areas of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">constitutional law</a>, administrative law, and <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal law</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Areas_of_public_law">Areas of public law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Areas of public law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_law">Constitutional law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Constitutional law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></div> <p>In modern states, <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">constitutional law</a> lays out the foundations of the state. Above all, it postulates the supremacy of law in the functioning of the state – the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>. </p><p>Secondly, it sets out the form of government – how its different branches work, how they are elected or appointed, and the division of powers and responsibilities between them. Traditionally, the basic elements of government are <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">the executive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">the legislature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">the judiciary</a>. </p><p>And thirdly, in describing what are the basic human rights, which must be protected for every person, and what further <a href="/wiki/Civil_and_political_rights" title="Civil and political rights">civil and political rights</a> citizens have, it sets the fundamental borders to what <i>any</i> government must and must not do. </p><p>In most jurisdictions, constitutional law is enshrined in a written document, the Constitution, sometimes together with amendments or other constitutional laws. In some countries, however, such a supreme entrenched written document does not exist for historical and political reasons – the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">Constitution of the United Kingdom</a> is an unwritten one. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Administrative_law">Administrative law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Administrative law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a> refers to the body of law that regulates bureaucratic managerial procedures and defines the powers of administrative agencies. These laws are enforced by the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive branch</a> of a government rather than the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">judicial</a> or <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative</a> branches (if they are different in that particular jurisdiction). This body of law regulates <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a>, manufacturing, pollution, taxation, and the like. This is sometimes seen as a subcategory of <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(private_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil law (private law)">civil law</a> and sometimes seen as public law as it deals with regulation and public institutions </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_law">Criminal law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Criminal law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a></div> <p>Criminal law is the body of <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> that relates to <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crime</a>. It prescribes conduct perceived as threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safety" title="Safety">safety</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Welfare_spending" title="Welfare spending">welfare</a> of people inclusive of one's self. Most criminal law is established by <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a>, which is to say that the laws are enacted by a <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislature</a>. Criminal law includes the <a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">punishment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">rehabilitation</a> of people who violate such laws. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tax_law">Tax law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Tax law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></div> <p>Tax law first became an area of public law during the 17th century, as a consequence of new theories of sovereignty that began to emerge. Until this point, taxes were considered gifts under the law, given to the State by a private donor – the taxpayer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorwitz1423-1424_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorwitz1423-1424-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is now considered an area of public law, as it concerns a relationship between persons and the State. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theoretical_distinction_between_private_and_public_law">Theoretical distinction between private and public law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Theoretical distinction between private and public law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The analytical and historical distinction between public and private law has emerged predominantly in the legal systems of <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, German-language legal literature has produced extensive discussion on the precise nature of the distinction between public law and private law.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several theories have evolved, which are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive or separate. </p><p>The interest theory of public law emerges from the work of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> jurist <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a>, who stated "<i>Publicum ius est, quod ad statum rei Romanae spectat, privatum quod ad singulorum utilitatem.</i> (Public law is that which concerns the Roman state, and private law is concerned with the interests of citizens.) <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Charles-Louis Montesquieu</a> elaborates upon this theory in <a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law"><i>The Spirit of the Laws</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> published during the 18th century, wherein Montesquieu establishes a distinction between international (right of nations), public (political right), and private (civil right) law according to various actors interests and rights. There, he writes: "Considered as inhabitants of a planet so large that different peoples are necessary, they have laws bearing on the relation that these peoples have with one another, and this is the <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps">right of nations</span>. Considered as living in a society that must be maintained, they have laws concerning the relation between those who govern and those who are governed, and this is the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">political right</span>. Further, they have laws concerning the relation that all citizens have with one another, and this is the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps">civil right</span>."