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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naming_convention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Naming convention </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naming_convention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Classification </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Classification subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Type_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Type I </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Type II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_III,_IV_and_V" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_III,_IV_and_V"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Types III, IV and V </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_III,_IV_and_V-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_models" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_models"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Current models </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Current_models-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Current models subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Current_models-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thermal_runaway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_runaway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Thermal runaway </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_runaway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Normal_type_Ia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Normal_type_Ia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Normal type Ia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Normal_type_Ia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-standard_type_Ia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-standard_type_Ia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.2 Non-standard type Ia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-standard_type_Ia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Core_collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Core collapse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Core_collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Detailed_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detailed_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Detailed process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detailed_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_II_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_II_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Type II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_II_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Type_Ib_and_Ic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Type_Ib_and_Ic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Type Ib and Ic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Type_Ib_and_Ic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electron-capture_supernovae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electron-capture_supernovae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.4 Electron-capture supernovae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electron-capture_supernovae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failed_supernovae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failed_supernovae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Failed supernovae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failed_supernovae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light_curves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light_curves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Light curves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light_curves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asymmetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asymmetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Asymmetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asymmetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Energy_output" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Energy_output"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Energy output </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Energy_output-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Progenitor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Progenitor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Progenitor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Progenitor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 External impact </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External impact subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Source_of_heavy_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Source_of_heavy_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Source of heavy elements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Source_of_heavy_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_stellar_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_stellar_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Role in stellar evolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_stellar_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmic_rays" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmic_rays"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Cosmic rays </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmic_rays-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gravitational_waves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravitational_waves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Gravitational waves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravitational_waves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Effect on Earth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Milky_Way_candidates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Milky_Way_candidates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Milky Way candidates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milky_Way_candidates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Supernova</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 100 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-100" aria-hidden="true" > 100 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B1%E1%8D%90%E1%88%AD%E1%8A%96%E1%89%AB" title="ሱፐርኖቫ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሱፐርኖቫ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="अधिनवतारा – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="अधिनवतारा" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%B1_%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85" title="مستعر أعظم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مستعر أعظم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0frat_yeni_ulduz" title="İfrat yeni ulduz – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İfrat yeni ulduz" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE" title="অতিনবতারা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অতিনবতারা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%88%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Звышновая зорка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Звышновая зорка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE" title="सुपरनोवा – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सुपरनोवा" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%80%D1%8A%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Свръхнова – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Свръхнова" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8B%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%C4%83%D1%80_%C3%A7%C4%95%D0%BD%C4%95_%C3%A7%C4%83%D0%BB%D1%82%C4%83%D1%80" title="Вышкайсăр çĕнĕ çăлтăр – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Вышкайсăр çĕнĕ çăлтăр" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernoova" title="Supernoova – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Supernoova" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Υπερκαινοφανής αστέρας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υπερκαινοφανής αστέρας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernovao" title="Supernovao – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Supernovao" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernoba" title="Supernoba – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Supernoba" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="ابرنواختر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ابرنواختر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olln%C3%B3va" title="Ollnóva – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ollnóva" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B4%88%EC%8B%A0%EC%84%B1" title="초신성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="초신성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%80_%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B2%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Գերնոր աստղեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գերնոր աստղեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE" title="महानोवा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महानोवा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernovo" title="Supernovo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Supernovo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprengistjarna" title="Sprengistjarna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sprengistjarna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%91%D7%94" title="סופרנובה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סופרנובה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE" title="ಸೂಪರ್‌ನೋವಾ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸೂಪರ್‌ನೋವಾ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%96%E1%83%94%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%95%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98" title="ზეახალი ვარსკვლავი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ზეახალი ვარსკვლავი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B6%D2%B1%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B7" title="Ғаламатжұлдыз – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғаламатжұлдыз" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sip%C3%A8nova" title="Sipènova – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sipènova" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sip%C3%A8rnova" title="Sipèrnova – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Sipèrnova" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81rnova" title="Pārnova – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pārnova" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szupern%C3%B3va" title="Szupernóva – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szupernóva" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Супернова – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Супернова" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinta-mazavabe" title="Kinta-mazavabe – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kinta-mazavabe" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B5" title="സൂപ്പർനോവ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സൂപ്പർനോവ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="अतिनवतारा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अतिनवतारा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%90" title="სუპერნოვა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სუპერნოვა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%DA%A4%D8%A7" title="سوبرنوڤا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="سوبرنوڤا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%AB%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%97%E1%80%AC" title="စူပါနိုဗာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="စူပါနိုဗာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B6%85%E6%96%B0%E6%98%9F" title="超新星 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="超新星" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supern%C3%B2va" title="Supernòva – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Supernòva" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE" title="ਸੁਪਰਨੋਵਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੁਪਰਨੋਵਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D8%A7" title="سپرنووا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سپرنووا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%88_%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%87_%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%86%D9%87" title="د ستورو لویه چاودنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ستورو لویه چاودنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syuupanuova" title="Syuupanuova – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Syuupanuova" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernowa" title="Supernowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Supernowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernov%C4%83" title="Supernovă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Supernovă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Сверхновая звезда – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сверхновая звезда" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yjet_Supernova" title="Yjet Supernova – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Yjet Supernova" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%9D%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F" title="සුපර්නෝවා – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සුපර්නෝවා" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%B1_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D8%A7" title="سپر نووا – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سپر نووا" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8E%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%88%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%DB%8C_%D9%85%DB%95%D8%B2%D9%86" title="نوێبوونەوەی مەزن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="نوێبوونەوەی مەزن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Supernova" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernoba" title="Supernoba – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Supernoba" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="மீயொளிர் விண்மீன் வெடிப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மீயொளிர் விண்மீன் வெடிப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D1%82%D3%99_%D1%8F%D2%A3%D0%B0_%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B7" title="Үтә яңа йолдыз – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Үтә яңа йолдыз" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE" title="సూపర్ నోవా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సూపర్ నోవా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2" title="มหานวดารา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มหานวดารา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCpernova" title="Süpernova – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Süpernova" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova_a_%C9%9By%C9%9B_nwonwa" title="Supernova a ɛyɛ nwonwa – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Supernova a ɛyɛ nwonwa" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Twi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Astrophysical phenomenon</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Supernova_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Supernova (disambiguation)">Supernova (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SN1994D.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/SN1994D.jpg/290px-SN1994D.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/SN1994D.jpg/435px-SN1994D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/SN1994D.jpg/580px-SN1994D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/SN_1994D" title="SN 1994D">SN 1994D</a> (bright spot on the lower left), a <a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">type Ia supernova</a> within its host galaxy, <a href="/wiki/NGC_4526" title="NGC 4526">NGC 4526</a></figcaption></figure> A supernova (<abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr>: supernovae or supernovas) is a powerful and luminous <a href="/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">explosion</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">star</a>. A supernova occurs during the last <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">evolutionary stages</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Massive_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Massive star">massive star</a>, or when a <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a> is triggered into runaway <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>. The original object, called the progenitor, either collapses to a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron star</a> or <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a>, or is completely destroyed to form a <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_nebula" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffuse nebula">diffuse nebula</a>. The peak optical <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a> of a supernova can be comparable to that of an entire <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a> before fading over several weeks or months. The last supernova directly observed in the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> was <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_Supernova" title="Kepler's Supernova">Kepler's Supernova</a> in 1604, appearing not long after <a href="/wiki/Tycho%27s_Supernova" class="mw-redirect" title="Tycho's Supernova">Tycho's Supernova</a> in 1572, both of which were visible to the <a href="/wiki/Naked_eye" title="Naked eye">naked eye</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">remnants</a> of more recent supernovae have been found, and observations of supernovae in other galaxies suggest they occur in the Milky Way on average about three times every century. A supernova in the Milky Way would almost certainly be observable through modern astronomical telescopes. The most recent naked-eye supernova was <a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">SN 1987A</a>, which was the explosion of a <a href="/wiki/Blue_supergiant_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue supergiant star">blue supergiant star</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Large Magellanic Cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Satellite_galaxy" title="Satellite galaxy">satellite galaxy</a> of the Milky Way. Theoretical studies indicate that most supernovae are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a>, or the sudden <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">gravitational collapse</a> of a massive star's <a href="/wiki/Stellar_core" title="Stellar core">core</a>. <ul><li>In the re-ignition of a white dwarf, the object's temperature is raised enough to trigger <a href="/wiki/Thermal_runaway" title="Thermal runaway">runaway</a> nuclear fusion, completely disrupting the star. Possible causes are an accumulation of material from a <a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">binary companion</a> through <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">accretion</a>, or by a <a href="/wiki/Stellar_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar merger">stellar merger</a>.</li> <li>In the case of a massive star's sudden implosion, the core of a <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution#Massive_stars" title="Stellar evolution">massive star</a> will undergo sudden collapse once it is unable to produce sufficient energy from fusion to counteract the star's own gravity, which must happen once the star begins <a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">fusing iron</a>, but may happen during an earlier stage of <a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">metal</a> fusion.</li></ul> Supernovae can expel several <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">solar masses</a> of material at speeds up to several percent of the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. This drives an expanding <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> into the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a>, sweeping up an expanding shell of gas and dust observed as a supernova remnant. Supernovae are a major source of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> in the interstellar medium from <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> to <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a>. The expanding shock waves of supernovae can trigger the <a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">formation of new stars</a>. Supernovae are a major source of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>. They might also produce <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The word supernova has the <a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">plural</a> form supernovae (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/-viː/</a>) or supernovas and is often abbreviated as SN or SNe. It is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> word <a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">nova</a>, meaning 'new', which refers to what appears to be a temporary new bright star. Adding the prefix "super-" distinguishes supernovae from ordinary novae, which are far less luminous. The word supernova was coined by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Baade" title="Walter Baade">Walter Baade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Fritz Zwicky</a>, who began using it in astrophysics lectures in 1931.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a> Its first use in a journal article came the following year in a publication by <a href="/wiki/Knut_Lundmark" title="Knut Lundmark">Knut Lundmark</a>, who may have coined it independently.<a href="#cite_note-:1-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Observation_history">Observation history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Observation history">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_supernova_observation" title="History of supernova observation">History of supernova observation</a></div> Compared to a star's entire history, the visual appearance of a supernova is very brief, sometimes spanning several months, so that the chances of observing one with the naked eye are roughly once in a lifetime. Only a tiny fraction of the 100 <a href="/wiki/Billion" title="Billion">billion</a> stars in a typical <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a> have the capacity to become a supernova, the ability being restricted to those having high mass and those in rare kinds of <a href="/wiki/Binary_star_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary star system">binary star systems</a> with at least one <a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">white dwarf</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_discoveries">Early discoveries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early discoveries">edit</a>]</div> The earliest record of a possible supernova, known as HB9, was likely viewed by an unknown prehistoric people of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> and recorded on a rock carving in the <a href="/wiki/Burzahom_archaeological_site" title="Burzahom archaeological site">Burzahama</a> region of <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>, dated to 4500±1000 <a href="/wiki/Before_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Before Christ">BC</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Joglekar-5">[5]</a> Later, <a href="/wiki/SN_185" title="SN 185">SN 185</a> was documented by <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomers</a> in 185 AD. The brightest recorded supernova was <a href="/wiki/SN_1006" title="SN 1006">SN 1006</a>, which was observed in AD 1006 in the constellation of <a href="/wiki/Lupus_(constellation)" title="Lupus (constellation)">Lupus</a>. This event was described by observers in China, Japan, Iraq, Egypt and Europe.<a href="#cite_note-Murdin-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-winkler-8">[8]</a> The widely observed supernova <a href="/wiki/SN_1054" title="SN 1054">SN 1054</a> produced the <a href="/wiki/Crab_Nebula" title="Crab Nebula">Crab Nebula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a> Supernovae <a href="/wiki/SN_1572" title="SN 1572">SN 1572</a> and <a href="/wiki/SN_1604" class="mw-redirect" title="SN 1604">SN 1604</a>, the latest Milky Way supernovae to be observed with the naked eye, had a notable influence on the development of astronomy in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> because they were used to argue against the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> idea that the universe beyond the Moon and planets was static and unchanging.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> began observing SN 1604 at its peak on 17 October 1604, and continued to make estimates of its brightness until it faded from naked eye view a year later.<a href="#cite_note-kepler-11">[11]</a> It was the second supernova to be observed in a generation, after <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> observed SN 1572 in <a href="/wiki/Cassiopeia_A" title="Cassiopeia A">Cassiopeia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-history-12">[12]</a> There is some evidence that the youngest known supernova in our galaxy, <a href="/wiki/G1.9%2B0.3" title="G1.9+0.3">G1.9+0.3</a>, occurred in the late 19th century, considerably more recently than <a href="/wiki/Cassiopeia_A" title="Cassiopeia A">Cassiopeia A</a> from around 1680.<a href="#cite_note-chakraborti-13">[13]</a> Neither was noted at the time. In the case of G1.9+0.3, high <a href="/wiki/Extinction_(astronomy)" title="Extinction (astronomy)">extinction</a> from dust along the plane of the galactic disk could have dimmed the event sufficiently for it to go unnoticed. The situation for Cassiopeia A is less clear; infrared <a href="/wiki/Light_echo" title="Light echo">light echoes</a> have been detected showing that it was not in a region of especially high extinction.<a href="#cite_note-krause-14">[14]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Crab_Nebula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/200px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/300px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/400px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Crab_Nebula" title="Crab Nebula">Crab Nebula</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Pulsar_wind_nebula" title="Pulsar wind nebula">pulsar wind nebula</a> associated with the <a href="/wiki/1054_supernova" class="mw-redirect" title="1054 supernova">1054 supernova</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_report_of_guest_star_identified_as_the_supernova_of_1054_(SN_1054)_in_the_Lidai_mingchen_zouyi_(%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E5%90%8D%E8%87%A3%E5%A5%8F%E8%AE%AE).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chinese_report_of_guest_star_identified_as_the_supernova_of_1054_%28SN_1054%29_in_the_Lidai_mingchen_zouyi_%28%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E5%90%8D%E8%87%A3%E5%A5%8F%E8%AE%AE%29.jpg/200px-Chinese_report_of_guest_star_identified_as_the_supernova_of_1054_%28SN_1054%29_in_the_Lidai_mingchen_zouyi_%28%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E5%90%8D%E8%87%A3%E5%A5%8F%E8%AE%AE%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chinese_report_of_guest_star_identified_as_the_supernova_of_1054_%28SN_1054%29_in_the_Lidai_mingchen_zouyi_%28%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E5%90%8D%E8%87%A3%E5%A5%8F%E8%AE%AE%29.jpg/300px-Chinese_report_of_guest_star_identified_as_the_supernova_of_1054_%28SN_1054%29_in_the_Lidai_mingchen_zouyi_%28%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E5%90%8D%E8%87%A3%E5%A5%8F%E8%AE%AE%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chinese_report_of_guest_star_identified_as_the_supernova_of_1054_%28SN_1054%29_in_the_Lidai_mingchen_zouyi_%28%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E5%90%8D%E8%87%A3%E5%A5%8F%E8%AE%AE%29.jpg/400px-Chinese_report_of_guest_star_identified_as_the_supernova_of_1054_%28SN_1054%29_in_the_Lidai_mingchen_zouyi_%28%E5%8E%86%E4%BB%A3%E5%90%8D%E8%87%A3%E5%A5%8F%E8%AE%AE%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1337" data-file-height="1046" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">A 1414 text cites a 1055 report: since "the baleful star appeared, a full year has passed and until now its brilliance has not faded".<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></div></div></div></div></div> <table class="wikitable float-right"> <caption>Historical supernovae in the Local Group </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>year </th> <th>observed in </th> <th style="width:6em">maximum apparent brightness </th> <th>certainty<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> of the SN's identification </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/SN_185" title="SN 185">185</a> </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Centaurus" title="Centaurus">Centaurus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">−6<a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">m</a> </td> <td>possible SN, but may be a comet<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/SN_386" title="SN 386">386</a> </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)" title="Sagittarius (constellation)">Sagittarius</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">+1.5m<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> </td> <td>uncertain whether SN or classical nova<a href="#cite_note-Hoffmann-2020-20">[20]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/SN_393" title="SN 393">393</a> </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Scorpius" title="Scorpius">Scorpius</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">−3m </td> <td>possible SN<a href="#cite_note-Hoffmann-2020-20">[20]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/SN_1006" title="SN 1006">1006</a> </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Lupus_(constellation)" title="Lupus (constellation)">Lupus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">−7.5±0.4m<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> </td> <td>certain: <a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">SNR</a> known </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/SN_1054" title="SN 1054">1054</a> </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Taurus_(constellation)" title="Taurus (constellation)">Taurus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">−6m </td> <td>certain: SNR and pulsar known </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/SN_1181" title="SN 1181">1181</a> </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Cassiopeia_(constellation)" title="Cassiopeia (constellation)">Cassiopeia</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">−2m </td> <td>likely type Iax SN associated with the remnant Pa30<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/SN_1572" title="SN 1572">1572</a> </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Cassiopeia_(constellation)" title="Cassiopeia (constellation)">Cassiopeia</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">−4m </td> <td>certain: SNR known </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_Supernova" title="Kepler's Supernova">1604</a> </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Ophiuchus" title="Ophiuchus">Ophiuchus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">−2m </td> <td>certain: SNR known </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/Cassiopeia_A" title="Cassiopeia A">1680</a>? </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Cassiopeia_(constellation)" title="Cassiopeia (constellation)">Cassiopeia</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">+6m </td> <td>SNR known, unclear whether the SN was observed </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/G1.9%2B0.3" title="G1.9+0.3">1800–1900</a> </td> <td>constellation of <a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)" title="Sagittarius (constellation)">Sagittarius</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">?m </td> <td>SNR known, but not observed </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/SN_1885A" title="SN 1885A">1885</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/The_Andromeda_Galaxy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">+6m </td> <td>certain </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right"><a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">1987</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Large Magellanic Cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center">+3m </td> <td>certain </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Telescope_findings">Telescope findings</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Telescope findings">edit</a>]</div> With the development of the astronomical <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a>, observation and discovery of fainter and more distant supernovae became possible. The first such observation was of <a href="/wiki/SN_1885A" title="SN 1885A">SN 1885A</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>. A second supernova, <a href="/wiki/SN_1895B" title="SN 1895B">SN 1895B</a>, was discovered in <a href="/wiki/NGC_5253" title="NGC 5253">NGC 5253</a> a decade later.<a href="#cite_note-Schaefer1995-23">[23]</a> Early work on what was originally believed to be simply a new category of <a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">novae</a> was performed during the 1920s. These were variously called "upper-class Novae", "Hauptnovae", or "giant novae".<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The name "supernovae" is thought to have been coined by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Baade" title="Walter Baade">Walter Baade</a> and Zwicky in lectures at <a href="/wiki/Caltech" class="mw-redirect" title="Caltech">Caltech</a> in 1931. It was used, as "super-Novae", in a journal paper published by <a href="/wiki/Knut_Lundmark" title="Knut Lundmark">Knut Lundmark</a> in 1933,<a href="#cite_note-baas33_1330-25">[25]</a> and in a 1934 paper by Baade and Zwicky.<a href="#cite_note-Baade1934-26">[26]</a> By 1938, the hyphen was no longer used and the modern name was in use.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> American astronomers <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Minkowski" title="Rudolph Minkowski">Rudolph Minkowski</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Zwicky" title="Fritz Zwicky">Fritz Zwicky</a> developed the modern supernova classification scheme beginning in 1941.