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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_legal_activity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Early legal activity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_legal_activity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_political_career" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_political_career"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Early political career</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_political_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consulship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consulship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Consulship</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Consulship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Consulship subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Consulship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Catilinarian_Conspiracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catilinarian_Conspiracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Catilinarian Conspiracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catilinarian_Conspiracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exile_and_return" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exile_and_return"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Exile and return</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exile_and_return-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Governorship_of_Cilicia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Governorship_of_Cilicia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Governorship of Cilicia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Governorship_of_Cilicia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Julius_Caesar's_civil_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Julius_Caesar's_civil_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Julius Caesar's civil war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Julius_Caesar's_civil_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opposition_to_Mark_Antony_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition_to_Mark_Antony_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Opposition to Mark Antony and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition_to_Mark_Antony_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life_and_family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life_and_family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Personal life and family</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life_and_family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_archaeology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_archaeology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>In archaeology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_archaeology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_fictional_portrayals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_fictional_portrayals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notable fictional portrayals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_fictional_portrayals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Modern sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.3</span> <span>Ancient sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cicero</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 128 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-128" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">128 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%AA%E1%8A%AC%E1%88%AE" title="ኪኬሮ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ኪኬሮ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="شيشرون – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شيشرون" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicer%C3%B3n" title="Cicerón – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cicerón" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Կիկերոն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Կիկերոն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9B_%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9B_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%87%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8B" title="মাৰ্কাছ টুলিয়াছ চিচেৰো – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মাৰ্কাছ টুলিয়াছ চিচেৰো" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicer%C3%B3n" title="Cicerón – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cicerón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Tulli_Siseron" title="Mark Tulli Siseron – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mark Tulli Siseron" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="سیسرون – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سیسرون" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B" title="সিসারো – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সিসারো" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%A6%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Марк Тулій Цыцэрон – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Марк Тулій Цыцэрон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%8E%D1%81_%D0%A6%D1%8B%D1%86%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Марк Туліюс Цыцэрон – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Марк Туліюс Цыцэрон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicer%C3%B3" title="Ciceró – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciceró" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Марк Туллий Цицерон – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Марк Туллий Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero_(konsul)" title="Cicero (konsul) – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Cicero (konsul)" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcu_Tulliu_Cicerone" title="Marcu Tulliu Cicerone – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Marcu Tulliu Cicerone" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%88" title="كيكيرو – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="كيكيرو" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A4%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%9A%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Μάρκος Τύλλιος Κικέρων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μάρκος Τύλλιος Κικέρων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicer%C3%B3n" title="Cicerón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cicerón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicerono" title="Cicerono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Cicerono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicer%C3%B3n" title="Cicerón – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Cicerón" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zizeron" title="Zizeron – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zizeron" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="سیسرون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیسرون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cic%C3%A9ron" title="Cicéron – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Cicéron" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markus_Tullius_Sisero" title="Markus Tullius Sisero – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Markus Tullius Sisero" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicear%C3%B3" title="Cicearó – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cicearó" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicer%C3%B3n" title="Cicerón – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cicerón" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gom mw-list-item"><a href="https://gom.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B" title="रोमन तत्त्वगिन्यानी सिसेरो – Goan Konkani" lang="gom" hreflang="gom" data-title="रोमन तत्त्वगिन्यानी सिसेरो" data-language-autonym="गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni" data-language-local-name="Goan Konkani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>गोंयची कोंकणी / Gõychi Konknni</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A7%88%EB%A5%B4%EC%BF%A0%EC%8A%A4_%ED%88%B4%EB%A6%AC%EC%9A%B0%EC%8A%A4_%ED%82%A4%EC%BC%80%EB%A1%9C" title="마르쿠스 툴리우스 키케로 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="마르쿠스 툴리우스 키케로" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Կիկերոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կիկերոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B" title="सिसरो – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सिसरो" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%ADcer%C3%B3" title="Cíceró – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Cíceró" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Tullio_Cicerone" title="Marco Tullio Cicerone – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Marco Tullio Cicerone" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%98%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A1_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95" title="מרקוס טוליוס קיקרו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מרקוס טוליוס קיקרו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cic%C3%A9ron" title="Cicéron – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Cicéron" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%AA%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="ციცერონი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ციცერონი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cic%C3%A9ron" title="Cicéron – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Cicéron" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicerons" title="Cicerons – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Cicerons" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markas_Tulijus_Ciceronas" title="Markas Tulijus Ciceronas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Markas Tulijus Ciceronas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marco_Tullio_Cicero" title="Marco Tullio Cicero – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Marco Tullio Cicero" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8B" title="സിസറോ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സിസറോ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B" title="सिसेरो – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सिसेरो" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%B4%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86" title="شيشرون – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="شيشرون" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Марк Туллий Цицерон – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Марк Туллий Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%86%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%86%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF" title="ဆစ်ဆရို – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဆစ်ဆရို" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9E%E3%83%AB%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%88%E3%82%A5%E3%83%83%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A6%E3%82%B9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AD%E3%82%B1%E3%83%AD" title="マルクス・トゥッリウス・キケロ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="マルクス・トゥッリウス・キケロ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitseron_Mark_Tulliy" title="Sitseron Mark Tulliy – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Sitseron Mark Tulliy" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B" title="ਸਿਸਰੋ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਿਸਰੋ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88" title="سائیسیرو – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سائیسیرو" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88" title="سيسرو – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سيسرو" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%BC" title="ស៊ីសេរ៉ូ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ស៊ីសេរ៉ូ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyceron" title="Cyceron – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cyceron" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%ADcero" title="Cícero – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cícero" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceroni" title="Ciceroni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ciceroni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciciruni" title="Ciciruni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ciciruni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Tulij_Cicero" title="Mark Tulij Cicero – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mark Tulij Cicero" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%97%D0%BA%D1%94%D1%80%D1%A1%D0%BD%D1%8A" title="Кїкєрѡнъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Кїкєрѡнъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%B1%DB%86" title="سیسرۆ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سیسرۆ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5_%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Марко Тулије Цицерон – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Марко Тулије Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8B" title="சிசெரோ – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சிசெரோ" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A3" title="กิแกโร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กิแกโร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Цицерон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Цицерон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88" title="سائیسیرو – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سائیسیرو" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciceron" title="Ciceron – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Ciceron" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cicero" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E%E7%BE%85" title="西塞羅 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="西塞羅" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cicer%C3%B3n" title="Cicerón – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Cicerón" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E%E7%BD%97" title="西塞罗 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="西塞罗" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%ADs%E1%BA%B9%CC%81r%C3%B2" title="Kísẹ́rò – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Kísẹ́rò" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E%E7%BE%85" title="西塞羅 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="西塞羅" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Marcus Tullius Cicero" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E%E7%BD%97" title="西塞罗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="西塞罗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1541#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Cicero" 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Cicero_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Cicero (disambiguation)">Cicero (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Ciceronian" redirects here. For the imitation of Ciceronian style, see <a href="/wiki/Ciceronianism" title="Ciceronianism">Ciceronianism</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Cicero</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Cicero_(1st-cent._BC)_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White marble bust" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Bust_of_Cicero_%281st-cent._BC%29_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg/220px-Bust_of_Cicero_%281st-cent._BC%29_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Bust_of_Cicero_%281st-cent._BC%29_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg/330px-Bust_of_Cicero_%281st-cent._BC%29_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Bust_of_Cicero_%281st-cent._BC%29_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg/440px-Bust_of_Cicero_%281st-cent._BC%29_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">First-century AD bust of Cicero at the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a>, Rome</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">3 January 106 BC<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Arpinum" class="mw-redirect" title="Arpinum">Arpinum</a>, Italy</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">7 December 43 BC (aged 63)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Formia" title="Formia">Formia</a>, Italy</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cause of death</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Assassination" title="Assassination">Assassination</a> (by order of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Occupation(s)</th><td class="infobox-data role">Statesman, <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyer</a>, writer, <a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">orator</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Office</th><td class="infobox-data title"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicily</a>) (75 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_aedile" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian aedile">Plebeian aedile</a> (69 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a> (66 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a> (63 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legate</a> under <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> (57 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">Proconsul</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a>) (51–50 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">Proconsul</a> (Greece and Italy) (49–47 BC)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terentia" title="Terentia">Terentia</a> (79–51 BC)</li><li>Publilia (46–45 BC)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Children</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Tullia_(daughter_of_Cicero)" title="Tullia (daughter of Cicero)">Tullia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cicero_Minor" title="Cicero Minor">Cicero Minor</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Relatives</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Quintus Tullius Cicero">Quintus Tullius Cicero</a> (brother)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><hr /><b>Philosophy career</b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span style="white-space:nowrap;">Notable work</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Orations</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Verrem" title="In Verrem">In Verrem</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Catilinam_I%E2%80%93IV" class="mw-redirect" title="In Catilinam I–IV">In Catilinam I–IV</a></i></li></ul></div></li></ul> </div> <div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div>Philosophical works</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Academica_(Cicero)" title="Academica (Cicero)">Academica</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Natura_Deorum" title="De Natura Deorum">De Natura Deorum</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/Tusculanae_Quaestiones" class="mw-redirect" title="Tusculanae Quaestiones">Tusculanae Quaestiones</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Divinatione" title="De Divinatione">De Divinatione</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Fato" class="mw-redirect" title="De Fato">De Fato</a></i></li></ul></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic skepticism</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical republicanism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Exceptio_probat_regulam_in_casibus_non_exceptis" class="mw-redirect" title="Exceptio probat regulam in casibus non exceptis">Exceptio probat regulam in casibus non exceptis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inter_arma_enim_silent_leges" title="Inter arma enim silent leges">Inter arma enim silent leges</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Non_nobis_solum" title="Non nobis solum">Non nobis solum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/O_tempora,_o_mores!" title="O tempora, o mores!">O tempora, o mores!</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Salus_populi_suprema_lex_esto" title="Salus populi suprema lex esto">Salus populi suprema lex esto</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Summum bonum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/230px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="230" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/345px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/460px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="229" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:110%"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Crisis of the Roman Republic">fall</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <p>People </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Antony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brutus" class="mw-redirect" title="Brutus">Brutus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" title="Gaius Cassius Longinus">Cassius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clodius_Pulcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Clodius Pulcher">Clodius Pulcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crassus">Crassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Lepidus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompey" title="Sextus Pompey">Sextus Pompey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Marcus Agrippa</a></li></ul> <p>Events </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Caesar's Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Assassination of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">Battle of Philippi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Siculum" title="Bellum Siculum">Bellum Siculum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Actium" title="War of Actium">War of Actium</a></li></ul> <p>Places </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caesareum_of_Alexandria" title="Caesareum of Alexandria">Caesareum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comitium" title="Comitium">Comitium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curia_Hostilia" title="Curia Hostilia">Curia Hostilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">Rostra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Pompey" title="Theatre of Pompey">Theatre of Pompey</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_and_the_fall_of_the_Republic" title="Template:Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_and_the_fall_of_the_Republic" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_and_the_fall_of_the_Republic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Marcus Tullius Cicero</b><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">SISS</span>-ə-roh</i></a>; <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Latin:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="la-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Latin" title="Help:IPA/Latin">[ˈmaːrkʊs<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈtʊlli.ʊs<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈkɪkɛroː]</a></span>; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, writer and <a href="/wiki/Academic_skeptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic skeptic">Academic skeptic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who tried to uphold <a href="/wiki/Optimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimate">optimate</a> principles during <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Crisis of the Roman Republic">the political crises</a> that led to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFergusonBalsdon2023_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFergusonBalsdon2023-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Writings_of_Cicero" title="Writings of Cicero">His extensive writings</a> include treatises on <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, philosophy and politics. He is considered one of Rome's greatest <a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">orators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> stylists and the innovator of what became known as "Ciceronian rhetoric".