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<span>Objectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Objectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mark_6_Mines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mark_6_Mines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Mark 6 Mines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mark_6_Mines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laying_the_minefield" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laying_the_minefield"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Laying the minefield</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laying_the_minefield-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Results" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Results"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Results</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Results-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cleanup" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cleanup"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Cleanup</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cleanup-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Post war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Large minefield laid by the United States in World War I</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the minefield laid in World War II, see <a href="/wiki/Northern_Barrage" title="Northern Barrage">Northern Barrage</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">North Sea Mine Barrage</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:North_Sea_Mine_Barrage_map_1918.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/North_Sea_Mine_Barrage_map_1918.png/300px-North_Sea_Mine_Barrage_map_1918.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/North_Sea_Mine_Barrage_map_1918.png/450px-North_Sea_Mine_Barrage_map_1918.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/North_Sea_Mine_Barrage_map_1918.png/600px-North_Sea_Mine_Barrage_map_1918.png 2x" data-file-width="902" data-file-height="1103" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>June – 26 October 1918</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <span data-sort-value="United Kingdom"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a></span><br /><span data-sort-value="United States"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281912-1959%29.svg.png" decoding="async" 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style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_North_Sea_1914%E2%80%931918" title="Template talk:Campaignbox North Sea 1914–1918"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_North_Sea_1914%E2%80%931918" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox North Sea 1914–1918"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="North_Sea_1914–1918" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">North Sea 1914–1918</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_U-boat_campaign_of_World_War_I" title="Atlantic U-boat campaign of World War I">U-Boat Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Heligoland_Bight_(1914)" title="Battle of Heligoland Bight (1914)">1st Heligoland Bight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_22_September_1914" title="Action of 22 September 1914">22 September 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_off_Texel" title="Battle off Texel">Texel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Yarmouth" title="Raid on Yarmouth">1st Yarmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Scarborough,_Hartlepool_and_Whitby" title="Raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby">Scarborough/Hartlepool/Whitby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Cuxhaven" title="Raid on Cuxhaven">Cuxhaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dogger_Bank_(1915)" title="Battle of Dogger Bank (1915)">1st Dogger Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_off_Noordhinder_Bank" title="Action off Noordhinder Bank">Noordhinder Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Lowca_and_Parton" title="Raid on Lowca and Parton">Lowca/Parton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dogger_Bank_(1916)" title="Battle of Dogger Bank (1916)">2nd Dogger Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_29_February_1916" title="Action of 29 February 1916">29 February 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Yarmouth_and_Lowestoft" title="Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft">2nd Yarmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jutland" title="Battle of Jutland">Jutland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_19_August_1916" title="Action of 19 August 1916">19 August 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dover_Strait_(1916)" title="Battle of Dover Strait (1916)">1st Dover Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_16_March_1917" title="Action of 16 March 1917">16 March 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dover_Strait_(1917)" title="Battle of Dover Strait (1917)">2nd Dover Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_4_May_1917" title="Action of 4 May 1917">4 May 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_off_Lerwick" title="Action off Lerwick">Lerwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Heligoland_Bight" title="Second Battle of Heligoland Bight">2nd Heligoland Bight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_11%E2%80%9312_December_1917" title="Action of 11–12 December 1917">11–12 December 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_15_February_1918" title="Action of 15 February 1918">Action of 15 February 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeebrugge_Raid" title="Zeebrugge Raid">Zeebrugge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Ostend_Raid" title="First