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> During the 1960s, astronomers found that the maximum intensities of supernovae could be used as <a href="/wiki/Standard_candles" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard candles">standard candles</a>, hence indicators of astronomical distances.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Some of the most distant supernovae observed in 2003 appeared dimmer than expected. This supports the view that the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Accelerating_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="Accelerating universe">universe is accelerating</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Leibundgut-30">[30]</a> Techniques were developed for reconstructing supernovae events that have no written records of being observed. The date of the Cassiopeia A supernova event was determined from light echoes off <a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">nebulae</a>,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> while the age of supernova remnant <a href="/wiki/RX_J0852.0-4622" class="mw-redirect" title="RX J0852.0-4622">RX J0852.0-4622</a> was estimated from temperature measurements<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a> emissions from the radioactive decay of <a href="/wiki/Titanium-44" class="mw-redirect" title="Titanium-44">titanium-44</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jades_Deep_Field_Annotated.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Jades_Deep_Field_Annotated.png/260px-Jades_Deep_Field_Annotated.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Jades_Deep_Field_Annotated.png/390px-Jades_Deep_Field_Annotated.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Jades_Deep_Field_Annotated.png/520px-Jades_Deep_Field_Annotated.png 2x" data-file-width="12081" data-file-height="8481" /></a><figcaption>Jades Deep Field. A team of astronomers studying JADES data identified about 80 objects (circled in green) that changed in brightness over time. Most of these objects, known as transients, are the result of exploding stars or supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a></figcaption></figure> The most luminous supernova ever recorded is <a href="/wiki/ASASSN-15lh" title="ASASSN-15lh">ASASSN-15lh</a>, at a distance of 3.82 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">gigalight-years</a>. It was first detected in June 2015 and peaked at 570 billion <a href="/wiki/Solar_luminosity" title="Solar luminosity"><var>L</var>☉</a>, which is twice the <a href="/wiki/Bolometric_luminosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Bolometric luminosity">bolometric luminosity</a> of any other known supernova.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The nature of this supernova is debated and several alternative explanations, such as tidal disruption of a star by a black hole, have been suggested.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> <a href="/wiki/SN_2013fs" title="SN 2013fs">SN 2013fs</a> was recorded three hours after the supernova event on 6 October 2013, by the <a href="/wiki/Palomar_Transient_Factory" title="Palomar Transient Factory">Intermediate Palomar Transient Factory</a>. This is among the earliest supernovae caught after detonation, and it is the earliest for which spectra have been obtained, beginning six hours after the actual explosion. The star is located in a <a href="/wiki/Spiral_galaxy" title="Spiral galaxy">spiral galaxy</a> named <a href="/wiki/NGC_7610" title="NGC 7610">NGC 7610</a>, 160 million light-years away in the constellation of Pegasus.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The supernova <a href="/wiki/SN_2016gkg" class="mw-redirect" title="SN 2016gkg">SN 2016gkg</a> was detected by amateur astronomer Victor Buso from <a href="/wiki/Rosario" title="Rosario">Rosario</a>, Argentina, on 20 September 2016.<a href="#cite_note-AS_Now-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-NatBuso-40">[40]</a> It was the first time that the initial "shock breakout" from an optical supernova had been observed.<a href="#cite_note-AS_Now-39">[39]</a> The progenitor star has been identified in <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a> images from before its collapse. Astronomer <a href="/wiki/Alex_Filippenko" title="Alex Filippenko">Alex Filippenko</a> noted: "Observations of stars in the first moments they begin exploding provide information that cannot be directly obtained in any other way."<a href="#cite_note-AS_Now-39">[39]</a> The <a href="/wiki/James_Webb_Space_Telescope" title="James Webb Space Telescope">James Webb Space Telescope</a> (JWST) has significantly advanced our understanding of supernovae<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> by identifying around 80 new instances through its JWST Advanced Deep Extragalactic Survey (JADES) program. This includes the most distant spectroscopically confirmed supernova at a redshift of 3.6, indicating its explosion occurred when the universe was merely 1.8 billion years old. These findings<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> offer crucial insights into the early universe's stellar evolution and the frequency of supernovae during its formative years. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_programs">Discovery programs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Discovery programs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NASA-SNR0519690-ChandraXRayObservatory-20150122.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NASA-SNR0519690-ChandraXRayObservatory-20150122.jpg/220px-NASA-SNR0519690-ChandraXRayObservatory-20150122.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NASA-SNR0519690-ChandraXRayObservatory-20150122.jpg/330px-NASA-SNR0519690-ChandraXRayObservatory-20150122.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/NASA-SNR0519690-ChandraXRayObservatory-20150122.jpg/440px-NASA-SNR0519690-ChandraXRayObservatory-20150122.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">Supernova remnant</a> SNR E0519-69.0 in the <a href="/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Large Magellanic Cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</a></figcaption></figure> Because supernovae are relatively rare events within a galaxy, occurring about three times a century in the Milky Way,<a href="#cite_note-reynolds-43">[43]</a> obtaining a good sample of supernovae to study requires regular monitoring of many galaxies. Today, amateur and professional astronomers are finding several hundred every year, some when near maximum brightness, others on old astronomical photographs or plates. Supernovae in other galaxies cannot be predicted with any meaningful accuracy. Normally, when they are discovered, they are already in progress.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> To use supernovae as <a href="/wiki/Standard_candle" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard candle">standard candles</a> for measuring distance, observation of their peak luminosity is required. It is therefore important to discover them well before they reach their maximum. <a href="/wiki/Amateur_astronomy" title="Amateur astronomy">Amateur astronomers</a>, who greatly outnumber professional astronomers, have played an important role in finding supernovae, typically by looking at some of the closer galaxies through an <a href="/wiki/Optical_telescope" title="Optical telescope">optical telescope</a> and comparing them to earlier photographs.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Toward the end of the 20th century, astronomers increasingly turned to computer-controlled telescopes and <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCDs</a> for hunting supernovae. While such systems are popular with amateurs, there are also professional installations such as the <a href="/wiki/Katzman_Automatic_Imaging_Telescope" title="Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope">Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Supernova_Early_Warning_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernova Early Warning System">Supernova Early Warning System</a> (SNEWS) project uses a network of <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_detector" title="Neutrino detector">neutrino detectors</a> to give early warning of a supernova in the Milky Way galaxy.<a href="#cite_note-Antonioli-2004-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrinos</a> are <a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">subatomic particles</a> that are produced in great quantities by a supernova, and they are not significantly absorbed by the interstellar gas and dust of the galactic disk.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_star_set_to_explode.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_star_set_to_explode.jpg/260px-A_star_set_to_explode.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_star_set_to_explode.jpg/390px-A_star_set_to_explode.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/A_star_set_to_explode.jpg/520px-A_star_set_to_explode.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3955" data-file-height="2008" /></a><figcaption>"A star set to explode", the SBW1 nebula surrounds a massive blue supergiant in the <a href="/wiki/Carina_Nebula" title="Carina Nebula">Carina Nebula</a>.</figcaption></figure> Supernova searches fall into two classes: those focused on relatively nearby events and those looking farther away. Because of the <a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">expansion of the universe</a>, the distance to a remote object with a known <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectrum" title="Emission spectrum">emission spectrum</a> can be estimated by measuring its <a href="/wiki/Doppler_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Doppler shift">Doppler shift</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshift</a>); on average, more-distant objects recede with greater velocity than those nearby, and so have a higher redshift. Thus the search is split between high redshift and low redshift, with the boundary falling around a redshift range of z=0.1–0.3, where z is a dimensionless measure of the spectrum's frequency shift.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> High redshift searches for supernovae usually involve the observation of supernova light curves. These are useful for standard or calibrated candles to generate <a href="/wiki/Hubble_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble diagram">Hubble diagrams</a> and make cosmological predictions. Supernova spectroscopy, used to study the physics and environments of supernovae, is more practical at low than at high redshift.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Low redshift observations also anchor the low-distance end of the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="Hubble curve">Hubble curve</a>, which is a plot of distance versus redshift for visible galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> As survey programmes rapidly increase the number of detected supernovae, collated collections of observations (light decay curves, astrometry, pre-supernova observations, spectroscopy) have been assembled. The Pantheon data set, assembled in 2018, detailed 1048 supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In 2021, this data set was expanded to 1701 light curves for 1550 supernovae taken from 18 different surveys, a 50% increase in under 3 years.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Naming_convention">Naming convention</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Naming convention">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Keplers_supernova.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Keplers_supernova.jpg/220px-Keplers_supernova.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Keplers_supernova.jpg/330px-Keplers_supernova.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Keplers_supernova.jpg/440px-Keplers_supernova.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Multi-wavelength <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Optical" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical">optical</a> compilation image of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Kepler's</a> <a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">supernova remnant</a>, <a href="/wiki/SN_1604" class="mw-redirect" title="SN 1604">SN 1604</a></figcaption></figure>Supernova discoveries are reported to the <a href="/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union" title="International Astronomical Union">International Astronomical Union</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Central_Bureau_for_Astronomical_Telegrams" title="Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams">Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams</a>, which sends out a circular with the name it assigns to that supernova.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The name is formed from the prefix SN, followed by the year of discovery, suffixed with a one or two-letter designation. The first 26 supernovae of the year are designated with a capital letter from A to Z. Next, pairs of lower-case letters are used: aa, ab, and so on. Hence, for example, SN 2003C designates the third supernova reported in the year 2003.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The last supernova of 2005, SN 2005nc, was the 367th (14 × 26 + 3 = 367). Since 2000, professional and amateur astronomers have been finding several hundred supernovae each year (572 in 2007, 261 in 2008, 390 in 2009; 231 in 2013).<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Historical supernovae are known simply by the year they occurred: SN 185, SN 1006, SN 1054, SN 1572 (called Tycho's Nova) and SN 1604 (Kepler's Star).<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Since 1885 the additional letter notation has been used, even if there was only one supernova discovered that year (for example, SN 1885A, SN 1907A, etc.); this last happened with SN 1947A. SN, for SuperNova, is a standard prefix. Until 1987, two-letter designations were rarely needed; since 1988, they have been needed every year. Since 2016, the increasing number of discoveries has regularly led to the additional use of three-letter designations.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> After zz comes aaa, then aab, aac, and so on. For example, the last supernova retained in the Asiago Supernova Catalogue  when it was terminated on 31 December 2017 bears the designation SN 2017jzp.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> Astronomers classify supernovae according to their <a href="/wiki/Light_curve" title="Light curve">light curves</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Absorption_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption line">absorption lines</a> of different <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a> that appear in their <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_spectroscopy" title="Astronomical spectroscopy">spectra</a>. If a supernova's spectrum contains lines of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (known as the <a href="/wiki/Balmer_series" title="Balmer series">Balmer series</a> in the visual portion of the spectrum) it is classified Type II; otherwise it is Type I. In each of these two types there are subdivisions according to the presence of lines from other elements or the shape of the light curve (a graph of the supernova's apparent magnitude as a function of time).<a href="#cite_note-types-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-taxonomy-65">[65]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Supernova taxonomy<a href="#cite_note-types-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-taxonomy-65">[65]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="3" style="background:#ccc; valign:center;">Type I No hydrogen </td> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">Type Ia</a> Presents a singly <a href="/wiki/Ionization" title="Ionization">ionised</a> <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> (Si II) line at 615.0 <a href="/wiki/Nanometre" title="Nanometre">nm</a> (nanometers), near peak light </td> <td colspan="4" style="background:#fff;"><a href="#Thermal_runaway">Thermal runaway</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#eee; valign:center;"><a href="/wiki/Type_Ib_and_Ic_supernovae" title="Type Ib and Ic supernovae">Type Ib/c</a> Weak or no silicon absorption feature </td> <td colspan="3">Type Ib Shows a non-ionised <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> (He I) line at 587.6 nm </td> <td rowspan="6" style="background:#fff;"><a href="#Core_collapse">Core collapse</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3">Type Ic Weak or no helium </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4" style="background:#ccc; valign:center;"><a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova" title="Type II supernova">Type II</a> Shows hydrogen </td> <td rowspan="3" style="background:#ddd; valign:center;"><a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova" title="Type II supernova">Type II-P/-L/n</a> Type II spectrum throughout </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="background:#eee; valign:center;"><a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova#Light_curves_for_Type_II-L_and_Type_II-P_supernovae" title="Type II supernova">Type II-P/L</a> No narrow lines </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova#Light_curves_for_Type_II-L_and_Type_II-P_supernovae" title="Type II supernova">Type II-P</a> Reaches a "plateau" in its light curve </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova#Light_curves_for_Type_II-L_and_Type_II-P_supernovae" title="Type II supernova">Type II-L</a> Displays a "linear" decrease in its light curve (linear in magnitude versus time)<a href="#cite_note-doggett-66">[66]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova#Type_IIn_supernovae" title="Type II supernova">Type IIn</a> Some narrow lines </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova#Type_IIb_supernovae" title="Type II supernova">Type IIb</a> Spectrum changes to become like Type Ib </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_I">Type I</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Type I">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SN2018gv.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/SN2018gv.gif/330px-SN2018gv.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/SN2018gv.gif/495px-SN2018gv.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/SN2018gv.gif/660px-SN2018gv.gif 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption>Light curve for type Ia <a href="/wiki/NGC_2525#SN_2018gv" title="NGC 2525">SN 2018gv</a></figcaption></figure> Type I supernovae are subdivided on the basis of their spectra, with type Ia showing a strong <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">ionised silicon</a> absorption line. Type I supernovae without this strong line are classified as type Ib and Ic, with type Ib showing strong neutral helium lines and type Ic lacking them. Historically, the light curves of type I supernovae were seen as all broadly similar, too much so to make useful distinctions.<a href="#cite_note-doggett-66">[66]</a> While variations in light curves have been studied, classification continues to be made on spectral grounds rather than light-curve shape.<a href="#cite_note-taxonomy-65">[65]</a> A small number of type Ia supernovae exhibit unusual features, such as non-standard luminosity or broadened light curves, and these are typically categorised by referring to the earliest example showing similar features. For example, the sub-luminous <a href="/wiki/SN_2008ha" title="SN 2008ha">SN 2008ha</a> is often referred to as <a href="/wiki/SN_2002cx" title="SN 2002cx">SN 2002cx</a>-like or class Ia-2002cx.<a href="#cite_note-foley2008-67">[67]</a> A small proportion of type Ic supernovae show highly broadened and blended emission lines which are taken to indicate very high expansion velocities for the ejecta. These have been classified as type Ic-BL or Ic-bl.<a href="#cite_note-bianco-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Calcium-rich_supernova" title="Calcium-rich supernova">Calcium-rich supernovae</a> are a rare type of very fast supernova with unusually strong calcium lines in their spectra.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Models suggest they occur when material is accreted from a <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>-rich companion rather than a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>-rich star. Because of helium lines in their spectra, they can resemble type Ib supernovae, but are thought to have very different progenitors.<a href="#cite_note-Perets-2010-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Type_II">Type II</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Type II">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SNIIcurva.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/SNIIcurva.svg/220px-SNIIcurva.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/SNIIcurva.svg/330px-SNIIcurva.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/SNIIcurva.svg/440px-SNIIcurva.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1052" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption>Light curves are used to classify type II-P and type II-L supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-taxonomy-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-barbon1979-72">[72]</a></figcaption></figure> The supernovae of <a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova" title="Type II supernova">type II</a> can also be sub-divided based on their spectra. While most type II supernovae show very broad <a href="/wiki/Emission_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission line">emission lines</a> which indicate expansion velocities of many thousands of <a href="/wiki/Kilometres_per_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilometres per second">kilometres per second</a>, some, such as <a href="/wiki/SN_2005gl" title="SN 2005gl">SN 2005gl</a>, have relatively narrow features in their spectra. These are called type IIn, where the "n" stands for "narrow".<a href="#cite_note-taxonomy-65">[65]</a> A few supernovae, such as SN 1987K<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> and <a href="/wiki/SN_1993J" title="SN 1993J">SN 1993J</a>, appear to change types: they show lines of hydrogen at early times, but, over a period of weeks to months, become dominated by lines of helium. The term <a href="/wiki/Type_IIb_supernova" class="mw-redirect" title="Type IIb supernova">"type IIb"</a> is used to describe the combination of features normally associated with types II and Ib.<a href="#cite_note-taxonomy-65">[65]</a> Type II supernovae with normal spectra dominated by broad hydrogen lines that remain for the life of the decline are classified on the basis of their light curves. The most common type shows a distinctive "plateau" in the light curve shortly after peak brightness where the visual luminosity stays relatively constant for several months before the decline resumes. These are called type II-P referring to the plateau. Less common are type II-L supernovae that lack a distinct plateau. The "L" signifies "linear" although the light curve is not actually a straight line.<a href="#cite_note-taxonomy-65">[65]</a> Supernovae that do not fit into the normal classifications are designated peculiar, or "pec".<a href="#cite_note-taxonomy-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Types_III,_IV_and_V">Types III, IV and V</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Types III, IV and V">edit</a>]</div> Zwicky defined additional supernovae types based on a very few examples that did not cleanly fit the parameters for type I or type II supernovae. <a href="/wiki/SN_1961i" class="mw-redirect" title="SN 1961i">SN 1961i</a> in <a href="/wiki/NGC_4303" class="mw-redirect" title="NGC 4303">NGC 4303</a> was the prototype and only member of the type III supernova class, noted for its broad light curve maximum and broad hydrogen Balmer lines that were slow to develop in the spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-doggett-66">[66]</a> SN 1961f in <a href="/wiki/NGC_3003" title="NGC 3003">NGC 3003</a> was the prototype and only member of the type IV class, with a light curve similar to a type II-P supernova, with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_absorption_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen absorption line">hydrogen absorption lines</a> but weak <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_emission_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen emission line">hydrogen emission lines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-doggett-66">[66]</a> The type V class was coined for <a href="/wiki/SN_1961V" title="SN 1961V">SN 1961V</a> in <a href="/wiki/NGC_1058" title="NGC 1058">NGC 1058</a>, an unusual faint supernova or <a href="/wiki/Supernova_impostor" title="Supernova impostor">supernova impostor</a> with a slow rise to brightness, a maximum lasting many months, and an unusual emission spectrum. The similarity of SN 1961V to the <a href="/wiki/Eta_Carinae" title="Eta Carinae">Eta Carinae</a> Great Outburst was noted.<a href="#cite_note-zwicky2-74">[74]</a> Supernovae in M101 (1909) and M83 (1923 and 1957) were also suggested as possible type IV or type V supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-zwicky-75">[75]</a> These types would now all be treated as peculiar type II supernovae (IIpec), of which many more examples have been discovered, although it is still debated whether SN 1961V was a true supernova following an <a href="/wiki/Luminous_blue_variable" title="Luminous blue variable">LBV</a> outburst or an impostor.<a href="#cite_note-doggett-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_models">Current models</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Current models">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Rise_and_Fall_of_a_Supernova.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_a_Supernova.jpg/370px-The_Rise_and_Fall_of_a_Supernova.jpg" decoding="async" width="370" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_a_Supernova.jpg/555px-The_Rise_and_Fall_of_a_Supernova.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/The_Rise_and_Fall_of_a_Supernova.jpg/740px-The_Rise_and_Fall_of_a_Supernova.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1580" data-file-height="664" /></a><figcaption>In the galaxy <a href="/wiki/NGC_1365" title="NGC 1365">NGC 1365</a> a supernova (the bright dot slightly above the galactic center) rapidly brightens, then fades more slowly.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></figcaption></figure> Supernova type codes, as summarised in the table above, are <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomic</a>: the type number is based on the light observed from the supernova, not necessarily its cause. For example, type Ia supernovae are produced by runaway fusion ignited on degenerate white dwarf progenitors, while the spectrally similar type Ib/c are produced from massive stripped progenitor stars by core collapse. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_runaway">Thermal runaway</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Thermal runaway">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">Type Ia supernova</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Progenitor_IA_supernova.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Progenitor_IA_supernova.svg/370px-Progenitor_IA_supernova.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="379" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Progenitor_IA_supernova.svg/555px-Progenitor_IA_supernova.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Progenitor_IA_supernova.svg/740px-Progenitor_IA_supernova.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="761" /></a><figcaption>Formation of a type Ia supernova</figcaption></figure> A white dwarf star may accumulate sufficient material from a stellar companion to raise its core temperature enough to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_detonation" title="Carbon detonation">ignite</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbon_burning_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon burning process">carbon fusion</a>, at which point it undergoes <a href="/wiki/Thermal_runaway" title="Thermal runaway">runaway</a> nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. There are three avenues by which this detonation is theorised to happen: stable <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">accretion</a> of material from a companion, the collision of two white dwarfs, or accretion that causes ignition in a shell that then ignites the core. The dominant mechanism by which type Ia supernovae are produced remains unclear.<a href="#cite_note-Piro2014-78">[78]</a> Despite this uncertainty in how type Ia supernovae are produced, type Ia supernovae have very uniform properties and are useful <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_distance_ladder" title="Cosmic distance ladder">standard candles</a> over intergalactic distances. Some calibrations are required to compensate for the gradual change in properties or different frequencies of abnormal luminosity supernovae at high redshift, and for small variations in brightness identified by light curve shape or spectrum.<a href="#cite_note-chen-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Normal_type_Ia">Normal type Ia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Normal type Ia">edit</a>]</div> There are several means by which a supernova of this type can form, but they share a common underlying mechanism. If a <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>-<a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> white dwarf accreted enough matter to reach the <a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit" title="Chandrasekhar limit">Chandrasekhar limit</a> of about 1.44 <a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">solar masses</a><a href="#cite_note-Mazzali2007-81">[81]</a> (for a non-rotating star), it would no longer be able to support the bulk of its mass through <a href="/wiki/Electron_degeneracy_pressure" title="Electron degeneracy pressure">electron degeneracy pressure</a><a href="#cite_note-Chandrasekhar-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-canal1997-83">[83]</a> and would begin to collapse. However, the current view is that this limit is not normally attained; increasing temperature and density inside the core ignite carbon fusion as the star approaches the limit (to within about 1%)<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> before collapse is initiated.<a href="#cite_note-Mazzali2007-81">[81]</a> In contrast, for a core primarily composed of oxygen, neon and magnesium, the collapsing white dwarf will typically form a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron star</a>. In this case, only a fraction of the star's mass will be ejected during the collapse.<a href="#cite_note-canal1997-83">[83]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:An_isolated_neutron_star_in_the_Small_Magellanic_Cloud.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/An_isolated_neutron_star_in_the_Small_Magellanic_Cloud.jpg/220px-An_isolated_neutron_star_in_the_Small_Magellanic_Cloud.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/An_isolated_neutron_star_in_the_Small_Magellanic_Cloud.jpg/330px-An_isolated_neutron_star_in_the_Small_Magellanic_Cloud.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/An_isolated_neutron_star_in_the_Small_Magellanic_Cloud.jpg/440px-An_isolated_neutron_star_in_the_Small_Magellanic_Cloud.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1510" data-file-height="1509" /></a><figcaption>The blue spot at the centre of the red ring is an isolated neutron star in the <a href="/wiki/Small_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Small Magellanic Cloud">Small Magellanic Cloud</a>.</figcaption></figure> Within a few seconds of the collapse process, a substantial fraction of the matter in the white dwarf undergoes nuclear fusion, releasing enough energy (1–2×1044 <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">J</a>)<a href="#cite_note-aaa270-85">[85]</a> to <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_binding_energy" title="Gravitational binding energy">unbind</a> the star in a supernova.<a href="#cite_note-ropke-86">[86]</a> An outwardly expanding <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> is generated, with matter reaching velocities on the order of 5,000–20,000 <a href="/wiki/Kilometers_per_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilometers per second">km/s</a>, or roughly 3% of the speed of light. There is also a significant increase in luminosity, reaching an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_magnitude" title="Absolute magnitude">absolute magnitude</a> of −19.3 (or 5 billion times brighter than the Sun), with little variation.<a href="#cite_note-explosion_model-87">[87]</a> The model for the formation of this category of supernova is a close binary star system. The larger of the two stars is the first to <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">evolve</a> off the <a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">main sequence</a>, and it expands to form a <a href="/wiki/Red_giant" title="Red giant">red giant</a>. The two stars now share a common envelope, causing their mutual orbit to shrink. The giant star then sheds most of its envelope, losing mass until it can no longer continue <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>. At this point, it becomes a white dwarf star, composed primarily of carbon and oxygen.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Eventually, the secondary star also evolves off the main sequence to form a red giant. Matter from the giant is accreted by the white dwarf, causing the latter to increase in mass. The exact details of initiation and of the heavy elements produced in the catastrophic event remain unclear.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Type Ia supernovae produce a characteristic light curve—the graph of luminosity as a function of time—after the event. This luminosity is generated by the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>-56 through <a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">cobalt</a>-56 to <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-56.<a href="#cite_note-explosion_model-87">[87]</a> The peak luminosity of the light curve is extremely consistent across normal type Ia supernovae, having a maximum absolute magnitude of about −19.3. This is because typical type Ia supernovae arise from a consistent type of progenitor star by gradual mass acquisition, and explode when they acquire a consistent typical mass, giving rise to very similar supernova conditions and behaviour. This allows them to be used as a secondary<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> standard candle to measure the distance to their host galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> A second model for the formation of type Ia supernovae involves the merger of two white dwarf stars, with the combined mass momentarily exceeding the Chandrasekhar limit.