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero was educated in Rome and in Greece. He came from a wealthy <a href="/wiki/Municipium" title="Municipium">municipal</a> family of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman equestrian order">Roman equestrian order</a>, and served as <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a> in 63 BC. </p><p>He greatly influenced both ancient and modern reception of the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> language. A substantial percentage of his work has survived, and he was admired by both ancient and modern authors alike.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison2008_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison2008-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Inc1995_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inc1995-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero adapted the arguments of the chief schools of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> in Latin and created a large amount of Latin philosophical vocabulary via <a href="/wiki/Lexical_innovation" title="Lexical innovation">lexical innovation</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologisms</a> such as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">evidentia</i></span>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>generator</i>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">humanitas</a></i></span>, <i>infinitio</i>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">qualitas</i></span>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">quantitas</i></span>),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> almost 150 of which were the result of translating <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> philosophical <a href="/wiki/Technical_term" class="mw-redirect" title="Technical term">terms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though he was an accomplished orator and successful lawyer, Cicero believed his political career was his most important achievement. It was during his consulship that the <a href="/wiki/Catiline_conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Catiline conspiracy">Catiline conspiracy</a> attempted to overthrow the government through an attack on the city by outside forces, and Cicero (by his own account) suppressed the revolt by summarily and controversially executing five conspirators without trial, an act which would later lead to his exile. During the chaotic middle period of the first century BC, marked by <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">civil wars</a> and the dictatorship of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, Cicero was a supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates</a> faction. Following Caesar's death, Cicero became an enemy of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> in the ensuing power struggle, attacking him in a <a href="/wiki/Philippicae" title="Philippicae">series of speeches</a>. He was <a href="/wiki/Proscribed" class="mw-redirect" title="Proscribed">proscribed</a> as an enemy of the state by the <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a> and consequently executed by soldiers operating on their behalf in 43 BC, having been intercepted during an attempted flight from the Italian peninsula. His severed hands and head (taken by order of Antony and displayed representing the repercussions of his anti-Antonian actions as a writer and as an orator, respectively) were then displayed on the <a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">Rostra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a>'s rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> in <a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">public affairs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">humanism</a>, and classical Roman culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Wootton1996_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wootton1996-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Polish historian <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Stefan_Zieli%C5%84ski" title="Tadeusz Stefan Zieliński">Tadeusz Zieliński</a>, "the Renaissance was above all things a revival of Cicero, and only after him and through him of the rest of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The peak of Cicero's authority and prestige came during the 18th-century <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his impact on leading Enlightenment thinkers and political theorists such as <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke</a> was substantial.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His works rank among the most influential in global culture, and today still constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for the writing and revision of <a href="/wiki/Roman_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman history">Roman history</a>, especially the last days of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Porta_Saturno,_Quartiere_Colle,Arpino_.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Porta_Saturno%2C_Quartiere_Colle%2CArpino_.jpg/220px-Porta_Saturno%2C_Quartiere_Colle%2CArpino_.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Porta_Saturno%2C_Quartiere_Colle%2CArpino_.jpg/330px-Porta_Saturno%2C_Quartiere_Colle%2CArpino_.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Porta_Saturno%2C_Quartiere_Colle%2CArpino_.jpg/440px-Porta_Saturno%2C_Quartiere_Colle%2CArpino_.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Arpino" title="Arpino">Arpino</a>, Italy, birthplace of Cicero</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Young_Cicero_Reading.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/The_Young_Cicero_Reading.jpg/220px-The_Young_Cicero_Reading.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/The_Young_Cicero_Reading.jpg/330px-The_Young_Cicero_Reading.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/The_Young_Cicero_Reading.jpg/440px-The_Young_Cicero_Reading.jpg 2x" data-file-width="985" data-file-height="748" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Young_Cicero_Reading" class="mw-redirect" title="The Young Cicero Reading">The Young Cicero Reading</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Foppa" title="Vincenzo Foppa">Vincenzo Foppa</a> (fresco, 1464), now at the <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Collection" title="Wallace Collection">Wallace Collection</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3 January 106 BC in <a href="/wiki/Arpinum" class="mw-redirect" title="Arpinum">Arpinum</a>, a hill town 100 kilometers (62 mi) southeast of Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He belonged to the <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">tribus</a></i> Cornelia.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His father was a wealthy member of the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian order">equestrian order</a> and possessed good connections in Rome. However, being a semi-invalid, he could not enter public life and studied extensively to compensate. Little is known about Cicero's mother Helvia, but Cicero's brother <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Quintus Tullius Cicero">Quintus</a> wrote in a letter that she was a thrifty housewife.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero's <a href="/wiki/Cognomen" title="Cognomen">cognomen</a>, a hereditary nickname, comes from the Latin for <a href="/wiki/Chickpea" title="Chickpea">chickpea</a>, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">cicer</i></span>. <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> explains that the name was originally given to one of Cicero's ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose resembling a chickpea.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201119,_citing_[[#CITEREFPlut._Cic.|Plut._''Cic.'']],_1.3–5_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201119,_citing_[[#CITEREFPlut._Cic.|Plut._''Cic.'']],_1.3–5-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The famous family names of <a href="/wiki/Fabia_gens" title="Fabia gens">Fabius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lentulus_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Lentulus (disambiguation)">Lentulus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Calpurnia_gens#Calpurnii_Pisones" title="Calpurnia gens">Piso</a> come from the Latin names of beans, lentils, and peas, respectively. Plutarch writes that Cicero was urged to change this deprecatory name when he entered politics, but refused, saying that he would make <i>Cicero</i> more glorious than <i><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Scaurus_(consul_115_BC)" title="Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (consul 115 BC)">Scaurus</a></i> ("Swollen-ankled") and <i><a href="/wiki/Catulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Catulus">Catulus</a></i> ("Puppy").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''1.3–5_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''1.3–5-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the age of 15, in 90 BC, Cicero started serving under <a href="/wiki/Pompey_Strabo" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompey Strabo">Pompey Strabo</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Social_War_(91%E2%80%9387_BC)" title="Social War (91–87 BC)">Social war</a> between Rome and its Italian allies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201127_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201127-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When in Rome during the turbulent <a href="/wiki/Plebeian_tribunate" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian tribunate">plebeian tribunate</a> of <a href="/wiki/Publius_Sulpicius_Rufus" title="Publius Sulpicius Rufus">Publius Sulpicius Rufus</a> in 88 BC which saw a short bout of fighting between the Sulpicius and Sulla, who had been elected consul for that year, Cicero found himself greatly impressed by Sulpicius' oratory even if he disagreed with his politics.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201127–28_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201127–28-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He continued his studies at Rome, writing a pamphlet titled <i>On Invention</i> relating to rhetorical argumentation and studying philosophy with Greek academics who had fled the ongoing <a href="/wiki/First_Mithridatic_War" title="First Mithridatic War">First Mithridatic War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest2011xi,_28_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest2011xi,_28-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During this period in Roman history, Greek language and cultural studies were highly valued by the elite classes. Cicero was therefore educated in the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek philosophers">ancient Greek philosophers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">poets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_historiography" title="Hellenic historiography">historians</a>; as he obtained much of his understanding of the theory and practice of <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> from the Greek poet <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Licinius_Archias" title="Aulus Licinius Archias">Archias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt200134_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt200134-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero used his knowledge of Greek to translate many of the theoretical concepts of Greek philosophy into Latin, thus translating Greek philosophical works for a larger audience. It was precisely his broad education that tied him to the traditional Roman elite.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt200135_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt200135-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero's interest in philosophy figured heavily in his later career and led to him providing a comprehensive account of Greek philosophy for a Roman audience,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including creating a philosophical vocabulary in Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001253–55_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001253–55-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 87 BC, <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a>, the head of the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a> that had been founded by <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> in Athens about 300 years earlier, arrived in Rome. Cicero, "inspired by an extraordinary zeal for philosophy",<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sat enthusiastically at his feet and absorbed <a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a>' <a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic Skeptic</a> philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Plutarch, Cicero was an extremely talented student, whose learning attracted attention from all over Rome,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''2.2_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''2.2-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> affording him the opportunity to study Roman law under <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Augur" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Augur">Quintus Mucius Scaevola</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero's fellow students were Gaius Marius Minor, <a href="/wiki/Servius_Sulpicius_Rufus" title="Servius Sulpicius Rufus">Servius Sulpicius Rufus</a> (who became a famous lawyer, one of the few whom Cicero considered superior to himself in legal matters), and <a href="/wiki/Titus_Pomponius_Atticus" title="Titus Pomponius Atticus">Titus Pomponius</a>. The latter two became Cicero's friends for life, and Pomponius (who later received the nickname "Atticus", and whose sister married Cicero's brother) would become, in Cicero's own words, "as a second brother", with both maintaining a lifelong correspondence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt200135_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt200135-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 79 BC, Cicero left for Greece, <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>. This was perhaps to avoid the potential wrath of <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a>, as Plutarch claims,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though Cicero himself says it was to hone his skills and improve his physical fitness.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''313–314_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''313–314-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> he studied philosophy with <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus of Ascalon</a>, the 'Old Academic' and initiator of <a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''315_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''315-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Asia Minor, he met the leading orators of the region and continued to study with them. Cicero then journeyed to Rhodes to meet his former teacher, Apollonius Molon, who had taught him in Rome. Molon helped Cicero hone the excesses in his style, as well as train his body and lungs for the demands of public speaking.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''316_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''316-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charting a middle path between the competing <a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Attic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asiatic styles</a>, Cicero would ultimately become considered second only to <a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> among history's orators.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_career">Early career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Political_career_of_Cicero" title="Political career of Cicero">Political career of Cicero</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_legal_activity">Early legal activity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Early legal activity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While Cicero had feared that the law courts would be closed forever, they were reopened in the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_civil_war" title="Sulla's civil war">Sulla's civil war</a> and the purging of Sulla's political opponents in the <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_proscription" title="Sulla's proscription">proscriptions</a>. Many of the orators whom Cicero had admired in his youth were now dead from age or political violence. His first major appearance in the courts was in 81 BC at the age of 26 when he delivered <i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Quinctio" title="Pro Quinctio">Pro Quinctio</a></i>, a speech defending certain commercial transactions which Cicero had recorded and disseminated.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His more famous speech defending <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Roscius" title="Sextus Roscius">Sextus Roscius</a> of <a href="/wiki/Amelia,_Umbria" title="Amelia, Umbria">Ameria</a> – <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Pro_Roscio_Amerino" title="Pro Roscio Amerino">Pro Roscio Amerino</a></i></span> – on charges of <a href="/wiki/Parricide" title="Parricide">parricide</a> in 80 BC was his first appearance in criminal court. In this high-profile case, Cicero accused a freedman of the dictator Sulla, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Chrysogonus" title="Lucius Cornelius Chrysogonus">Chrysogonus</a>, of fabricating Roscius' father's proscription to obtain Roscius' family's property. Successful in his defence, Cicero tactfully avoided incriminating Sulla of any wrongdoing and developed a positive oratorical reputation for himself.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201137_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201137-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Plutarch claims that Cicero left Rome shortly thereafter out of fear of Sulla's response,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to Kathryn Tempest, "most scholars now dismiss this suggestion" because Cicero left Rome after Sulla resigned his dictatorship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201137_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201137-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero, for his part, later claimed that he left Rome, headed for Asia, to develop his physique and develop his oratory.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''315–316_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''315–316-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After marrying his wife, <a href="/wiki/Terentia" title="Terentia">Terentia</a>, in 80 BC, he eventually left for Asia Minor with his brother <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Cicero" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintus Cicero">Quintus</a>, his friend <a href="/wiki/Titus_Atticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Titus Atticus">Titus Atticus</a>, and others on a long trip spanning most of 79 through 77 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201137–38_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201137–38-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Returning to Rome in 77 BC, Cicero again busied himself with legal defence.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_political_career">Early political career</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early political career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 76 BC, at the quaestorian elections, Cicero was elected at the minimum age required – 30 years – in the first returns from the <i><a href="/wiki/Comitia_tributa" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia tributa">comitia tributa</a></i>, to the post of <a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">quaestor</a>. Ex officio, he also became a member of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>. In the quaestorian lot, he was assigned to <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> for 75 BC. The post, which was largely one related to financial administration in support of the state or provincial governors, proved for Cicero an important place where he could gain clients in the provinces. His time in Sicily saw him balance his duties – largely in terms of sending more grain back to Rome – with his support for the provincials, Roman businessmen in the area, and local potentates. Adeptly balancing those responsibilities, he won their gratitude.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201141–42_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201141–42-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also appreciated by local Syracusans for the rediscovery of the lost tomb of <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, which he personally financed.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Promising to lend the Sicilians his oratorical voice, he was called on a few years after his quaestorship to prosecute the Roman province's governor <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Verres" title="Gaius Verres">Gaius Verres</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for abuse of power and corruption.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201142–45_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201142–45-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 70 BC, at the age of 36, Cicero launched his first high-profile prosecution against Verres, an emblem of the corrupt Sullan supporters who had risen in the chaos of the civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201146_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201146-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The prosecution of Gaius Verres was a great forensic success<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for Cicero. While Verres hired the prominent lawyer, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Hortensius" title="Quintus Hortensius">Quintus Hortensius</a>, after a lengthy period in Sicily collecting testimonials and evidence and persuading witnesses to come forward, Cicero returned to Rome and won the case in a series of dramatic court battles. His unique style of oratory set him apart from the flamboyant Hortensius. On the conclusion of this case, Cicero came to be considered the greatest orator in Rome. The view that Cicero may have taken the case for reasons of his own is viable. Hortensius was, at this point, known as the best lawyer in Rome; to beat him would guarantee much success and the prestige that Cicero needed to start his career. Cicero's oratorical ability is shown in his <a href="/wiki/Character_assassination" title="Character assassination">character assassination</a> of Verres and various other techniques of persuasion used on the jury. One such example is found in the speech <i><a href="/wiki/In_Verrem" title="In Verrem">In Verrem</a></i>, where he states "with you on this bench, gentlemen, with <a href="/wiki/Manius_Acilius_Glabrio_(consul_67_BC)" title="Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 67 BC)">Marcus Acilius Glabrio</a> as your president, I do not understand what Verres can hope to achieve".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oratory was considered a great art in ancient Rome and an important tool for disseminating knowledge and promoting oneself in elections, in part because there were no regular newspapers or mass media. Cicero was neither a <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician</a> nor a plebeian <a href="/wiki/Nobiles" title="Nobiles">noble</a>; his rise to political office despite his relatively humble origins has traditionally been attributed to his brilliance as an orator.