Ostend Raid">1st Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Ostend_Raid" title="Second Ostend Raid">2nd Ostend</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mine Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tondern_raid" title="Tondern raid">Tondern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_order_of_24_October_1918" title="Naval order of 24 October 1918">24 October 1918</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>North Sea Mine Barrage</b>, also known as the Northern Barrage, was a large <a href="/wiki/Naval_mine" title="Naval mine">minefield</a> laid easterly from the <a href="/wiki/Orkney_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Orkney Islands">Orkney Islands</a> to Norway by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> (assisted by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>) during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The objective was to inhibit the movement of <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a> from bases in Germany to the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> shipping lanes bringing supplies to the <a href="/wiki/British_Isles" title="British Isles">British Isles</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rear_Admiral" class="mw-redirect" title="Rear Admiral">Rear Admiral</a> <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Clinton-Baker" title="Lewis Clinton-Baker">Lewis Clinton-Baker</a>, commanding the Royal Navy minelaying force at the time, described the barrage as the "biggest mine planting stunt in the world's history."<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Larger fields with greater numbers of mines were laid during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-QinetiQ_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QinetiQ-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concept">Concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Sea_Mine_Barrage&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The idea of a mine barrage across the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> was first proposed in the summer of 1916 by Admiral <a href="/wiki/Reginald_Bacon" title="Reginald Bacon">Reginald Bacon</a> and was agreed at the Allied Naval Conference on 5 September 1917. The Royal Navy—and in particular <a href="/wiki/David_Beatty,_1st_Earl_Beatty" title="David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty">Admiral Beatty</a> as Commander in Chief of the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Fleet" title="Grand Fleet">Grand Fleet</a>—was skeptical about the value of the operation and did not feel it justified the large logistical and manufacturing commitment required. A minefield across the North Sea would require mining water 900 feet (270 m) deep, while no previous minefield had been established in waters more than 300 ft (91 m) deep.<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A minefield across the North Sea had been estimated to require 400,000 conventional anchored mines. An "antenna" mine developed in July 1917 was effective at the assumed maximum submarine depth of 200 ft (61 m), and 100,000 of these new Mk 6 mines would be adequate to form the North Sea mine barrage.<sup id="cite_ref-tgws_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tgws-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States was altogether more enthusiastic about the operation, as the loss of trans-Atlantic shipping was a major domestic concern and this plan allowed the United States to play an active part in tackling this, while playing to their industrial strength and with minimal risk of American casualties. <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_of_the_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Assistant Secretary of the Navy">Assistant Secretary of the Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> appealed directly to <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to overcome opposition to the project from <a href="/wiki/Vice_Admiral" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice Admiral">Vice Admiral</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Sims" title="William Sims">William Sims</a>, who commanded all United States naval forces in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-p&n_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p&n-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. Navy tendered an order for the Mk 6 mines in October 1917 with 80,000,000 <a href="/wiki/Foot_(unit)" title="Foot (unit)">ft</a> (15,000 <a href="/wiki/Mile" title="Mile">mi</a>; 24,000 <a href="/wiki/Kilometre" title="Kilometre">km</a>) of steel <a href="/wiki/Wire_rope" title="Wire rope">wire rope</a> required to moor the mines to the seabed. Project spending of $40 million was shared among 140 manufacturing contractors and over 400 sub-contractors. All mine components other than wire rope, <a href="/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive">explosives</a>, and detonating circuitry were manufactured by <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a> <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> firms.<sup id="cite_ref-dan48_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dan48-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/List_of_mine_warfare_vessels_of_the_United_States_Navy#Converted_steamships_and_freighters_(ID)" title="List of mine warfare vessels of the United States Navy">Eight civilian steamships</a> were converted to minelayers; and another 24 mine-carrying freighters, sailing at a rate of two or three per week, were required to transport manufactured mine components to assembly depots in Scotland.