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Criticisms of interest theory include the difficulty in establishing a clear distinction between private and public interest if such a distinction does exist, and categorizing laws accordingly. </p><p>The subjection theory focuses on explaining the distinction by emphasizing the subordination of private persons to the state. Public law is supposed to govern this relationship, whereas private law is considered to govern relationships where the parties involved meet on a level playing field. However, some areas commonly considered private law also imply subordination, such as <a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">employment law</a>. Moreover, legal proceedings wherein the State is a party may undermine the totality of the State's authority, and the degree to which private persons are subordinate to the State if a Court finds in favor of a non-state party (see <a href="/wiki/Carpenter_v._United_States" title="Carpenter v. United States">Carpenter v. United States</a>, for example). </p><p>The subject theory is concerned with the position of the subject of law in the legal relationship in question. If it finds itself in a particular situation as a public person (due to membership in some public body, such as a state or a municipality), public law applies, otherwise it is private law. </p><p>A combination of the subjection theory and the subject theory arguably provides a workable distinction. Under this approach, a field of law is considered public law where one actor is a public authority endowed with the power to act unilaterally (<i>imperium</i>) and this actor uses that <i>imperium</i> in the particular relationship. In other words, it all depends on whether the public authority is acting as a public or a private entity, say when ordering office supplies. This latest theory considers public law a special instance. </p><p>There are areas of law that do not seem to fit into either public or private law, such as <a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">employment law</a> – parts of it look like private law (the employment contract) while other parts look like public law (the activities of an employment inspectorate when investigating workplace safety). </p><p>The distinction between public and private law has a bearing on the delineation between the competencies of different courts and administrative bodies. Under the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian constitution">Austrian constitution</a>, for example, private law is among the exclusive competencies of federal legislation, whereas public law is partly a matter of <a href="/wiki/States_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="States of Austria">state</a> legislation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_law" title="Social law">Social law</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-oxdic-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxdic_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxdic_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFElizabeth_A._Martin2003" class="citation book cs1">Elizabeth A. Martin (2003). <i>Oxford Dictionary of Law</i> (7th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198607563" title="Special:BookSources/0198607563"><bdi>0198607563</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0198607563&rft.au=Elizabeth+A.+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PubLaw-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PubLaw_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-PubLaw_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForceseDodekBryantCarver2015" class="citation book cs1">Forcese, Craig; Dodek, Adam; Bryant, Philip; Carver, Peter; Haigh, Richard; Liston, Mary; MacIntosh, Constance (2015). <i>Public Law: Cases, Commentary and Analysis</i> (Third ed.). Toronto, ON: Emond Montgomery Publishing Ltd. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55239-664-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55239-664-3"><bdi>978-1-55239-664-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+Law%3A+Cases%2C+Commentary+and+Analysis&rft.place=Toronto%2C+ON&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Emond+Montgomery+Publishing+Ltd.&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-55239-664-3&rft.aulast=Forcese&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft.au=Dodek%2C+Adam&rft.au=Bryant%2C+Philip&rft.au=Carver%2C+Peter&rft.au=Haigh%2C+Richard&rft.au=Liston%2C+Mary&rft.au=MacIntosh%2C+Constance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FundRights-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FundRights_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCherednychenko2007" class="citation book cs1">Cherednychenko, Olha (April 18, 2007). <i>Fundamental Rights, Contract Law, and Protection of the Weaker Party</i>. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Utrecht University Institute for Legal Studies. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F20945">1874/20945</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Rights%2C+Contract+Law%2C+and+Protection+of+the+Weaker+Party&rft.place=Utrecht%2C+the+Netherlands&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Utrecht+University+Institute+for+Legal+Studies&rft.date=2007-04-18&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1874%2F20945&rft.aulast=Cherednychenko&rft.aufirst=Olha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Digest-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Digest_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustinianWatson1985" class="citation book cs1">Justinian; Watson, Alan (1985). <i>The Digest of Justinian</i>. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-2033-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-2033-9"><bdi>978-0-8122-2033-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Digest+of+Justinian&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-2033-9&rft.au=Justinian&rft.au=Watson%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko21-22-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko21-22_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCherednychenko">Cherednychenko</a>, p. 21-22.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCherednychenko (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1927" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Morris (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/clr/vol13/iss1/3/">"Property and Sovereignty"</a>. <i>Cornell Law Review</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 8<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 7,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cornell+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Property+and+Sovereignty&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.cornell.edu%2Fclr%2Fvol13%2Fiss1%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCherednychenko">Cherednychenko</a>, p. 22.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCherednychenko (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kantorowicz-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kantorowicz_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKantorowicz2016" class="citation book cs1">Kantorowicz, Ernst (May 10, 2016). <i>The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Theology</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16923-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16923-1"><bdi>978-0-691-16923-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+King%27s+Two+Bodies%3A+A+Study+in+Medieval+Theology&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016-05-10&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16923-1&rft.aulast=Kantorowicz&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aquinas-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aquinas_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAquinas2000" class="citation book cs1">Aquinas, Thomas (2000). <i>Treatise on Law</i>. Indianapolis, IN: Hacket Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-548-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-548-2"><bdi>978-0-87220-548-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatise+on+Law&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&rft.pub=Hacket+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-548-2&rft.aulast=Aquinas&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Horwitz-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Horwitz_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorwitz1982" class="citation journal cs1">Horwitz, Morton (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/1/12991700/1/History%20of%20the%20Public_Private%20Distinction.pdf">"The History of the Public/Private Distinction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>University of Pennsylvania Law Review</i>. <b>130</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1423–</span>1428. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3311976">10.2307/3311976</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3311976">3311976</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51854776">51854776</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+History+of+the+Public%2FPrivate+Distinction&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1423-%3C%2Fspan%3E1428&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51854776%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3311976%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3311976&rft.aulast=Horwitz&rft.aufirst=Morton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1%2F12991700%2F1%2FHistory%2520of%2520the%2520Public_Private%2520Distinction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khushal-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Khushal_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurkens2009" class="citation journal cs1">Murkens, Jo Eric Khushal (July 15, 2009). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ojls/article-abstract/29/3/427/1533571?redirectedFrom=PDF">"The Quest for Constitutionalism in UK Public Law Discourse"</a></span>. <i>Oxford Journal of Legal Studies</i>. <b>29</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">427–</span>455. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fojls%2Fgqp020">10.1093/ojls/gqp020</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Journal+of+Legal+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Quest+for+Constitutionalism+in+UK+Public+Law+Discourse&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E427-%3C%2Fspan%3E455&rft.date=2009-07-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fojls%2Fgqp020&rft.aulast=Murkens&rft.aufirst=Jo+Eric+Khushal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fojls%2Farticle-abstract%2F29%2F3%2F427%2F1533571%3FredirectedFrom%3DPDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEForcese_''et_al.''-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEForcese_''et_al.''_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFForcese_et_al.">Forcese <i>et al.</i></a>.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFForcese_et_al. (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22-23-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko22-23_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCherednychenko">Cherednychenko</a>, p. 22-23.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCherednychenko (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECherednychenko23-24-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECherednychenko23-24_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCherednychenko">Cherednychenko</a>, p. 23-24.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFCherednychenko (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NewItal-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NewItal_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasiniCasseseNapolitano2011" class="citation journal cs1">Casini, Lorenzo; Cassese, Sabino; Napolitano, Giulio (April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/9/2/301/649649">"The New Italian Public Law Scholarship"</a>. <i>International Journal of Constitutional Law</i>. <b>9</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">302–</span>303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficon%2Fmor049">10.1093/icon/mor049</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Constitutional+Law&rft.atitle=The+New+Italian+Public+Law+Scholarship&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E302-%3C%2Fspan%3E303&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficon%2Fmor049&rft.aulast=Casini&rft.aufirst=Lorenzo&rft.au=Cassese%2C+Sabino&rft.au=Napolitano%2C+Giulio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Ficon%2Farticle%2F9%2F2%2F301%2F649649&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PrinciplesFrench-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PrinciplesFrench_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellBoyronWhittaker2008" class="citation book cs1">Bell, John; Boyron, Sophie; Whittaker, Sophie (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541393.001.0001/acprof-9780199541393"><i>Principles of French Law</i></a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">141–</span>240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199541393" title="Special:BookSources/9780199541393"><bdi>9780199541393</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+French+Law&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E240&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780199541393&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Boyron%2C+Sophie&rft.au=Whittaker%2C+Sophie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199541393.001.0001%2Facprof-9780199541393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorwitz1423-1424-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorwitz1423-1424_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHorwitz">Horwitz</a>, p. 1423-1424.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFHorwitz (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakab2006" class="citation book cs1">Jakab, András (2006). <i>European Constitutional Language</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">387–</span>400. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-13078-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-13078-4"><bdi>978-1-107-13078-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Constitutional+Language&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E387-%3C%2Fspan%3E400&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-107-13078-4&rft.aulast=Jakab&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A1s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVértesy2007" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Vértesy, László (2007). "The Place and Theory of Banking Law – Or Arising of a New Branch of Law: Law of Financial Industries". <i>Collega</i>. 2–3. XI. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3198092">3198092</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Collega&rft.atitle=The+Place+and+Theory+of+Banking+Law+%E2%80%93+Or+Arising+of+a+New+Branch+of+Law%3A+Law+of+Financial+Industries&rft.volume=2%E2%80%933.+XI.&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3198092%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=V%C3%A9rtesy&rft.aufirst=L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontesquieu1989" class="citation book cs1">Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de (1989). <i>The Spirit of the Laws</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 7.