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero grew up in a time of civil unrest and war. Sulla's victory in the first of a series of civil wars led to a new constitutional framework that undermined <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Libertas" title="Libertas">libertas</a></i></span> (liberty), the fundamental value of the Roman Republic. Nonetheless, Sulla's reforms strengthened the position of the equestrian class, contributing to that class's growing political power. Cicero was both an Italian <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">eques</i></span> and a <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Novus_homo" title="Novus homo">novus homo</a></i></span>, but more importantly he was a <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Roman constitutionalist</a>. His social class and loyalty to the Republic ensured that he would "command the support and confidence of the people as well as the Italian middle classes". The <a href="/wiki/Optimates" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimates">optimates</a> faction never truly accepted Cicero, and this undermined his efforts to reform the Republic while preserving the constitution. Nevertheless, he successfully ascended the cursus honorum, holding each magistracy at or near the youngest possible age: quaestor in 75 BC (age 30), <a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aedile</a> in 69 BC (age 36), and <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a> in 66 BC (age 39), when he served as president of the "Reclamation" (or extortion) Court. He was then elected consul at age 42. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consulship">Consulship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Consulship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/260px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/390px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png/520px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari.png 2x" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="1349" /></a><figcaption><i>Cicero Denounces Catiline</i>, <a href="/wiki/Fresco" title="Fresco">fresco</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cesare_Maccari" title="Cesare Maccari">Cesare Maccari</a>, 1882–1888</figcaption></figure> <p>Cicero, seizing the opportunity offered by optimate fear of reform, was elected consul for the year 63 BC;<sup id="cite_ref-JLP106_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JLP106-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he was elected with the support of every unit of the <a href="/wiki/Centuriate_assembly" title="Centuriate assembly">centuriate assembly</a>, rival members of the post-Sullan establishment, and the leaders of municipalities throughout post-Social War Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His co-consul for the year, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Antonius_Hybrida" title="Gaius Antonius Hybrida">Gaius Antonius Hybrida</a>, played a minor role.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He began his consular year by opposing a land bill proposed by a plebeian tribune which would have appointed commissioners with semi-permanent authority over land reform.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199443_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199443-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-JLP106_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JLP106-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero was also active in the courts, defending <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Rabirius_(senator)" title="Gaius Rabirius (senator)">Gaius Rabirius</a> from accusations of participating in the unlawful killing of plebeian tribune <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Appuleius_Saturninus" title="Lucius Appuleius Saturninus">Lucius Appuleius Saturninus</a> in 100 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prosecution occurred before the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">comita centuriata</i></span> and threatened to reopen conflict between the Marian and Sullan factions at Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero defended the use of force as being authorised by a <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">senatus consultum ultimum</i></span>, which would prove similar to his own use of force under such conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Catilinarian_Conspiracy">Catilinarian Conspiracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Catilinarian Conspiracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Rhetoric" title="Category:Rhetoric">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/150px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/225px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg/300px-Cicero_Denounces_Catiline_in_the_Roman_Senate_by_Cesare_Maccari_-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#History_and_development" title="Rhetoric">History</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Ancient_Greece" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asiatic_style" title="Asiatic style">Asianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticism" title="Atticism">Atticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_orators" title="Attic orators">Attic orators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calliope" title="Calliope">Calliope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Indian_rhetoric" title="Ancient Indian rhetoric">Ancient India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Rome" title="Rhetoric">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature#The_age_of_Cicero" title="Latin literature">The age of Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Medieval_to_Enlightenment" title="Rhetoric">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_rhetoric" title="Byzantine rhetoric">Byzantine rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric#Sixteenth_century" title="Rhetoric">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">Studia humanitatis</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_rhetoric" title="Modern rhetoric">Modern period</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Captatio_benevolentiae" title="Captatio benevolentiae">Captatio benevolentiae</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chironomia" title="Chironomia">Chironomia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decorum" title="Decorum">Decorum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Delectare" class="mw-redirect" title="Delectare">Delectare</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Docere" class="mw-redirect" title="Docere">Docere</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_device" title="Rhetorical device">Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eloquence" title="Eloquence">Eloquence</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Eloquentia_perfecta" title="Eloquentia perfecta">Eloquentia perfecta</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eunoia" title="Eunoia">Eunoia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthymeme" title="Enthymeme">Enthymeme</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Facilitas" title="Facilitas">Facilitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Informal_fallacy" title="Informal fallacy">Informal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figure_of_speech" title="Figure of speech">Figure of speech</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scheme_(rhetoric)" title="Scheme (rhetoric)">Scheme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trope_(literature)" title="Trope (literature)">Trope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Canons_of_Rhetoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Canons of Rhetoric">Five canons</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Inventio" title="Inventio">Inventio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dispositio" title="Dispositio">Dispositio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elocutio" title="Elocutio">Elocutio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Memoria" title="Memoria">Memoria</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pronuntiatio" title="Pronuntiatio">Pronuntiatio</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsos" title="Hypsos">Hypsos</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dionysian_imitatio" title="Dionysian imitatio">Imitatio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kairos" title="Kairos">Kairos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_loci" title="Method of loci">Method of loci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_modes" title="Rhetorical modes">Modes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_operations" title="Rhetorical operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modes_of_persuasion" title="Modes of persuasion">Persuasion</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">Ethos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pathos" title="Pathos">Pathos</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_situation" title="Rhetorical situation">Situation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(sociolinguistics)" title="Style (sociolinguistics)">Style</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_style_(rhetoric)" title="Grand style (rhetoric)">Grand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sotto_voce" title="Sotto voce">Sotto voce</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Literary_topos" title="Literary topos">Topos</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Genres</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apologetics" title="Apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declamation" title="Declamation">Declamation</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Controversia" title="Controversia">Controversia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deliberative_rhetoric" title="Deliberative rhetoric">Deliberative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demagogue" title="Demagogue">Demagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dissoi_logoi" title="Dissoi logoi">Dissoi logoi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elocution" title="Elocution">Elocution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epideictic" title="Epideictic">Epideictic</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Encomium" title="Encomium">Encomium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panegyric" title="Panegyric">Panegyric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eulogy" title="Eulogy">Eulogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farewell_speech" title="Farewell speech">Farewell speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_rhetoric" title="Forensic rhetoric">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_oration_(ancient_Greece)" title="Funeral oration (ancient Greece)">Funeral oration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homiletics" title="Homiletics">Homiletics‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invitational_rhetoric" title="Invitational rhetoric">Invitational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lecture" title="Lecture">Lecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_lecture" title="Public lecture">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_talk" title="Lightning talk">Lightning talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maiden_speech" title="Maiden speech">Maiden speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Oratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">Polemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diatribe" title="Diatribe">Diatribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eristic" title="Eristic">Eristic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippic" title="Philippic">Philippic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progymnasmata" title="Progymnasmata">Progymnasmata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suasoria" title="Suasoria">Suasoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spin_(propaganda)" title="Spin (propaganda)">Spin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resignation_speech" title="Resignation speech">Resignation speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stump_speech" title="Stump speech">Stump speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-war_rhetoric" title="Pro-war rhetoric">War-mongering</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Rhetorical_criticism" title="Rhetorical criticism">Criticism</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_criticism" title="Cluster criticism">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dramatism" title="Dramatism">Dramatic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dramatistic_pentad" title="Dramatistic pentad">Pentadic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frame_analysis" title="Frame analysis">Frame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genre_criticism" title="Genre criticism">Genre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_criticism" title="Ideological criticism">Ideological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphoric_criticism" title="Metaphoric criticism">Metaphoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimesis_criticism" title="Mimesis criticism">Mimesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_criticism" title="Narrative criticism">Narrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Aristotelianism_(literature)" title="Neo-Aristotelianism (literature)">Neo-Aristotelian</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Rhetoricians</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspasia" title="Aspasia">Aspasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakhtin" title="Mikhail Bakhtin">Bakhtin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayne_C._Booth" title="Wayne C. Booth">Booth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Brueggemann" title="Walter Brueggemann">Brueggemann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Burke" title="Kenneth Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_de_Man" title="Paul de Man">de Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Derrida" title="Jacques Derrida">Derrida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isocrates" title="Isocrates">Isocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysias" title="Lysias">Lysias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Ong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cha%C3%AFm_Perelman" title="Chaïm Perelman">Perelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_de_Pizan" title="Christine de Pizan">Pizan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrus_Ramus" title="Petrus Ramus">Ramus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Toulmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_M._Weaver" title="Richard M. Weaver">Weaver</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Works</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(380 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(dialogue)#Discussion_of_rhetoric_and_writing_(257c–279c)" title="Phaedrus (dialogue)">Phaedrus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 370 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)" title="Rhetoric (Aristotle)">Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_to_Alexander" title="Rhetoric to Alexander">Rhetoric to Alexander</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophistical_Refutations" title="Sophistical Refutations">De Sophisticis Elenchis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Topics_(Aristotle)" title="Topics (Aristotle)">Topics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(84 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhetorica_ad_Herennium" title="Rhetorica ad Herennium">Rhetorica ad Herennium</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(55 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Oratorical_Partitions" title="A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions">A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Optimo_Genere_Oratorum" title="De Optimo Genere Oratorum">De Optimo Genere Oratorum</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orator_(Cicero)" title="Orator (Cicero)">Orator</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(46 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sublime" title="On the Sublime">On the Sublime</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Institutio_Oratoria" title="Institutio Oratoria">Institutio Oratoria</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(95)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Panegyrici_Latini" title="Panegyrici Latini">Panegyrici Latini</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(100–400)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogus_de_oratoribus" title="Dialogus de oratoribus">Dialogus de oratoribus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(102)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_doctrina_Christiana" title="De doctrina Christiana">De doctrina Christiana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(426)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_vulgari_eloquentia" title="De vulgari eloquentia">De vulgari eloquentia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1305)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Copia:_Foundations_of_the_Abundant_Style" title="Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style">Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1521)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language_as_Symbolic_Action" title="Language as Symbolic Action">Language as Symbolic Action</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1966)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_Rhetoric" title="A General Rhetoric">A General Rhetoric</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1970)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subfields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_rhetoric" title="Cognitive rhetoric">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contrastive_rhetoric" title="Contrastive rhetoric">Contrastive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutive_rhetoric" title="Constitutive rhetoric">Constitutive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_rhetoric" title="Digital rhetoric">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_rhetoric" title="Feminist rhetoric">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rhetoric" title="Native American rhetoric">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_rhetorics" class="mw-redirect" title="New rhetorics">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_health_and_medicine" title="Rhetoric of health and medicine">Health and medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_rhetoric_and_composition_pedagogy" title="Theories of rhetoric and composition pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_rhetoric" title="Procedural rhetoric">Procedural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_technology" title="Rhetoric of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric" title="Visual rhetoric">Visual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_rhetoric_and_composition" title="Visual rhetoric and composition">Composition</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ars_dictaminis" title="Ars dictaminis">Ars dictaminis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Composition_studies" title="Composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxa" title="Doxa">Doxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_rhetorical_terms" title="Glossary of rhetorical terms">Glossary of rhetorical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossophobia" title="Glossophobia">Glossophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feminist_rhetoricians" title="List of feminist rhetoricians">List of feminist rhetoricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speeches" title="List of speeches">List of speeches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_skills" title="Oral skills">Oral skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orator" title="Orator">Orator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pistis" title="Pistis">Pistis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_rhetoric" title="Public rhetoric">Public rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_social_intervention_model" title="Rhetoric of social intervention model">Rhetoric of social intervention model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetrickery" title="Rhetrickery">Rhetrickery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogerian_argument" title="Rogerian argument">Rogerian argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seduction" title="Seduction">Seduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speechwriter" title="Speechwriter">Speechwriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talking_point" title="Talking point">Talking point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TED_(conference)" title="TED (conference)">TED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terministic_screen" title="Terministic screen">Terministic screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toulmin_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Toulmin model">Toulmin model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wooden_iron" title="Wooden iron">Wooden iron</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rhetoric" title="Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rhetoric" title="Template talk:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rhetoric"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a></div> <p>Most famously – in part because of his own publicity<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442_58-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – he thwarted a conspiracy led by <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Sergius_Catilina" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Sergius Catilina">Lucius Sergius Catilina</a> to overthrow the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> with the help of foreign armed forces. Cicero procured a <i><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum_ultimum" title="Senatus consultum ultimum">senatus consultum ultimum</a></i> (a recommendation from the senate attempting to legitimise the use of force)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442_58-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and drove Catiline from the city with four vehement speeches (the <a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_orations" title="Catilinarian orations">Catilinarian orations</a>), which remain outstanding examples of his rhetorical style.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrebs2020_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrebs2020-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Orations listed Catiline and his followers' debaucheries, and denounced Catiline's senatorial sympathizers as roguish and dissolute debtors clinging to Catiline as a final and desperate hope. Cicero demanded that Catiline and his followers leave the city. At the conclusion of Cicero's first speech (which was made in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Stator_(3rd_century_BC)" title="Temple of Jupiter Stator (3rd century BC)">Temple of Jupiter Stator</a>), Catiline hurriedly left the Senate. In his following speeches, Cicero did not directly address Catiline. He delivered the second and third orations before the people, and the last one again before the Senate. By these speeches, Cicero wanted to prepare the Senate for the worst possible case; he also delivered more evidence, against Catiline.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Catiline fled and left behind his followers to start the revolution from within while he himself assaulted the city with an army of "moral and financial bankrupts, or of honest fanatics and adventurers".