<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Objectives">Objectives</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Sea_Mine_Barrage&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Objectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The objective was to prevent U-boats from operating in the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="North Atlantic">North Atlantic</a> and preying on trans-Atlantic shipping. A similar barrage had already been placed across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>, which had resulted in U-boats diverting north around Scotland. The North Sea Mine Barrage was intended to close this alternative route, and it also made it hard for the U-boats to get supplies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mark_6_Mines">Mark 6 Mines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Sea_Mine_Barrage&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Mark 6 Mines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moored_contact_mine_Mk6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Moored_contact_mine_Mk6.jpg/220px-Moored_contact_mine_Mk6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Moored_contact_mine_Mk6.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="298" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>A Mk 6 mine atop its anchor. Two horn fuzes are visible, but the antenna fuze cannot be seen in this image.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Mk 6 mine was a 34-inch-diameter (86 cm) steel sphere containing a buoyancy chamber and 300 lb (140 kg) of <a href="/wiki/Trinitrotoluene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitrotoluene">TNT</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each mine was constructed of two steel hemispheres welded together. A Toxyl bursting charge was cast into the lower hemisphere. Toxyl was a mixture of 60% trinitro<a href="/wiki/Xylene" title="Xylene">xylene</a> (TNX) with 40% TNT used because the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> controlled United States TNT production and would not release sufficient quantities for the naval mine barrage.<sup id="cite_ref-dan48_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dan48-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For transport, the mine rested atop a box-shaped steel anchor approximately 30 inches (76 cm) square. The anchor box had wheels allowing the mine assembly to be moved along a system of rails aboard the minelayer. The mine was connected to its 800-pound (360 kg) anchor box by a wire rope mooring cable stored on a reel.<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The depth of the mine below the water surface was controlled by allowing the steel mooring cable to unwind from its reel as the mine was dropped from the minelayer until a sensor suspended beneath the anchor reached the bottom. The sensor locked the cable reel so the falling anchor would pull the buoyant mine below the surface; and the float extended the antenna above the mine.<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each mine had two <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrostatic">hydrostatic</a> safety features intended to render the mine safe if it detached from its mooring cable and floated to the surface. The first was an open switch in the detonation circuit closed by hydrostatic pressure. The second was a <a href="/wiki/Spring_(device)" title="Spring (device)">spring</a> pushing the detonator away from the explosive charge into the buoyancy chamber unless compressed by hydrostatic pressure. The mines were intended to be safe at depths less than 25 ft (7.6 m).<sup id="cite_ref-dan48_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dan48-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mines contained a <a href="/wiki/Dry_cell" title="Dry cell">dry cell</a> battery each with an electrical detonating circuit which could be initiated by any one of five parallel <a href="/wiki/Fuze" title="Fuze">fuzes</a>. Four of the fuzes were conventional horns in the buoyant upper hemisphere of the mine. Each horn contained a glass ampoule of <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolyte</a> which would connect an open circuit if an ampoule was broken by bending the soft metal horn.<sup id="cite_ref-dan48_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dan48-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The novel fifth fuze was a <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> wire antenna with a float to extend it above the mine. A ship's <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> hull touching the copper antenna would form a <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">battery</a>, and seawater acted as an electrolyte completing a circuit with an insulated copper plate on the mine surface to actuate a detonating <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relay</a> within the mine.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relay <a href="/wiki/Armature_(electrical_engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armature (electrical engineering)">armature</a> was initially set to complete the detonating circuit at 25 to 40 <a href="/wiki/Millivolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Millivolt">millivolts</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Ordnance" title="Bureau of Ordnance">Bureau of Ordnance</a> subsequently increased sensitivity to 10 to 25 millivolts, but this was later readjusted on the basis of field experience.<sup id="cite_ref-dan105_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dan105-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each mine had five separate spring-loaded safety switches in the detonating circuit held open by salt pellets which took about 20 minutes to dissolve in sea water after the mine was dropped overboard from the minelayer.<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Battery life for the detonating circuit was estimated at greater than two years.