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> This is sometimes referred to as the double-degenerate model, as both stars are degenerate white dwarfs. Due to the possible combinations of mass and chemical composition of the pair there is much variation in this type of event,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> and, in many cases, there may be no supernova at all, in which case they will have a less luminous light curve than the more normal SN type Ia.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-standard_type_Ia">Non-standard type Ia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Non-standard type Ia">edit</a>]</div> Abnormally bright type Ia supernovae occur when the white dwarf already has a mass higher than the Chandrasekhar limit,<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> possibly enhanced further by asymmetry,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> but the ejected material will have less than normal kinetic energy. This super-Chandrasekhar-mass scenario can occur, for example, when the extra mass is supported by <a href="/wiki/Differential_rotation" title="Differential rotation">differential rotation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> There is no formal sub-classification for non-standard type Ia supernovae. It has been proposed that a group of sub-luminous supernovae that occur when helium accretes onto a white dwarf should be classified as type Iax.<a href="#cite_note-wang-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-foley-99">[99]</a> This type of supernova may not always completely destroy the white dwarf progenitor and could leave behind a <a href="/wiki/Zombie_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Zombie star">zombie star</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mccully-100">[100]</a> One specific type of supernova originates from exploding white dwarfs, like type Ia, but contains hydrogen lines in their spectra, possibly because the white dwarf is surrounded by an envelope of hydrogen-rich <a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_disc" title="Circumstellar disc">circumstellar material</a>. These supernovae have been dubbed type Ia/IIn, type Ian, type IIa and type IIan.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The quadruple star <a href="/wiki/HD_74438" title="HD 74438">HD 74438</a>, belonging to the open cluster <a href="/wiki/IC_2391" title="IC 2391">IC 2391</a> the <a href="/wiki/Vela_constellation" class="mw-redirect" title="Vela constellation">Vela constellation</a>, has been predicted to become a non-standard type Ia supernova.<a href="#cite_note-GIAISURVEY-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-supernova-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Core_collapse">Core collapse</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Core collapse">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg/220px-Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg/330px-Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg/440px-Evolved_star_fusion_shells.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>The layers of a massive, evolved star just before core collapse (not to scale)</figcaption></figure> Very massive stars can undergo core collapse when nuclear fusion becomes unable to sustain the core against its own gravity; passing this threshold is the cause of all types of supernova except type Ia. The collapse may cause violent expulsion of the outer layers of the star resulting in a supernova. However, if the release of gravitational potential energy is insufficient, the star may instead collapse into a <a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">black hole</a> or neutron star with little radiated energy.<a href="#cite_note-heger-104">[104]</a> Core collapse can be caused by several different mechanisms: exceeding the <a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit" title="Chandrasekhar limit">Chandrasekhar limit</a>; <a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron capture</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pair-instability_supernova" title="Pair-instability supernova">pair-instability</a>; or <a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">photodisintegration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-heger-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-renzon2018-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-nomoto-106">[106]</a> <ul><li>When a massive star develops an iron core larger than the Chandrasekhar mass it will no longer be able to support itself by <a href="/wiki/Electron_degeneracy_pressure" title="Electron degeneracy pressure">electron degeneracy pressure</a> and will collapse further to a neutron star or black hole.</li> <li>Electron capture by magnesium in a <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">degenerate</a> O/Ne/Mg core (8–10 solar mass progenitor star) removes support and causes <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">gravitational collapse</a> followed by explosive oxygen fusion, with very similar results.</li> <li>Electron-positron pair production in a large post-helium burning core removes thermodynamic support and causes initial collapse followed by runaway fusion, resulting in a pair-instability supernova.</li> <li>A sufficiently large and hot <a href="/wiki/Stellar_core" title="Stellar core">stellar core</a> may generate gamma-rays energetic enough to initiate photodisintegration directly, which will cause a complete collapse of the core.</li></ul> The table below lists the known reasons for core collapse in massive stars, the types of stars in which they occur, their associated supernova type, and the remnant produced. The <a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">metallicity</a> is the proportion of elements other than hydrogen or helium, as compared to the Sun. The initial mass is the mass of the star prior to the supernova event, given in multiples of the Sun's mass, although the mass at the time of the supernova may be much lower.<a href="#cite_note-heger-104">[104]</a> Type IIn supernovae are not listed in the table. They can be produced by various types of core collapse in different progenitor stars, possibly even by type Ia white dwarf ignitions, although it seems that most will be from iron core collapse in luminous <a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">supergiants</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hypergiant" title="Hypergiant">hypergiants</a> (including LBVs). The narrow spectral lines for which they are named occur because the supernova is expanding into a small dense cloud of circumstellar material.<a href="#cite_note-moriya-107">[107]</a> It appears that a significant proportion of supposed type IIn supernovae are supernova impostors, massive eruptions of LBV-like stars similar to the Great Eruption of <a href="/wiki/Eta_Carinae" title="Eta Carinae">Eta Carinae</a>. In these events, material previously ejected from the star creates the narrow absorption lines and causes a shock wave through interaction with the newly ejected material.<a href="#cite_note-smith-108">[108]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Core collapse scenarios by mass and metallicity<a href="#cite_note-heger-104">[104]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Cause of collapse</th> <th>Progenitor star approximate initial mass (<a href="/wiki/Solar_mass" title="Solar mass">solar masses</a>)</th> <th>Supernova type</th> <th>Remnant </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture_supernova" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron capture supernova">Electron capture in a degenerate O+Ne+Mg core</a></td> <td>9–10</td> <td>Faint II-P</td> <td>Neutron star </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="7">Iron core collapse</td> <td>10–25</td> <td>Faint II-P</td> <td>Neutron star </td></tr> <tr> <td>25–40 with low or solar metallicity</td> <td>Normal II-P</td> <td>Black hole after fallback of material onto an initial neutron star </td></tr> <tr> <td>25–40 with very high metallicity</td> <td>II-L or II-b</td> <td>Neutron star </td></tr> <tr> <td>40–90 with low metallicity</td> <td>None</td> <td>Black hole </td></tr> <tr> <td>≥ 40 with near-solar metallicity</td> <td>Faint Ib/c, or <a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">hypernova</a> with <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">gamma-ray burst</a> (GRB)</td> <td>Black hole after fallback of material onto an initial neutron star </td></tr> <tr> <td>≥ 40 with very high metallicity</td> <td>Ib/c</td> <td>Neutron star </td></tr> <tr> <td>≥ 90 with low metallicity</td> <td>None, possible GRB</td> <td>Black hole </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pair instability</td> <td>140–250 with low metallicity</td> <td>II-P, sometimes a hypernova, possible GRB</td> <td>No remnant </td></tr> <tr> <td>Photodisintegration</td> <td>≥ 250 with low metallicity</td> <td>None (or luminous supernova?), possible GRB</td> <td>Massive black hole </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Detailed_process">Detailed process</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Detailed process">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Core_collapse_scenario.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Core_collapse_scenario.svg/310px-Core_collapse_scenario.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Core_collapse_scenario.svg/465px-Core_collapse_scenario.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Core_collapse_scenario.svg/620px-Core_collapse_scenario.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="588" /></a><figcaption>Within a massive, evolved star (a) the onion-layered shells of elements undergo fusion, forming an iron core (b) that reaches Chandrasekhar-mass and starts to collapse. The inner part of the core is compressed into neutrons (c), causing infalling material to bounce (d) and form an outward-propagating shock front (red). The shock starts to stall (e), but it is re-invigorated, likely by <a href="/wiki/Supernova_neutrinos" title="Supernova neutrinos">neutrino heating</a>. The surrounding material is blasted away (f), leaving only a degenerate remnant.<a href="#cite_note-Janka-2007-109">[109]</a></figcaption></figure> When a stellar core is no longer supported against gravity, it collapses in on itself with velocities reaching 70,000 km/s (0.23<a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">c</a>),<a href="#cite_note-grav_waves-110">[110]</a> resulting in a rapid increase in temperature and density. What follows depends on the mass and structure of the collapsing core, with low-mass degenerate cores forming neutron stars, higher-mass degenerate cores mostly collapsing completely to black holes, and non-degenerate cores undergoing runaway fusion.<a href="#cite_note-Janka-2007-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hurley-2000-111">[111]</a> The initial collapse of degenerate cores is accelerated by <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>, photodisintegration and electron capture, which causes a burst of <a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">electron neutrinos</a>. As the density increases, <a href="/wiki/Supernova_neutrinos" title="Supernova neutrinos">neutrino emission</a> is cut off as they become trapped in the core. The inner core eventually reaches typically 30 <a href="/wiki/Kilometre" title="Kilometre">km</a> in diameter<a href="#cite_note-WoosleyJanka-112">[112]</a> with a density comparable to that of an <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>, and neutron <a href="/wiki/Degeneracy_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Degeneracy pressure">degeneracy pressure</a> tries to halt the collapse. If the core mass is more than about 15 solar masses then neutron degeneracy is insufficient to stop the collapse and a black hole forms directly with no supernova.<a href="#cite_note-renzon2018-105">[105]</a> In lower mass cores the collapse is stopped and the newly formed neutron core has an initial temperature of about 100 billion <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a>, 6,000 times the temperature of the <a href="/wiki/Sun%27s_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Sun's core">Sun's core</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Janka-2007-109">[109]</a> At this temperature, neutrino-antineutrino pairs of all <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_oscillation" title="Neutrino oscillation">flavours</a> are efficiently formed by <a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">thermal emission</a>. These thermal neutrinos are several times more abundant than the electron-capture neutrinos.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> About 1046 joules, approximately 10% of the star's rest mass, is converted into a ten-second burst of neutrinos, which is the main output of the event.<a href="#cite_note-WoosleyJanka-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-barwick-114">[114]</a> The suddenly halted core collapse rebounds and produces a shock wave that stalls in the outer core within milliseconds<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> as energy is lost through the dissociation of heavy elements. A process that is not clearly understood<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit">[update]</a> is necessary to allow the outer layers of the core to reabsorb around 1044 joules<a href="#cite_note-barwick-114">[114]</a> (1 <a href="/wiki/Foe_(unit)" title="Foe (unit)">foe</a>) from the <a href="/wiki/Supernova_neutrinos" title="Supernova neutrinos">neutrino pulse</a>, producing the visible brightness, although there are other theories that could power the explosion.<a href="#cite_note-WoosleyJanka-112">[112]</a> Some material from the outer envelope falls back onto the neutron star, and, for cores beyond about 8 <var>M</var>☉, there is sufficient fallback to form a black hole. This fallback will reduce the kinetic energy created and the mass of expelled radioactive material, but in some situations, it may also generate <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_jet" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic jet">relativistic jets</a> that result in a <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">gamma-ray burst</a> or an exceptionally luminous supernova.<a href="#cite_note-piram2019-116">[116]</a> The collapse of a massive non-degenerate core will ignite further fusion.<a href="#cite_note-Hurley-2000-111">[111]</a> When the core collapse is initiated by <a href="/wiki/Pair-instability_supernova" title="Pair-instability supernova">pair instability</a> (<a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> turning into <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>-<a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a> pairs, thereby reducing the radiation pressure) oxygen fusion begins and the collapse may be halted. For core masses of 40–60 <var>M</var>☉, the collapse halts and the star remains intact, but collapse will occur again when a larger core has formed. For cores of around 60–130 <var>M</var>☉, the fusion of oxygen and heavier elements is so energetic that the entire star is disrupted, causing a supernova. At the upper end of the mass range, the supernova is unusually luminous and extremely long-lived due to many solar masses of ejected 56Ni. For even larger core masses, the core temperature becomes high enough to allow photodisintegration and the core collapses completely into a black hole.<a href="#cite_note-kasen-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-renzon2018-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Type_II_2">Type II</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Type II">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova" title="Type II supernova">Type II supernova</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SN_1997D.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/SN_1997D.jpg/220px-SN_1997D.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/SN_1997D.jpg/330px-SN_1997D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/SN_1997D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="463" /></a><figcaption>The atypical subluminous type II <a href="/wiki/SN_1997D" title="SN 1997D">SN 1997D</a></figcaption></figure> Stars with initial masses less than about 8 <var>M</var>☉ never develop a core large enough to collapse and they eventually lose their atmospheres to become white dwarfs. Stars with at least 9 <var>M</var>☉ (possibly as much as 12 <var>M</var>☉<a href="#cite_note-superagb-118">[118]</a>) evolve in a complex fashion, progressively burning heavier elements at hotter temperatures in their cores.<a href="#cite_note-WoosleyJanka-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-science304-119">[119]</a> The star becomes layered like an onion, with the burning of more easily fused elements occurring in larger shells.<a href="#cite_note-heger-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-hinshaw-120">[120]</a> Although popularly described as an onion with an iron core, the least massive supernova progenitors only have oxygen-<a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">neon</a>(-<a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>) cores. These <a href="/wiki/Super-AGB_star" title="Super-AGB star">super-AGB stars</a> may form the majority of core collapse supernovae, although less luminous and so less commonly observed than those from more massive progenitors.<a href="#cite_note-superagb-118">[118]</a> If core collapse occurs during a supergiant phase when the star still has a hydrogen envelope, the result is a type II supernova.<a href="#cite_note-Horiuchi_et_al_2014-121">[121]</a> The rate of mass loss for luminous stars depends on the metallicity and <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a>. Extremely luminous stars at near solar metallicity will lose all their hydrogen before they reach core collapse and so will not form a supernova of type II.<a href="#cite_note-Horiuchi_et_al_2014-121">[121]</a> At low metallicity, all stars will reach core collapse with a hydrogen envelope but sufficiently massive stars collapse directly to a black hole without producing a visible supernova.<a href="#cite_note-heger-104">[104]</a> Stars with an initial mass up to about 90 times the Sun, or a little less at high metallicity, result in a type II-P supernova, which is the most commonly observed type. At moderate to high metallicity, stars near the upper end of that mass range will have lost most of their hydrogen when core collapse occurs and the result will be a type II-L supernova.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> At very low metallicity, stars of around 140–250 <var>M</var>☉ will reach core collapse by pair instability while they still have a hydrogen atmosphere and an oxygen core and the result will be a supernova with type II characteristics but a very large mass of ejected 56Ni and high luminosity.<a href="#cite_note-heger-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Type_Ib_and_Ic">Type Ib and Ic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Type Ib and Ic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Type_Ib_and_Ic_supernovae" title="Type Ib and Ic supernovae">Type Ib and Ic supernovae</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supernova_2008D.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Supernova_2008D.jpg/260px-Supernova_2008D.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Supernova_2008D.jpg/390px-Supernova_2008D.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Supernova_2008D.jpg/520px-Supernova_2008D.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1082" data-file-height="538" /></a><figcaption>Type Ib SN 2008D<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> at the far upper end of the galaxy, shown in <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a> (left) and visible light (right),<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> with the brighter SN 2007uy closer to the centre</figcaption></figure> These supernovae, like those of type II, are massive stars that undergo core collapse. Unlike the progenitors of type II supernovae, the stars which become types Ib and Ic supernovae have lost most of their outer (hydrogen) envelopes due to strong <a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">stellar winds</a> or else from interaction with a companion.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> These stars are known as <a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf–Rayet stars">Wolf–Rayet stars</a>, and they occur at moderate to high metallicity where continuum driven winds cause sufficiently high mass-loss rates. Observations of type Ib/c supernova do not match the observed or expected occurrence of Wolf–Rayet stars. Alternate explanations for this type of core collapse supernova involve stars stripped of their hydrogen by binary interactions. Binary models provide a better match for the observed supernovae, with the proviso that no suitable binary helium stars have ever been observed.<a href="#cite_note-eldridge-127">[127]</a> Type Ib supernovae are the more common and result from Wolf–Rayet stars of <a href="/wiki/Wolf-Rayet_star#Classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf-Rayet star">type WC</a> which still have helium in their atmospheres. For a narrow range of masses, stars evolve further before reaching core collapse to become <a href="/wiki/Wolf-Rayet_star#Classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf-Rayet star">WO stars</a> with very little helium remaining, and these are the progenitors of type Ic supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> A few percent of the type Ic supernovae are associated with <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">gamma-ray bursts</a> (GRB), though it is also believed that any hydrogen-stripped type Ib or Ic supernova could produce a GRB, depending on the circumstances of the geometry.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The mechanism for producing this type of GRB is the jets produced by the magnetic field of the rapidly spinning <a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">magnetar</a> formed at the collapsing core of the star. The jets would also transfer energy into the expanding outer shell, producing a <a href="/wiki/Super-luminous_supernova" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-luminous supernova">super-luminous supernova</a>.<a href="#cite_note-piram2019-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Ultra-stripped supernovae occur when the exploding star has been stripped (almost) all the way to the metal core, via mass transfer in a close binary.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-TaurisLangerPodsiadlowski2015-133">[133]</a> As a result, very little material is ejected from the exploding star (c. 0.1 <var>M</var>☉). In the most extreme cases, ultra-stripped supernovae can occur in naked metal cores, barely above the Chandrasekhar mass limit. SN 2005ek<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> might be the first observational example of an ultra-stripped supernova, giving rise to a relatively dim and fast decaying light curve. The nature of ultra-stripped supernovae can be both iron core-collapse and electron capture supernovae, depending on the mass of the collapsing core. Ultra-stripped supernovae are believed to be associated with the second supernova explosion in a binary system, producing for example a tight double neutron star system.<a href="#cite_note-TaurisKramerFreire2017-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeKasliwalOfek2018-136">[136]</a> In 2022 a team of astronomers led by researchers from the Weizmann Institute of Science reported the first supernova explosion showing direct evidence for a Wolf-Rayet progenitor star. <a href="/w/index.php?title=SN_2019hgp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SN 2019hgp (page does not exist)">SN 2019hgp</a> was a type Icn supernova and is also the first in which the element neon has been detected.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electron-capture_supernovae"> Electron-capture supernovae</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Electron-capture supernovae">edit</a>]</div> In 1980, a "third type" of supernova was predicted by <a href="/wiki/Ken%27ichi_Nomoto" title="Ken'ichi Nomoto">Ken'ichi Nomoto</a> of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Tokyo" title="University of Tokyo">University of Tokyo</a>, called an electron-capture supernova. It would arise when a star "in the transitional range (~8 to 10 solar masses) between white dwarf formation and iron core-collapse supernovae", and with a <a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">degenerate</a> O+Ne+Mg core,<a href="#cite_note-HowellEtAl2021-01a-139">[139]</a> imploded after its core ran out of nuclear fuel, causing gravity to compress the electrons in the star's core into their atomic nuclei,<a href="#cite_note-KeckObsNews2021-06-28-01a-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-RTE2021-06-28-01a-141">[141]</a> leading to a supernova explosion and leaving behind a neutron star.<a href="#cite_note-heger-104">[104]</a> In June 2021, a paper in the journal <a href="/wiki/Nature_Astronomy" title="Nature Astronomy">Nature Astronomy</a> reported that the 2018 supernova <a href="/wiki/SN_2018zd" class="mw-redirect" title="SN 2018zd">SN 2018zd</a> (in the galaxy <a href="/wiki/NGC_2146" title="NGC 2146">NGC 2146</a>, about 31 million light-years from Earth) appeared to be the first observation of an electron-capture supernova.<a href="#cite_note-HowellEtAl2021-01a-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-KeckObsNews2021-06-28-01a-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-RTE2021-06-28-01a-141">[141]</a> The 1054 supernova explosion that created the Crab Nebula in our galaxy had been thought to be the best candidate for an electron-capture supernova, and the 2021 paper makes it more likely that this was correct.<a href="#cite_note-KeckObsNews2021-06-28-01a-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-RTE2021-06-28-01a-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failed_supernovae">Failed supernovae</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Failed supernovae">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Failed_supernova" title="Failed supernova">Failed supernova</a></div> The core collapse of some massive stars may not result in a visible supernova. This happens if the initial core collapse cannot be reversed by the mechanism that produces an explosion, usually because the core is too massive. These events are difficult to detect, but large surveys have detected possible candidates.<a href="#cite_note-failed-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-gerke-143">[143]</a> The red supergiant <a href="/wiki/N6946-BH1" title="N6946-BH1">N6946-BH1</a> in <a href="/wiki/NGC_6946" title="NGC 6946">NGC 6946</a> underwent a modest outburst in March 2009, before fading from view. Only a faint <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> source remains at the star's location.<a href="#cite_note-adams-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light_curves">Light curves</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Light curves">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Comparative_supernova_type_light_curves.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Comparative_supernova_type_light_curves.png/390px-Comparative_supernova_type_light_curves.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Comparative_supernova_type_light_curves.png/585px-Comparative_supernova_type_light_curves.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Comparative_supernova_type_light_curves.png/780px-Comparative_supernova_type_light_curves.png 2x" data-file-width="1187" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Typical light curves for several types of supernovae; in practice, magnitude and duration varies within each type. See Karttunen et al. for types Ia, Ib, II-L and II-P;<a href="#cite_note-Springer-2016-145">[145]</a> Modjaz et al. for types Ic and IIb;<a href="#cite_note-Modjaz-2019-146">[146]</a> and Nyholm et al. for type IIn.<a href="#cite_note-Nyholm-2020-147">[147]</a></figcaption></figure> The ejecta gases would dim quickly without some energy input to keep them hot. The source of this energy—which can maintain the optical supernova glow for months—was, at first, a puzzle. Some considered rotational energy from the central pulsar as a source.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Although the energy that initially powers each type of supernovae is delivered promptly, the light curves are dominated by subsequent radioactive heating of the rapidly expanding ejecta. The intensely radioactive nature of the ejecta gases was first calculated on sound nucleosynthesis grounds in the late 1960s, and this has since been demonstrated as correct for most supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> It was not until <a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">SN 1987A</a> that direct observation of gamma-ray lines unambiguously identified the major radioactive nuclei.<a href="#cite_note-S.M._Matz,_G.H._Share_1988-150">[150]</a> It is now known by direct observation that much of the light curve (the graph of luminosity as a function of time) after the occurrence of a <a href="/wiki/Type_II_Supernova" class="mw-redirect" title="Type II Supernova">type II Supernova</a>, such as SN 1987A, is explained by those predicted radioactive decays.<a href="#cite_note-:0-9">[9]</a> Although the luminous emission consists of optical photons, it is the radioactive power absorbed by the ejected gases that keeps the remnant hot enough to radiate light. The radioactive decay of 56Ni through its daughters 56Co to 56Fe produces gamma-ray <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a>, primarily with energies of 847 <a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">keV</a> and 1,238 keV, that are absorbed and dominate the heating and thus the luminosity of the ejecta at intermediate times (several weeks) to late times (several months).<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> Energy for the peak of the light curve of SN1987A was provided by the decay of <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_nickel" title="Isotopes of nickel">56Ni</a> to 56Co (half-life 6 days) while energy for the later light curve in particular fit very closely with the 77.3-day half-life of <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_cobalt" title="Isotopes of cobalt">56Co</a> decaying to 56Fe. Later measurements by space gamma-ray telescopes of the small fraction of the 56Co and 57Co gamma rays that escaped the SN 1987A remnant without absorption confirmed earlier predictions that those two radioactive nuclei were the power sources.<a href="#cite_note-S.M._Matz,_G.H._Share_1988-150">[150]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Messier_61_with_SN2020jfo_(Supernova).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Messier_61_with_SN2020jfo_%28Supernova%29.jpg/260px-Messier_61_with_SN2020jfo_%28Supernova%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Messier_61_with_SN2020jfo_%28Supernova%29.jpg/390px-Messier_61_with_SN2020jfo_%28Supernova%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Messier_61_with_SN2020jfo_%28Supernova%29.jpg/520px-Messier_61_with_SN2020jfo_%28Supernova%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1845" data-file-height="1623" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Messier_61" title="Messier 61">Messier 61</a> with supernova SN2020jfo, taken by an amateur astronomer in 2020</figcaption></figure> The late-time decay phase of visual light curves for different supernova types all depend on radioactive heating, but they vary in shape and amplitude because of the underlying mechanisms, the way that visible radiation is produced, the epoch of its observation, and the transparency of the ejected material.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The light curves can be significantly different at other wavelengths. For example, at ultraviolet wavelengths there is an early extremely luminous peak lasting only a few hours corresponding to the breakout of the shock launched by the initial event, but that breakout is hardly detectable optically.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> The light curves for type Ia are mostly very uniform, with a consistent maximum absolute magnitude and a relatively steep decline in luminosity. Their optical energy output is driven by radioactive decay of ejected nickel-56 (half-life 6 days), which then decays to radioactive cobalt-56 (half-life 77 days). These radioisotopes excite the surrounding material to incandescence.<a href="#cite_note-explosion_model-87">[87]</a> Modern studies of cosmology rely on 56Ni radioactivity providing the energy for the optical brightness of supernovae of type Ia, which are the "standard candles" of cosmology but whose diagnostic 847 keV and 1,238 keV gamma rays were first detected only in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> The initial phases of the light curve decline steeply as the effective size of the <a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">photosphere</a> decreases and trapped electromagnetic radiation is depleted. The light curve continues to decline in the <a href="/wiki/UBV_photometric_system" title="UBV photometric system">B band</a> while it may show a small shoulder in the visual at about 40 days, but this is only a hint of a secondary maximum that occurs in the infra-red as certain ionised heavy elements recombine to produce infra-red radiation and the ejecta become transparent to it. The visual light curve continues to decline at a rate slightly greater than the decay rate of the radioactive cobalt (which has the longer half-life and controls the later curve), because the ejected material becomes more diffuse and less able to convert the high energy radiation into visual radiation. After several months, the light curve changes its decline rate again as <a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">positron emission</a> from the remaining cobalt-56 becomes dominant, although this portion of the light curve has been little-studied.<a href="#cite_note-taubenberger2009-156">[156]</a> Type Ib and Ic light curves are similar to type Ia although with a lower average peak luminosity. The visual light output is again due to radioactive decay being converted into visual radiation, but there is a much lower mass of the created nickel-56. The peak luminosity varies considerably and there are even occasional type Ib/c supernovae orders of magnitude more and less luminous than the norm. The most luminous type Ic supernovae are referred to as <a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">hypernovae</a> and tend to have broadened light curves in addition to the increased peak luminosity. The source of the extra energy is thought to be relativistic jets driven by the formation of a rotating black hole, which also produce gamma-ray bursts.