<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is alleged that Catiline had attempted to involve the <a href="/wiki/Allobroges" title="Allobroges">Allobroges</a>, a tribe of <a href="/wiki/Transalpine_Gaul" class="mw-redirect" title="Transalpine Gaul">Transalpine Gaul</a>, in their plot, but Cicero, working with the Gauls, was able to seize letters that incriminated the five conspirators and forced them to confess in front of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The senate then deliberated upon the conspirators' punishment. As it was the dominant advisory body to the various <a href="/wiki/Legislative" class="mw-redirect" title="Legislative">legislative</a> assemblies rather than a <a href="/wiki/Judicial" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial">judicial</a> body, there were limits to its power; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile – the standard options – would not remove the threat to the state. At first <a href="/wiki/Decimus_Junius_Silanus_(consul)" title="Decimus Junius Silanus (consul)">Decimus Junius Silanus</a> spoke for the "extreme penalty"; but during the debate many were swayed by Julius Caesar, who decried the precedent it would set and argued in favor of life imprisonment in various Italian towns. <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a> then rose in defense of the death penalty and the Senate finally agreed on the matter, and came down in support of the death penalty. Cicero had the conspirators taken to the <a href="/wiki/Tullianum" class="mw-redirect" title="Tullianum">Tullianum</a>, the notorious Roman prison, where they were strangled. Cicero himself accompanied the former consul <a href="/wiki/Publius_Cornelius_Lentulus_Sura" title="Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura">Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura</a>, one of the conspirators, to the Tullianum.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero received the honorific "<i><a href="/wiki/Pater_patriae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pater patriae">pater patriae</a></i>" for his efforts to suppress the conspiracy,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001112_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001112-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but lived thereafter in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the <i>senatus consultum ultimum</i> gave some legitimacy to the use of force against the conspirators,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero also argued that Catiline's conspiracy, by virtue of its treason, made the conspirators enemies of the state and forfeited the protections intrinsically possessed by Roman citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The consuls moved decisively. Antonius Hybrida was dispatched to defeat Catiline in battle that year, preventing <a href="/wiki/Crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crassus">Crassus</a> or Pompey from exploiting the situation for their own political aims.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199446_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199446-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the suppression of the conspiracy, Cicero was proud of his accomplishment.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of his political enemies argued that though the act gained Cicero popularity, he exaggerated the extent of his success. He overestimated his popularity again several years later after being exiled from Italy and then allowed back from exile. At this time, he claimed that the republic would be restored along with him.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shortly after completing his consulship, in late 62 BC, Cicero arranged the purchase of a large townhouse on the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a> previously owned by Rome's richest citizen, Marcus Licinius Crassus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199447_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199447-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To finance the purchase, Cicero borrowed some two million <a href="/wiki/Sesterces" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesterces">sesterces</a> from <a href="/wiki/Publius_Cornelius_Sulla" title="Publius Cornelius Sulla">Publius Cornelius Sulla</a>, whom he had previously defended from court.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199447_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199447-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero boasted his house was <i>"in conspectu prope totius urbis"</i> ("in sight of nearly the whole city"), only a short walk from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-cicero_house_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cicero_house-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exile_and_return">Exile and return</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Exile and return"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 60 BC, Julius Caesar invited Cicero to be the fourth member of his existing partnership with Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus, an assembly that would eventually be called the <a href="/wiki/First_Triumvirate" title="First Triumvirate">First Triumvirate</a>. Cicero refused the invitation because he suspected it would undermine the Republic,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and because he was strongly opposed to anything unconstitutional that limited the powers of the consuls and replaced them with non-elected officials. </p><p>During Caesar's consulship of 59 BC, the triumvirate had achieved many of their goals of land reform, publicani debt forgiveness, ratification of Pompeian conquests, etc. With Caesar leaving for his provinces, they wished to maintain their hold on politics. They engineered the adoption of patrician <a href="/wiki/Publius_Clodius_Pulcher" title="Publius Clodius Pulcher">Publius Clodius Pulcher</a> into a plebeian family and had him elected as one of the ten <a href="/wiki/Tribunes_of_the_plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribunes of the plebs">tribunes of the plebs</a> for 58 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199451_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199451-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clodius used the triumvirate's backing to push through legislation that benefited them. He introduced several laws (the <i><a href="/wiki/Leges_Clodiae" title="Leges Clodiae">leges Clodiae</a></i>) that made him popular with the people, strengthening his power base, then he turned on Cicero. Clodius passed a law which made it illegal to offer "fire and water" (i.e. shelter or food) to anyone who executed a Roman citizen without a trial. Cicero, having executed members of the Catiline conspiracy four years previously without formal trial, was clearly the intended target.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, many believed that Clodius acted in concert with the triumvirate who feared that Cicero would seek to abolish many of Caesar's accomplishments while consul the year before. Cicero argued that the <i>senatus consultum ultimum</i> indemnified him from punishment, and he attempted to gain the support of the senators and consuls, especially of Pompey.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero grew out his hair, dressed in mourning and toured the streets. Clodius' gangs dogged him, hurling abuse, stones and even excrement. Hortensius, trying to rally to his old rival's support, was almost lynched. The Senate and the consuls were cowed. Caesar, who was still encamped near Rome, was apologetic but said he could do nothing when Cicero brought himself to grovel in the proconsul's tent. Everyone seemed to have abandoned Cicero.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Clodius passed a law to deny to Cicero fire and water (i.e. shelter) within four hundred miles of Rome, Cicero went into exile.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He arrived at <a href="/wiki/Thessalonica" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a>, on 23 May 58 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his absence, Clodius, who lived next door to Cicero on the Palatine, arranged for Cicero's house to be confiscated by the state, and was even able to purchase a part of the property in order to extend his own house.<sup id="cite_ref-cicero_house_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cicero_house-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After demolishing Cicero's house, Clodius had the land consecrated and symbolically erected a temple of Liberty (<i>aedes Libertatis</i>) on the vacant land.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailscicerolifetimeso00everpage145_145]_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailscicerolifetimeso00everpage145_145]-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero's exile caused him to fall into depression. He wrote to Atticus: "Your pleas have prevented me from committing suicide. But what is there to live for? Don't blame me for complaining. My afflictions surpass any you ever heard of earlier".<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the intervention of recently elected tribune <a href="/wiki/Titus_Annius_Milo" title="Titus Annius Milo">Titus Annius Milo</a>, acting on the behalf of Pompey who wanted Cicero as a <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">client</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Senate voted in favor of recalling Cicero from exile. Clodius cast the single vote against the decree. Cicero returned to Italy on 5 August 57 BC, landing at <a href="/wiki/Brundisium" class="mw-redirect" title="Brundisium">Brundisium</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was greeted by a cheering crowd, and, to his delight, his beloved daughter Tullia.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his <i>Oratio De Domo Sua Ad Pontifices</i>, Cicero convinced the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a> to rule that the consecration of his land was invalid, thereby allowing him to regain his property and rebuild his house on the Palatine.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailscicerolifetimeso00everpage165_165]_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailscicerolifetimeso00everpage165_165]-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero tried to re-enter politics as an independent operator,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but his attempts to attack portions of Caesar's legislation were unsuccessful<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199451_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199451-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and encouraged Caesar to re-solidify his political alliance with Pompey and Crassus.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199452_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199452-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Lucca_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucca Conference">conference at Luca</a> in 56 BC left the three-man alliance in domination of the republic's politics; this forced Cicero to recant and support the triumvirate out of fear from being entirely excluded from public life.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199453_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199453-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the conference, Cicero lavishly praised Caesar's achievements, got the Senate to vote a thanksgiving for Caesar's victories, and grant money to pay his troops.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001281–283_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001281–283-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also delivered a speech 'On the consular provinces' (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">de provinciis consularibus</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199453_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199453-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which checked an attempt by Caesar's enemies to strip him of his provinces in Gaul.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this, a cowed Cicero concentrated on his literary works. It is uncertain whether he was directly involved in politics for the following few years.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His legal work largely consisted of defending allies of the ruling <span title="Latin-language text"><span lang="la" style="font-style: normal;">triumvirs</span></span> and his own personal friends and allies; <a href="/wiki/Pro_Caelio" title="Pro Caelio">he defended</a> his former pupil <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Caelius_Rufus" title="Marcus Caelius Rufus">Marcus Caelius Rufus</a> against a charge of murder in 56.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the influence of the triumvirs, he had also defended his former enemies <a href="/wiki/Publius_Vatinius" title="Publius Vatinius">Publius Vatinius</a> (in August 54 BCE), <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Scaurus_(praetor_56_BC)" title="Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC)">Marcus Aemilius Scaurus</a> (between July and September) and Gnaeus Plancius (with the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Pro_Plancio" title="Pro Plancio">Pro Plancio</a></i></span>) in September, which weakened his prestige and sparked attacks on his integrity: Luca Grillo has suggested these cases as the source of the poet <a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a>'s double-edged comment that Cicero was "the best defender of anybody".<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Governorship_of_Cilicia">Governorship of Cilicia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Governorship of Cilicia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M._Tullius_Cicero,_Apamea_Cibotus,_AR_cistophorus,_51-50_BC,_Metcalf_470.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/M._Tullius_Cicero%2C_Apamea_Cibotus%2C_AR_cistophorus%2C_51-50_BC%2C_Metcalf_470.jpg/220px-M._Tullius_Cicero%2C_Apamea_Cibotus%2C_AR_cistophorus%2C_51-50_BC%2C_Metcalf_470.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="113" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/M._Tullius_Cicero%2C_Apamea_Cibotus%2C_AR_cistophorus%2C_51-50_BC%2C_Metcalf_470.jpg/330px-M._Tullius_Cicero%2C_Apamea_Cibotus%2C_AR_cistophorus%2C_51-50_BC%2C_Metcalf_470.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/M._Tullius_Cicero%2C_Apamea_Cibotus%2C_AR_cistophorus%2C_51-50_BC%2C_Metcalf_470.jpg/440px-M._Tullius_Cicero%2C_Apamea_Cibotus%2C_AR_cistophorus%2C_51-50_BC%2C_Metcalf_470.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1867" data-file-height="957" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cistophorus" title="Cistophorus">Cistophorus</a> minted by Cicero in <a href="/wiki/Apamea_(Phrygia)" title="Apamea (Phrygia)">Apamea Cibotus</a> in 51–50 BC, while serving as proconsul of Cilicia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStumpf199154_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStumpf199154-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 51 BC he reluctantly accepted a <a href="/wiki/Promagistracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Promagistracy">promagistracy</a> (as proconsul) in <a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a> for the year; there were few other former consuls eligible as a result of a legislative requirement enacted by Pompey in 52 BC specifying an interval of five years between a consulship or praetorship and a <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">provincial command</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199459_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199459-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001186–88_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001186–88-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He served as proconsul of Cilicia from May 51 BC, arriving in the provinces three months later around August.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199459_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199459-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 53 BC Marcus Licinius Crassus had been defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthians</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Battle of Carrhae</a>. This opened the Roman East for a Parthian invasion, causing unrest in Syria and Cilicia. Cicero restored calm by his mild system of government. He discovered that a great amount of public property had been embezzled by corrupt previous governors and members of their staff, and did his utmost to restore it. Thus he greatly improved the condition of the cities.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He retained the civil rights of, and exempted from penalties, the men who gave the property back.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides this, he was extremely frugal in his outlays for staff and private expenses during his governorship, and this made him highly popular among the natives.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides his activity in ameliorating the hard pecuniary situation of the province, Cicero was also creditably active in the military sphere. Early in his governorship he received information that prince <a href="/wiki/Pacorus_I" title="Pacorus I">Pacorus</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Orodes_II" title="Orodes II">Orodes II</a> the king of the Parthians, had crossed the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, and was ravaging the Syrian countryside and had even besieged <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" title="Gaius Cassius Longinus">Cassius</a> (the interim Roman commander in Syria) in <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero eventually marched with two understrength legions and a large contingent of auxiliary cavalry to Cassius's relief. Pacorus and his army had already given up on besieging Antioch and were heading south through Syria, ravaging the countryside again. Cassius and his legions followed them, harrying them wherever they went, eventually ambushing and defeating them near Antigonea.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another large troop of Parthian horsemen was defeated by Cicero's cavalry who happened to run into them while scouting ahead of the main army. Cicero next defeated some robbers who were based on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Amanus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Amanus">Mount Amanus</a> and was hailed as <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a> by his troops. Afterwards he led his army against the independent Cilician mountain tribes, besieging their fortress of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pindenissum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pindenissum (page does not exist)">Pindenissum</a>. It took him 47 days to reduce the place, which fell in December.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 30 July 50 BC Cicero left the province<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to his brother <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Cicero" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintus Cicero">Quintus</a>, who had accompanied him on his governorship as his <a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">legate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On his way back to Rome he stopped in Rhodes and then went to Athens, where he caught up with his old friend Titus Pomponius Atticus and met men of great learning.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Julius_Caesar's_civil_war"><span id="Julius_Caesar.27s_civil_war"></span>Julius Caesar's civil war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Julius Caesar's civil war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cicero arrived in Rome on 4 January 49 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He stayed outside the <a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a>, to retain his promagisterial powers: either in expectation of a triumph or to retain his independent command authority in the coming civil war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The struggle between Pompey and Julius Caesar grew more intense in 50 BC. Cicero favored Pompey, seeing him as a defender of the senate and Republican tradition, but at that time avoided openly alienating Caesar.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When Caesar invaded Italy in 49 BC, Cicero fled Rome. Caesar, seeking an endorsement by a senior senator, courted Cicero's favor, but even so Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled to <a href="/wiki/Dyrrhachium" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyrrhachium">Dyrrhachium</a> where Pompey's staff was situated.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001215_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001215-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero traveled with the Pompeian forces to <a href="/wiki/Farsala" title="Farsala">Pharsalus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a> in 48 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though he was quickly losing faith in the competence and righteousness of the Pompeian side. Eventually, he provoked the hostility of his fellow senator Cato, who told him that he would have been of more use to the cause of the <i>optimates</i> if he had stayed in Rome. After Caesar's victory at the Battle of Pharsalus on 9 August, Cicero refused to take command of the Pompeian forces and continue the war.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199463_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199463-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He returned to Rome, still as a promagistrate with his <a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">lictors</a>, in 47 BC, and dismissed them upon his crossing the pomerium and renouncing his command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199463_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199463-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a letter to <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> on <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 20 April 46 BC</span>, Cicero outlined his strategy under Caesar's dictatorship. Cicero, however, was taken by surprise when the <i>Liberatores</i> assassinated Caesar on the <a href="/wiki/Ides_of_March" title="Ides of March">ides of March</a>, 44 BC. Cicero was not included in the conspiracy, even though the conspirators were sure of his sympathy. Marcus Junius Brutus called out Cicero's name, asking him to restore the republic when he lifted his bloodstained dagger after the assassination.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A letter Cicero wrote in February 43 BC to <a href="/wiki/Trebonius" class="mw-redirect" title="Trebonius">Trebonius</a>, one of the conspirators, began, "How I could wish that you had invited me to that most glorious banquet on the Ides of March!"<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero became a popular leader during the period of instability following the assassination. He had no respect for Mark Antony, who was scheming to take revenge upon Caesar's murderers. In exchange for amnesty for the assassins, he arranged for the Senate to agree not to declare Caesar to have been a <a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrant</a>, which allowed the Caesarians to have lawful support and kept Caesar's reforms and policies intact.