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+the+Laws&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Montesquieu&rft.aufirst=Charles-Louis+de+Secondat%2C+Baron+de+La+Br%C3%A8de+et+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_law&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAquinas2000" class="citation book cs1">Aquinas, Thomas (2000). <i>Treatise on Law</i>. Indianapolis, IN: Hacket Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-548-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-548-2"><bdi>978-0-87220-548-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatise+on+Law&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+IN&rft.pub=Hacket+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-548-2&rft.aulast=Aquinas&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellBoyronWhittaker2008" class="citation book cs1">Bell, John; Boyron, Sophie; Whittaker, Sophie (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541393.001.0001/acprof-9780199541393"><i>Principles of French Law</i></a>. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">141–</span>240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199541393" title="Special:BookSources/9780199541393"><bdi>9780199541393</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+French+Law&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E240&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780199541393&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Boyron%2C+Sophie&rft.au=Whittaker%2C+Sophie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facprof%3Aoso%2F9780199541393.001.0001%2Facprof-9780199541393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasiniCasseseNapolitano2011" class="citation journal cs1">Casini, Lorenzo; Cassese, Sabino; Napolitano, Giulio (April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/icon/article/9/2/301/649649">"The New Italian Public Law Scholarship"</a>. <i>International Journal of Constitutional Law</i>. <b>9</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">302–</span>303. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficon%2Fmor049">10.1093/icon/mor049</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Constitutional+Law&rft.atitle=The+New+Italian+Public+Law+Scholarship&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E302-%3C%2Fspan%3E303&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Ficon%2Fmor049&rft.aulast=Casini&rft.aufirst=Lorenzo&rft.au=Cassese%2C+Sabino&rft.au=Napolitano%2C+Giulio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Ficon%2Farticle%2F9%2F2%2F301%2F649649&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCherednychenko2007" class="citation book cs1">Cherednychenko, Olha (April 18, 2007). <i>Fundamental Rights, Contract Law, and Protection of the Weaker Party</i>. Utrecht, Netherlands: Utrecht University Institute for Legal Studies. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F20945">1874/20945</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Rights%2C+Contract+Law%2C+and+Protection+of+the+Weaker+Party&rft.place=Utrecht%2C+Netherlands&rft.pub=Utrecht+University+Institute+for+Legal+Studies&rft.date=2007-04-18&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1874%2F20945&rft.aulast=Cherednychenko&rft.aufirst=Olha&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1927" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Morris (1927). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/clr/vol13/iss1/3/">"Property and Sovereignty"</a>. <i>Cornell Law Review</i>. <b>13</b> (1): 8<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 7,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cornell+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Property+and+Sovereignty&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1927&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.cornell.edu%2Fclr%2Fvol13%2Fiss1%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForceseDodekBryantCarver2015" class="citation book cs1">Forcese, Craig; Dodek, Adam; Bryant, Philip; Carver, Peter; Haigh, Richard; Liston, Mary; MacIntosh, Constance (2015). <i>Public Law: Cases, Commentary and Analysis</i> (Third ed.). Toronto, ON: Emond Montgomery Publishing Ltd. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55239-664-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55239-664-3"><bdi>978-1-55239-664-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+Law%3A+Cases%2C+Commentary+and+Analysis&rft.place=Toronto%2C+ON&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Emond+Montgomery+Publishing+Ltd.&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-55239-664-3&rft.aulast=Forcese&rft.aufirst=Craig&rft.au=Dodek%2C+Adam&rft.au=Bryant%2C+Philip&rft.au=Carver%2C+Peter&rft.au=Haigh%2C+Richard&rft.au=Liston%2C+Mary&rft.au=MacIntosh%2C+Constance&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Vincenzo Ferraro, Il diritto pubblico ed amministrativo per le lauree delle scienze umane e della formazione primaria. Alcuni lineamenti essenziali, Torino, 2023.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorwitz1982" class="citation journal cs1">Horwitz, Morton (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/1/12991700/1/History%20of%20the%20Public_Private%20Distinction.pdf">"The History of the Public/Private Distinction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>University of Pennsylvania Law Review</i>. <b>130</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1423–</span>1428. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3311976">10.2307/3311976</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3311976">3311976</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:51854776">51854776</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+History+of+the+Public%2FPrivate+Distinction&rft.volume=130&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1423-%3C%2Fspan%3E1428&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A51854776%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3311976%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3311976&rft.aulast=Horwitz&rft.aufirst=Morton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fbitstream%2F1%2F12991700%2F1%2FHistory%2520of%2520the%2520Public_Private%2520Distinction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJakab2006" class="citation book cs1">Jakab, András (2006). <i>European Constitutional Language</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">387–</span>400. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-13078-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-13078-4"><bdi>978-1-107-13078-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Constitutional+Language&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E387-%3C%2Fspan%3E400&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-107-13078-4&rft.aulast=Jakab&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A1s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJustinianWatson1985" class="citation book cs1">Justinian; Watson, Alan (1985). <i>The Digest of Justinian</i>. Vol. 1. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-2033-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-2033-9"><bdi>978-0-8122-2033-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Digest+of+Justinian&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-2033-9&rft.au=Justinian&rft.au=Watson%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKantorowicz2016" class="citation book cs1">Kantorowicz, Ernst (May 10, 2016). <i>The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Theology</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16923-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16923-1"><bdi>978-0-691-16923-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+King%27s+Two+Bodies%3A+A+Study+in+Medieval+Theology&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016-05-10&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16923-1&rft.aulast=Kantorowicz&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2003" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Elizabeth A. (2003). <i>Oxford Dictionary of Law</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0198607563" title="Special:BookSources/0198607563"><bdi>0198607563</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0198607563&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurkens2009" class="citation journal cs1">Murkens, Jo Eric Khushal (July 15, 2009). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ojls/article-abstract/29/3/427/1533571?redirectedFrom=PDF">"The Quest for Constitutionalism in UK Public Law Discourse"</a></span>. <i>Oxford Journal of Legal Studies</i>. <b>29</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">427–</span>455. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fojls%2Fgqp020">10.1093/ojls/gqp020</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Journal+of+Legal+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Quest+for+Constitutionalism+in+UK+Public+Law+Discourse&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E427-%3C%2Fspan%3E455&rft.date=2009-07-15&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fojls%2Fgqp020&rft.aulast=Murkens&rft.aufirst=Jo+Eric+Khushal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fojls%2Farticle-abstract%2F29%2F3%2F427%2F1533571%3FredirectedFrom%3DPDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMontesquieu1989" class="citation book cs1">Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de (1989). <i>The Spirit of the Laws</i>. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36183-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-36183-5"><bdi>978-0-521-36183-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spirit+of+the+Laws&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-521-36183-5&rft.aulast=Montesquieu&rft.aufirst=Charles-Louis+de+Secondat%2C+Baron+de+La+Br%C3%A8de+et+de&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVértesy2007" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Vértesy, László (2007). "The Place and Theory of Banking Law - Or Arising of a New Branch of Law: Law of Financial Industries". <i>Collega</i>. 2-3. XI. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3198092">3198092</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Collega&rft.atitle=The+Place+and+Theory+of+Banking+Law+-+Or+Arising+of+a+New+Branch+of+Law%3A+Law+of+Financial+Industries&rft.volume=2-3.+XI.&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3198092%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=V%C3%A9rtesy&rft.aufirst=L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+law" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law519" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Law" title="Template:Law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Law" title="Template talk:Law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law519" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Core subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_civil_law_(common_law)" title="Outline of civil law (common law)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law" title="Constitutional law">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">Crime</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deed" title="Deed">Deed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_obligations" title="Law of obligations">Law of obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">Private law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_law" title="Procedural law">Procedure</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">Civil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">Criminal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">Property law</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_punishment" title="Corporal punishment">Corporal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restitution_and_unjust_enrichment" title="Restitution and unjust enrichment">Restitution and unjust enrichment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">Tort</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_law" title="Agricultural law">Agricultural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_law" title="Aviation law">Aviation law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amnesty_law" title="Amnesty law">Amnesty law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank regulation">Banking law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_law" title="Commercial law">Commercial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws" title="Conflict of laws">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_law" title="Construction law">Construction law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">Consumer protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_law" title="Corporate law">Corporate law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IT_law" class="mw-redirect" title="IT law">Cyberlaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drugs law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_law" title="Election law">Election law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Energy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment_law" title="Entertainment law">Entertainment law</a> (Media law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">Family law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_law" title="Financial law">Financial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_regulation" title="Financial regulation">Financial regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_criminal_law" title="International criminal law">International criminal law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_human_rights_law" title="International human rights law">International human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International slavery laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurimetrics" title="Jurimetrics">Jurimetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landlord%E2%80%93tenant_law" title="Landlord–tenant law">Landlord–tenant law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_archaeology" title="Legal archaeology">Legal archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">Legal fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">Maritime law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_law" title="Marriage law">Marriage law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Military law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_law" title="Nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">Probate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estate_(law)" title="Estate (law)">Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_and_testament" title="Will and testament">Will and testament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">Product liability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">Public international law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_law" title="Refugee law">Refugee law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_(legal)" title="Reparation (legal)">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_emergency" title="State of emergency">State of emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_law" title="Tax law">Tax law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_law" title="Transport law">Transport law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(law)" title="Trust (law)">Trust law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unenforced_law" title="Unenforced law">Unenforced law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_law" title="Sources of law">Sources of law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_law" title="Code of law">Legal code</a> / <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution" title="Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Custom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_law" title="Divine law">Divine law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" class="mw-redirect" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_patent" title="Letters