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Laying_the_minefield">Laying the minefield</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Sea_Mine_Barrage&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Laying the minefield"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mine barrage was within a belt 230 mi (200 nmi; 370 km) long and 15 mi (13 nmi; 24 km) to 35 mi (30 nmi; 56 km) wide<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> divided into area B off the east coast of Orkney, area C near the Norwegian coast between <a href="/wiki/Utsira" title="Utsira">Utsira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bergen" title="Bergen">Bergen</a>, and the longest central area A connecting the two coastal areas between 0° 50′ West and 3° 10′ East. The Royal Navy laid mines in areas B and C while the United States Navy mined area A. The Royal Navy left a 10 mi (8.7 nmi; 16 km) channel open for navigation adjacent to Orkney. Because of neutrality regulations no mines were laid within Norwegian territorial waters.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The United States North Sea Mine Force was commanded by Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Strauss_(admiral)" title="Joseph Strauss (admiral)">Joseph Strauss</a> aboard the Atlantic Fleet Mine Force flagship <a href="/wiki/USS_Black_Hawk_(AD-9)" title="USS Black Hawk (AD-9)">USS <i>Black Hawk</i></a>. Strauss was an ordnance specialist and had been chief of the Bureau of Ordnance from 1913 to 1916. Mine Squadron One, under the command of Captain <a href="/wiki/Reginald_R._Belknap" title="Reginald R. Belknap">Reginald R. Belknap</a>, assembled at <a href="/wiki/Inverness,_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Inverness, Scotland">Inverness, Scotland</a> in June 1918. Over the following five months, these ships planted 56,571 of the 70,177 mines laid to form the North Sea mine barrage.<sup id="cite_ref-tgws_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tgws-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The WWI Mine Memorial on Boston Common, Massachusetts, United States<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Shawmut_(CM-4)_laying_mines_in_North_Sea_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/USS_Shawmut_%28CM-4%29_laying_mines_in_North_Sea_1918.jpg/220px-USS_Shawmut_%28CM-4%29_laying_mines_in_North_Sea_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/USS_Shawmut_%28CM-4%29_laying_mines_in_North_Sea_1918.jpg/330px-USS_Shawmut_%28CM-4%29_laying_mines_in_North_Sea_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/USS_Shawmut_%28CM-4%29_laying_mines_in_North_Sea_1918.jpg/440px-USS_Shawmut_%28CM-4%29_laying_mines_in_North_Sea_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4240" data-file-height="3180" /></a><figcaption>Only the two smallest of the eight steamships converted to lay the barrage remained in commission for conventional minelaying operations. USS <i>Shawmut</i>, shown laying the North Sea mine barrage, sank 23 years later during the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> after being renamed <i>Oglala</i>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/USS_San_Francisco_(C-5)" title="USS San Francisco (C-5)">USS <i>San Francisco</i></a> (old protected cruiser converted in 1911 to carry 170 mines) (flagship)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Baltimore_(C-3)" title="USS Baltimore (C-3)">USS <i>Baltimore</i></a> (old protected cruiser converted in 1915 carry 180 mines)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Aroostook_(CM-3)" title="USS Aroostook (CM-3)">USS <i>Aroostook</i></a> (former Eastern steamship <i>Bunker Hill</i> carried 320 mines on one deck)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Oglala_(CM-4)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Oglala (CM-4)">USS <i>Shawmut</i></a> (former Eastern steamship <i>Massachusetts</i> carried 320 mines on one deck)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Canandaigua_(ID-1694)" title="USS Canandaigua (ID-1694)">USS <i>Canandaigua</i></a> (former <a href="/wiki/Southern_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Pacific">Southern Pacific</a> freighter <i>El Siglo</i> carried 830 mines on 3 decks)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Roanoke_(ID-1695)" title="USS Roanoke (ID-1695)">USS <i>Roanoke</i></a> (former Southern Pacific freighter <i>El Dia</i> carried 830 mines on 3 decks)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Canonicus_(ID-1696)" title="USS Canonicus (ID-1696)">USS <i>Canonicus</i></a> (former Southern Pacific freighter <i>El Cid</i> carried 830 mines on 3 decks)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Housatonic_(SP-1697)" title="USS Housatonic (SP-1697)">USS <i>Housatonic</i></a> (former Southern Pacific freighter <i>El Rio</i> carried 830 mines on 3 decks)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Saranac_(1899)" title="USS Saranac (1899)">USS <i>Saranac</i></a> (former Old Dominion steamship <i>Hamilton</i> carried 612 mines on 2 decks)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Quinnebaug_(SP-1687)" title="USS Quinnebaug (SP-1687)">USS <i>Quinnebaug</i></a> (former Old Dominion steamship <i>Jefferson</i> carried 612 mines on 2 decks)<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The mine barrage consisted of 18 rows of mines laid in an east–west direction. Ten rows of mines were laid at a depth of 80 ft (24 m) to be detonated by ships traveling on the surface. Submerged submarines were targeted by four rows of mines at 160 ft (49 m), and another four rows at 240 ft (73 m). Since Utsira is slightly north of Orkney, alignment of minefields within the central area A was skewed east-northeasterly from Orkney. Where possible, <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a> was determined from a calibrated taut-wire anchored near a landmark and unreeled from a 140-mile (230 km) spool of <a href="/wiki/Piano_wire" title="Piano wire">piano wire</a> aboard one of the cruisers acting as the minelaying formation guide. <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">Latitude</a> was checked from the elevation of the sun when atmospheric conditions permitted. The mine barrage required multiple missions, called "excursions", laying parallel rows of mines partway across the North Sea between Norway and Orkney. Mine Squadron One made thirteen two-day minelaying excursions laying parallel rows of mines while steaming in columns 500 yards (460 m) apart, with the last ship in each column dropping mines at 100 yd (91 m) intervals.