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-arxiv-158">[158]</a> The light curves for type II supernovae are characterised by a much slower decline than type I, on the order of 0.05 magnitudes per day,<a href="#cite_note-barbon1979-72">[72]</a> excluding the plateau phase. The visual light output is dominated by kinetic energy rather than radioactive decay for several months, due primarily to the existence of hydrogen in the ejecta from the atmosphere of the supergiant progenitor star. In the initial destruction this hydrogen becomes heated and ionised. The majority of type II supernovae show a prolonged plateau in their light curves as this hydrogen recombines, emitting visible light and becoming more transparent. This is then followed by a declining light curve driven by radioactive decay although slower than in type I supernovae, due to the efficiency of conversion into light by all the hydrogen.<a href="#cite_note-doggett-66">[66]</a> In type II-L the plateau is absent because the progenitor had relatively little hydrogen left in its atmosphere, sufficient to appear in the spectrum but insufficient to produce a noticeable plateau in the light output. In type IIb supernovae the hydrogen atmosphere of the progenitor is so depleted (thought to be due to tidal stripping by a companion star) that the light curve is closer to a type I supernova and the hydrogen even disappears from the spectrum after several weeks.<a href="#cite_note-doggett-66">[66]</a> Type IIn supernovae are characterised by additional narrow spectral lines produced in a dense shell of circumstellar material. Their light curves are generally very broad and extended, occasionally also extremely luminous and referred to as a superluminous supernova. These light curves are produced by the highly efficient conversion of kinetic energy of the ejecta into electromagnetic radiation by interaction with the dense shell of material. This only occurs when the material is sufficiently dense and compact, indicating that it has been produced by the progenitor star itself only shortly before the supernova occurs.<a href="#cite_note-fillipenko1997-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-pastorello2002-160">[160]</a> Large numbers of supernovae have been catalogued and classified to provide <a href="/wiki/Standard_candle" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard candle">distance candles</a> and test models.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Average characteristics vary somewhat with distance and type of host galaxy, but can broadly be specified for each supernova type. <table class="wikitable" style="max-width: 600px"> <caption>Physical properties of supernovae by type<a href="#cite_note-weidong-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-richardson-164">[164]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type<a href="#endnote_a">a</a></th> <th>Average peak <a href="/wiki/Absolute_magnitude" title="Absolute magnitude">absolute magnitude</a><a href="#endnote_b">b</a></th> <th>Approximate energy (<a href="/wiki/Foe_(unit)" title="Foe (unit)">foe</a>)<a href="#endnote_c">c</a></th> <th>Days to peak luminosity</th> <th>Days from peak to 10% luminosity </th></tr> <tr> <td>Ia</td> <td style="text-align:right">−19</td> <td style="text-align:right">1</td> <td style="text-align:right">approx. 19</td> <td style="text-align:right">around 60 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ib/c (faint)</td> <td style="text-align:right">around −15</td> <td style="text-align:right">0.1</td> <td style="text-align:right">15–25</td> <td style="text-align:right">unknown </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ib</td> <td style="text-align:right">around −17</td> <td style="text-align:right">1</td> <td style="text-align:right">15–25</td> <td style="text-align:right">40–100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ic</td> <td style="text-align:right">around −16</td> <td style="text-align:right">1</td> <td style="text-align:right">15–25</td> <td style="text-align:right">40–100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ic (bright)</td> <td style="text-align:right">to −22</td> <td style="text-align:right">above 5</td> <td style="text-align:right">roughly 25</td> <td style="text-align:right">roughly 100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>II-b</td> <td style="text-align:right">around −17</td> <td style="text-align:right">1</td> <td style="text-align:right">around 20</td> <td style="text-align:right">around 100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>II-L</td> <td style="text-align:right">around −17</td> <td style="text-align:right">1</td> <td style="text-align:right">around 13</td> <td style="text-align:right">around 150 </td></tr> <tr> <td>II-P (faint)</td> <td style="text-align:right">around −14</td> <td style="text-align:right">0.1</td> <td style="text-align:right">roughly 15</td> <td style="text-align:right">unknown </td></tr> <tr> <td>II-P</td> <td style="text-align:right">around −16</td> <td style="text-align:right">1</td> <td style="text-align:right">around 15</td> <td style="text-align:right">Plateau then around 50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>IIn<a href="#endnote_d">d</a></td> <td style="text-align:right">around −17</td> <td style="text-align:right">1</td> <td style="text-align:right">12–30 or more</td> <td style="text-align:right">50–150 </td></tr> <tr> <td>IIn (bright)</td> <td style="text-align:right">to −22</td> <td style="text-align:right">above 5</td> <td style="text-align:right">above 50</td> <td style="text-align:right">above 100 </td></tr></tbody></table> Notes: <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#ref_a">^</a> Faint types may be a distinct sub-class. Bright types may be a continuum from slightly over-luminous to hypernovae.</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_b">^</a> These magnitudes are measured in the R band. Measurements in V or B bands are common and will be around half a magnitude brighter for supernovae.</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_c">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Order_of_magnitude" title="Order of magnitude">Order of magnitude</a> kinetic energy. Total electromagnetic radiated energy is usually lower, (theoretical) neutrino energy much higher.</li><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_d">^</a> Probably a heterogeneous group, any of the other types embedded in nebulosity.</li></ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asymmetry">Asymmetry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Asymmetry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chandra-crab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Chandra-crab.jpg/220px-Chandra-crab.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Chandra-crab.jpg/330px-Chandra-crab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Chandra-crab.jpg/440px-Chandra-crab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsar</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Crab_Nebula" title="Crab Nebula">Crab Nebula</a> is travelling at 375 km/s relative to the nebula.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></figcaption></figure> A long-standing puzzle surrounding type II supernovae is why the remaining compact object receives a large velocity away from the epicentre;<a href="#cite_note-Höflich-2004-166">[166]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsars</a>, and thus neutron stars, are observed to have high <a href="/wiki/Peculiar_velocity" title="Peculiar velocity">peculiar velocities</a>, and black holes presumably do as well, although they are far harder to observe in isolation. The initial impetus can be substantial, propelling an object of more than a solar mass at a velocity of 500 km/s or greater. This indicates an expansion asymmetry, but the mechanism by which momentum is transferred to the compact object remains<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit">[update]</a> a puzzle. Proposed explanations for this kick include convection in the collapsing star, asymmetric ejection of matter during <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron star formation">neutron star formation</a>, and asymmetrical <a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">neutrino</a> emissions.<a href="#cite_note-Höflich-2004-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Janka-2022-167">[167]</a> One possible explanation for this asymmetry is large-scale <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> above the core. The convection can create radial variations in density giving rise to variations in the amount of energy absorbed from neutrino outflow.<a href="#cite_note-Janka-2007-109">[109]</a> However analysis of this mechanism predicts only modest momentum transfer.<a href="#cite_note-Fryer-2004-168">[168]</a> Another possible explanation is that accretion of gas onto the central neutron star can create a <a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">disk</a> that drives highly directional jets, propelling matter at a high velocity out of the star, and driving transverse shocks that completely disrupt the star. These jets might play a crucial role in the resulting supernova.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> (A similar model is used for explaining long gamma-ray bursts.) The dominant mechanism may depend upon the mass of the progenitor star.<a href="#cite_note-Janka-2022-167">[167]</a> Initial asymmetries have also been confirmed in type Ia supernovae through observation. This result may mean that the initial luminosity of this type of supernova depends on the viewing angle. However, the expansion becomes more symmetrical with the passage of time. Early asymmetries are detectable by measuring the polarisation of the emitted light.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_output">Energy output</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Energy output">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SNIacurva.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/SNIacurva.png/220px-SNIacurva.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/SNIacurva.png 1.5x" data-file-width="299" data-file-height="214" /></a><figcaption>The radioactive decays of nickel-56 and cobalt-56 that produce a supernova visible light curve<a href="#cite_note-explosion_model-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-mazzali-172">[172]</a></figcaption></figure> Although supernovae are primarily known as luminous events, the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a> they release is almost a minor side-effect. Particularly in the case of core collapse supernovae, the emitted electromagnetic radiation is a tiny fraction of the total energy released during the event.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> There is a fundamental difference between the balance of energy production in the different types of supernova. In type Ia white dwarf detonations, most of the energy is directed into <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">heavy element synthesis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a> of the ejecta.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> In core collapse supernovae, the vast majority of the energy is directed into <a href="/wiki/Supernova_neutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernova neutrino">neutrino</a> emission, and while some of this apparently powers the observed destruction, 99%+ of the neutrinos escape the star in the first few minutes following the start of the collapse.<a href="#cite_note-Antonioli-2004-47">[47]</a> Standard type Ia supernovae derive their energy from a runaway nuclear fusion of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf. The details of the energetics are still not fully understood, but the result is the ejection of the entire mass of the original star at high kinetic energy. Around half a solar mass of that mass is <a href="/wiki/Nickel-56" class="mw-redirect" title="Nickel-56">56Ni</a> generated from <a href="/wiki/Silicon-burning_process" title="Silicon-burning process">silicon burning</a>. 56Ni is <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> and decays into <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-56" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobalt-56">56Co</a> by <a href="/wiki/Beta_plus_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta plus decay">beta plus decay</a> (with a <a href="/wiki/Half_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Half life">half life</a> of six days) and gamma rays. 56Co itself decays by the beta plus (<a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>) path with a half life of 77 days into stable 56Fe. These two processes are responsible for the electromagnetic radiation from type Ia supernovae. In combination with the changing transparency of the ejected material, they produce the rapidly declining light curve.<a href="#cite_note-mazzali-172">[172]</a> Core collapse supernovae are on average visually fainter than type Ia supernovae,<a href="#cite_note-Springer-2016-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-Modjaz-2019-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nyholm-2020-147">[147]</a> but the total energy released is far higher, as outlined in the following table. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Energetics of supernovae </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Supernova</th> <th>Approximate total energy x1044 joules (<a href="/wiki/Foe_(unit)" title="Foe (unit)">foe</a>)<a href="#endnote_c">c</a></th> <th>Ejected Ni (solar masses)</th> <th>Neutrino energy (foe)</th> <th>Kinetic energy (foe)</th> <th>Electromagnetic radiation (foe) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Type Ia<a href="#cite_note-mazzali-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></td> <td style="text-align:right">1.5</td> <td style="text-align:right">0.4 – 0.8</td> <td style="text-align:right">0.1</td> <td style="text-align:right">1.3 – 1.4</td> <td style="text-align:right">~0.01 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Core collapse<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a></td> <td style="text-align:right">100</td> <td style="text-align:right">(0.01) – 1</td> <td style="text-align:right">100</td> <td style="text-align:right">1</td> <td style="text-align:right">0.001 – 0.01 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hypernova</td> <td style="text-align:right">100</td> <td style="text-align:right">~1</td> <td style="text-align:right">1–100</td> <td style="text-align:right">1–100</td> <td style="text-align:right">~0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pair instability<a href="#cite_note-kasen-117">[117]</a></td> <td style="text-align:right">5–100</td> <td style="text-align:right">0.5 – 50</td> <td style="text-align:right">low?</td> <td style="text-align:right">1–100</td> <td style="text-align:right">0.01 – 0.1 </td></tr></tbody></table> In some core collapse supernovae, fallback onto a black hole drives <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_jet" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic jet">relativistic jets</a> which may produce a brief energetic and directional burst of gamma rays and also transfers substantial further energy into the ejected material. This is one scenario for producing high-luminosity supernovae and is thought to be the cause of type Ic hypernovae and long-duration gamma-ray bursts.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> If the relativistic jets are too brief and fail to penetrate the stellar envelope then a low-luminosity gamma-ray burst may be produced and the supernova may be sub-luminous.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> When a supernova occurs inside a small dense cloud of circumstellar material, it will produce a shock wave that can efficiently convert a high fraction of the kinetic energy into electromagnetic radiation. Even though the initial energy was entirely normal the resulting supernova will have high luminosity and extended duration since it does not rely on exponential radioactive decay. This type of event may cause type IIn hypernovae.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> Although pair-instability supernovae are core collapse supernovae with spectra and light curves similar to type II-P, the nature after core collapse is more like that of a giant type Ia with runaway fusion of carbon, oxygen and silicon. The total energy released by the highest-mass events is comparable to other core collapse supernovae but neutrino production is thought to be very low, hence the kinetic and electromagnetic energy released is very high. The cores of these stars are much larger than any white dwarf and the amount of radioactive nickel and other heavy elements ejected from their cores can be orders of magnitude higher, with consequently high visual luminosity.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Progenitor">Progenitor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Progenitor">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm/220px--Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="32" data-mwtitle="Artist's_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/67/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/67/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/67/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/67/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/67/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/67/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/67/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm/Artist%27s_impression_time-lapse_of_distant_supernovae.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Occasional supernovae appear in this sped-up artist's impression of distant galaxies. Each exploding star briefly rivals the brightness of its host galaxy.</figcaption></figure> The supernova classification type is closely tied to the type of progenitor star at the time of the collapse. The occurrence of each type of supernova depends on the star's metallicity, since this affects the strength of the stellar wind and thereby the rate at which the star loses mass.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> Type Ia supernovae are produced from white dwarf stars in binary star systems and occur in all <a href="/wiki/Galaxy_morphological_classification" title="Galaxy morphological classification">galaxy types</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Core collapse supernovae are only found in galaxies undergoing current or very recent star formation, since they result from short-lived massive stars. They are most commonly found in type Sc spirals, but also in the arms of other spiral galaxies and in <a href="/wiki/Irregular_galaxy" title="Irregular galaxy">irregular galaxies</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Starburst_galaxy" title="Starburst galaxy">starburst galaxies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Type Ib and Ic supernovae are hypothesised to have been produced by core collapse of massive stars that have lost their outer layer of hydrogen and helium, either via strong stellar winds or mass transfer to a companion.<a href="#cite_note-arxiv-158">[158]</a> They normally occur in regions of new star formation, and are extremely rare in <a href="/wiki/Elliptical_galaxy" title="Elliptical galaxy">elliptical galaxies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Perets-2010-71">[71]</a> The progenitors of type IIn supernovae also have high rates of mass loss in the period just prior to their explosions.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Type Ic supernovae have been observed to occur in regions that are more metal-rich and have higher star-formation rates than average for their host galaxies.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> The table shows the progenitor for the main types of core collapse supernova, and the approximate proportions that have been observed in the local neighbourhood. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Fraction of core collapse supernovae types by progenitor<a href="#cite_note-eldridge-127">[127]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type</th> <th>Progenitor star</th> <th>Fraction </th></tr> <tr> <td>Ib</td> <td>WC <a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_star" title="Wolf–Rayet star">Wolf–Rayet</a> or <a href="/wiki/Helium_star" title="Helium star">helium star</a></td> <td>9.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ic</td> <td>WO <a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_star" title="Wolf–Rayet star">Wolf–Rayet</a></td> <td>17.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>II-P</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">Supergiant</a></td> <td>55.5% </td></tr> <tr> <td>II-L</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">Supergiant</a> with a depleted hydrogen shell</td> <td>3.0% </td></tr> <tr> <td>IIn</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">Supergiant</a> in a dense cloud of expelled material (such as <a href="/wiki/Luminous_blue_variable" title="Luminous blue variable">LBV</a>)</td> <td>2.4% </td></tr> <tr> <td>IIb</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">Supergiant</a> with highly depleted hydrogen (stripped by companion?)</td> <td>12.1% </td></tr> <tr> <td>IIpec</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Blue_supergiant" title="Blue supergiant">Blue supergiant</a></td> <td>1.0% </td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supernovae_as_initial_mass-metallicity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Supernovae_as_initial_mass-metallicity.svg/400px-Supernovae_as_initial_mass-metallicity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Supernovae_as_initial_mass-metallicity.svg/600px-Supernovae_as_initial_mass-metallicity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Supernovae_as_initial_mass-metallicity.svg/800px-Supernovae_as_initial_mass-metallicity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption>Supernova types by initial mass-metallicity</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Remnants_of_single_massive_stars.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Remnants_of_single_massive_stars.svg/400px-Remnants_of_single_massive_stars.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Remnants_of_single_massive_stars.svg/600px-Remnants_of_single_massive_stars.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Remnants_of_single_massive_stars.svg/800px-Remnants_of_single_massive_stars.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption>Remnants of single massive stars</figcaption></figure> There are a number of difficulties reconciling modelled and observed stellar evolution leading up to core collapse supernovae. Red supergiants are the progenitors for the vast majority of core collapse supernovae, and these have been observed but only at relatively low masses and luminosities, below about 18 <var>M</var>☉ and 100,000 <var>L</var>☉, respectively. Most progenitors of type II supernovae are not detected and must be considerably fainter, and presumably less massive. This discrepancy has been referred to as the red supergiant problem.<a href="#cite_note-davies2020-191">[191]</a> It was first described in 2009 by Stephen Smartt, who also coined the term. After performing a volume-limited search for supernovae, Smartt et al. found the lower and upper mass limits for type II-P supernovae to form to be 8.5+1 −1.5 <var>M</var>☉ and 16.5±1.5 <var>M</var>☉, respectively. The former is consistent with the expected upper mass limits for white dwarf progenitors to form, but the latter is not consistent with massive star populations in the Local Group.<a href="#cite_note-smartt2009-192">[192]</a> The upper limit for red supergiants that produce a visible supernova explosion has been calculated at 19+4 −2 M☉.<a href="#cite_note-davies2020-191">[191]</a> It is thought that higher mass red supergiants do not explode as supernovae, but instead evolve back towards hotter temperatures. Several progenitors of type IIb supernovae have been confirmed, and these were K and G supergiants, plus one A supergiant.<a href="#cite_note-smartt-193">[193]</a> Yellow hypergiants or LBVs are proposed progenitors for type IIb supernovae, and almost all type IIb supernovae near enough to observe have shown such progenitors.<a href="#cite_note-problem-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-ysg-195">[195]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stellar_evolution_v2024.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Infographic showing arrows between circles representing stellar evolution and how it varies by mass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Stellar_evolution_v2024.png/220px-Stellar_evolution_v2024.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Stellar_evolution_v2024.png/330px-Stellar_evolution_v2024.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Stellar_evolution_v2024.png/440px-Stellar_evolution_v2024.png 2x" data-file-width="5755" data-file-height="5755" /></a><figcaption>Approximate stellar evolution pathways of supernova progenitor stars (and lower mass stars) with circle size reflecting relative size and color related to temperature</figcaption></figure> Blue supergiants form an unexpectedly high proportion of confirmed supernova progenitors, partly due to their high luminosity and easy detection, while not a single Wolf–Rayet progenitor has yet been clearly identified.<a href="#cite_note-smartt-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-yoon-196">[196]</a> Models have had difficulty showing how blue supergiants lose enough mass to reach supernova without progressing to a different evolutionary stage. One study has shown a possible route for low-luminosity post-red supergiant luminous blue variables to collapse, most likely as a type IIn supernova.<a href="#cite_note-lbv-197">[197]</a> Several examples of hot luminous progenitors of type IIn supernovae have been detected: <a href="/w/index.php?title=SN_2005gy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SN 2005gy (page does not exist)">SN 2005gy</a> and <a href="/wiki/SN_2010jl" title="SN 2010jl">SN 2010jl</a> were both apparently massive luminous stars, but are very distant; and <a href="/wiki/SN_2009ip" title="SN 2009ip">SN 2009ip</a> had a highly luminous progenitor likely to have been an LBV, but is a peculiar supernova whose exact nature is disputed.<a href="#cite_note-smartt-193">[193]</a> The progenitors of type Ib/c supernovae are not observed at all, and constraints on their possible luminosity are often lower than those of known <a href="/wiki/WC_star" class="mw-redirect" title="WC star">WC stars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-smartt-193">[193]</a> <a href="/wiki/WO_star" class="mw-redirect" title="WO star">WO stars</a> are extremely rare and visually relatively faint, so it is difficult to say whether such progenitors are missing or just yet to be observed. Very luminous progenitors have not been securely identified, despite numerous supernovae being observed near enough that such progenitors would have been clearly imaged.<a href="#cite_note-yoon-196">[196]</a> Population modelling shows that the observed type Ib/c supernovae could be reproduced by a mixture of single massive stars and stripped-envelope stars from interacting binary systems.<a href="#cite_note-eldridge-127">[127]</a> The continued lack of unambiguous detection of progenitors for normal type Ib and Ic supernovae may be due to most massive stars collapsing directly to a black hole <a href="/wiki/Failed_supernova" title="Failed supernova">without a supernova outburst</a>. Most of these supernovae are then produced from lower-mass low-luminosity helium stars in binary systems. A small number would be from rapidly rotating massive stars, likely corresponding to the highly energetic type Ic-BL events that are associated with long-duration gamma-ray bursts.<a href="#cite_note-smartt-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_impact">External impact</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External impact">edit</a>]</div> Supernovae events generate heavier elements that are scattered throughout the surrounding interstellar medium. The expanding shock wave from a supernova can trigger star formation. Galactic cosmic rays are generated by supernova explosions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Source_of_heavy_elements">Source of heavy elements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Source of heavy elements">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar nucleosynthesis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova nucleosynthesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/440px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/660px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg/880px-Nucleosynthesis_periodic_table.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>Periodic table showing the source of each element in the interstellar medium</figcaption></figure> Supernovae are a major source of elements in the interstellar medium from oxygen through to rubidium,<a href="#cite_note-nucleosynthesis-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-François-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-Truran-200">[200]</a> though the theoretical abundances of the elements produced or seen in the spectra varies significantly depending on the various supernova types.<a href="#cite_note-Truran-200">[200]</a> Type Ia supernovae produce mainly silicon and iron-peak elements, metals such as nickel and iron.<a href="#cite_note-nomoto2018-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-maeda-202">[202]</a> Core collapse supernovae eject much smaller quantities of the iron-peak elements than type Ia supernovae, but larger masses of light <a href="/wiki/Alpha_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha element">alpha elements</a> such as oxygen and neon, and elements heavier than zinc. The latter is especially true with electron capture supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> The bulk of the material ejected by type II supernovae is hydrogen and helium.<a href="#cite_note-eichler-204">[204]</a> The heavy elements are produced by: nuclear fusion for nuclei up to 34S; silicon photodisintegration rearrangement and quasiequilibrium during silicon burning for nuclei between 36Ar and 56Ni; and rapid capture of neutrons (<a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a>) during the supernova's collapse for elements heavier than iron. The r-process produces highly unstable nuclei that are rich in <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutrons</a> and that rapidly beta decay into more stable forms. In supernovae, r-process reactions are responsible for about half of all the isotopes of elements beyond iron,<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> although <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star_merger" title="Neutron star merger">neutron star mergers</a> may be the main astrophysical source for many of these elements.<a href="#cite_note-nucleosynthesis-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-siegel-206">[206]</a> In the modern universe, old <a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch" title="Asymptotic giant branch">asymptotic giant branch</a> (AGB) stars are the dominant source of dust from oxides, carbon and <a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-process</a> elements.<a href="#cite_note-nucleosynthesis-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> However, in the early universe, before AGB stars formed, supernovae may have been the main source of dust.<a href="#cite_note-dust-208">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_in_stellar_evolution">Role in stellar evolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Role in stellar evolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">Supernova remnant</a></div> Remnants of many supernovae consist of a compact object and a rapidly expanding shock wave of material. This cloud of material sweeps up surrounding <a href="/wiki/Interstellar_medium" title="Interstellar medium">interstellar medium</a> during a free expansion phase, which can last for up to two centuries. The wave then gradually undergoes a period of <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">adiabatic expansion</a>, and will slowly cool and mix with the surrounding interstellar medium over a period of about 10,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:STScl-2005-15.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/STScl-2005-15.png/260px-STScl-2005-15.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/STScl-2005-15.png/390px-STScl-2005-15.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/STScl-2005-15.png/520px-STScl-2005-15.png 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="658" /></a><figcaption>Supernova remnant N 63A lies within a clumpy region of gas and dust in the <a href="/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Large Magellanic Cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> produced hydrogen, <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> and traces of <a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">lithium</a>, while all heavier elements are synthesised in stars, supernovae, and collisions between neutron stars (thus being indirectly due to supernovae). Supernovae tend to enrich the surrounding interstellar medium with elements other than hydrogen and helium, which usually astronomers refer to as "metals".<a href="#cite_note-Johnson2019-210">[210]</a> These ejected elements ultimately enrich the <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular clouds</a> that are the sites of star formation.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Thus, each stellar generation has a slightly different composition, going from an almost pure mixture of hydrogen and helium to a more metal-rich composition. Supernovae are the dominant mechanism for distributing these heavier elements, which are formed in a star during its period of nuclear fusion. The different abundances of elements in the material that forms a star have important influences on the star's life,<a href="#cite_note-Johnson2019-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> and may influence the possibility of having <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a> orbiting it: more <a href="/wiki/Giant_planet" title="Giant planet">giant planets</a> form around stars of higher metallicity.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> The kinetic energy of an expanding supernova remnant can trigger star formation by compressing nearby, dense molecular clouds in space.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> The increase in turbulent pressure can also prevent star formation if the cloud is unable to lose the excess energy.