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Opposition_to_Mark_Antony_and_death">Opposition to Mark Antony and death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Opposition to Mark Antony and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marcus_Tullius_Cicero_dragged_from_his_litter_and_assassinated_by_soldiers_under_the_command_of_Marc_Antony_43_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero_dragged_from_his_litter_and_assassinated_by_soldiers_under_the_command_of_Marc_Antony_43_BCE.jpg/310px-Marcus_Tullius_Cicero_dragged_from_his_litter_and_assassinated_by_soldiers_under_the_command_of_Marc_Antony_43_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero_dragged_from_his_litter_and_assassinated_by_soldiers_under_the_command_of_Marc_Antony_43_BCE.jpg/465px-Marcus_Tullius_Cicero_dragged_from_his_litter_and_assassinated_by_soldiers_under_the_command_of_Marc_Antony_43_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Marcus_Tullius_Cicero_dragged_from_his_litter_and_assassinated_by_soldiers_under_the_command_of_Marc_Antony_43_BCE.jpg/620px-Marcus_Tullius_Cicero_dragged_from_his_litter_and_assassinated_by_soldiers_under_the_command_of_Marc_Antony_43_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="916" /></a><figcaption>Marcus Tullius Cicero dragged from his litter and assassinated by soldiers under the command of Mark Antony 43 BC (1880 illustration)</figcaption></figure> <p>In April 43 BC, "diehard republicans" may have revived the ancient position of <i><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">princeps senatus</a></i> (leader of the senate) for Cicero. This position had been very prestigious until the <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">constitutional reforms of Sulla</a> in 82–80 BC, which removed most of its importance.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other side, Antony was consul and leader of the Caesarian faction, and unofficial executor of Caesar's public will. Relations between the two were never friendly and worsened after Cicero claimed that Antony was taking liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. Octavian was Caesar's adopted son and heir. After he returned to Italy, Cicero began to play him against Antony. He praised Octavian, declaring he would not make the same mistakes as his father. He attacked Antony in a series of speeches he called the <a href="/wiki/Philippicae" title="Philippicae"><i>Philippics</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> named after Demosthenes's denunciations of <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_of_Macedon" title="Philip II of Macedon">Philip II of Macedon</a>. At the time, Cicero's popularity as a public figure was unrivalled.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fulvia_y_Marco_Antonio,_o_La_venganza_de_Fulvia_(Museo_del_Prado).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fulvia_y_Marco_Antonio%2C_o_La_venganza_de_Fulvia_%28Museo_del_Prado%29.jpg/310px-Fulvia_y_Marco_Antonio%2C_o_La_venganza_de_Fulvia_%28Museo_del_Prado%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fulvia_y_Marco_Antonio%2C_o_La_venganza_de_Fulvia_%28Museo_del_Prado%29.jpg/465px-Fulvia_y_Marco_Antonio%2C_o_La_venganza_de_Fulvia_%28Museo_del_Prado%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fulvia_y_Marco_Antonio%2C_o_La_venganza_de_Fulvia_%28Museo_del_Prado%29.jpg/620px-Fulvia_y_Marco_Antonio%2C_o_La_venganza_de_Fulvia_%28Museo_del_Prado%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1890" data-file-height="1142" /></a><figcaption><i>The Vengeance of Fulvia</i> by Francisco Maura y Montaner, 1888 depicting Fulvia inspecting the severed head of Cicero</figcaption></figure> <p>Cicero supported <a href="/wiki/Decimus_Junius_Brutus_Albinus" title="Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus">Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus</a> as governor of <a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a> (<i>Gallia Cisalpina</i>) and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of the state. The speech of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Caesoninus_(consul_58_BC)" title="Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (consul 58 BC)">Lucius Piso</a>, Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an enemy of the state when he refused to lift the siege of <a href="/wiki/Mutina" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutina">Mutina</a>, which was in the hands of Decimus Brutus. Cicero's plan to drive out Antony failed. Antony and Octavian reconciled and allied with <a href="/wiki/Lepidus" title="Lepidus">Lepidus</a> to form the Second Triumvirate after the successive battles of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Forum_Gallorum" title="Battle of Forum Gallorum">Forum Gallorum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mutina" title="Battle of Mutina">Mutina</a>. The alliance came into official existence with the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Titia" title="Lex Titia">lex Titia</a></i>, passed on 27 November 43 BC, which gave each triumvir a consular <i><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a></i> for five years. The Triumvirate immediately began a proscription of their enemies, modeled after <a href="/wiki/Sulla%27s_proscription" title="Sulla's proscription">that of Sulla</a> in 82 BC. Cicero and all of his contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state, even though Octavian argued for two days against Cicero being added to the list.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assassinat_de_Cic%C3%A9ron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Assassinat_de_Cic%C3%A9ron.jpg/220px-Assassinat_de_Cic%C3%A9ron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Assassinat_de_Cic%C3%A9ron.jpg/330px-Assassinat_de_Cic%C3%A9ron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Assassinat_de_Cic%C3%A9ron.jpg/440px-Assassinat_de_Cic%C3%A9ron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>Cicero's death (France, 15th century)</figcaption></figure> <p>Cicero was one of the most viciously and doggedly hunted among the proscribed. He was viewed with sympathy by a large segment of the public and many people refused to report that they had seen him. He was caught on 7 December 43 BC leaving his villa in <a href="/wiki/Formiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Formiae">Formiae</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Litter_(vehicle)" title="Litter (vehicle)">litter</a> heading to the seaside, where he hoped to embark on a ship destined for Macedonia.<sup id="cite_ref-Haskell_1964_293_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haskell_1964_293-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When his killers – Herennius (a Centurion) and Popilius (a Tribune) – arrived, Cicero's own slaves said they had not seen him, but he was given away by Philologus, a <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedman</a> of his brother Quintus Cicero.<sup id="cite_ref-Haskell_1964_293_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haskell_1964_293-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CiceroBust.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/CiceroBust.jpg/220px-CiceroBust.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/CiceroBust.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="314" data-file-height="453" /></a><figcaption>Cicero about age 60, from a marble bust</figcaption></figure> <p>As reported by <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a>, according to the historian <a href="/wiki/Aufidius_Bassus" title="Aufidius Bassus">Aufidius Bassus</a>, Cicero's last words are said to have been: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Ego vero consisto. Accede, veterane, et, si hoc saltim potes recte facere, incide cervicem.</i></span><br />I go no further: approach, veteran soldier, and, if you can at least do so much properly, sever this neck.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>He bowed to his captors, leaning his head out of the litter in a gladiatorial gesture to ease the task. By baring his neck and throat to the soldiers, he was indicating that he would not resist. According to Plutarch, Herennius first slew him, then cut off his head. On Antony's instructions his hands, which had penned the Philippics against Antony, were cut off as well; these were nailed along with his head on the <a href="/wiki/Rostra" title="Rostra">Rostra</a> in the Forum Romanum according to the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Marius</a> and Sulla, both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. Cicero was the only victim of the proscriptions who was displayed in that manner. According to <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, in a story often mistakenly attributed to Plutarch,<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Antony's wife <a href="/wiki/Fulvia" title="Fulvia">Fulvia</a> took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed it repeatedly with her hairpin in final revenge against Cicero's power of speech.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero's son, Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor, during his year as a consul in 30 BC, avenged his father's death, to a certain extent, when he announced to the Senate Mark Antony's naval defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a> in 31 BC by Octavian.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001302–304_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001302–304-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Octavian is reported to have praised Cicero as a patriot and a scholar of meaning in later times, within the circle of his family.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''49.5_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''49.5-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it was Octavian's acquiescence that had allowed Cicero to be killed, as Cicero was condemned by the new triumvirate.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero's career as a statesman was marked by inconsistencies and a tendency to shift his position in response to changes in the political climate. His indecision may be attributed to his sensitive and impressionable personality; he was prone to overreaction in the face of political and private change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawson1975203–205_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson1975203–205-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Would that he had been able to endure prosperity with greater self-control, and adversity with more fortitude!" wrote <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Asinius_Pollio_(consul_40_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Asinius Pollio (consul 40 BC)">C. Asinius Pollio</a>, a contemporary Roman statesman and historian.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life_and_family">Personal life and family</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Personal life and family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Personal_life_of_Cicero" title="Personal life of Cicero">Personal life of Cicero</a></div> <p>Cicero married <a href="/wiki/Terentia" title="Terentia">Terentia</a> probably at the age of 27, in 79 BC. According to the <a href="/wiki/Upper-class" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper-class">upper-class</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mores#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:mores">mores</a> of the day it was a marriage of convenience but lasted harmoniously for nearly 30 years. Terentia's family was wealthy, probably the <a href="/wiki/Plebeian" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian">plebeian</a> noble house of Terenti Varrones, thus meeting the needs of Cicero's political ambitions in both economic and social terms. She had a half-sister named Fabia, who as a child had become a <a href="/wiki/Vestal_Virgin" title="Vestal Virgin">Vestal Virgin</a>, a great honour. Terentia was a strong-willed woman and (citing Plutarch) "took more interest in her husband's political career than she allowed him to take in household affairs".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawson197525_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson197525-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 50s BC, Cicero's letters to Terentia became shorter and colder. He complained to his friends that Terentia had betrayed him but did not specify in which sense. Perhaps the marriage could not outlast the strain of the political upheaval in Rome, Cicero's involvement in it, and various other disputes between the two. The divorce appears to have taken place in 51 BC or shortly before.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreggiari200776ff_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreggiari200776ff-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 46 or 45 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreggiari2007133_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETreggiari2007133-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero married a young girl, Publilia, who had been his <a href="/wiki/Ward_(law)" title="Ward (law)">ward</a>. It is thought that Cicero needed her money, particularly after having to repay the <a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a> of Terentia, who came from a wealthy family.<sup id="cite_ref-Rawson_1975_225_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rawson_1975_225-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although his marriage to Terentia was one of convenience, it is commonly known that Cicero held great love for his daughter <a href="/wiki/Tullia_(daughter_of_Cicero)" title="Tullia (daughter of Cicero)">Tullia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When she suddenly became ill in February 45 BC and died after having seemingly recovered from giving birth to a son in January, Cicero was stunned. "I have lost the one thing that bound me to life," he wrote to Atticus.<sup id="cite_ref-Haskell_1964_249_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haskell_1964_249-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atticus told him to come for a visit during the first weeks of his <a href="/wiki/Bereavement" class="mw-redirect" title="Bereavement">bereavement</a>, so that he could comfort him when his pain was at its greatest. In Atticus's large library, Cicero read everything that the <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophers">Greek philosophers</a> had written about overcoming grief, "but my sorrow defeats all consolation."<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caesar and <a href="/wiki/Brutus" class="mw-redirect" title="Brutus">Brutus</a>, as well as Servius Sulpicius Rufus, sent him letters of condolence.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero hoped that his son <a href="/wiki/Cicero_Minor" title="Cicero Minor">Marcus</a> would become a philosopher like him, but Marcus himself wished for a <a href="/wiki/Military_career" class="mw-redirect" title="Military career">military career</a>. He joined the army of <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> in 49 BC, and after Pompey's defeat at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalus" title="Battle of Pharsalus">Pharsalus</a> 48 BC, he was pardoned by Caesar. Cicero sent him to Athens to study as a disciple of the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">peripatetic</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Cratippus_of_Pergamon" title="Cratippus of Pergamon">Kratippos</a> in 48 BC, but he used this absence from "his father's vigilant eye" to "eat, drink, and be merry."<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Cicero's death, he joined the army of the <i><a href="/wiki/Liberatores" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberatores">Liberatores</a></i> but was later pardoned by <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>. Augustus's bad <a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">conscience</a> for having given in to Cicero's being put on the <a href="/wiki/Proscription" title="Proscription">proscription</a> list during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a> led him to aid considerably Marcus Minor's career. He became an <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a> and was nominated <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a> in 30 BC together with Augustus. As such, he was responsible for revoking the honors of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>, who was responsible for the proscription and could in this way take revenge. Later he was appointed <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsul</a> of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and the province of Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_monarchy" title="Abolition of monarchy">Anti-monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-corruption" title="Anti-corruption">Anti-corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civic_virtue" title="Civic virtue">Civic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratization" title="Democratization">Democratization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty#Republican_liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty as non-domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed_government" title="Mixed government">Mixed government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_representation" title="Political representation">Political representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_sovereignty" title="Popular sovereignty">Popular sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_participation_(decision_making)" title="Public participation (decision making)">Public participation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Res_publica" title="Res publica">Res publica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">Rule of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">Self-governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_republicanism" title="Classical republicanism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_republicanism" title="Modern republicanism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republicanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal republicanism">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khomeinism" title="Khomeinism">Khomeinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism#Neo-republicanism" title="Republicanism">Neo-republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venizelism" title="Venizelism">Venizelism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_republic" title="Autonomous republic">Autonomous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_republic" title="Capitalist republic">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_republic" title="Christian republic">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_republic" title="Democratic republic">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_republic" title="Federal republic">Federal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_parliamentary_republic" title="Federal parliamentary republic">Federal parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_empire" title="Republican empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_republic" title="Islamic republic">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_republic" title="Parliamentary republic">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_republic" title="People's republic">People's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_republic" title="Revolutionary republic">Revolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular republic">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister_republic" title="Sister republic">Sister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_republic" title="Soviet republic">Soviet</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Philosophers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Baggini" title="Julian Baggini">Baggini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Bello" title="Andrés Bello">Bello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Cattaneo" title="Carlo Cattaneo">Cattaneo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophie_Grace_Chappell" title="Sophie Grace Chappell">Chappell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Crick" title="Bernard Crick">Crick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Harrington_(author)" title="James Harrington (author)">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Honderich" title="Ted Honderich">Honderich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Pettit" title="Philip Pettit">Pettit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Sandel" title="Michael Sandel">Sandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algernon_Sidney" title="Algernon Sidney">Sidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cass_Sunstein" title="Cass Sunstein">Sunstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigel_Warburton" title="Nigel Warburton">Warburton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Politicians</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerry_Adams" title="Gerry Adams">Adams (Gerry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">Adams (John)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Kemal_Atat%C3%BCrk" title="Mustafa Kemal Atatürk">Atatürk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Aza%C3%B1a" title="Manuel Azaña">Azaña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bartley" title="Jonathan Bartley">Bartley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Benn" title="Tony Benn">Benn (Tony)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalie_Bennett" title="Natalie Bennett">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mhairi_Black" title="Mhairi Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Bolívar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Burgon" title="Richard Burgon">Burgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronnie_Campbell" title="Ronnie Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Chapman" title="Maggie Chapman">Chapman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katy_Clark" title="Katy Clark">Clark (Katy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Clarke_(Irish_republican)" title="Tom Clarke (Irish republican)">Clarke (Tom)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cromwell" title="Oliver Cromwell">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Davidson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Ian Davidson (Scottish politician)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Drakeford" title="Mark Drakeford">Drakeford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Etherington" title="Bill Etherington">Etherington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Fabiani" title="Linda Fabiani">Fabiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ferguson_(politician)" title="Mark Ferguson (politician)">Ferguson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Flynn_(politician)" title="Paul Flynn (politician)">Flynn (Paul)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Flynn" title="Stephen Flynn">Flynn (Stephen)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Galloway" title="George Galloway">Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Gambetta" title="Léon Gambetta">Gambetta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Garibaldi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">de Gaulle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Greer" title="Ross Greer">Greer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_Gr%C3%A9vy" title="Jules Grévy">Grévy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nia_Griffith" title="Nia Griffith">Griffith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Griffiths_(Welsh_politician)" title="John Griffiths (Welsh politician)">Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Harvie" title="Patrick Harvie">Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Hatton" title="Derek Hatton">Hatton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert" title="Jacques Hébert">Hébert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_Hopkins" title="Kelvin Hopkins">Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Huppert" title="Julian Huppert">Huppert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhun_ap_Iorwerth" title="Rhun ap Iorwerth">Iorwerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenda_Jackson" title="Glenda Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elin_Jones" title="Elin Jones">Jones (Elin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynne_Jones" title="Lynne Jones">Jones (Lynne)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benito_Ju%C3%A1rez" title="Benito