<sup id="cite_ref-dan105_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dan105-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a minelayer exhausted its supply of mines, another minelayer in that column would drop back to the last position to continue the minelaying sequence. The minelayers were preceded by Royal Navy <a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyers</a> sweeping for enemy mines and submarines. A <a href="/wiki/Covering_force" title="Covering force">covering force</a> of <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a> with Royal Navy <a href="/wiki/Cruiser" title="Cruiser">cruiser</a> squadrons maneuvered nearby to defend the minelaying formation, but no German surface warships attempted engagement. <a href="/wiki/Buoy" title="Buoy">Buoys</a> were dropped temporarily marking the end point of a mining excursion to avoid leaving an unmined gap when the next excursion started. These buoys were subject to potential movement by storms or enemy action.<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Three to five percent of the new mines dropped into the North Sea detonated as soon as the salt pellets dissolved; and <a href="/wiki/Hydrophone" title="Hydrophone">hydrophones</a> detected premature <a href="/wiki/Detonation" title="Detonation">detonations</a> continuing for a week after minelaying. These premature detonations were initially attributed to activation of the horn fuze detonation circuits by seawater leaking into the mines; and mine spacing was increased from 250 ft (76 m) on the first minelaying excursion to 300 ft (91 m) on subsequent excursions to minimize leakage caused by detonation of nearby mines. About one percent of the mines deployed during the first excursion broke free of their mooring cables and washed ashore in Norway within a month. Mines used for the last eleven excursions had springs installed at the mine mooring cable attachment points to buffer wave loading during storms. Premature detonations increased to 14 percent for the fourth minelaying excursion because some mines had been assembled with the more sensitive antenna fuze relay settings made by the Bureau of Ordnance. The fifth minelaying excursion was halted when 19 percent of the mines detonated prematurely. <i>San Francisco</i> identified relay armature sensitivity as a major cause of premature detonations during a comparative field test minelaying excursion on 12 August. Subsequent investigations revealed <a href="/wiki/Copper_sulfate" title="Copper sulfate">copper sulfate</a> deposits caused by antenna <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> created a weak battery, increasing the probability of relay activation by <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">accelerations</a> when nearby mines detonated. Premature detonations dropped to four to six percent when sensitivity was adjusted to 30 to 45 millivolts for mines deployed by the last five minelaying excursions.<sup id="cite_ref-dan105_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dan105-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Results">Results</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Sea_Mine_Barrage&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Results"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Supply problems and technical difficulties caused some delays. More minelaying excursions to complete the barrage were cancelled when the approaching end of hostilities was recognized after the thirteenth minelaying excursion on 26 October 1918. The design of the minefield meant there was a theoretical 66 per cent chance of a surfaced U-boat triggering a mine and a 33 per cent chance for a submerged U-boat.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the basis of the number of effective mines observed while sweeping the barrage, the actual odds were assessed<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (January 2011)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> at being closer to 20 per cent for a surfaced U-boat and 10 per cent for a submerged one. As the final mines were laid only a matter of days before the end of the war, it is impossible to assess the success of the plan. Some contend the minefield was a major cause of the declining morale of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_German_Navy" title="Imperial German Navy">Imperial German Navy</a> through the final months of the war, while others suggest Germany easily swept safe channels through the large, unguarded minefield.<sup id="cite_ref-p&n_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p&n-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The official statistics on lost German submarines compiled on 1 March 1919 credited the North Sea mine barrage with the certain destruction of four U-boats, presumed destruction of two more and possible destruction of another two.