<a href="#cite_note-aaa128-216">[216]</a> Evidence from daughter products of short-lived <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive isotope">radioactive isotopes</a> shows that a nearby supernova helped determine the composition of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> 4.5 billion years ago, and may even have triggered the formation of this system.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fast_radio_burst" title="Fast radio burst">Fast radio bursts</a> (FRBs) are intense, transient pulses of radio waves that typically last no more than milliseconds. Many explanations for these events have been proposed; <a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">magnetars</a> produced by core-collapse supernovae are leading candidates.<a href="#cite_note-AJL-20200601-218">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmic_rays">Cosmic rays</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Cosmic rays">edit</a>]</div> Supernova remnants are thought to accelerate a large fraction of galactic primary <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>, but direct evidence for cosmic ray production has only been found in a small number of remnants. Gamma rays from <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a>-decay have been detected from the supernova remnants <a href="/wiki/IC_443" title="IC 443">IC 443</a> and W44. These are produced when accelerated <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> from the remnant impact on interstellar material.<a href="#cite_note-ackermann-2013-222">[222]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gravitational_waves">Gravitational waves</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Gravitational waves">edit</a>]</div> Supernovae are potentially strong galactic sources of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">gravitational waves</a>,<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> but none have so far been detected. The only gravitational wave events so far detected are from mergers of black holes and neutron stars, probable remnants of supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-morozova-224">[224]</a> Like the neutrino emissions, the gravitational waves produced by a core-collapse supernova are expected to arrive without the delay that affects light. Consequently, they may provide information about the core-collapse process that is unavailable by other means. Most gravitational-wave signals predicted by supernova models are short in duration, lasting less than a second, and thus difficult to detect. Using the arrival of a neutrino signal may provide a trigger that can identify the time window in which to seek the gravitational wave, helping to distinguish the latter from background noise.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_Earth">Effect on Earth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Effect on Earth">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth supernova</a></div> A near-Earth supernova is a supernova close enough to the Earth to have noticeable effects on its <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>. Depending upon the type and energy of the supernova, it could be as far as 3,000 light-years away. In 1996 it was theorised that traces of past supernovae might be detectable on Earth in the form of metal isotope signatures in <a href="/wiki/Rock_strata" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock strata">rock strata</a>. <a href="/wiki/Iron#Isotopes" title="Iron">Iron-60</a> enrichment was later reported in deep-sea rock of the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-Fields-228">[228]</a> In 2009, elevated levels of nitrate ions were found in Antarctic ice, which coincided with the 1006 and 1054 supernovae. Gamma rays from these supernovae could have boosted atmospheric levels of nitrogen oxides, which became trapped in the ice.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Historically, nearby supernovae may have influenced the <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of life on the planet. Geological records suggest that nearby supernova events have led to an increase in cosmic rays, which in turn produced a cooler climate. A greater temperature difference between the poles and the equator created stronger winds, increased ocean mixing, and resulted in the transport of <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> to shallow waters along the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental shelves">continental shelves</a>. This led to greater biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> Type Ia supernovae are thought to be potentially the most dangerous if they occur close enough to the Earth. Because these supernovae arise from dim, common white dwarf stars in binary systems, it is likely that a supernova that can affect the Earth will occur unpredictably and in a star system that is not well studied. The closest-known candidate is <a href="/wiki/IK_Pegasi" title="IK Pegasi">IK Pegasi</a> (HR 8210), about 150 light-years away,<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> but observations suggest it could be as long as 1.9 billion years before the white dwarf can accrete the critical mass required to become a type Ia supernova.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> According to a 2003 estimate, a type II supernova would have to be closer than eight <a href="/wiki/Parsec" title="Parsec">parsecs</a> (26 light-years) to destroy half of the Earth's ozone layer, and there are no such candidates closer than about 500 light-years.<a href="#cite_note-Gehrels-235">[235]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Milky_Way_candidates">Milky Way candidates</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Milky Way candidates">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_candidates" title="List of supernova candidates">List of supernova candidates</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wolf_rayet2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Wolf_rayet2.jpg/220px-Wolf_rayet2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Wolf_rayet2.jpg/330px-Wolf_rayet2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Wolf_rayet2.jpg/440px-Wolf_rayet2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="611" data-file-height="641" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_nebula" title="Wolf–Rayet nebula">nebula</a> around <a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_star" title="Wolf–Rayet star">Wolf–Rayet star</a> WR124, which is located at a distance of about 21,000 <a href="/wiki/Light-year" title="Light-year">light-years</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a></figcaption></figure> The next supernova in the Milky Way will likely be detectable even if it occurs on the far side of the galaxy. It is likely to be produced by the collapse of an unremarkable red supergiant, and it is very probable that it will already have been catalogued in infrared surveys such as <a href="/wiki/2MASS" title="2MASS">2MASS</a>. There is a smaller chance that the next core collapse supernova will be produced by a different type of massive star such as a yellow hypergiant, luminous blue variable, or Wolf–Rayet. The chances of the next supernova being a type Ia produced by a white dwarf are calculated to be about a third of those for a core collapse supernova. Again it should be observable wherever it occurs, but it is less likely that the progenitor will ever have been observed. It is not even known exactly what a type Ia progenitor system looks like, and it is difficult to detect them beyond a few parsecs. The total supernova rate in the Milky Way is estimated to be between 2 and 12 per century, although one has not actually been observed for several centuries.<a href="#cite_note-adams-144">[144]</a> Statistically, the most common variety of core-collapse supernova is type II-P, and the progenitors of this type are red supergiants.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> It is difficult to identify which of those supergiants are in the final stages of heavy element fusion in their cores and which have millions of years left. The most-massive red supergiants shed their atmospheres and evolve to Wolf–Rayet stars before their cores collapse. All Wolf–Rayet stars end their lives from the Wolf–Rayet phase within a million years or so, but again it is difficult to identify those that are closest to core collapse. One class that is expected to have no more than a few thousand years before exploding are the WO Wolf–Rayet stars, which are known to have exhausted their core helium.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> Only eight of them are known, and only four of those are in the Milky Way.<a href="#cite_note-tramper-239">[239]</a> A number of close or well-known stars have been identified as possible core collapse supernova candidates: the high-mass blue stars <a href="/wiki/Spica" title="Spica">Spica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rigel" title="Rigel">Rigel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> the red supergiants <a href="/wiki/Betelgeuse" title="Betelgeuse">Betelgeuse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antares" title="Antares">Antares</a>, and <a href="/wiki/VV_Cephei" title="VV Cephei">VV Cephei A</a>;<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-243">[243]</a> the yellow hypergiant <a href="/wiki/Rho_Cassiopeiae" title="Rho Cassiopeiae">Rho Cassiopeiae</a>;<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> the luminous blue variable Eta Carinae that has already produced a supernova impostor;<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> and both components, a blue supergiant and a Wolf–Rayet star, of the Regor or <a href="/wiki/Gamma_Velorum" title="Gamma Velorum">Gamma Velorum</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mimosa_(star)" title="Mimosa (star)">Mimosa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acrux" title="Acrux">Acrux</a>, two bright star systems in the southern constellation of <a href="/wiki/Crux" title="Crux">Crux</a>, each contain blue stars with sufficient masses to explode as supernovae.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> Others have gained notoriety as possible, although not very likely, progenitors for a gamma-ray burst; for example <a href="/wiki/WR_104" title="WR 104">WR 104</a>.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> Identification of candidates for a type Ia supernova is much more speculative. Any binary with an accreting white dwarf might produce a supernova although the exact mechanism and timescale is still debated. These systems are faint and difficult to identify, but the novae and recurrent novae are such systems that conveniently advertise themselves. One example is <a href="/wiki/U_Scorpii" title="U Scorpii">U Scorpii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supernova_candidates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Supernova_candidates.jpg/681px-Supernova_candidates.jpg" decoding="async" width="681" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Supernova_candidates.jpg/1022px-Supernova_candidates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Supernova_candidates.jpg/1362px-Supernova_candidates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1421" data-file-height="533" /></a><figcaption>Map showing some of the closest core-collapse supernova candidates to Earth within one kiloparsec, most of which are K-type red supergiants.<a href="#cite_note-:2-243">[243]</a></figcaption></figure> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kilonova" title="Kilonova">Kilonova</a> – Neutron star merger</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernovae" title="List of supernovae">List of supernovae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_remnants" title="List of supernova remnants">List of supernova remnants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark-nova" title="Quark-nova">Quark-nova</a> – Hypothetical violent explosion resulting from conversion of a neutron star to a quark star</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superluminous_supernova" title="Superluminous supernova">Superluminous supernova</a> – Supernova at least ten times more luminous than a standard supernova</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernovae_in_fiction" title="Supernovae in fiction">Supernovae in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_white_dwarfs,_neutron_stars,_and_supernovae" title="Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae">Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae</a> – Chronological list of developments in knowledge and records</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsar" title="Collapsar">Collapsar</a> – Star that has undergone gravitational collapse</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a> – Supernova that ejects a large mass at unusually high velocity</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFZwicky1940" class="citation journal cs1">Zwicky, Fritz (1 January 1940). <a 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Reviews of Modern Physics. 12 (1): 66–85. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1940RvMP...12...66Z">1940RvMP...12...66Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FRevModPhys.12.66">10.1103/RevModPhys.12.66</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6861">0034-6861</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Modern+Physics&rft.atitle=Types+of+Novae&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=66-85&rft.date=1940-01-01&rft.issn=0034-6861&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.12.66&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1940RvMP...12...66Z&rft.aulast=Zwicky&rft.aufirst=Fritz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.aps.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1103%2FRevModPhys.12.66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsterbrock2001" class="citation journal cs1">Osterbrock, D. 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American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts. 199: 15.01. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001AAS...199.1501O">2001AAS...199.1501O</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Astronomical+Society+Meeting+Abstracts&rft.atitle=Who+Really+Coined+the+Word+Supernova%3F+Who+First+Predicted+Neutron+Stars%3F&rft.volume=199&rft.pages=15.01&rft.date=2001-12-01&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001AAS...199.1501O&rft.aulast=Osterbrock&rft.aufirst=D.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fui.adsabs.harvard.edu%2Fabs%2F2001AAS...199.1501O&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-supernova" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/194435">"supernova"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=supernova&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fview%2FEntry%2F194435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurdinMurdin1978" class="citation book cs1">Murdin, P.; Murdin, L. 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Retrieved 29 May 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pur%C4%81tattva%3A+Journal+of+the+Indian+Archaeological+Society&rft.atitle=Oldest+sky-chart+with+Supernova+record+%28in+Kashmir%29&rft.issue=41&rft.pages=207-211&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Joglekar&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Vahia%2C+M.+N.&rft.au=Sule%2C+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tifr.res.in%2F~archaeo%2Fpapers%2FPrehistoric%2520astronomy%2FOldest%2520Supernova%2520record%2520in%2520Kashmir.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murdin-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Murdin_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurdinMurdin1985" class="citation book cs1">Murdin, Paul; Murdin, Lesley (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/supernovae00murd">Supernovae</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/supernovae00murd/page/14">14</a>–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521300384" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521300384"><bdi>978-0521300384</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supernovae&rft.pages=14-16&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0521300384&rft.aulast=Murdin&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Murdin%2C+Lesley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsupernovae00murd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurnham1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Burnham_Jr." title="Robert Burnham Jr.">Burnham, Robert Jr.</a> (1978). <a href="/wiki/Celestial_handbook" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial handbook">The Celestial handbook</a>. 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Stars as Suns: Activity. 219: 903. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0312074">astro-ph/0312074</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004IAUS..219..903L">2004IAUS..219..903L</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stars+as+Suns%3A+Activity&rft.atitle=Spectroscopy+of+the+Millennium+Outburst+and+Recent+Variability+of+the+Yellow+Hypergiant+Rho+Cassiopeiae&rft.volume=219&rft.pages=903&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0312074&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004IAUS..219..903L&rft.aulast=Lobel&rft.aufirst=A.&rft.au=Stefanik%2C+R.+P.&rft.au=Torres%2C+G.&rft.au=Davis%2C+R.+J.&rft.au=Ilyin%2C+I.&rft.au=Rosenbush%2C+A.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_BoekelKervellaSchöllerHerbst2003" class="citation journal cs1">Van Boekel, R.; Kervella, P.; Schöller, M.; Herbst, T.; Brandner, W.; De Koter, A.; Waters, L. B. F. M.; Hillier, D. J.; Paresce, F.; Lenzen, R.; Lagrange, A.-M. (2003). "Direct measurement of the size and shape of the present-day stellar wind of eta Carinae". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 410 (3): L37. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0310399">astro-ph/0310399</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003A&A...410L..37V">2003A&A...410L..37V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A20031500">10.1051/0004-6361:20031500</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18163131">18163131</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=Direct+measurement+of+the+size+and+shape+of+the+present-day+stellar+wind+of+eta+Carinae&rft.volume=410&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=L37&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0310399&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18163131%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A20031500&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003A%26A...410L..37V&rft.aulast=Van+Boekel&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Kervella%2C+P.&rft.au=Sch%C3%B6ller%2C+M.&rft.au=Herbst%2C+T.&rft.au=Brandner%2C+W.&rft.au=De+Koter%2C+A.&rft.au=Waters%2C+L.+B.+F.+M.&rft.au=Hillier%2C+D.+J.&rft.au=Paresce%2C+F.&rft.au=Lenzen%2C+R.&rft.au=Lagrange%2C+A.-M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThielemannHirschiLiebendörferDiehl2011" class="citation book cs1">Thielemann, F.-K.; Hirschi, R.; Liebendörfer, M.; Diehl, R. (2011). "Massive Stars and Their Supernovae". Astronomy with Radioactivities. Lecture Notes in Physics. 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Retrieved 18 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=stars.astro.illinois.edu&rft.atitle=Regor&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstars.astro.illinois.edu%2Fsow%2Fregor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/acrux.html">"Acrux"</a>. stars.astro.illinois.edu. Retrieved 15 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=stars.astro.illinois.edu&rft.atitle=Acrux&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstars.astro.illinois.edu%2Fsow%2Facrux.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://stars.astro.illinois.edu/sow/mimosa.html">"Mimosa"</a>. stars.astro.illinois.edu. Retrieved 15 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=stars.astro.illinois.edu&rft.atitle=Mimosa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstars.astro.illinois.edu%2Fsow%2Fmimosa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuthillMonnierLawranceDanchi2008" class="citation journal cs1">Tuthill, P. G.; Monnier, J. D.; Lawrance, N.; Danchi, W. C.; Owocki, S. P.; Gayley, K. G. (2008). "The Prototype Colliding-Wind Pinwheel WR 104". The Astrophysical Journal. 675 (1): 698–710. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0712.2111">0712.2111</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008ApJ...675..698T">2008ApJ...675..698T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F527286">10.1086/527286</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119293391">119293391</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Prototype+Colliding-Wind+Pinwheel+WR+104&rft.volume=675&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=698-710&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0712.2111&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119293391%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F527286&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008ApJ...675..698T&rft.aulast=Tuthill&rft.aufirst=P.+G.&rft.au=Monnier%2C+J.+D.&rft.au=Lawrance%2C+N.&rft.au=Danchi%2C+W.+C.&rft.au=Owocki%2C+S.+P.&rft.au=Gayley%2C+K.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThoroughgoodDhillonLittlefairMarsh2002" class="citation conference cs1">Thoroughgood, T. D.; Dhillon, V. S.; Littlefair, S. P.; Marsh, T. R.; Smith, D. A. (2002). "The recurrent nova U Scorpii – A type Ia supernova progenitor". The Physics of Cataclysmic Variables and Related Objects. Vol. 261. San Francisco, CA: <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_Society_of_the_Pacific" title="Astronomical Society of the Pacific">Astronomical Society of the Pacific</a>. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0109553">astro-ph/0109553</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002ASPC..261...77T">2002ASPC..261...77T</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=The+recurrent+nova+U+Scorpii+%E2%80%93+A+type+Ia+supernova+progenitor&rft.btitle=The+Physics+of+Cataclysmic+Variables+and+Related+Objects&rft.place=San+Francisco%2C+CA&rft.pub=Astronomical+Society+of+the+Pacific&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0109553&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002ASPC..261...77T&rft.aulast=Thoroughgood&rft.aufirst=T.+D.&rft.au=Dhillon%2C+V.+S.&rft.au=Littlefair%2C+S.+P.&rft.au=Marsh%2C+T.+R.&rft.au=Smith%2C+D.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAthem_W._AlsabtiPaul_Murdin2017" class="citation book cs1">Athem W. Alsabti; Paul Murdin, eds. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referencework/10.1007/978-3-319-21846-5">Handbook of Supernovae</a>. Springer Cham. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017hsn..book.....A">2017hsn..book.....A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-21846-5">10.1007/978-3-319-21846-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-21845-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-21845-8"><bdi>978-3-319-21845-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Supernovae&rft.pub=Springer+Cham&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-21846-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017hsn..book.....A&rft.isbn=978-3-319-21845-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Freferencework%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-21846-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Branch, D.; Wheeler, J. C. (2017). Supernova Explosions. Springer. p. 721. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-55052-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-662-55052-6"><bdi>978-3-662-55052-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Supernova+Explosions&rft.pages=721&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-662-55052-6&rft.aulast=Branch&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Wheeler%2C+J.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Takahashi, K.; Sato, K.; Burrows, A.; Thompson, T. A. (2003). "Supernova Neutrinos, Neutrino Oscillations, and the Mass of the Progenitor Star". <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Review D">Physical Review D</a>. 68 (11): 77–81. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0306056">hep-ph/0306056</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhRvD..68k3009T">2003PhRvD..68k3009T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevD.68.113009">10.1103/PhysRevD.68.113009</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119390151">119390151</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review+D&rft.atitle=Supernova+Neutrinos%2C+Neutrino+Oscillations%2C+and+the+Mass+of+the+Progenitor+Star&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=77-81&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fhep-ph%2F0306056&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A119390151%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2FPhysRevD.68.113009&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003PhRvD..68k3009T&rft.aulast=Takahashi&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Sato%2C+K.&rft.au=Burrows%2C+A.&rft.au=Thompson%2C+T.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">Woosley, S. E.; Janka, H.-T. (2005). "The Physics of Core-Collapse Supernovae". <a href="/wiki/Nature_Physics" title="Nature Physics">Nature Physics</a>. 1 (3): 147–154. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601261">astro-ph/0601261</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005NatPh...1..147W">2005NatPh...1..147W</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.336.2176">10.1.1.336.2176</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphys172">10.1038/nphys172</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118974639">118974639</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Physics&rft.atitle=The+Physics+of+Core-Collapse+Supernovae&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=147-154&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118974639%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005NatPh...1..147W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.336.2176%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnphys172&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fastro-ph%2F0601261&rft.aulast=Woosley&rft.aufirst=S.+E.&rft.au=Janka%2C+H.-T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Supernova&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Supernovae" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Supernovae">Supernovae</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Tsvetkov, D. Yu.; Pavlyuk, N. N.; Bartunov, O. S.; Pskovskii, Y. P. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sai.msu.su/sn/sncat/">"Sternberg Astronomical Institute Supernova Catalogue"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sternberg_Astronomical_Institute" title="Sternberg Astronomical Institute">Sternberg Astronomical Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moscow_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow University">Moscow University</a>. Retrieved 28 November 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sternberg+Astronomical+Institute+Supernova+Catalogue&rft.pub=Sternberg+Astronomical+Institute%2C+Moscow+University&rft.aulast=Tsvetkov&rft.aufirst=D.+Yu.&rft.au=Pavlyuk%2C+N.+N.&rft.au=Bartunov%2C+O.+S.&rft.au=Pskovskii%2C+Y.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sai.msu.su%2Fsn%2Fsncat%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> A searchable catalogue</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/astrocatalogs/supernovae">"The Open Supernova Catalog"</a>. <a href="/wiki/GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a>. 6 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GitHub&rft.atitle=The+Open+Supernova+Catalog&rft.date=2022-10-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fastrocatalogs%2Fsupernovae&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"> An open-access catalog of supernova light curves and spectra.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/lists/RecentSupernovae.html">"List of Supernovae with IAU Designations"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union" title="International Astronomical Union">IAU: Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams</a>. Retrieved 25 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=List+of+Supernovae+with+IAU+Designations&rft.pub=IAU%3A+Central+Bureau+for+Astronomical+Telegrams&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbat.eps.harvard.edu%2Flists%2FRecentSupernovae.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASupernova" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Supernovae"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Supernovae" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supernovae</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">Type Ia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_Iax_supernova" title="Type Iax supernova">Type Iax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ib_and_Ic_supernovae" title="Type Ib and Ic supernovae">Type Ib and Ic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova" title="Type II supernova">Type II (IIP, IIL, IIn, and IIb)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superluminous_supernova" title="Superluminous supernova">Superluminous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair-instability_supernova" title="Pair-instability supernova">Pair-instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium-rich_supernovae" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium-rich supernovae">Calcium-rich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_envelope_jets_supernova" title="Common envelope jets supernova">Common envelope jets supernova</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:G299-Remnants-SuperNova-Type1a-20150218.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/G299-Remnants-SuperNova-Type1a-20150218.jpg/180px-G299-Remnants-SuperNova-Type1a-20150218.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/G299-Remnants-SuperNova-Type1a-20150218.jpg/270px-G299-Remnants-SuperNova-Type1a-20150218.