Juárez">Juárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosie_Kane" title="Rosie Kane">Kane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugo_La_Malfa" title="Ugo La Malfa">La Malfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Lewis_(politician)" title="Clive Lewis (politician)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caroline_Lucas" title="Caroline Lucas">Lucas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gillian_Mackay" title="Gillian Mackay">Mackay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie" title="William Lyon Mackenzie">Mackenzie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magid_Magid" title="Magid Magid">Magid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ann_McKechin" title="Ann McKechin">McKechin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Mullin_(politician)" title="Chris Mullin (politician)">Mullin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Naysmith" title="Doug Naysmith">Naysmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethel_Mannin" title="Ethel Mannin">Mannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDonnell" title="John McDonnell">McDonnell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisa_Nandy" title="Lisa Nandy">Nandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Nehru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pound" title="Stephen Pound">Pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Prescott" title="John Prescott">Prescott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Ritchie" title="Ken Ritchie">Ritchie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximilien_Robespierre" title="Maximilien Robespierre">Robespierre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethan_Sayed" title="Bethan Sayed">Sayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Skates" title="Ken Skates">Skates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Skinner" title="Dennis Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorna_Slater" title="Lorna Slater">Slater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Slaughter" title="Andy Slaughter">Slaughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat_Smith" title="Cat Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Spadolini" title="Giovanni Spadolini">Spadolini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Taverne" title="Dick Taverne">Taverne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleftherios_Venizelos" title="Eleftherios Venizelos">Venizelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Wilson_(Scottish_politician)" title="Bill Wilson (Scottish politician)">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanne_Wood" title="Leanne Wood">Wood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Theoretical works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(54–51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_on_Livy" title="Discourses on Livy">Discourses on Livy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1531)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Tenure_of_Kings_and_Magistrates" title="The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates">The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1649)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Commonwealth_of_Oceana" title="The Commonwealth of Oceana">The Commonwealth of Oceana</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1656)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourses_Concerning_Government" title="Discourses Concerning Government">Discourses Concerning Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1698)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_Inequality" title="Discourse on Inequality">Discourse on Inequality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1755)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1787–1788)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1794)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Revolution" title="On Revolution">On Revolution</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1963)</span></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ga%E1%B9%87asa%E1%B9%85gha" title="Gaṇasaṅgha"><span title="Sanskrit-language romanization"><i lang="sa-Latn">Gaṇasaṅgha</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Athens" title="Classical Athens">Classical Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish American wars of independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trienio_Liberal" title="Trienio Liberal">Trienio Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution_of_1848" title="French Revolution of 1848">French Revolution of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5_October_1910_revolution" title="5 October 1910 revolution">5 October 1910 revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Chinese Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Revolution_of_1918%E2%80%931919" class="mw-redirect" title="German Revolution of 1918–1919">German Revolution of 1918–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Revolution_of_1921" title="Mongolian Revolution of 1921">Mongolian Revolution of 1921</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/11_September_1922_Revolution" title="11 September 1922 Revolution">11 September 1922 Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_Greek_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_attempt" class="mw-redirect" title="1935 Greek coup d'état attempt">1935 Greek coup d'état attempt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">1946 Italian institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_civil_war" title="North Yemen civil war">North Yemen civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_Revolution" title="Zanzibar Revolution">Zanzibar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="1969 Libyan coup d'état">1969 Libyan coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1970_Cambodian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1970 Cambodian coup d'état">1970 Cambodian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapolitefsi" title="Metapolitefsi">Metapolitefsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Fijian_coups_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1987 Fijian coups d'état">1987 Fijian coups d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_Civil_War" title="Nepalese Civil War">Nepalese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbadian Republic Proclamation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">National variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Australia" title="Republicanism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Bahamas" title="Republicanism in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Barbados" title="Republicanism in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Canada" title="Republicanism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Jamaica" title="Republicanism in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-monarchism_in_Japan" title="Anti-monarchism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Morocco" title="Republicanism in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_Netherlands" title="Republicanism in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_New_Zealand" title="Republicanism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Norway" title="Republicanism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Spain" title="Republicanism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_Sweden" title="Republicanism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Republicanism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_republicanism" title="Scottish republicanism">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_radicalism" title="Classical radicalism">Classical radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_monarchy" title="Criticism of monarchy">Criticism of monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Emperor%27s_New_Clothes" title="The Emperor's New Clothes">The Emperor's New Clothes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobin_(politics)" title="Jacobin (politics)">Jacobinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_republics" title="List of republics">List of republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant_republic" title="Peasant republic">Peasant republic</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Primus_inter_pares" title="Primus inter pares">Primus inter pares</a></i></li> <li><a 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title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thys_Boke_Is_Myne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Thys_Boke_Is_Myne.jpg/220px-Thys_Boke_Is_Myne.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Thys_Boke_Is_Myne.jpg/330px-Thys_Boke_Is_Myne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Thys_Boke_Is_Myne.jpg/440px-Thys_Boke_Is_Myne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="991" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>'s childhood copy of <i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i>, bearing the inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne Prynce Henry"</figcaption></figure> <p>Cicero has been traditionally considered the master of Latin prose, with <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a> declaring that Cicero was "not the name of a man, but of eloquence itself."<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English words <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Ciceronian" class="extiw" title="wikt:Ciceronian">Ciceronian</a></i> (meaning "eloquent") and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cicerone" class="extiw" title="wikt:cicerone">cicerone</a></i> (meaning "local guide") derive from his name.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is credited with transforming Latin from a modest utilitarian language into a versatile literary medium capable of expressing abstract and complicated thoughts with clarity.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Julius Caesar praised Cicero's achievement by saying "it is more important to have greatly extended the frontiers of the Roman spirit than the frontiers of the Roman empire".<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/John_William_Mackail" title="John William Mackail">John William Mackail</a>, "Cicero's unique and imperishable glory is that he created the language of the civilized world, and used that language to create a style which nineteen centuries have not replaced, and in some respects have hardly altered."<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero was also an energetic writer with an interest in a wide variety of subjects, in keeping with the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophical</a> and rhetorical traditions in which he was trained. The quality and ready accessibility of Ciceronian texts favored very wide distribution and inclusion in teaching curricula, as suggested by a graffito at Pompeii, admonishing: "You will like Cicero, or you will be whipped".<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero was greatly admired by influential <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, who credited Cicero's <a href="/wiki/Lost_literary_work" title="Lost literary work">lost</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Hortensius_(Cicero)" title="Hortensius (Cicero)">Hortensius</a></i> for his eventual conversion to Christianity,<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and St. <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>, who had a feverish vision in which he was accused of being "follower of Cicero and not of Christ" before the judgment seat.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This influence further increased after the <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Early Middle Ages</a> in Europe, where more of his writings survived than any other Latin author. Medieval philosophers were influenced by Cicero's writings on <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> and innate rights.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs additional references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">additional citation(s) needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a>'s rediscovery of Cicero's letters provided the impetus for searches for ancient Greek and Latin writings scattered throughout European monasteries, and the subsequent rediscovery of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> led to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. Subsequently, Cicero became synonymous with classical Latin to such an extent that a number of humanist scholars began to assert that no Latin word or phrase should be used unless it appeared in Cicero's works, a stance criticised by <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His voluminous correspondence, much of it addressed to his friend Atticus, has been especially influential, introducing the art of refined letter writing to European culture. <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a>, the first century BC biographer of Atticus, remarked that Cicero's letters contained such a wealth of detail "concerning the inclinations of leading men, the faults of the generals, and the revolutions in the government" that their reader had little need for a history of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among Cicero's admirers were <a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the invention of Johannes Gutenberg's printing press, <i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> was the <a href="/wiki/List_of_editiones_principes_in_Latin" title="List of editiones principes in Latin">second book printed in Europe</a>, after the <a href="/wiki/Gutenberg_Bible" title="Gutenberg Bible">Gutenberg Bible</a>. Scholars note Cicero's influence on the rebirth of religious toleration in the 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero was especially popular with the <a href="/wiki/Philosophes" title="Philosophes">Philosophes</a> of the 18th century, including <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diderot" class="mw-redirect" title="Diderot">Diderot</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gibbon wrote of his first experience reading the author's collective works thus: "I tasted the beauty of the language; I breathed the spirit of freedom; and I imbibed from his precepts and examples the public and private sense of a man...after finishing the great author, a library of eloquence and reason, I formed a more extensive plan of reviewing the Latin classics..."<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Voltaire called Cicero "the greatest as well as the most elegant of Roman philosophers" and even staged a play based on Cicero's role in the <a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_conspiracy" title="Catilinarian conspiracy">Catilinarian conspiracy</a>, called <i>Rome Sauvée, ou Catilina</i>, to "make young people who go to the theatre acquainted with Cicero."<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Voltaire was spurred to pen the drama as a rebuff to his rival <a href="/wiki/Claude_Prosper_Jolyot_de_Cr%C3%A9billon" title="Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon">Claude Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon's</a> own play <i>Catilina</i>, which had portrayed Cicero as a coward and villain who hypocritically married his own daughter to Catiline.<sup id="cite_ref-Matthew_Sharpe_159-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthew_Sharpe-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Montesquieu produced his "Discourse on Cicero" in 1717, in which he heaped praise on the author because he rescued "philosophy from the hands of scholars, and freed it from the confusion of a foreign language".<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Montesquieu went on to declare that Cicero was "of all the ancients, the one who had the most personal merit, and whom I would prefer to resemble."<sup id="cite_ref-Matthew_Sharpe_159-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthew_Sharpe-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero the republican inspired the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a> and the revolutionaries of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> said, "As all the ages of the world have not produced a greater statesman and philosopher united than Cicero, his authority should have great weight."<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> names Cicero as one of a handful of major figures who contributed to a tradition "of public right" that informed his draft of the Declaration of Independence and shaped American understandings of "the common sense" basis for the right of revolution.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Camille_Desmoulins" title="Camille Desmoulins">Camille Desmoulins</a> said of the French republicans in 1789 that they were "mostly young people who, nourished by the reading of Cicero at school, had become passionate enthusiasts for liberty".<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the modern era, American <a href="/wiki/Libertarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian">libertarian</a> <a href="/wiki/Jim_Powell_(historian)" title="Jim Powell (historian)">Jim Powell</a> starts his history of liberty with the sentence: "Marcus Tullius Cicero expressed principles that became the bedrock of liberty in the modern world."<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Likewise, no other ancient personality has inspired as much venomous dislike as Cicero, especially in more modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His commitment to the values of the Republic accommodated a hatred of the poor and persistent opposition to the advocates and mechanisms of popular representation.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> referred to him as "the most contemptible scoundrel in history" for upholding republican "democracy" while at the same time denouncing land and class reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero has faced criticism for exaggerating the democratic qualities of republican Rome, and for defending the Roman oligarchy against the popular reforms of Caesar.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Parenti" title="Michael Parenti">Michael Parenti</a> admits Cicero's abilities as an orator, but finds him a vain, pompous and hypocritical personality who, when it suited him, could show public support for popular causes that he privately despised. Parenti presents Cicero's prosecution of the Catiline conspiracy as legally flawed at least, and possibly unlawful.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero also had an influence on modern astronomy. <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>, searching for ancient views on earth motion, said that he "first ... found in Cicero that <a href="/wiki/Hicetas" title="Hicetas">Hicetas</a> supposed the earth to move."<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notably, "Cicero" was the name attributed to size 12 font in typesetting table drawers. For ease of reference, type sizes 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 20 were all given different names.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Works">Works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marci_Tullii_Ciceronis_Opera_Omnia.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Marci_Tullii_Ciceronis_Opera_Omnia.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Marci_Tullii_Ciceronis_Opera_Omnia.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Marci_Tullii_Ciceronis_Opera_Omnia.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Marci_Tullii_Ciceronis_Opera_Omnia.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Marci_Tullii_Ciceronis_Opera_Omnia.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Marci_Tullii_Ciceronis_Opera_Omnia.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5032" data-file-height="7544" /></a><figcaption><i>Marci Tullii Ciceronis Opera Omnia</i> (1566)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Writings_of_Cicero" title="Writings of Cicero">Writings of Cicero</a></div> <p>Cicero was declared a <a href="/wiki/Righteous_pagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Righteous pagan">righteous pagan</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Early Church</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001259_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001259-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent Roman and medieval Christian writers quoted liberally from his works <i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> (<i>On the Commonwealth</i>) and <i><a href="/wiki/De_Legibus" title="De Legibus">De Legibus</a></i> (<i>On the Laws</i>), and much of his work has been recreated from these surviving fragments. Cicero also articulated an early, abstract conceptualization of rights, based on ancient law and custom. Of Cicero's books, six on rhetoric have survived, as well as parts of seven on philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrick_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrick-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of his speeches, 88 were recorded, but only 52 survive.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_archaeology">In archaeology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: In archaeology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cicero's great repute in Italy has led to numerous ruins being identified as having belonged to him, though none have been substantiated with absolute certainty. In <a href="/wiki/Formia" title="Formia">Formia</a>, two Roman-era ruins are popularly believed to be Cicero's mausoleum, the <i>Tomba di Cicerone</i>, and the villa where he was assassinated in 43 BC. The latter building is centered around a central hall with Doric columns and a coffered vault, with a separate <a href="/wiki/Nymphaeum" title="Nymphaeum">nymphaeum</a>, on five acres of land near Formia.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A modern villa was built on the site after the Rubino family purchased the land from <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies">Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies</a> in 1868. Cicero's supposed tomb is a 24-meter (79 feet) tall tower on an <i><a href="/wiki/Opus_quadratum" title="Opus quadratum">opus quadratum</a></i> base on the ancient Via Appia outside of Formia. Some suggest that it is not in fact Cicero's tomb, but a monument built on the spot where Cicero was intercepted and assassinated while trying to reach the sea.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>, a large villa excavated in the mid 18th century just outside the Herculaneum Gate was widely believed to have been Cicero's, who was known to have owned a holiday villa in Pompeii he called his <i>Pompeianum</i>. The villa was stripped of its fine frescoes and mosaics and then re-buried after 1763 – it has yet to be re-excavated.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, contemporaneous descriptions of the building from the excavators combined with Cicero's own references to his <i>Pompeianum</i> differ, making it unlikely that it is Cicero's villa.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Rome, the location of Cicero's house has been roughly identified from excavations of the Republican-era stratum on the northwestern slope of the Palatine Hill.<sup id="cite_ref-rome_alive_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rome_alive-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero's <i>domus</i> has long been known to have stood in the area, according to his own descriptions and those of later authors, but there is some debate about whether it stood near the base of the hill, very close to the Roman Forum, or nearer to the summit.<sup id="cite_ref-rome_alive_182-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rome_alive-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During his life the area was the most desirable in Rome, densely occupied with Patrician houses including the <i>Domus Publica</i> of Julius Caesar and the home of Cicero's mortal enemy Clodius.