<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>19 August 1918 <a href="/wiki/SM_UB-12" title="SM UB-12">SM <i>UB-12</i></a> unknown - possibly sunk by the North Sea mine barrage<sup id="cite_ref-tarrant_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarrant-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>9 September 1918 <a href="/wiki/SM_U-92" title="SM U-92">SM <i>U-92</i></a> presumed sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area B<sup id="cite_ref-tarrant_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarrant-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (confirmed in 2007)<sup id="cite_ref-Koerver_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koerver-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>9 September 1918 <a href="/wiki/SM_UB-127" title="SM UB-127">SM <i>UB-127</i></a> sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area B<sup id="cite_ref-tarrant_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarrant-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>25 September 1918 <a href="/wiki/SM_U-156" title="SM U-156">SM <i>U-156</i></a> sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area A<sup id="cite_ref-tarrant_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarrant-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>September 1918 <a href="/wiki/SM_U-102" title="SM U-102">SM <i>U-102</i></a> presumed sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area B<sup id="cite_ref-tarrant_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarrant-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (confirmed in 2006)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>19 September 1918 <a href="/wiki/SM_UB-104" title="SM UB-104">SM <i>UB-104</i></a> sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area B<sup id="cite_ref-tarrant_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarrant-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>September 1918 <a href="/wiki/SM_UB-113" title="SM UB-113">SM <i>UB-113</i></a> unknown - possibly sunk by the North Sea mine barrage<sup id="cite_ref-tarrant_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarrant-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>18 October 1918 <a href="/wiki/SM_UB-123" title="SM UB-123">SM <i>UB-123</i></a> sunk by the North Sea mine barrage area A<sup id="cite_ref-tarrant_15-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tarrant-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Eight more boats were known to have been damaged by the mines and some <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">Admiralty</a> personnel assumed the field might be responsible for five more U-boats which disappeared without explanation.<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cleanup">Cleanup</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Sea_Mine_Barrage&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cleanup"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>United States participation in the minesweeping effort was overseen by Rear Admiral Strauss aboard the repair ship <i>Black Hawk</i>, from which he had commanded the minelaying operation. Tugs <a href="/wiki/USS_Patapsco_(AT-10)" title="USS Patapsco (AT-10)"><i>Patapsco</i></a> and <a href="/wiki/USS_Patuxent_(AT-11)" title="USS Patuxent (AT-11)"><i>Patuxent</i></a> towed Admiralty wooden sailing smacks <i>Red Rose</i> and <i>Red Fern</i> out to conduct the first trial sweep in December. Sweeping was accomplished by suspending a <a href="/wiki/Serrated" class="mw-redirect" title="Serrated">serrated</a> wire between two ships on a parallel course. While held underwater by planing devices called "kites", the wire would foul the cables suspending the buoyant mines above their anchors. If the serrated wire parted the mine mooring cable, the mine would bob to the surface to be destroyed by gunfire. The smacks swept and destroyed six mines before winter weather halted further work at sea. The winter was spent testing an electrical protective device to reduce the risk of sweeping the antenna mines with steel-hulled ships. <i>Patapsco</i> and <i>Patuxent</i> tested the protective device by sweeping 39 mines in March.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Royal Navy minesweeping efforts involved 421 vessels manned by 600 officers and 15,000 men from 1 April to 30 November 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-flota_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flota-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Twelve <a href="/wiki/Lapwing_class_minesweeper" class="mw-redirect" title="Lapwing class minesweeper">Lapwing class minesweepers</a> and 18 <a href="/wiki/Submarine_chaser" title="Submarine chaser">submarine chasers</a> were available for the first routine sweep of the United States minesweepers on 29 April 1919. After the first sweep took two days to clear 221 mines, Strauss requested more ships in the hope of clearing the mine barrage that summer. Twenty Admiralty <a href="/wiki/Naval_trawler" title="Naval trawler">trawlers</a> with American crews, 16 more Lapwing class minesweepers, and another repair ship <a href="/wiki/USS_Panther_(1889)" title="USS Panther (1889)"><i>Panther</i></a> were assigned to his command. <i>Panther</i> was given responsibility for tending trawlers <i>William Ashton</i>, <i>Thomas Blackhorne</i>, <i>Thomas Buckley</i>, <i>Richard Bulkeley</i>, <i>George Burton</i>, <i>Pat Caharty</i>, <i>William Caldwell</i>, <i>George Clarke</i>, <i>John Clay</i>, <i>George Cochrane</i>, <i>John Collins</i>, <i>William Darnold</i>, <i>Sam Duffy</i>, <i>John Dunkin</i>, <i>John Fitzgerald</i>, <i>John Graham</i>, <i>Thomas Graham</i>, <i>Thomas Henrix</i>, <i>William Johnson</i>, <i>Thomas Laundry</i>, and submarine chasers <a href="/wiki/USS_SC-37" title="USS SC-37">SC-37</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_SC-38" title="USS SC-38">38</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_SC-40" title="USS SC-40">40</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_SC-44" title="USS SC-44">44</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-45&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-45 (page does not exist)">45</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-46&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-46 (page does not exist)">46</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-47&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-47 (page does not exist)">47</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_SC-48" title="USS SC-48">48</a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_SC-95" title="USS SC-95">95</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-110&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-110 (page does not exist)">110</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-164&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-164 (page does not exist)">164</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-178&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-178 (page does not exist)">178</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-181&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-181 (page does not exist)">181</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-182&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-182 (page does not exist)">182</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-206&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-206 (page does not exist)">206</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-207&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-207 (page does not exist)">207</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-208&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-208 (page does not exist)">208</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-254&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-254 (page does not exist)">254</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-256&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-256 (page does not exist)">256</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-259&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-259 (page does not exist)">259</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-272&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-272 (page does not exist)">272</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-329&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-329 (page does not exist)">329</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-354&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-354 (page does not exist)">354</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=USS_SC-356&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="USS SC-356 (page does not exist)">356</a>. <i>Blackhawk</i> provided tender services for the larger ships operating as six divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:USS_Eider_(AM-17),_USS_SC-25,_USS_SC-45,_USS_SC-356,_USS_SC-47,_and_USS_SC-40.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/USS_Eider_%28AM-17%29%2C_USS_SC-25%2C_USS_SC-45%2C_USS_SC-356%2C_USS_SC-47%2C_and_USS_SC-40.jpg/300px-USS_Eider_%28AM-17%29%2C_USS_SC-25%2C_USS_SC-45%2C_USS_SC-356%2C_USS_SC-47%2C_and_USS_SC-40.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/USS_Eider_%28AM-17%29%2C_USS_SC-25%2C_USS_SC-45%2C_USS_SC-356%2C_USS_SC-47%2C_and_USS_SC-40.jpg/450px-USS_Eider_%28AM-17%29%2C_USS_SC-25%2C_USS_SC-45%2C_USS_SC-356%2C_USS_SC-47%2C_and_USS_SC-40.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/USS_Eider_%28AM-17%29%2C_USS_SC-25%2C_USS_SC-45%2C_USS_SC-356%2C_USS_SC-47%2C_and_USS_SC-40.jpg/600px-USS_Eider_%28AM-17%29%2C_USS_SC-25%2C_USS_SC-45%2C_USS_SC-356%2C_USS_SC-47%2C_and_USS_SC-40.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="564" /></a><figcaption>USS <i>Eider</i> (Minesweeper No. 17) (left) in port with submarine chasers alongside during the clearance of the North Sea Mine Barrage in 1919. The leftmost submarine chaser is either SC-254, SC-256 or SC-259 and the others are (left to right) SC-45, SC-356, SC-47, and SC-40.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Mine Division 1: <a href="/wiki/USS_Turkey_(AM-13)" title="USS Turkey (AM-13)"><i>Turkey</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Robin_(AM-3)" title="USS Robin (AM-3)"><i>Robin</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Quail_(AM-15)" title="USS Quail (AM-15)"><i>Quail</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Kingfisher_(AM-25)" title="USS Kingfisher (AM-25)"><i>Kingfisher</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Finch_(AM-9)" title="USS Finch (AM-9)"><i>Finch</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Falcon_(AM-28)" title="USS Falcon (AM-28)"><i>Falcon</i></a></li> <li>Mine Division 2: <a href="/wiki/USS_Eider" title="USS Eider"><i>Eider</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Pelican_(AM-27)" title="USS Pelican (AM-27)"><i>Pelican</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Bobolink_(AM-20)" title="USS Bobolink (AM-20)"><i>Bobolink</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Woodcock" title="USS Woodcock"><i>Woodcock</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Rail_(AM-26)" title="USS Rail (AM-26)"><i>Rail</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Teal" title="USS Teal"><i>Teal</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Seagull_(AM-30)" title="USS Seagull (AM-30)"><i>Seagull</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Swallow_(AM-4)" title="USS Swallow (AM-4)"><i>Swallow</i></a></li> <li>Mine Division 3: <a href="/wiki/USS_Oriole_(AM-7)" title="USS Oriole (AM-7)"><i>Oriole</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Auk_(AM-38)" title="USS Auk (AM-38)"><i>Auk</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Heron_(AM-10)" title="USS Heron (AM-10)"><i>Heron</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Sanderling_(AM-37)" title="USS Sanderling (AM-37)"><i>Sanderling</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Chewink_(AM-39)" title="USS Chewink (AM-39)"><i>Chewink</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Tanager_(AM-5)" title="USS Tanager (AM-5)"><i>Tanager</i></a></li> <li>Mine Division 4: <a href="/wiki/USS_Thrush_(AM-18)" title="USS Thrush (AM-18)"><i>Thrush</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Avocet_(AVP-4)" title="USS Avocet (AVP-4)"><i>Avocet</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Grebe" title="USS Grebe"><i>Grebe</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Curlew_(AM-8)" title="USS Curlew (AM-8)"><i>Curlew</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Cormorant_(AM-40)" title="USS Cormorant (AM-40)"><i>Cormorant</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Mallard_(AM-44)" title="USS Mallard (AM-44)"><i>Mallard</i></a></li> <li>Mine Division 5: <a href="/wiki/USS_Lark_(AM-21)" title="USS Lark (AM-21)"><i>Lark</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Swan_(AM-34)" title="USS Swan (AM-34)"><i>Swan</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Widgeon_(AM-22)" title="USS Widgeon (AM-22)"><i>Widgeon</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Whippoorwill_(AM-35)" title="USS Whippoorwill (AM-35)"><i>Whippoorwill</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Viking_(ARS-1)" title="USS Viking (ARS-1)"><i>Flamingo</i></a></li> <li>Buoying Division: <a href="/wiki/USS_Osprey_(AM-29)" title="USS Osprey (AM-29)"><i>Osprey</i></a>, <i>Patapsco</i>, <i>Patuxent</i>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Lapwing_(AM-1)" title="USS Lapwing (AM-1)"><i>Lapwing</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/USS_Penguin_(AM-33)" title="USS Penguin (AM-33)"><i>Penguin</i></a></li></ul> <p>Common difficulties with the sweeping procedure involved mine cables becoming entangled in the kites attached to the sweeping wires. Sweeping gear was often lost if the mine detonated and cut the sweeping cables. Approximately one-third of the ships were damaged by exploding mines. Two men were killed in separate incidents while attempting to haul mines aboard to clear fouled sweeping kites. It had been assumed the Mk 6 mine hydrostatic safety devices would minimize the risks of this procedure, but sweeping gear losses increased after unreliability of these safety devices was recognized. Countermining sequences initiated by destruction of a swept mine causing detonation of an undetected mine closer to one of the minesweepers were another source of damage. Some of this countermining was attributed to acceleration of the antenna fuze relay armature or seawater leaking into damaged mines rather than <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_detonation" title="Sympathetic detonation">sympathetic detonation</a> of explosives. The minesweepers were sometimes able to continue sweeping, but the trawlers were less durable. Seven men drowned when the <i>Richard Bulkeley</i> was sunk by a mine detonation on 12 July. Strauss discontinued use of the trawlers for minesweeping, but retained six for transporting replacement sweeping gear to minesweepers when wires were destroyed by exploding mines. The remaining 13 trawlers were returned to the Admiralty. Most damaged ships were repaired, but <i>SC-38</i> was declared a total loss. Three more men of the minesweeping force were killed in individual accidents involving sweeping gear before Strauss declared the barrage cleared on 30 September 1919.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The minesweepers found only about 25 to 30 percent of the mines laid a year earlier;<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was assumed the others had either broken free, sunk to the bottom, or been destroyed by premature explosions. Strauss was recognized as a <a href="/wiki/Knight_Commander_of_St_Michael_and_St_George" class="mw-redirect" title="Knight Commander of St Michael and St George">Knight Commander of St Michael and St George</a> for his efforts;<sup id="cite_ref-rrb46_1-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but doubts about effectiveness of the minesweeping effort persisted into the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-QinetiQ_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-QinetiQ-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post_war">Post war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Sea_Mine_Barrage&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Post war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As 1919 drew to a close, the onset of winter forced the suspension of sweeping for moored buoyant mines, but the Royal Navy resumed minesweeping operations the following spring, continuing to clear sunken mines from fishing grounds, and maintaining a destroyer patrol to track down mines that had broken free of their moorings and gone adrift.<sup id="cite_ref-flota_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-flota-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Losses of civilian ships to North Sea mines continued; the origin of the mine in these cases was often difficult to determine. In 1919, twenty crewmen drowned when the Swedish steamship <i>Hollander</i> sank, minutes after striking a mine in October;<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the steamer <i>Kerwood</i> struck a mine and sank on 1 December.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Sea_Mine_Barrage&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Otranto_Barrage" title="Otranto Barrage">Otranto Barrage</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=North_Sea_Mine_Barrage&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-rrb46-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rrb46_1-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Belknap, Reginald Rowan <i>The Yankee mining squadron; 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