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/G299-Remnants-SuperNova-Type1a-20150218.jpg/360px-G299-Remnants-SuperNova-Type1a-20150218.jpg 2x" data-file-width="946" data-file-height="946" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physics of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_detonation" title="Carbon detonation">Carbon detonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foe_(unit)" title="Foe (unit)">Foe/Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-Earth_supernova" title="Near-Earth supernova">Near-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phillips_relationship" title="Phillips relationship">Phillips relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_process_(astrophysics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma process (astrophysics)">γ-process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_neutrinos" title="Supernova neutrinos">Neutrinos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Failed_supernova" title="Failed supernova">Failed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_blue_optical_transient" title="Fast blue optical transient">Fast blue optical transient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_radio_burst" title="Fast radio burst">Fast radio burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">Gravitational wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilonova" title="Kilonova">Kilonova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_red_nova" title="Luminous red nova">Luminous red nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_kick" title="Pulsar kick">Pulsar kick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark-nova" title="Quark-nova">Quark-nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_gamma_repeater" title="Soft gamma repeater">Soft gamma repeater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_impostor" title="Supernova impostor">Imposter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulsational_pair-instability_supernova" title="Pulsational pair-instability supernova">pulsational pair-instability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_nova" title="Symbiotic nova">Symbiotic nova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Progenitors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypergiant" title="Hypergiant">Hypergiant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_hypergiant" title="Yellow hypergiant">yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_hypergiant" class="mw-redirect" title="Red hypergiant">Red</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_blue_variable" title="Luminous blue variable">Luminous blue variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergiant_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Supergiant star">Supergiant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_supergiant_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue supergiant star">blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_supergiant_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Red supergiant star">red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_supergiant_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow supergiant star">yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_star" title="Wolf–Rayet star">Wolf–Rayet star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-AGB_star" title="Super-AGB star">Super-AGB star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_III_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Population III star">Population III star</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Remnants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">Supernova remnant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_wind_nebula" title="Pulsar wind nebula">Pulsar wind nebula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">pulsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">magnetar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Stellar black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Compact star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_star" title="Electroweak star">electroweak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_star" title="Exotic star">exotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">quark</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zombie_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Zombie star">Zombie star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_Bubble" title="Local Bubble">Local Bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superbubble" title="Superbubble">Superbubble</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orion%E2%80%93Eridanus_Superbubble" title="Orion–Eridanus Superbubble">Orion–Eridanus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discovery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guest_star_(astronomy)" title="Guest star (astronomy)">Guest star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_supernova_observation" title="History of supernova observation">History of supernova observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_white_dwarfs,_neutron_stars,_and_supernovae" title="Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae">Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_candidates" title="List of supernova candidates">Candidates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernovae" title="List of supernovae">Notable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_stars" title="List of most massive stars">Massive stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_distant_supernovae" title="List of most distant supernovae">Most distant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_remnants" title="List of supernova remnants">Remnants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernovae_in_fiction" title="Supernovae in fiction">In fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barnard%27s_Loop" title="Barnard's Loop">Barnard's Loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiopeia_A" title="Cassiopeia A">Cassiopeia A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_1054" title="SN 1054">SN 1054</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_Nebula" title="Crab Nebula">Crab Nebula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPTF14hls" title="IPTF14hls">iPTF14hls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_1000%2B0216" title="SN 1000+0216">SN 1000+0216</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_1572" title="SN 1572">Tycho's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_Supernova" title="Kepler's Supernova">Kepler's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_1885A" title="SN 1885A">SN 1885A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">SN 1987A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_1994D" title="SN 1994D">SN 1994D</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_185" title="SN 185">SN 185</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_1006" title="SN 1006">SN 1006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_2003fg" title="SN 2003fg">SN 2003fg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G1.9%2B0.3" title="G1.9+0.3">Remnant G1.9+0.3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_2007bi" title="SN 2007bi">SN 2007bi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_2011fe" title="SN 2011fe">SN 2011fe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_2014J" title="SN 2014J">SN 2014J</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_Refsdal" title="SN Refsdal">SN Refsdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vela_Supernova_Remnant" title="Vela Supernova Remnant">Vela Remnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_2006gy" title="SN 2006gy">SN 2006gy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASASSN-15lh" title="ASASSN-15lh">ASASSN-15lh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_2016aps" title="SN 2016aps">SN 2016aps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_2018cow" title="SN 2018cow">SN 2018cow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_2022jli" title="SN 2022jli">SN 2022jli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SN_H0pe" title="SN H0pe">SN H0pe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/All_Sky_Automated_Survey_for_SuperNovae" title="All Sky Automated Survey for SuperNovae">ASAS-SN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cal%C3%A1n/Tololo_Survey" title="Calán/Tololo Survey">Calán/Tololo Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-Z_Supernova_Search_Team" title="High-Z Supernova Search Team">High-Z Supernova Search Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katzman_Automatic_Imaging_Telescope" title="Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope">Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monte_Agliale_Supernovae_and_Asteroid_Survey" title="Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey">Monte Agliale Supernovae and Asteroid Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearby_Supernova_Factory" title="Nearby Supernova Factory">Nearby Supernova Factory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloan_Digital_Sky_Survey#Sloan_Supernova_Survey" title="Sloan Digital Sky Survey">Sloan Supernova Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova/Acceleration_Probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernova/Acceleration Probe">Supernova/Acceleration Probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_Cosmology_Project" title="Supernova Cosmology Project">Supernova Cosmology Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SuperNova_Early_Warning_System" title="SuperNova Early Warning System">SuperNova Early Warning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_Legacy_Survey" title="Supernova Legacy Survey">Supernova Legacy Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Supernova_Search" title="Texas Supernova Search">Texas Supernova Search</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Supernovae" title="Category:Supernovae">Category:Supernovae</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Supernovae" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Supernovae">Commons:Supernovae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Stars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Star" title="Template:Star"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Star" title="Template talk:Star"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Star" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Star"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Stars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Stars</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_stars" title="Lists of stars">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">Formation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">Molecular cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bok_globule" title="Bok globule">Bok globule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_stellar_object" title="Young stellar object">Young stellar object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protostar" title="Protostar">Protostar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-main-sequence_star" title="Pre-main-sequence star">Pre-main-sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbig_Ae/Be_star" title="Herbig Ae/Be star">Herbig Ae/Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_Tauri_star" title="T Tauri star">T Tauri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbig%E2%80%93Haro_object" title="Herbig–Haro object">Herbig–Haro object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayashi_track" title="Hayashi track">Hayashi track</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henyey_track" title="Henyey track">Henyey track</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_sequence" title="Main sequence">Main sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-giant_branch" title="Red-giant branch">Red-giant branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_branch" title="Horizontal branch">Horizontal branch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Red_clump" title="Red clump">Red clump</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymptotic_giant_branch" title="Asymptotic giant branch">Asymptotic giant branch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-AGB_star" title="Post-AGB star">post-AGB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-AGB_star" title="Super-AGB star">super-AGB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_loop" title="Blue loop">Blue loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_nebula" title="Planetary nebula">Planetary nebula</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_nebula" title="Protoplanetary nebula">Protoplanetary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf-Rayet_nebula" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf-Rayet nebula">Wolf-Rayet nebula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PG_1159_star" title="PG 1159 star">PG1159</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dredge-up" title="Dredge-up">Dredge-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OH/IR_star" title="OH/IR star">OH/IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instability_strip" title="Instability strip">Instability strip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_blue_variable" title="Luminous blue variable">Luminous blue variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_population" title="Stellar population">Stellar population</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supernova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superluminous_supernova" title="Superluminous supernova">Superluminous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">Classification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early-type_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Early-type star">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late-type_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Late-type star">Late</a></li> <li>Main sequence <ul><li><a href="/wiki/O-type_main-sequence_star" title="O-type main-sequence star">O</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-type_main-sequence_star" title="B-type main-sequence star">B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-type_main-sequence_star" title="A-type main-sequence star">A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-type_main-sequence_star" title="F-type main-sequence star">F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G-type_main-sequence_star" title="G-type main-sequence star">G</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-type_main-sequence_star" title="K-type main-sequence star">K</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_dwarf" title="Red dwarf">M</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf" title="Subdwarf">Subdwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf_O_star" title="Subdwarf O star">O</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subdwarf_B_star" title="Subdwarf B star">B</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_star" title="Wolf–Rayet star">WR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OB_star" title="OB star">OB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subgiant" title="Subgiant">Subgiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_star" title="Giant star">Giant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_giant" title="Blue giant">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_giant" title="Red giant">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_giant" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow giant">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bright_giant" class="mw-redirect" title="Bright giant">Bright giant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergiant" title="Supergiant">Supergiant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_supergiant" title="Blue supergiant">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_supergiant" title="Red supergiant">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_supergiant" title="Yellow supergiant">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergiant" title="Hypergiant">Hypergiant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_hypergiant" title="Yellow hypergiant">Yellow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_star" title="Carbon star">Carbon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S-type_star" title="S-type star">S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CN_star" title="CN star">CN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CH_star" title="CH star">CH</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemically_peculiar_star" title="Chemically peculiar star">Chemically peculiar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Am_star" title="Am star">Am</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ap_and_Bp_stars" title="Ap and Bp stars">Ap/Bp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CEMP_star" title="CEMP star">CEMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury-manganese_star" title="Mercury-manganese star">HgMn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-weak_star" title="Helium-weak star">He-weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barium_star" title="Barium star">Barium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_Bo%C3%B6tis_star" title="Lambda Boötis star">Lambda Boötis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_star" title="Lead star">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technetium_star" title="Technetium star">Technetium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Be_star" title="Be star">Be</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shell_star" title="Shell star">Shell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B(e)_star" title="B(e) star">B[e]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_star" title="Helium star">Helium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_helium_star" title="Extreme helium star">Extreme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_straggler" title="Blue straggler">Blue straggler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Remnants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Compact star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRAS_00500%2B6713" title="IRAS 00500+6713">Parker's star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helium_planet" title="Helium planet">Helium planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio-quiet_neutron_star" title="Radio-quiet neutron star">Radio-quiet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">Pulsar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_pulsar" title="Binary pulsar">Binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_pulsar" title="X-ray pulsar">X-ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">Magnetar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Stellar black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_binary" title="X-ray binary">X-ray binary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_burster" title="X-ray burster">Burster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_gamma_repeater" title="Soft gamma repeater">SGR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_star" title="Hypothetical star">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue_dwarf_(red-dwarf_stage)" title="Blue dwarf (red-dwarf stage)">Blue dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_dwarf" title="Black dwarf">Black dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_star" title="Exotic star">Exotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boson_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Boson star">Boson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_star" title="Electroweak star">Electroweak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_star" title="Strange star">Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Preon star">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_star" title="Planck star">Planck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_star_(dark_matter)" title="Dark star (dark matter)">Dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-energy_star" title="Dark-energy star">Dark-energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">Quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_star" title="Q star">Q</a></li></ul></li> <li>Black hole star <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_star_(semiclassical_gravity)" title="Black star (semiclassical gravity)">Black</a></li> <li>Hawking</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-star" title="Quasi-star">Quasi-star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravastar" title="Gravastar">Gravastar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorne%E2%80%93%C5%BBytkow_object" title="Thorne–Żytkow object">Thorne–Żytkow object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_star" title="Iron star">Iron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzar" title="Blitzar">Blitzar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hole" title="White hole">White hole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_fusion" title="Deuterium fusion">Deuterium burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithium_burning" title="Lithium burning">Lithium burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">Proton–proton chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_flash" title="Helium flash">Helium flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">Triple-alpha process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_process" title="Alpha process">Alpha process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-burning_process" title="Carbon-burning process">C burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon-burning_process" title="Neon-burning process">Ne burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen-burning_process" title="Oxygen-burning process">O burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicon-burning_process" title="Silicon-burning process">Si burning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor_(astronomy)" title="Fusor (astronomy)">Fusor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">Nova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_nova" title="Symbiotic nova">Symbiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_remnant" title="Nova remnant">Remnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_red_nova" title="Luminous red nova">Luminous red nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova#Recurrent_novae" title="Nova">Recurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_structure" title="Stellar structure">Structure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_core" title="Stellar core">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection_zone" title="Convection zone">Convection zone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microturbulence" title="Microturbulence">Microturbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-like_oscillations" title="Solar-like oscillations">Oscillations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation zone">Radiation zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_atmosphere" title="Stellar atmosphere">Atmosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photosphere" title="Photosphere">Photosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starspot" title="Starspot">Starspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosphere" title="Chromosphere">Chromosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_corona" title="Stellar corona">Stellar corona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfv%C3%A9n_surface" title="Alfvén surface">Alfvén surface</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" title="Stellar wind">Stellar wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar-wind_bubble" title="Stellar-wind bubble">Bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_outflow" title="Bipolar outflow">Bipolar outflow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Accretion disk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">Protoplanetary disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proplyd" title="Proplyd">Proplyd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroseismology" title="Asteroseismology">Asteroseismology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helioseismology" title="Helioseismology">Helioseismology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_dust" title="Circumstellar dust">Circumstellar dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Cosmic dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_envelope" title="Circumstellar envelope">Circumstellar envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddington_luminosity" title="Eddington luminosity">Eddington luminosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_mechanism" title="Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism">Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_designations_and_names" title="Stellar designations and names">Designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_dynamics" title="Stellar dynamics">Dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_temperature" title="Effective temperature">Effective temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">Luminosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_kinematics" title="Stellar kinematics">Kinematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_magnetic_field" title="Stellar magnetic field">Magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_magnitude" title="Absolute magnitude">Absolute magnitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_mass" title="Stellar mass">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">Metallicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_rotation" title="Stellar rotation">Rotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_star" title="Variable star">Variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photometric_system" title="Photometric system">Photometric system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_index" title="Color index">Color index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color%E2%80%93color_diagram" title="Color–color diagram">Color–color diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Str%C3%B6mgren_sphere" title="Strömgren sphere">Strömgren sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kraft_break" title="Kraft break">Kraft break</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Star_system" title="Star system">Star systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">Binary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_binary" title="Contact binary">Contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_envelope" title="Common envelope">Common envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipsing_binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Eclipsing binary">Eclipsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_binary" title="Symbiotic binary">Symbiotic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_system#Multiple_star_systems" title="Star system">Multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_cluster" title="Star cluster">Cluster</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open_cluster" title="Open cluster">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globular_cluster" title="Globular cluster">Globular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_star_cluster" title="Super star cluster">Super</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">Planetary system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth-centric observations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">Solar eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Solar radio emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">Pole star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_star" title="Circumpolar star">Circumpolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">Constellation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterism_(astronomy)" title="Asterism (astronomy)">Asterism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnitude_(astronomy)" title="Magnitude (astronomy)">Magnitude</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">Apparent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_(astronomy)" title="Extinction (astronomy)">Extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_magnitude" title="Photographic magnitude">Photographic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radial_velocity" title="Radial velocity">Radial velocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_motion" title="Proper motion">Proper motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_parallax" title="Stellar parallax">Parallax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photometric-standard_star" title="Photometric-standard star">Photometric-standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_stars" title="Lists of stars">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_proper_names_of_stars" title="List of proper names of stars">Proper names</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_star_names" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese star names">Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_star_extremes" title="List of star extremes">Extremes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_stars" title="List of most massive stars">Most massive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hottest_stars" title="List of hottest stars">Highest temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_coolest_stars" title="List of coolest stars">Lowest temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_known_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest known stars">Largest volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_smallest_known_stars" title="List of smallest known stars">Smallest volume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_brightest_stars" title="List of brightest stars">Brightest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_brightest_stars" title="Historical brightest stars">Historical brightest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_luminous_stars" title="List of most luminous stars">Most luminous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_stars" title="List of nearest stars">Nearest</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_bright_stars" title="List of nearest bright stars">bright</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_most_distant_astronomical_objects#List_of_most_distant_objects_by_type" title="List of the most distant astronomical objects">Most distant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_stars_with_resolved_images" title="List of stars with resolved images">With resolved images</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiplanetary_systems" title="List of multiplanetary systems">With multiple exoplanets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_brown_dwarfs" title="List of brown dwarfs">Brown dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_red_dwarfs" title="List of red dwarfs">Red dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_white_dwarfs" title="List of white dwarfs">White dwarfs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_novae_in_the_Milky_Way_galaxy" title="List of novae in the Milky Way galaxy">Milky Way novae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernovae" title="List of supernovae">Supernovae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_candidates" title="List of supernova candidates">Candidates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_supernova_remnants" title="List of supernova remnants">Remnants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_planetary_nebulae" title="List of planetary nebulae">Planetary nebulae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_stellar_astronomy" title="Timeline of stellar astronomy">Timeline of stellar astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Substellar_object" title="Substellar object">Substellar object</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_dwarf" title="Brown dwarf">Brown dwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown-dwarf_desert" title="Brown-dwarf desert">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-brown_dwarf" title="Sub-brown dwarf">Sub</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">Planet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_year" title="Galactic year">Galactic year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">Galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guest_star_(astronomy)" title="Guest star (astronomy)">Guest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_star" title="Intergalactic star">Intergalactic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet-hosting_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Planet-hosting stars">Planet-hosting stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_disruption_event" title="Tidal disruption event">Tidal disruption event</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Stars" title="Category:Stars">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/14px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/21px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/28px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Variable_stars" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Variable_star_topics" title="Template:Variable star topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Variable_star_topics" title="Template talk:Variable star topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Variable_star_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Variable star topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Variable_stars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Variable_star" title="Variable star">Variable stars</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_pulsation" title="Stellar pulsation">Pulsating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">Cepheids</a> and cepheid-like</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_I_Cepheid" class="mw-redirect" title="Type I Cepheid">Type I</a> (<a href="/wiki/Classical_Cepheid_variable" title="Classical Cepheid variable">Classical cepheids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delta_Scuti_variable" title="Delta Scuti variable">Delta Scuti</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_II_Cepheid" title="Type II Cepheid">Type II</a> (<a href="/wiki/BL_Herculis_variable" title="BL Herculis variable">BL Herculis</a>, <a href="/wiki/W_Virginis_variable" title="W Virginis variable">W Virginis</a>, <a href="/wiki/RV_Tauri_variable" title="RV Tauri variable">RV Tauri</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/RR_Lyrae_variable" title="RR Lyrae variable">RR Lyrae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapidly_oscillating_Ap_star" title="Rapidly oscillating Ap star">Rapidly oscillating Ap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SX_Phoenicis_variable" title="SX Phoenicis variable">SX Phoenicis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Blue-white with early spectra</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Cygni_variable" title="Alpha Cygni variable">Alpha Cygni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Cephei_variable" title="Beta Cephei variable">Beta Cephei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slowly_pulsating_B-type_star" title="Slowly pulsating B-type star">Slowly pulsating B-type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PV_Telescopii_variable" title="PV Telescopii variable">PV Telescopii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_large-amplitude_pulsator" title="Blue large-amplitude pulsator">Blue large-amplitude pulsator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Long-period_variable_star" title="Long-period variable star">Long-period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mira_variable" title="Mira variable">Mira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiregular_variable_star" title="Semiregular variable star">Semiregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_irregular_variable" title="Slow irregular variable">Slow irregular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_Doradus_variable" title="Gamma Doradus variable">Gamma Doradus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-like_oscillations" title="Solar-like oscillations">Solar-like oscillations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsating_white_dwarf" title="Pulsating white dwarf">White dwarf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eruptive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-main-sequence_star" title="Pre-main-sequence star">Protostar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pre-main-sequence_star" title="Pre-main-sequence star">PMS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbig_Ae/Be_star" title="Herbig Ae/Be star">Herbig Ae/Be</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orion_variable" title="Orion variable">Orion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FU_Orionis_star" title="FU Orionis star">FU Orionis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_Tauri_star" title="T Tauri star">T Tauri</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Giants and supergiants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_blue_variable" title="Luminous blue variable">Luminous blue variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R_Coronae_Borealis_variable" title="R Coronae Borealis variable">R Coronae Borealis</a> (<a href="/wiki/DY_Persei_variable" title="DY Persei variable">DY Persei</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_hypergiant" title="Yellow hypergiant">Yellow hypergiant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eruptive binary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_periodic_variable" title="Double periodic variable">Double periodic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FS_Canis_Majoris_variable" title="FS Canis Majoris variable">FS Canis Majoris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RS_Canum_Venaticorum_variable" title="RS Canum Venaticorum variable">RS Canum Venaticorum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flare_star" title="Flare star">Flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_Cassiopeiae_variable" title="Gamma Cassiopeiae variable">Gamma Cassiopeiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_Eridani_variable" title="Lambda Eridani variable">Lambda Eridani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf%E2%80%93Rayet_star" title="Wolf–Rayet star">Wolf–Rayet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_variable_star" title="Cataclysmic variable star">Cataclysmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AM_Canum_Venaticorum_star" title="AM Canum Venaticorum star">AM Canum Venaticorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwarf_nova" title="Dwarf nova">Dwarf nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_red_nova" title="Luminous red nova">Luminous red nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_(star)" title="Polar (star)">Polar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_polar" title="Intermediate polar">Intermediate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supernova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SW_Sextantis_variable" title="SW Sextantis variable">SW Sextantis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_binary" title="Symbiotic binary">Symbiotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_nova" title="Symbiotic nova">Symbiotic nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiotic_binary" title="Symbiotic binary">Z Andromedae</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rotating</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-spherical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_ellipsoidal_variable" title="Rotating ellipsoidal variable">Rotating ellipsoidal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stellar spots</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BY_Draconis_variable" title="BY Draconis variable">BY Draconis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_star#FK_Comae_Berenices_variables" title="Variable star">FK Comae Berenices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Magnetic fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha2_Canum_Venaticorum_variable" title="Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable">α2 Canum Venaticorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">Pulsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SX_Arietis_variable" title="SX Arietis variable">SX Arietis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Binary_star#Eclipsing_binaries" title="Binary star">Eclipsing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algol_variable" title="Algol variable">Algol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Lyrae_variable" title="Beta Lyrae variable">Beta Lyrae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_transit_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary transit variable">Planetary transit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W_Ursae_Majoris_variable" title="W Ursae Majoris variable">W Ursae Majoris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/14px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/21px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/28px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Star" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Star">Star portal</a> * <a href="/wiki/List_of_variable_stars" title="List of variable stars">List</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Black_holes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_holes" title="Template:Black holes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Black_holes" title="Template talk:Black holes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Black_holes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Black holes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Black_holes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Black_hole" title="Black hole">Black holes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_black_holes" title="Outline of black holes">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BTZ_black_hole" title="BTZ black hole">BTZ black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric" title="Schwarzschild metric">Schwarzschild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_black_hole" title="Rotating black hole">Rotating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charged_black_hole" title="Charged black hole">Charged</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_black_hole" title="Virtual black hole">Virtual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kugelblitz_(astrophysics)" title="Kugelblitz (astrophysics)">Kugelblitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">Supermassive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primordial_black_hole" title="Primordial black hole">Primordial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_collapse_black_hole" title="Direct collapse black hole">Direct collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_black_hole" title="Rogue black hole">Rogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malament%E2%80%93Hogarth_spacetime" title="Malament–Hogarth spacetime">Malament–Hogarth spacetime</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="11" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Black_hole_-_Messier_87_crop_max_res.