patent">Letters patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-made_law" title="Man-made law">Man-made law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights_and_legal_rights" title="Natural rights and legal rights">Natural and legal rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">Case law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Precedent" title="Precedent">Precedent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_report" title="Law report">Law reports</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_treatise" title="Legal treatise">Legal treatise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lawmaking" title="Lawmaking">Law making</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Referendum" title="Referendum">Ballot measure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">Codification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decree" title="Decree">Decree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edict" title="Edict">Edict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_order_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Executive order (disambiguation)">Executive order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation" title="Proclamation">Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislation" title="Legislation">Legislation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_and_secondary_legislation" title="Primary and secondary legislation">Delegated legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">Regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">Rulemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promulgation" title="Promulgation">Promulgation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">Ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeal" title="Repeal">Repeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concordat" title="Concordat">Concordat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">Statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_parliament" title="Act of parliament">Act of parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_structure_doctrine" title="Basic structure doctrine">Basic structure doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">Legal systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">Civil law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_law" title="Chinese law">Chinese law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_pluralism" title="Legal pluralism">Legal pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">Religious law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Canon law of the Catholic Church">Catholic canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_law" title="Hindu law">Hindu law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_law" title="Jain law">Jain law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Jewish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsi_law" title="Parsi law">Parsi law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_law" title="Byzantine law">Byzantine law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_law" title="Socialist law">Socialist law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">Statutory law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xeer" title="Xeer">Xeer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassa" title="Yassa">Yassa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchist_law" title="Anarchist law">Anarchist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_theory" title="Contract theory">Contract theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_law" title="Comparative law">Comparative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressive_function_of_law" title="Expressive function of law">Expressive function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_economics" title="Law and economics">Law and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_formalism" title="Legal formalism">Legal formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_theories_of_law" title="Libertarian theories of law">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_legal_theories" title="International legal theories">International legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legality" title="Legality">Principle of legality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle_of_typicality" title="Principle of typicality">Principle of typicality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudolaw" title="Pseudolaw">Pseudolaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_man" title="Rule of man">Rule of man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adjudication" title="Adjudication">Adjudication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administration_of_justice" title="Administration of justice">Administration of justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_justice" title="Criminal justice">Criminal justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispute_resolution" title="Dispute resolution">Dispute resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">Lawsuit/Litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_opinion" title="Legal opinion">Legal opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Legal remedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judge" title="Judge">Judge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Justice_of_the_peace" title="Justice of the peace">Justice of the peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magistrate" title="Magistrate">Magistrate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_interpretation" title="Judicial interpretation">Judicial interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_of_law" title="Practice of law">Practice of law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney_at_law" title="Attorney at law">Attorney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrister" title="Barrister">Barrister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counsel" title="Counsel">Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">Lawyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">Legal representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">Prosecutor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solicitor" title="Solicitor">Solicitor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law#Question_of_fact" title="Question of law">Question of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_of_law" title="Question of law">Question of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_advocacy" title="Trial advocacy">Trial advocacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trier_of_fact" title="Trier of fact">Trier of fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verdict" title="Verdict">Verdict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Legal institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barristers%27_chambers" title="Barristers' chambers">Barristers' chambers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(law)" title="Bar (law)">The bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench_(law)" title="Bench (law)">The bench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court" title="Court">Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court_of_equity" title="Court of equity">Court of equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_commission" title="Election commission">Election commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">Executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary" title="Judiciary">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education" title="Legal education">Legal