<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_fictional_portrayals">Notable fictional portrayals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notable fictional portrayals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Dante" class="mw-redirect" title="Dante">Dante</a>'s 1320 poem the <i><a href="/wiki/Divine_Comedy" title="Divine Comedy">Divine Comedy</a></i>, the author encounters Cicero, among other philosophers, in <a href="/wiki/Limbo" title="Limbo">Limbo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ben_Jonson" title="Ben Jonson">Ben Jonson</a> dramatised the <a href="/wiki/Second_Catilinarian_Conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Catilinarian Conspiracy">conspiracy of Catiline</a> in his play <i><a href="/wiki/Catiline_His_Conspiracy" title="Catiline His Conspiracy">Catiline His Conspiracy</a></i>, featuring Cicero as a character.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero also appears as a minor character in <a href="/wiki/William_Shakespeare" title="William Shakespeare">William Shakespeare</a>'s play <i><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(play)" title="Julius Caesar (play)">Julius Caesar</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cicero was portrayed on the motion picture screen by British actor <a href="/wiki/Alan_Napier" title="Alan Napier">Alan Napier</a> in the 1953 film <i><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(1953_film)" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Caesar (1953 film)">Julius Caesar</a></i>, based on Shakespeare's play.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He has also been played by such noted actors as <a href="/wiki/Michael_Hordern" title="Michael Hordern">Michael Hordern</a> (in <i><a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_(1963_film)" title="Cleopatra (1963 film)">Cleopatra</a></i>),<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Morell" title="André Morell">André Morell</a> (in the 1970 <i><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar_(1970_film)" title="Julius Caesar (1970 film)">Julius Caesar</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most recently, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Rome_characters" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Rome characters">Cicero</a> was portrayed by <a href="/wiki/David_Bamber" title="David Bamber">David Bamber</a> in the HBO series <i><a href="/wiki/Rome_(TV_series)" title="Rome (TV series)">Rome</a></i> (2005–2007) and appeared in both seasons.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the historical novel series <i><a href="/wiki/Masters_of_Rome" title="Masters of Rome">Masters of Rome</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Colleen_McCullough" title="Colleen McCullough">Colleen McCullough</a> presents a not-so-flattering depiction of Cicero's career, showing him struggling with an inferiority complex and vanity, morally flexible and fatally indiscreet, while his rival Julius Caesar is shown in a more approving light.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero is portrayed as a hero in the novel <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_Pillar_of_Iron&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A Pillar of Iron (page does not exist)">A Pillar of Iron</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Taylor_Caldwell" title="Taylor Caldwell">Taylor Caldwell</a> (1965). <a href="/wiki/Robert_Harris_(novelist)" title="Robert Harris (novelist)">Robert Harris</a>' novels <i><a href="/wiki/Imperium_(Harris_novel)" title="Imperium (Harris novel)">Imperium</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Lustrum_(novel)" title="Lustrum (novel)">Lustrum</a></i> (published under the name <i>Conspirata</i> in the United States) and <i><a href="/wiki/Dictator_(Harris_novel)" title="Dictator (Harris novel)">Dictator</a></i> comprise a three-part series based on the life of Cicero. In these novels Cicero's character is depicted in a more favorable way than in those of McCullough, with his positive traits equaling or outweighing his weaknesses (while conversely Caesar is depicted as more sinister than in McCullough).<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cicero is a major recurring character in the <i><a href="/wiki/Roma_Sub_Rosa" title="Roma Sub Rosa">Roma Sub Rosa</a></i> series of mystery novels by <a href="/wiki/Steven_Saylor" title="Steven Saylor">Steven Saylor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also appears several times as a peripheral character in <a href="/wiki/John_Maddox_Roberts" title="John Maddox Roberts">John Maddox Roberts</a>' <a href="/wiki/SPQR_series" title="SPQR series"><i>SPQR</i> series</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Barnett_(actor)" title="Samuel Barnett (actor)">Samuel Barnett</a> portrays Cicero in a 2017 <a href="/wiki/Audio_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio drama">audio drama</a> series pilot produced by <a href="/wiki/Big_Finish_Productions" title="Big Finish Productions">Big Finish Productions</a>. A full series was released the following year.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All episodes are written by <a href="/wiki/David_Llewellyn_(author)" title="David Llewellyn (author)">David Llewellyn</a><sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and directed and produced by <a href="/wiki/Scott_Handcock" title="Scott Handcock">Scott Handcock</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Giancarlo_Esposito" title="Giancarlo Esposito">Giancarlo Esposito</a> portrays Mayor Franklyn Cicero, a character from <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ford_Coppola" title="Francis Ford Coppola">Francis Ford Coppola</a>'s 2024 sci-fi epic film <a href="/wiki/Megalopolis_(film)" title="Megalopolis (film)">Megalopolis</a>, which is a modern futuristic interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Catiline_Conspiracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Catiline Conspiracy">Catiline Conspiracy</a>. In the film, Esposito stars opposite <a href="/wiki/Adam_Driver" title="Adam Driver">Adam Driver</a>, who portrays a character named Cesar Catilina.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Marcus_Tullius_Tiro" title="Marcus Tullius Tiro">Marcus Tullius Tiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marius_Nizolius" title="Marius Nizolius">Marius Nizolius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otium" title="Otium">Otium</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Socratici_viri" class="mw-redirect" title="Socratici viri">Socratici viri</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tempest_in_a_teapot" title="Tempest in a teapot">Tempest in a teapot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Translation#Western_theory" title="Translation">Translation</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The name is infrequently <a href="/wiki/Anglicized" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicized">anglicized</a> as <b>Tully</b><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">TUL</span>-ee</i></a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wiedemann describes the senatus consultum ultimum by the late republic as "little more than a fig-leaf by those who could muster a majority in the senate ... to legitimate the use of force".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources vary, but seem to indicate that 52 survived in whole and 6 more in part</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 23em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magistracies and years thereof from <a href="#CITEREFBroughton1952">Broughton 1952</a>, p. 627.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iep.utm.edu/cicero-a">"IEP – Cicero: Academic Skepticism"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200429192241/https://www.iep.utm.edu/cicero-a/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IEP+%E2%80%93+Cicero%3A+Academic+Skepticism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fcicero-a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.g., in Howard Jones, <i>Master Tully: Cicero in Tudor England</i> (Nieuwkoop: De Graaf, 1998).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>Academica</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://attalus.org/cicero/academica2b.html#65">Book II, Section 65</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925155035/http://attalus.org/cicero/academica2b.html#65">Archived</a> 25 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFergusonBalsdon2023-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFergusonBalsdon2023_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFergusonBalsdon2023">Ferguson & Balsdon 2023</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Rawson" title="Elizabeth Rawson">Rawson, E.</a>: <i>Cicero, a portrait</i> (1975) p. 303</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaskell1964" class="citation book cs1">Haskell, Henry Joseph (1964). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VeBBAAAAIAAJ"><i>This was Cicero</i></a>. Fawcett Publications Incorporated. pp. 300–301.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=This+was+Cicero&rft.pages=300-301&rft.pub=Fawcett+Publications+Incorporated&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Haskell&rft.aufirst=Henry+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVeBBAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero">"Cicero | Biography, Philosophy, Writings, Books, Death, & Facts | Encyclopædia Britannica"</a>. <i>britannica.com</i>. 10 May 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220714104556/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=britannica.com&rft.atitle=Cicero+%7C+Biography%2C+Philosophy%2C+Writings%2C+Books%2C+Death%2C+%26+Facts+%7C+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-05-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FCicero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harrison2008-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Harrison2008_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrison2008" class="citation book cs1">Harrison, Stephen (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RI0ivXkSqjAC"><i>A Companion to Latin Literature</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3737-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3737-9"><bdi>978-1-4051-3737-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619065428/https://books.google.com/books?id=RI0ivXkSqjAC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 September</span> 2020</span>. <q>Latin literature in the period 90–40 BC presents one feature that is unique in Classical, and perhaps even in the whole of Western, literature. Although it is a period from which a substantial amount of literature in a wide variety of genres survives, more than 75 per cent of that literature was written by a single man: Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero wrote speeches, philosophical and rhetorical trea- tises, letters and poetry, which in terms of quantity outweigh all other extant writings of the period.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Latin+Literature&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3737-9&rft.aulast=Harrison&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRI0ivXkSqjAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Inc1995-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Inc1995_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerriam-Webster,_Inc1995" class="citation book cs1">Merriam-Webster, Inc (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eKNK1YwHcQ4C&pg=PA244">"Ciceronian period"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature</i>. Merriam-Webster. p. 244. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87779-042-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87779-042-6"><bdi>978-0-87779-042-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ciceronian+period&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Literature&rft.pages=244&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-87779-042-6&rft.au=Merriam-Webster%2C+Inc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeKNK1YwHcQ4C%26pg%3DPA244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>Selected Works</i>, 1971, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cicero, </i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://attalus.org/cicero/academica2a.html#17"><i>Acad.</i> 2.17–18</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925154853/http://attalus.org/cicero/academica2a.html#17">Archived</a> 25 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Conte, G.B.: "Latin Literature: a history" (1987) p. 199</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. C.J. Dowson (2023), <i>Philosophia Translata: The Development of Latin Philosophical Vocabulary through Translation from Greek.</i> Brill: Leiden-Boston, pp. 314ff</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sights.seindal.dk/lexicon/roman-culture/severed-heads-and-hands/">"Severed Heads and Hands"</a>. <i>Photo Archive</i>. 6 August 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221209222952/https://sights.seindal.dk/lexicon/roman-culture/severed-heads-and-hands/">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Photo+Archive&rft.atitle=Severed+Heads+and+Hands&rft.date=2003-08-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsights.seindal.dk%2Flexicon%2Froman-culture%2Fsevered-heads-and-hands%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wootton1996-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wootton1996_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWootton1996" class="citation book cs1">Wootton, David (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernpoliticalt00woot"><i>Modern Political Thought: Readings from Machiavelli to Nietzsche</i></a></span>. Hackett Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernpoliticalt00woot/page/1">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-341-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-341-9"><bdi>978-0-87220-341-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Political+Thought%3A+Readings+from+Machiavelli+to+Nietzsche&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-341-9&rft.aulast=Wootton&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernpoliticalt00woot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZieliński" class="citation book cs1">Zieliński, Tadeusz. <i>Cicero Im Wandel Der Jahrhunderte</i>. Nabu Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero+Im+Wandel+Der+Jahrhunderte&rft.pub=Nabu+Press&rft.aulast=Zieli%C5%84ski&rft.aufirst=Tadeusz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood1991" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Neal (1991). <i>Cicero's Social and Political Thought</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07427-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07427-9"><bdi>978-0-520-07427-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero%27s+Social+and+Political+Thought&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07427-9&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Neal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicgorski" class="citation web cs1">Nicgorski, Walter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nlnrac.org/classical/cicero">"Cicero and the Natural Law"</a>. Natural Law, Natural Rights, and American Constitutionalism. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140114200527/http://www.nlnrac.org/classical/cicero">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 May</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cicero+and+the+Natural+Law&rft.pub=Natural+Law%2C+Natural+Rights%2C+and+American+Constitutionalism&rft.aulast=Nicgorski&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nlnrac.org%2Fclassical%2Fcicero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriffinBoardmanGriffinMurray2001" class="citation book cs1">Griffin, Miriam; Boardman, John; Griffin, Jasper; Murray, Oswyn (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate00john_1"><i>The Oxford Illustrated History of the Roman World</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. pp. 76ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285436-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285436-0"><bdi>978-0-19-285436-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Illustrated+History+of+the+Roman+World&rft.pages=76ff&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-285436-0&rft.aulast=Griffin&rft.aufirst=Miriam&rft.au=Boardman%2C+John&rft.au=Griffin%2C+Jasper&rft.au=Murray%2C+Oswyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordillustrate00john_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShackleton_Bailey1999" class="citation book cs1">Shackleton Bailey, D. R. (1999). Introduction. <i>Letters to Atticus</i>. By Cicero. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 1. Translated by Shackleton Bailey, D. R. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 3. <q>Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on 3 January 106 BC at his family home near the hill town of Arpinum (still Arpino) about seventy miles to the east of Rome.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Letters+to+Atticus&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Shackleton+Bailey&rft.aufirst=D.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.attalus.org/docs/sig2/s747.html">747</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225208/http://www.attalus.org/docs/sig2/s747.html">Archived</a> 3 March 2018 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rawson, E.: <i>Cicero, a portrait</i> (1975) pp. 5–6; Cicero, <i>Ad Familiares</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Cic.+Fam.+16.26.2">16.26.2</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080511161442/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Cic.+Fam.+16.26.2">Archived</a> 11 May 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Quintus to Cicero)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201119,_citing_[[#CITEREFPlut._Cic.|Plut._''Cic.'']],_1.3–5-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201119,_citing_[[#CITEREFPlut._Cic.|Plut._''Cic.'']],_1.3–5_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, p. 19, citing <a href="#CITEREFPlut._Cic.">Plut. <i>Cic.</i></a>, 1.3–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''1.3–5-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''1.3–5_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlut._Cic.">Plut. <i>Cic.</i></a>, 1.3–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201127-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201127_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, p. 27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201127–28-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201127–28_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest2011xi,_28-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest2011xi,_28_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, pp. xi, 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt200134-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt200134_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt200135-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt200135_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt200135_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, p. 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Officiis, book 1, n. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001253–55-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001253–55_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, pp. 253–55.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rawson: "Cicero, a portrait" (1975) p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">J.P.F. Wynne, "Cicero's Skepticism" in <i>Skepticism: From Antiquity to the Present</i> Bloomsbury Academic 2018 p. 93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrebs2009" class="citation journal cs1">Krebs, Christopher B (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2434123">"A Seemingly Artless Conversation: Cicero's <i>De Legibus</i> (1.1–5)"</a>. <i>Classical Philology</i>. <b>104</b> (1): 90–106. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F603575">10.1086/603575</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0009-837X">0009-837X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163218114">163218114</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231220142217/https://www.academia.edu/2434123">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+Philology&rft.atitle=A+Seemingly+Artless+Conversation%3A+Cicero%27s+De+Legibus+%281.1%E2%80%935%29&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=90-106&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163218114%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0009-837X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F603575&rft.aulast=Krebs&rft.aufirst=Christopher+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F2434123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''2.2-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''2.2_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlut._Cic.">Plut. <i>Cic.</i></a>, 2.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''3.2_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlut._Cic.">Plut. <i>Cic.</i></a>, 3.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1940) p. 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''313–314-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''313–314_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCic._Brut.">Cic. <i>Brut.</i></a>, 313–314.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''315-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''315_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCic._Brut.">Cic. <i>Brut.</i></a>, 315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''316-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''316_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCic._Brut.">Cic. <i>Brut.</i></a>, 316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gesine Manuwald, Cicero: Philippics 3–9, vol. 2, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2007, pp. 129ff</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, p. 32. See also <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicero1930" class="citation book cs1">Cicero (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://attalus.org/cicero/quinctius.html"><i>Pro Quinctio</i></a>. Translated by Freese, J J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410150714/http://attalus.org/cicero/quinctius.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pro+Quinctio&rft.date=1930&rft.au=Cicero&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fattalus.org%2Fcicero%2Fquinctius.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201137-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201137_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201137_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''315–316-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECic._''Brut.''315–316_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCic._Brut.">Cic. <i>Brut.</i></a>, 315–316.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201137–38-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201137–38_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, pp. 37–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, p. 39. <a href="#CITEREFPlut._Cic.">Plut. <i>Cic.</i></a>, 5.1–2 claims that Cicero was unpopular and received a warning against oratory from the oracle at Delphi; this is unlikely and contradicted by Cicero's own claims.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201141–42-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201141–42_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theitalianacademy.com/portfolio-posts/curious-case-tomb-archimedes/#:~:text=Cicero%20found%20it%20and%20accused%20the%20Syracusans%20of%20negligence.">"The Italian Academy"</a>. <i>The Curious Case of the Tomb of Archimedes</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240202084909/https://www.theitalianacademy.com/portfolio-posts/curious-case-tomb-archimedes/#:~:text=Cicero%20found%20it%20and%20accused%20the%20Syracusans%20of%20negligence.">Archived</a> from the original on 2 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Curious+Case+of+the+Tomb+of+Archimedes&rft.atitle=The+Italian+Academy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theitalianacademy.com%2Fportfolio-posts%2Fcurious-case-tomb-archimedes%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DCicero%2520found%2520it%2520and%2520accused%2520the%2520Syracusans%2520of%2520negligence.