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Black_hole_-_Messier_87_crop_max_res.jpg/80px-Black_hole_-_Messier_87_crop_max_res.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Black_hole_-_Messier_87_crop_max_res.jpg/120px-Black_hole_-_Messier_87_crop_max_res.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Black_hole_-_Messier_87_crop_max_res.jpg/160px-Black_hole_-_Messier_87_crop_max_res.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="4320" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Size</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_black_hole" title="Micro black hole">Micro</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extremal_black_hole" title="Extremal black hole">Extremal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_electron" title="Black hole electron">Electron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Stellar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microquasar" title="Microquasar">Microquasar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate-mass_black_hole" title="Intermediate-mass black hole">Intermediate-mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">Supermassive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_galactic_nucleus" title="Active galactic nucleus">Active galactic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">Quasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_quasar_group" title="Large quasar group">LQG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blazar" title="Blazar">Blazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OVV_quasar" title="OVV quasar">OVV</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">Stellar evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">Gravitational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Neutron_star" title="Template:Neutron star">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_limit" title="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit">Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:White_dwarf" title="Template:White dwarf">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supernova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micronova" title="Micronova">Micronova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superluminous_supernova" title="Superluminous supernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Supernovae" title="Template:Supernovae">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_black_hole" title="Binary black hole">Binary black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">Quark star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supermassive_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Supermassive star">Supermassive star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-star" title="Quasi-star">Quasi-star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_star_(dark_matter)" title="Dark star (dark matter)">Supermassive dark star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_binary" title="X-ray binary">X-ray binary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysical_jet" title="Astrophysical jet">Astrophysical jet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_singularity" title="Gravitational singularity">Gravitational singularity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ring_singularity" title="Ring singularity">Ring singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penrose%E2%80%93Hawking_singularity_theorems" title="Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems">Theorems</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_horizon" title="Event horizon">Event horizon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photon_sphere" title="Photon sphere">Photon sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innermost_stable_circular_orbit" title="Innermost stable circular orbit">Innermost stable circular orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergosphere" title="Ergosphere">Ergosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penrose_process" title="Penrose process">Penrose process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blandford%E2%80%93Znajek_process" title="Blandford–Znajek process">Blandford–Znajek process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_disk" title="Accretion disk">Accretion disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawking_radiation" title="Hawking radiation">Hawking radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_lens" title="Gravitational lens">Gravitational lens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_microlensing" title="Gravitational microlensing">Microlens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bondi_accretion" title="Bondi accretion">Bondi accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%E2%80%93sigma_relation" title="M–sigma relation">M–sigma relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-periodic_oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasi-periodic oscillation">Quasi-periodic oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_thermodynamics" title="Black hole thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bekenstein_bound" title="Bekenstein bound">Bekenstein bound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bousso%27s_holographic_bound" title="Bousso's holographic bound">Bousso's holographic bound</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immirzi_parameter" title="Immirzi parameter">Immirzi parameter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_radius" title="Schwarzschild radius">Schwarzschild radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaghettification" title="Spaghettification">Spaghettification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_complementarity" title="Black hole complementarity">Black hole complementarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_information_paradox" title="Black hole information paradox">Information paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_censorship_hypothesis" title="Cosmic censorship hypothesis">Cosmic censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ER_%3D_EPR" title="ER = EPR">ER = EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_black_hole#Final_parsec_problem" title="Binary black hole">Final parsec problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewall_(physics)" title="Firewall (physics)">Firewall (physics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holographic_principle" title="Holographic principle">Holographic principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-hair_theorem" title="No-hair theorem">No-hair theorem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzschild_metric" title="Schwarzschild metric">Schwarzschild</a> (<a href="/wiki/Derivation_of_the_Schwarzschild_solution" title="Derivation of the Schwarzschild solution">Derivation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerr_metric" title="Kerr metric">Kerr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reissner%E2%80%93Nordstr%C3%B6m_metric" title="Reissner–Nordström metric">Reissner–Nordström</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerr%E2%80%93Newman_metric" title="Kerr–Newman metric">Kerr–Newman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hayward_metric" title="Hayward metric">Hayward</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Alternatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonsingular_black_hole_models" title="Nonsingular black hole models">Nonsingular black hole models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_star_(semiclassical_gravity)" title="Black star (semiclassical gravity)">Black star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_star_(Newtonian_mechanics)" title="Dark star (Newtonian mechanics)">Dark star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark-energy_star" title="Dark-energy star">Dark-energy star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravastar" title="Gravastar">Gravastar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetospheric_eternally_collapsing_object" title="Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object">Magnetospheric eternally collapsing object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planck_star" title="Planck star">Planck star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q_star" title="Q star">Q star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzball_(string_theory)" title="Fuzzball (string theory)">Fuzzball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geon_(physics)" title="Geon (physics)">Geon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Analogs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_black_hole" title="Optical black hole">Optical black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonic_black_hole" title="Sonic black hole">Sonic black hole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_black_holes" title="Lists of black holes">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_holes" title="List of black holes">Black holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_black_holes" title="List of most massive black holes">Most massive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nearest_known_black_holes" title="List of nearest known black holes">Nearest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quasars" title="List of quasars">Quasars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microquasars" title="List of microquasars">Microquasars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_black_holes" title="Outline of black holes">Outline of black holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hole_Initiative" title="Black Hole Initiative">Black Hole Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_hole_starship" title="Black hole starship">Black hole starship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_holes_in_fiction" title="Black holes in fiction">Black holes in fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bounce" title="Big Bounce">Big Bounce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Compact star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_star" title="Exotic star">Exotic star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">Quark star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Preon star">Preon star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_waves" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational waves">Gravitational waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst_progenitors" title="Gamma-ray burst progenitors">Gamma-ray burst progenitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravity well">Gravity well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercompact_stellar_system" title="Hypercompact stellar system">Hypercompact stellar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_paradigm" title="Membrane paradigm">Membrane paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naked_singularity" title="Naked singularity">Naked singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_III_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Population III star">Population III star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supermassive_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Supermassive star">Supermassive star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-star" title="Quasi-star">Quasi-star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_star_(dark_matter)" title="Dark star (dark matter)">Supermassive dark star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossi_X-ray_Timing_Explorer" title="Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer">Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superluminal_motion" title="Superluminal motion">Superluminal motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_black_hole_physics" title="Timeline of black hole physics">Timeline of black hole physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hole" title="White hole">White hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wormhole" title="Wormhole">Wormhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_disruption_event" title="Tidal disruption event">Tidal disruption event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planet_Nine" title="Planet Nine">Planet Nine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Notable</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cygnus_X-1" title="Cygnus X-1">Cygnus X-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XTE_J1650-500" class="mw-redirect" title="XTE J1650-500">XTE J1650-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XTE_J1118%2B480" title="XTE J1118+480">XTE J1118+480</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A0620-00" title="A0620-00">A0620-00</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_A*" title="Sagittarius A*">Sagittarius A*</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centaurus_A" title="Centaurus A">Centaurus A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Cluster" title="Phoenix Cluster">Phoenix Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PKS_1302-102" title="PKS 1302-102">PKS 1302-102</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OJ_287" title="OJ 287">OJ 287</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SDSS_J0849%2B1114" title="SDSS J0849+1114">SDSS J0849+1114</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TON_618" title="TON 618">TON 618</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MS_0735.6%2B7421" title="MS 0735.6+7421">MS 0735.6+7421</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NeVe_1" title="NeVe 1">NeVe 1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hercules_A" title="Hercules A">Hercules A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3C_273" title="3C 273">3C 273</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q0906%2B6930" title="Q0906+6930">Q0906+6930</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markarian_501" title="Markarian 501">Markarian 501</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ULAS_J1342%2B0928" title="ULAS J1342+0928">ULAS J1342+0928</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PSO_J030947.49%2B271757.31" title="PSO J030947.49+271757.31">PSO J030947.49+271757.31</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AT2018hyz" title="AT2018hyz">AT2018hyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swift_J1644%2B57" title="Swift J1644+57">Swift J1644+57</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Black_holes" title="Category:Black holes">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Black_holes" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Black holes">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neutron_star" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neutron_star" title="Template:Neutron star"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neutron_star" title="Template talk:Neutron star"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neutron_star" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neutron star"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neutron_star" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron star</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radio-quiet_neutron_star" title="Radio-quiet neutron star">Radio-quiet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">Pulsar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Single pulsars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">Magnetar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soft_gamma_repeater" title="Soft gamma repeater">Soft gamma repeater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomalous_X-ray_pulsar" title="Anomalous X-ray pulsar">Anomalous X-ray</a></li> <li>Ultra-long period</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_radio_transient" title="Rotating radio transient">Rotating radio transient</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Binary pulsars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binary_pulsar" title="Binary pulsar">Binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_pulsar" title="X-ray pulsar">X-ray pulsar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_binary" title="X-ray binary">X-ray binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_burster" title="X-ray burster">X-ray burster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_X-ray_pulsars" title="List of X-ray pulsars">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millisecond_pulsar" title="Millisecond pulsar">Millisecond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Be/X-ray_binary" title="Be/X-ray binary">Be/X-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star_spin-up" title="Neutron star spin-up">Spin-up</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hulse%E2%80%93Taylor_pulsar" title="Hulse–Taylor pulsar">Hulse–Taylor pulsar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blitzar" title="Blitzar">Blitzar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_radio_burst" title="Fast radio burst">Fast radio burst</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bondi_accretion" title="Bondi accretion">Bondi accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit" title="Chandrasekhar limit">Chandrasekhar limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glitch_(astronomy)" title="Glitch (astronomy)">Glitch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron matter">Neutron matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron-star_oscillation" title="Neutron-star oscillation">Neutron-star oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_pulsar" title="Optical pulsar">Optical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_kick" title="Pulsar kick">Pulsar kick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-periodic_oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="Quasi-periodic oscillation">Quasi-periodic oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_star" title="Relativistic star">Relativistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">Rp-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starquake_(astrophysics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Starquake (astrophysics)">Starquake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar#Precise_clocks" title="Pulsar">Timing noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_limit" title="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit">Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urca_process" title="Urca process">Urca process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst_progenitors" title="Gamma-ray burst progenitors">Gamma-ray burst progenitors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroseismology" title="Asteroseismology">Asteroseismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Compact star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">Quark star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_star" title="Exotic star">Exotic star</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supernova</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">Supernova remnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Supernovae" title="Template:Supernovae">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilonova" title="Kilonova">Kilonova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microquasar" title="Microquasar">Microquasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star_merger" title="Neutron star merger">Neutron star merger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark-nova" title="Quark-nova">Quark-nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:White_dwarf" title="Template:White dwarf">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Stellar black hole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Black_holes" title="Template:Black holes">Related links</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_star" title="Radio star">Radio star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_planet" title="Pulsar planet">Pulsar planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_wind_nebula" title="Pulsar wind nebula">Pulsar wind nebula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorne%E2%80%93%C5%BBytkow_object" title="Thorne–Żytkow object">Thorne–Żytkow object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QCD_matter" title="QCD matter">QCD matter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discovery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/PSR_B1919%2B21" title="PSR B1919+21">LGM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centaurus_X-3" title="Centaurus X-3">Centaurus X-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_white_dwarfs,_neutron_stars,_and_supernovae" title="Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae">Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellite investigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rossi_X-ray_Timing_Explorer" title="Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer">Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fermi_Gamma-ray_Space_Telescope" title="Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope">Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compton_Gamma_Ray_Observatory" title="Compton Gamma Ray Observatory">Compton Gamma Ray Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandra_X-ray_Observatory" title="Chandra X-ray Observatory">Chandra X-ray Observatory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_pulsar-based_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray pulsar-based navigation">X-ray pulsar-based navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Magnificent_Seven_(neutron_stars)" title="The Magnificent Seven (neutron stars)">The Magnificent Seven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_neutron_stars" title="List of neutron stars">List of neutron stars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_massive_neutron_stars" title="List of most massive neutron stars">Most massive neutron stars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_stars_in_fiction" title="Neutron stars in fiction">Neutron stars in fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Neutron_stars" title="Category:Neutron stars">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Neutron_stars" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Neutron stars">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Stellar_core_collapse" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Stellar_core_collapse" title="Template:Stellar core collapse"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Stellar_core_collapse" title="Template talk:Stellar core collapse"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Stellar_core_collapse" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Stellar core collapse"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Stellar_core_collapse" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Stellar_core" title="Stellar core">Stellar core</a> <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">collapse</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Stars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Star_formation" title="Star formation">Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_structure" title="Stellar structure">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_core" title="Stellar core">Core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">Metallicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar physics">Stellar physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysical_plasma" title="Astrophysical plasma">Stellar plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supergiant_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Supergiant star">Supergiant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Variable_star_topics" title="Template:Variable star topics">Variable star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclysmic_variable_star" title="Cataclysmic variable star">Cataclysmic variable star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_star" title="Binary star">Binary star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_binary" title="X-ray binary">X-ray binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_soft_X-ray_source" title="Super soft X-ray source">Super soft X-ray source</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="9" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Core_collapse_scenario.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Core_collapse_scenario.svg/270px-Core_collapse_scenario.svg.png" decoding="async" width="270" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Core_collapse_scenario.svg/405px-Core_collapse_scenario.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Core_collapse_scenario.svg/540px-Core_collapse_scenario.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="588" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Stellar processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova" title="Nova">Surface fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">R-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">RP-process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova nucleosynthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">Accretion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bondi_accretion" title="Bondi accretion">Bondi accretion</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">Electron capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_detonation" title="Carbon detonation">Carbon detonation</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carbon_deflagration" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon deflagration">deflagration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_burst" title="Gamma-ray burst">Gamma-ray burst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_flash" title="Helium flash">Helium flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_decay" title="Orbital decay">Orbital decay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Collapse</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_collapse" title="Gravitational collapse">Gravitational collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrasekhar_limit" title="Chandrasekhar limit">Chandrasekhar limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolman%E2%80%93Oppenheimer%E2%80%93Volkoff_limit" title="Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit">Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supernovae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_supernova" title="Type Ia supernova">Type Ia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ib_and_Ic_supernovae" title="Type Ib and Ic supernovae">Type Ib and Ic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_II_supernova" title="Type II supernova">Type II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair-instability_supernova" title="Pair-instability supernova">Pair instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark-nova" title="Quark-nova">Quark-nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebula" title="Nebula">Nebula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_remnant" title="Supernova remnant">Remnant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Supernovae" title="Template:Supernovae">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Compact_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Compact star">Compact and exotic objects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron star</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar" title="Pulsar">Pulsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasar" title="Quasar">Quasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">Magnetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-quiet_neutron_star" title="Radio-quiet neutron star">Radio-quiet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_dwarf" title="White dwarf">White dwarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Black hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collapsar" title="Collapsar">Collapsar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shell_collapsar" title="Shell collapsar">Shell collapsar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_star" title="Exotic star">Exotic star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark_star" title="Quark star">Quark star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electroweak_star" title="Electroweak star">Electroweak star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_white_dwarfs,_neutron_stars,_and_supernovae" title="Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae">Observational timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Particles, forces, and interactions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">Elementary particles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrino</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamental_interaction" title="Fundamental interaction">Fundamental interactions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strong_interaction" title="Strong interaction">Strong interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">Weak interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">Gravitation</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pair_production" title="Pair production">Pair production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverse_beta_decay" title="Inverse beta decay">Inverse beta decay (electron capture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degeneracy_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Degeneracy pressure">Degeneracy pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_degeneracy_pressure" title="Electron degeneracy pressure">Electron degeneracy pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauli_exclusion_principle" title="Pauli exclusion principle">Pauli exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_processes" title="Template:Nuclear processes">More...