education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school" title="Law school">Law school</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">Legislature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police" title="Police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribunal" title="Tribunal">Tribunal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_legal_profession" title="History of the legal profession">History of the legal profession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_American_legal_profession" title="History of the American legal profession">History of the American legal profession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_law" title="Women in law">Women in law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Balance,_by_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/30px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/46px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Balance%2C_by_David.svg/61px-Balance%2C_by_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="606" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Law" title="Portal:Law">Law portal</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Category:Law" title="Category:Law">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_law_articles" title="Index of law articles">Index</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207892#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2139" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207892#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2139" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q207892#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4043181-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Public law"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85108696">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Droit public"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13340881z">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Droit public"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13340881z">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566224">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="veřejné právo"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph116572&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Derecho público"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX526884">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KSH1998002388">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007548677005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/009614">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10644293">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_law&oldid=1267118358">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_law&oldid=1267118358</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_law" title="Category:Public law">Public law</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_no-target_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn no-target errors">Harv and Sfn no-target errors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_August_2021" title="Category:Use mdy dates from August 2021">Use mdy dates from August 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_in-text_citations_from_April_2014" title="Category:Articles lacking in-text citations from April 2014">Articles lacking in-text citations from April 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_in-text_citations" title="Category:All articles lacking in-text citations">All articles lacking in-text citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_vague_or_ambiguous_time" title="Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time">All articles with vague or ambiguous time</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vague_or_ambiguous_time_from_July_2020" title="Category:Vague or ambiguous time from July 2020">Vague or ambiguous time from July 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_July_2020" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2020">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2020</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 3 January 2025, at 18:11<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_law&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Public law</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>56 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-9w6tl","wgBackendResponseTime":136,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.663","walltime":"0.813","ppvisitednodes":{"value":3593,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":103547,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":3787,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":13,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":14,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":104900,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 714.078 1 -total"," 28.03% 200.165 1 Template:Reflist"," 24.42% 174.351 18 Template:Cite_book"," 17.92% 127.991 1 Template:Law"," 17.55% 125.299 1 Template:Navbox"," 9.76% 69.688 1 Template:Short_description"," 9.02% 64.400 10 Template:Cite_journal"," 7.04% 50.242 1 Template:Authority_control"," 6.79% 48.486 1 Template:More_footnotes_needed"," 6.50% 46.432 8 Template:Sfn"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.453","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":7909103,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAquinas2000\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBellBoyronWhittaker2008\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCasiniCasseseNapolitano2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCherednychenko2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCohen1927\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFElizabeth_A._Martin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForceseDodekBryantCarver2015\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHorwitz1982\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJakab2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJustinianWatson1985\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKantorowicz2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontesquieu1989\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMurkens2009\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFVértesy2007\"] = 2,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"By whom\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 18,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Public Law\"] = 1,\n [\"Law\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 4,\n [\"More footnotes needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 8,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Smallcaps\"] = 3,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"When\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\nno target: CITEREFCherednychenko\nno target: CITEREFCherednychenko\nno target: CITEREFCherednychenko\nno target: CITEREFForcese_et_al.\nno target: CITEREFCherednychenko\nno target: CITEREFCherednychenko\nno target: CITEREFHorwitz\nno target: CITEREFCherednychenko\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"small\",\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-5b65fffc7d-mwb85","timestamp":"20250214041740","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Public law","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Public_law","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q207892","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q207892","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-08-04T13:11:15Z","dateModified":"2025-01-03T18:11:24Z","headline":"branch of law involving relationships between individuals and the state, or the functioning of the state itself"}</script> </body> </html>