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">Quantum mechanics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_quantum_mechanics" title="Introduction to quantum mechanics">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_concepts_of_quantum_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic concepts of quantum mechanics">Basic concepts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_electrodynamics" title="Quantum electrodynamics">Quantum electrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_hydrodynamics" title="Quantum hydrodynamics">Quantum hydrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_chromodynamics" title="Quantum chromodynamics">Quantum chromodynamics (QCD)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lattice_QCD" title="Lattice QCD">Lattice QCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_confinement" title="Color confinement">Color confinement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconfinement" title="Deconfinement">Deconfinement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Degenerate_matter" title="Degenerate matter">Degenerate matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutronium" title="Neutronium">Neutron matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QCD_matter" title="QCD matter">QCD matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Quark matter">Quark matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Preon matter">Preon matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strangelet" title="Strangelet">Strangelet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_matter" title="Strange matter">Strange matter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">Nuclear astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">Physics of shock waves</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/14px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/21px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/28px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Gravitational-wave_astronomy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Gravitational_waves" title="Template:Gravitational waves"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Gravitational_waves" title="Template talk:Gravitational waves"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Gravitational_waves" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Gravitational waves"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Gravitational-wave_astronomy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_astronomy" title="Gravitational-wave astronomy">Gravitational-wave astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">Gravitational wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_observatory" title="Gravitational-wave observatory">Gravitational-wave observatory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_observatory" title="Gravitational-wave observatory">Detectors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gravitational-wave_observatory#Weber_bars" title="Gravitational-wave observatory">Resonant mass antennas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=NAUTILUS&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NAUTILUS (page does not exist)">NAUTILUS</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Gravitational_Event_Collaboration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Gravitational Event Collaboration (page does not exist)">IGEC</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AURIGA" title="AURIGA">AURIGA</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Gravitational_Event_Collaboration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Gravitational Event Collaboration (page does not exist)">IGEC</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MiniGrail" title="MiniGrail">MiniGRAIL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Schenberg_(Gravitational_Wave_Detector)" title="Mario Schenberg (Gravitational Wave Detector)">Mario Schenberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=EXPLORER&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EXPLORER (page does not exist)">EXPLORER</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Gravitational_Event_Collaboration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Gravitational Event Collaboration (page does not exist)">IGEC</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allegro_gravitational-wave_detector" title="Allegro gravitational-wave detector">ALLEGRO</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Gravitational_Event_Collaboration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Gravitational Event Collaboration (page does not exist)">IGEC</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIOBE" title="NIOBE">NIOBE</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Gravitational_Event_Collaboration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Gravitational Event Collaboration (page does not exist)">IGEC</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stanford_gravitational_wave_detector&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stanford gravitational wave detector (page does not exist)">Stanford gravitational wave detector</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ALTAIR_(gravitational_wave_detector)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ALTAIR (gravitational wave detector) (page does not exist)">ALTAIR</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEOGRAV&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GEOGRAV (page does not exist)">GEOGRAV</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=AGATA_(gravitational_wave_detector)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AGATA (gravitational wave detector) (page does not exist)">AGATA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weber_bar" title="Weber bar">Weber bar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torsion-bar_antenna" title="Torsion-bar antenna">TOBA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past proposals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MiniGrail" title="MiniGrail">GRAIL</a> (downsized to <a href="/wiki/MiniGrail" title="MiniGrail">MiniGRAIL</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truncated_Icosahedral_Gravitational_Wave_Antenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Truncated Icosahedral Gravitational Wave Antenna (page does not exist)">TIGA</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SFERA&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="SFERA (page does not exist)">SFERA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Schenberg_(Gravitational_Wave_Detector)" title="Mario Schenberg (Gravitational Wave Detector)">Graviton</a> (downsized to <a href="/wiki/Mario_Schenberg_(Gravitational_Wave_Detector)" title="Mario Schenberg (Gravitational Wave Detector)">Mario Schenberg</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground-based_interferometric_gravitational-wave_search" title="Ground-based interferometric gravitational-wave search"> Ground-based interferometers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIGO" title="AIGO">AIGO</a> (<a href="/wiki/ACIGA" title="ACIGA">ACIGA</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CLIO" title="CLIO">CLIO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holometer" title="Holometer">Fermilab holometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GEO600" title="GEO600">GEO600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LIGO" title="LIGO">Advanced LIGO</a> (<a href="/wiki/LIGO_Scientific_Collaboration" title="LIGO Scientific Collaboration">LIGO Scientific Collaboration</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/KAGRA" title="KAGRA">KAGRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgo_interferometer" title="Virgo interferometer">Advanced Virgo</a> (<a href="/wiki/European_Gravitational_Observatory" title="European Gravitational Observatory">European Gravitational Observatory</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TAMA_300" title="TAMA 300">TAMA 300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TAMA_300" title="TAMA 300">TAMA 20, later known as LISM</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TENKO-100&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TENKO-100 (page does not exist)">TENKO-100</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LIGO#Background" title="LIGO">Caltech 40m interferometer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Initiative_in_Gravitational-wave_Observations" title="Indian Initiative in Gravitational-wave Observations">INDIGO (LIGO-India)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Explorer_(gravitational_wave_observatory)" title="Cosmic Explorer (gravitational wave observatory)">Cosmic Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Einstein_Telescope" title="Einstein Telescope">Einstein Telescope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past proposals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LIGO-Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="LIGO-Australia">LIGO-Australia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Space-based interferometers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laser_Interferometer_Space_Antenna" title="Laser Interferometer Space Antenna">LISA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_Observer" title="Big Bang Observer">Big Bang Observer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deci-hertz_Interferometer_Gravitational_wave_Observatory" title="Deci-hertz Interferometer Gravitational wave Observatory">DECIGO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TianQin" title="TianQin">TianQin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_timing_array" title="Pulsar timing array">Pulsar timing arrays</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Pulsar_Timing_Array" title="European Pulsar Timing Array">EPTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Pulsar_Timing_Array" title="International Pulsar Timing Array">IPTA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Nanohertz_Observatory_for_Gravitational_Waves" title="North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves">NANOGrav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkes_Observatory" title="Parkes Observatory">PPTA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Data analysis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Einstein@Home" title="Einstein@Home">Einstein@Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PyCBC" title="PyCBC">PyCBC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooniverse" title="Zooniverse">Zooniverse</a>: Gravity Spy</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Observations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations" title="List of gravitational wave observations">List of observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">First observation (GW150914)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GW151226" title="GW151226">GW151226</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GW170104" title="GW170104">GW170104</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GW170608" title="GW170608">GW170608</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GW170814" title="GW170814">GW170814</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GW170817" title="GW170817">GW170817</a> (first <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star_merger" title="Neutron star merger">neutron star merger</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GW190412" title="GW190412">GW190412</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GW190521" title="GW190521">GW190521</a> (first-ever possible light from bh-bh merger)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GW190814" title="GW190814">GW190814</a> (first-ever "mass gap" collision)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GW200105&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GW200105 (page does not exist)">GW200105</a> (first black hole - neutron star merger)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Direct detection <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interferometric_gravitational-wave_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Interferometric gravitational-wave detector">Laser interferometers</a></li> <li>Resonant mass detectors</li> <li>Proposed: <a href="/wiki/Atom_interferometer" title="Atom interferometer">Atom interferometers</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indirect detection <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background#B-modes" title="Cosmic microwave background">B-modes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background" title="Cosmic microwave background">CMB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulsar_timing_array" title="Pulsar timing array">Pulsar timing array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_pulsar" title="Binary pulsar">Binary pulsar</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">General relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tests_of_general_relativity" title="Tests of general relativity">Tests of general relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_general_relativity" title="Alternatives to general relativity">Metric theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects / properties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave#Effects_of_passing" title="Gravitational wave">Polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spin-flip" title="Spin-flip">Spin-flip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">Redshift</a></li> <li>Travel with <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a></li> <li>h strain</li> <li>Chirp signal (<a href="/wiki/Chirp_mass" title="Chirp mass">chirp mass</a>)</li> <li>Carried <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave_background" title="Gravitational wave background">Gravitational wave background</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types / sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic" title="Stochastic">Stochastic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_inflation" title="Cosmic inflation">Cosmic inflation</a>-<a href="/wiki/Quantum_fluctuation" title="Quantum fluctuation">quantum fluctuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">Phase transition</a></li></ul></li> <li>Binary inspiral <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supermassive_black_hole" title="Supermassive black hole">Supermassive black holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_black_hole" title="Stellar black hole">Stellar black holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">Neutron stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extreme_mass_ratio_inspiral" title="Extreme mass ratio inspiral">EMRI</a></li></ul></li> <li>Continuous <ul><li>Rotating neutron star</li></ul></li> <li>Burst <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supernova</a> or from unknown sources</li></ul></li> <li>Hypothesis <ul><li>Colliding <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_string" title="Cosmic string">cosmic string</a> and other unknown sources</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" title="Template:Astronomy in medieval Islam"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" title="Template talk:Astronomy in medieval Islam"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Astronomy in medieval Islam"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Astronomers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Muslim_astronomers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Muslim astronomers">Astronomers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="*_by_century"> <ul><li>by century</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">8th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Nahavandi" title="Ahmad Nahavandi">Ahmad Nahavandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fadl_ibn_Naubakht" title="Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht">Al-Fadl ibn Naubakht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad_ibn_Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_al-Faz%C4%81r%C4%AB" title="Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī">Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_al-Faz%C4%81r%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī">Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashallah_ibn_Athari" title="Mashallah ibn Athari">Mashallah ibn Athari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%CA%BFq%C5%ABb_ibn_%E1%B9%AC%C4%81riq" class="mw-redirect" title="Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq">Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ali_al-Khayyat" title="Abu Ali al-Khayyat">Abu Ali al-Khayyat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ma%27shar_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi">Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Said_Gorgani" title="Abu Said Gorgani">Abu Said Gorgani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farghani" title="Al-Farghani">Al-Farghani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mahani" title="Al-Mahani">Al-Mahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa_Dinawari" title="Abu Hanifa Dinawari">Abu Hanifa Dinawari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%E1%B8%A4ajj%C4%81j_ibn_Y%C5%ABsuf_ibn_Ma%E1%B9%ADar" title="Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf ibn Maṭar">Al-Ḥajjāj ibn Yūsuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habash_al-Hasib_al-Marwazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi">Al-Marwazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_al-Asturlabi" title="Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi">Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ban%C5%AB_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_brothers" title="Banū Mūsā brothers">Banū Mūsā brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Abbas_Iranshahri" title="Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri">Iranshahri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalid_ibn_Abd_al%E2%80%90Malik_al%E2%80%90Marwarrudhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi">Khalid ibn Abd al‐Malik al‐Marwarrudhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khwarizmi" title="Al-Khwarizmi">Al-Khwarizmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahl_ibn_Bishr" title="Sahl ibn Bishr">Sahl ibn Bishr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C4%81bit_ibn_Qurra" title="Thābit ibn Qurra">Thābit ibn Qurra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Abi_Mansur" title="Yahya ibn Abi Mansur">Yahya ibn Abi Mansur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Sufi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi">al-Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Adami" title="Ibn al-Adami">Ibn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Adami" title="Al-Adami">Al-Adami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu-Mahmud_Khojandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu-Mahmud Khojandi">al-Khojandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ja%27far_al-Khazin" title="Abu Ja'far al-Khazin">al-Khazin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sahl_al-Quhi" title="Abu Sahl al-Quhi">al-Qūhī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Wafa%27_Buzjani" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Wafa' Buzjani">Abu al-Wafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Yusuf" title="Ahmad ibn Yusuf">Ahmad ibn Yusuf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Battani" title="Al-Battani">al-Battani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Qabisi" title="Al-Qabisi">Al-Qabisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-A%27lam" title="Ibn al-A'lam">Ibn al-A'lam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nayrizi" title="Al-Nayrizi">Al-Nayrizi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Saghani" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Saghani">Al-Saghani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3-%E1%B9%A2aidan%C4%81n%C4%AB" title="Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī">Aṣ-Ṣaidanānī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Yunus" title="Ibn Yunus">Ibn Yunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Sinan" title="Ibrahim ibn Sinan">Ibrahim ibn Sinan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Yize" title="Ma Yize">Ma Yize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sijzi" title="Al-Sijzi">al-Sijzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-%CA%BBIjliyyah" title="Al-ʻIjliyyah">Al-ʻIjliyyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastulus" title="Nastulus">Nastulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolfadl_Harawi" title="Abolfadl Harawi">Abolfadl Harawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haseb-i_Tabari" title="Haseb-i Tabari">Haseb-i Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslama_al-Majriti" title="Maslama al-Majriti">al-Majriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Ahwazi" title="Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi">Abu al-Hasan al-Ahwazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nasr_Mansur" title="Abu Nasr Mansur">Abu Nasr Mansur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Is%E1%B8%A5%C4%81q_Ibr%C4%81h%C4%ABm_al-Zarq%C4%81l%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Isḥāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī">Al-Zarqālī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Samh" title="Ibn al-Samh">Ibn al-Samh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Alhazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Saffar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al-Saffar">Ibn al-Saffar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushyar_Gilani" title="Kushyar Gilani">Kushyar Gilani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Said_al-Andalusi" title="Said al-Andalusi">Said al-Andalusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Said_al-Sahli" title="Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli">Ibrahim ibn Said al-Sahli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Mu%27adh_al-Jayyani" title="Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani">Ibn Mu'adh al-Jayyani </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Isfizari" title="Al-Isfizari">Al-Isfizari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Khalaf" title="Ali ibn Khalaf">Ali ibn Khalaf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_al-Bitruji" title="Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji">Al-Bitruji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Tufail">Ibn Tufail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kharaq%C4%AB" title="Al-Kharaqī">Al-Kharaqī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khazini" title="Al-Khazini">Al-Khazini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Samawal_al-Maghribi" title="Al-Samawal al-Maghribi">Al-Samawal al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu al-Salt">Abu al-Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Kammad" title="Ibn al-Kammad">Ibn al-Kammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Aflah" title="Jabir ibn Aflah">Jabir ibn Aflah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayyam" title="Omar Khayyam">Omar Khayyam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharaf_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi">Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Banna%27_al-Marrakushi" title="Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi">Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al%E2%80%90Ha%27im_al%E2%80%90Ishbili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili">Ibn al‐Ha'im al‐Ishbili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_ad-Din_Bukhari" title="Jamal ad-Din Bukhari">Jamal ad-Din</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alam_al-Din_al-Hanafi" title="Alam al-Din al-Hanafi">Alam al-Din al-Hanafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najm_al%E2%80%90Din_al%E2%80%90Misri" class="mw-redirect" title="Najm al‐Din al‐Misri">Najm al‐Din al‐Misri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhyi_al-Din_al-Maghribi" title="Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi">Muhyi al-Din al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Samarqandi" title="Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi">Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">Zakariya al-Qazwini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_al-Din_al-Urdi" title="Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi">al-Urdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athir_al-Din_al-Abhari" title="Athir al-Din al-Abhari">al-Abhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Abi_Bakr_al%E2%80%90Farisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi">Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al‐Farisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ali_al-Hasan_al-Marrakushi" title="Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi">Abu Ali al-Hasan al-Marrakushi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Ishaq_al-Tunisi" title="Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi">Ibn Ishaq al-Tunisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al%E2%80%90Raqqam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al‐Raqqam">Ibn al‐Raqqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ashraf_Umar_II" title="Al-Ashraf Umar II">Al-Ashraf Umar II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_al-Akhlati" title="Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati">Fakhr al-Din al-Akhlati</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir" title="Ibn al-Shatir">Ibn al-Shatir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_Abu_Abd_Allah_al-Khalili" title="Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah al-Khalili">Al-Khalili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Shuayb" title="Ibn Shuayb">Ibn Shuayb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Muqri_Mohammed_al-Battiwi" title="Abu Muqri Mohammed al-Battiwi"> al-Battiwi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_al%E2%80%90%CA%BFUq%C5%ABl" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū al‐ʿUqūl">Abū al‐ʿUqūl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Wabkanawi" title="Al-Wabkanawi">Al-Wabkanawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Din_al-Nisapuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri">Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Jadiri" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Jadiri"> al-Jadiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadr_al-Shari%27a_al-Asghar" title="Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar">Sadr al-Shari'a al-Asghar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fathullah_Shirazi" title="Fathullah Shirazi">Fathullah Shirazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">15th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Qushji" title="Ali Qushji">Ali Kuşçu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al%E2%80%90Wajid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al‐Wajid">Abd al‐Wajid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamshid_al-Kashi" title="Jamshid al-Kashi">Jamshid al-Kashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%C4%81%E1%B8%8D%C4%AB_Z%C4%81da_al-R%C5%ABm%C4%AB" title="Qāḍī Zāda al-Rūmī">Kadızade Rumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg" title="Ulugh Beg">Ulugh Beg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibt_al-Maridini" title="Sibt al-Maridini">Sibt al-Maridini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Majdi" title="Ibn al-Majdi">Ibn al-Majdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Abd_al-%27Aziz_al-Wafa%27i" title="'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i">al-Wafa'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ishaq_al-Kubunani" title="Abu Ishaq al-Kubunani">al-Kubunani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%27Abd_al-%27Aziz_al-Wafa%27i" title="'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i">'Abd al-'Aziz al-Wafa'i</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Birjandi" title="Al-Birjandi">Al-Birjandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shams_al-Din_al-Khafri" title="Shams al-Din al-Khafri">al-Khafri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baha%27_al-din_al-%27Amili" class="mw-redirect" title="Baha' al-din al-'Amili">Baha' al-din al-'Amili </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" title="Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Takiyüddin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Guangxian" title="Yang Guangxian">Yang Guangxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ehmed%C3%AA_Xan%C3%AE" title="Ehmedê Xanî">Ehmedê Xanî</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Achsasi_al_Mouakket" title="Al Achsasi al Mouakket">Al Achsasi al Mouakket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Rudani" title="Muhammad al-Rudani">Muhammad al-Rudani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Works" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arabic_star_names" title="List of Arabic star names">Arabic star names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aja%27ib_al-Makhluqat" title="Aja'ib al-Makhluqat">Aja'ib al-Makhluqat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Brethren_of_Purity" title="Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity">Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Remaining_Signs_of_Past_Centuries" title="The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries">The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zij" title="Zij">Zij</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfonsine_tables" title="Alfonsine tables">Alfonsine tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huihui_Lifa" title="Huihui Lifa">Huihui Lifa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Fixed Stars">Book of Fixed Stars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toledan_Tables" title="Toledan Tables">Toledan Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zij-i_Ilkhani" title="Zij-i Ilkhani">Zij-i Ilkhani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zij-i_Sultani" title="Zij-i Sultani">Zij-i Sultani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullam_al-sama%27" title="Sullam al-sama'">Sullam al-sama'</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Instruments" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Instruments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alidade" title="Alidade">Alidade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">Analog computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Armillary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">Astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">Astronomical clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Celestial globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass_rose" title="Compass rose">Compass rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">Dioptra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_ring" title="Equatorial ring">Equatorial ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorium" title="Equatorium">Equatorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe" title="Globe">Globe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graph_paper" title="Graph paper">Graph paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mural_instrument" title="Mural instrument">Mural instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariner%27s_astrolabe" title="Mariner's astrolabe">Navigational astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octant_(instrument)" title="Octant (instrument)">Octant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">Planisphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" title="Quadrant (instrument)">Quadrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextant_(astronomy)" title="Sextant (astronomy)">Sextant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_square" title="Shadow square">Shadow square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">Sundial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_for_horizontal_dials" title="Schema for horizontal dials">Schema for horizontal sundials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triquetrum_(astronomy)" title="Triquetrum (astronomy)">Triquetrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almucantar" title="Almucantar">Almucantar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apsis" title="Apsis">Apogee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">Astrophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">Axial tilt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azimuth" title="Azimuth">Azimuth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">Celestial mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">Celestial spheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_orbit" title="Circular orbit">Circular orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">Deferent and epicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth's rotation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_eccentricity" title="Orbital eccentricity">Eccentricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecliptic" title="Ecliptic">Ecliptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliptic_orbit" title="Elliptic orbit">Elliptic orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">Equant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">Galaxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Geocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_energy" title="Gravitational energy">Gravitational energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">Inertia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Islamic cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiverse" title="Multiverse">Multiverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muwaqqit" title="Muwaqqit">Muwaqqit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axial_tilt" title="Axial tilt">Obliquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallax" title="Parallax">Parallax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">Precession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qibla" title="Qibla">Qibla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_times" title="Salah times">Salah times</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specific_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific gravity">Specific gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Spherical Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublunary_sphere" title="Sublunary sphere">Sublunary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trepidation" title="Trepidation">Trepidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangulation" title="Triangulation">Triangulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tusi_couple" title="Tusi couple">Tusi couple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Knowledge" title="House of Knowledge">House of Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_al-Qarawiyyin" title="University of al-Qarawiyyin">University of al-Qarawiyyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world#Observatories" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Observatories</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople_observatory_of_Taqi_ad-Din" title="Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din">Constantinople (Taqi al-Din)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maragheh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory" title="Ulugh Beg Observatory">Samarkand (Ulugh Beg)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy#Hellenistic_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Hellenistic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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