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Verres was governor of Sicily for three years, 73–71 BC. <a href="#CITEREFBroughton1952">Broughton 1952</a>, pp. 112, 119, 124. Prior to Verres, Sextus Peducaeus and Gaius Licinius Sacerdos had served as Sicilian <i>propraetores</i> (75 and 74 BC, respectively). <a href="#CITEREFBroughton1952">Broughton 1952</a>, pp. 98, 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201142–45-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201142–45_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, pp. 42–45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETempest201146-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETempest201146_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTempest2011">Tempest 2011</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoardman2001" class="citation book cs1">Boardman, John (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxfordillustrate00john_1"><i>The Oxford illustrated history of the Roman world</i></a></span>. OUP Oxford. pp. 84ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285436-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285436-0"><bdi>978-0-19-285436-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2011</span>. <q>extortionate.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+illustrated+history+of+the+Roman+world&rft.pages=84ff&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-285436-0&rft.aulast=Boardman&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxfordillustrate00john_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Trans. Grant, Michael. Cicero: Selected Works. London: Penguin Books. 1960.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bartleby.com/268/2/11.html">"III. The First Oration Against Catiline by Cicero. Rome (218 B.C.–84 A.D.). Vol. II. Bryan, William Jennings, ed. 1906. The World's Famous Orations"</a>. <i>www.bartleby.com</i>. 10 October 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200526230138/https://www.bartleby.com/268/2/11.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bartleby.com&rft.atitle=III.+The+First+Oration+Against+Catiline+by+Cicero.+Rome+%28218+B.C.%E2%80%9384+A.D.%29.+Vol.+II.+Bryan%2C+William+Jennings%2C+ed.+1906.+The+World%27s+Famous+Orations&rft.date=2022-10-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F268%2F2%2F11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JLP106-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-JLP106_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-JLP106_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Leach, <i>Pompey the Great</i>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442_58-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199442_58-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReed2014" class="citation web cs1">Reed, Lawrence W. (29 August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fee.org/articles/how-to-lose-a-constitutionlessons-from-roman-history/">"How to Lose a Constitution – Lessons from Roman History"</a>. <i>fee.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619065458/https://fee.org/articles/how-to-lose-a-constitutionlessons-from-roman-history/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=fee.org&rft.atitle=How+to+Lose+a+Constitution+%26ndash%3B%26%2332%3BLessons+from+Roman+History&rft.date=2014-08-29&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffee.org%2Farticles%2Fhow-to-lose-a-constitutionlessons-from-roman-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199443-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199443_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199444_61-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrebs2020-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrebs2020_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKrebs2020">Krebs 2020</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, Marcus Tullius, <i>Selected Works</i>, Penguin Books Ltd, Great Britain, 1971.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbbott1901" class="citation book cs1">Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). <i>A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions</i>. United States: Ginn. p. 110.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+and+Description+of+Roman+Political+Institutions&rft.place=United+States&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Ginn&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Abbott&rft.aufirst=Frank+Frost&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCic._Cat.">Cic. <i>Cat.</i></a>, 3.2.4–4.9; <a href="#CITEREFSall._Cat.">Sall. <i>Cat.</i></a>, 40–45; <a href="#CITEREFPlut._Cic.">Plut. <i>Cic.</i></a>, 18.4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapiro2005" class="citation book cs1">Shapiro, Susan O. (2005). <i>O Tempora! O Mores! Cicero's Catilinarian orations; a student edition with historical essays</i>. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806136622" title="Special:BookSources/9780806136622"><bdi>9780806136622</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=O+Tempora%21+O+Mores%21+Cicero%27s+Catilinarian+orations%3B+a+student+edition+with+historical+essays&rft.place=Norman%2C+OK&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780806136622&rft.aulast=Shapiro&rft.aufirst=Susan+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001112-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001112_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStockton1971" class="citation book cs1">Stockton, David (1971). <i>Cicero: A Political Biography</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 174–175.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero%3A+A+Political+Biography&rft.pages=174-175&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Stockton&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199446-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199446_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGwatkin1942" class="citation journal cs1">Gwatkin, W. E. (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1296296031">"Catilinarian conspiracy, the aftermath of the"</a>. <i>The Classical Bulletin</i>. <b>18</b> (15). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/1296296031">1296296031</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619065428/https://www.proquest.com/docview/1296296031">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 February</span> 2023</span>. <q>This city and commonwealth has been preserved from destruction by me.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Catilinarian+conspiracy%2C+the+aftermath+of+the.&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=15&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Gwatkin&rft.aufirst=W.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F1296296031&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/1296296031">1296296031</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Clayton, Edward. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/cicero/#H2">"Cicero (106–43 BC)"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220222161508/https://iep.utm.edu/cicero/#H2">Archived</a> from the original on 22 February 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cicero+%28106%E2%80%9343+BC%29&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fcicero%2F%23H2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199447-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199447_73-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199447_73-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlattsDeLaine2018" class="citation book cs1">Platts, Hannah; DeLaine, Janet (2018). "Housing". In Holleran, Claire; Claridge, Amanda (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118300664"><i>A companion to the city of Rome</i></a>. Wiley. p. 301. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118300664">10.1002/9781118300664</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9819-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-9819-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-9819-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162821882">162821882</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231126071332/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781118300664">Archived</a> from the original on 26 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Housing&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+the+city+of+Rome&rft.pages=301&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162821882%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118300664&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-9819-6&rft.aulast=Platts&rft.aufirst=Hannah&rft.au=DeLaine%2C+Janet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fbook%2F10.1002%2F9781118300664&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cicero_house-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cicero_house_75-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cicero_house_75-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteven_M._Cerutti1997" class="citation news cs1">Steven M. Cerutti (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/1104">"The Location of the Houses of Cicero and Clodius and the Porticus Catuli on the Palatine Hill"</a>. Vol. 118, no. 3. American Journal of Philology. p. 417. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180621143314/https://muse.jhu.edu/article/1104">Archived</a> from the original on 21 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Location+of+the+Houses+of+Cicero+and+Clodius+and+the+Porticus+Catuli+on+the+Palatine+Hill&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=417&rft.date=1997&rft.au=Steven+M.+Cerutti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F1104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rawson, E.: <i>Cicero</i>, 1984 106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199451-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199451_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199451_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450_78-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450_78-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450_78-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199450_78-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Holland, <i>Rubicon</i>, pp. 237–239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tom Holland, <i>Rubicon</i>, pp. 238–239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskell, H.J.: <i>This was Cicero</i>, (1964) p. 200</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskell, H.J.: <i>This was Cicero</i>, (1964) p. 201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch. <i>Cicero</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero*.html#32">32</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240131100133/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero%2A.html#32">Archived</a> 31 January 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailscicerolifetimeso00everpage145_145]-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailscicerolifetimeso00everpage145_145]_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cicerolifetimeso00ever/page/145">145</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskell, H.J.: <i>This was Cicero</i> (1964) p. 201</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>Samtliga brev/Collected letters</i> (in a Swedish translation)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskell. H.J.: <i>This was Cicero</i>, p. 204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailscicerolifetimeso00everpage165_165]-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001[httpsarchiveorgdetailscicerolifetimeso00everpage165_165]_88-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cicerolifetimeso00ever/page/165">165</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicero" class="citation book cs1">Cicero. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0020:text%3DDom.:chapter%3D1"><i>De Domo Sua</i></a>. perseus.tufts.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201117035405/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0020%3Atext%3DDom.%3Achapter%3D1">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Domo+Sua&rft.pub=perseus.tufts.edu&rft.au=Cicero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0020%3Atext%253DDom.%3Achapter%253D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199452-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199452_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199453-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199453_91-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199453_91-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001281–283-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001281–283_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, p. 281–283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Leach, <i>Pompey the Great</i>, p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grant, M: <i>Cicero: Selected Works</i>, p. 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnglert2010" class="citation book cs1">Englert, Walter (2010). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001/acref-9780195170726-e-253?rskey=R67z5t&result=6">"Cicero"</a></span>. In Gagarin, Michael (ed.). <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195388398" title="Special:BookSources/9780195388398"><bdi>9780195388398</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2024</span> – via Oxford Reference.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cicero&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Greece+and+Rome&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780195388398&rft.aulast=Englert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195170726.001.0001%2Facref-9780195170726-e-253%3Frskey%3DR67z5t%26result%3D6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span> On Caelius's case, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerry2020" class="citation book cs1">Berry, Dominic H. (2020). <i>Cicero's Catilinarians</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. xx. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195326468" title="Special:BookSources/9780195326468"><bdi>9780195326468</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero%27s+Catilinarians&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=xx&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780195326468&rft.aulast=Berry&rft.aufirst=Dominic+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrillo2014" class="citation journal cs1">Grillo, Luca (2014). "A Double <i>Sermocinatio</i> and a Resolved Dilemma in Cicero's <i>Pro Plancio</i>". <i>The Classical Quarterly</i>. <b>64</b> (1): 215. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009838813000669">10.1017/S0009838813000669</a>. <a href="/wiki/EISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="EISSN (identifier)">eISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1471-6844">1471-6844</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26546296">26546296</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=A+Double+Sermocinatio+and+a+Resolved+Dilemma+in+Cicero%27s+Pro+Plancio&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=215&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26546296%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.eissn=1471-6844&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0009838813000669&rft.aulast=Grillo&rft.aufirst=Luca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span>, quoting Catullus 49.7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStumpf199154-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStumpf199154_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStumpf1991">Stumpf 1991</a>, p. 54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199459-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199459_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199459_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001186–88-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001186–88_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, pp. 186–88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_John_Church" title="Alfred John Church">Alfred John Church</a>, <i>Roman Life in the Days of Cicero</i>, (Kindle edition), ch. XIII., loc. 1834</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Church, loc. 1871</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Church, loc. 1834</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Church, loc. 1845; Gareth C. Sampson, <i>The defeat of Rome, Crassus, Carrhae & the invasion of the East</i>, pp. 155–158; Cicero, <i>Letters to friends</i>, 15.3.1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gareth C. Sampson, <i>The defeat of Rome, Crassus, Carrhae & the invasion of the East</i>, p. 159; Cicero, <i>Letters to friends</i>, 2.10.2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Church, loc. 1855</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199462_106-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Church, ibid</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, The Life of Cicero, 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch" class="citation web cs1">Plutarch. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/caesar*.html">"Life of Caesar"</a>. <i>University of Chicago</i>. p. 575. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20180213130122/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/plutarch/lives/caesar%2A.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2021</span>. <q>It was Cicero who proposed the first honours for [Caesar] in the senate, and their magnitude was, after all, not too great for a man; but others added excessive honours and vied with one another in proposing them, thus rendering Caesar odious and obnoxious even to the mildest citizens because of the pretension and extravagance of what was decreed for him.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Chicago&rft.atitle=Life+of+Caesar&rft.pages=575&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2Fe%2Froman%2Ftexts%2Fplutarch%2Flives%2Fcaesar%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001215-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001215_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, p. 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>Cicero</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero*.html#38">38.1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240131100133/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero%2A.html#38">Archived</a> 31 January 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199463-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199463_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWiedemann199463_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWiedemann1994">Wiedemann 1994</a>, p. 63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://attalus.org/cicero/philippic2.html#28"><i>Second Philippic</i>, xii.28</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230410154917/http://attalus.org/cicero/philippic2.html#28">Archived</a> 10 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>Ad Familiares</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/fam10.shtml#28">10.28</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230603024803/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/fam10.shtml#28">Archived</a> 3 June 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew B Schwartz, Finley Hooper, <i>Roman Letters: History from a Personal Point of View</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WbhoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48">p. 48</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619065440/https://books.google.com/books?id=WbhoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48#v=onepage&q&f=false">Archived</a> 19 June 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cecil W. Wooten, "Cicero's Philippics and Their Demosthenic Model" <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ryan, <i>Rank and Participation</i>, pp. 200–203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=5f8cc5dc35ef36395a3da25a000441ad&action=2&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX2878000037&userGroupName=ein_remote&jsid=c02d33644f4e1beaed19877135f2bf8c">"World History in Context"</a>. <i>ic.galegroup.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619065545/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=WHIC&u=ein_remote&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CCX2878000037&asid=1718856000000~331bb947">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 January</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ic.galegroup.com&rft.atitle=World+History+in+Context&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fic.galegroup.com%2Fic%2Fwhic%2FReferenceDetailsPage%2FReferenceDetailsWindow%3Fzid%3D5f8cc5dc35ef36395a3da25a000441ad%26action%3D2%26catId%3D%26documentId%3DGALE%257CCX2878000037%26userGroupName%3Dein_remote%26jsid%3Dc02d33644f4e1beaed19877135f2bf8c&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Appian, <i>Civil Wars</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/4*.html#19">4.19</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210327022847/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/4%2A.html#19">Archived</a> 27 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plutarch, <i>Cicero</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero*.html#46.3">46.3–5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240131100133/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero%2A.html#46.3">Archived</a> 31 January 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haskell_1964_293-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haskell_1964_293_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haskell_1964_293_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskell, H.J.: <i>This was Cicero</i> (1964) p. 293</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seneca, <i>Suasoria</i> 6:18 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.attalus.org/translate/suasoria6.html">http://www.attalus.org/translate/suasoria6.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240116063553/http://www.attalus.org/translate/suasoria6.html">Archived</a> 16 January 2024 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cassius Dio, <i>Roman History</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/47*.html#8.4">47.8.4</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210327022845/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/47%2A.html#8.4">Archived</a> 27 March 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2023)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001302–304-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEveritt2001302–304_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEveritt2001">Everitt 2001</a>, p. 302–304.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''49.5-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlut._''Cic.''49.5_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPlut._Cic.">Plut. <i>Cic.</i></a>, 49.5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaños2019" class="citation web cs1">Baños, José (26 February 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/2019/02/brutal-beheading-cicero-last-defender-roman-republic">"The brutal beheading of Cicero, last defender of the Roman Republic"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210319000211/https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/2019/02/brutal-beheading-cicero-last-defender-roman-republic">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=The+brutal+beheading+of+Cicero%2C+last+defender+of+the+Roman+Republic&rft.date=2019-02-26&rft.aulast=Ba%C3%B1os&rft.aufirst=Jos%C3%A9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.co.uk%2F2019%2F02%2Fbrutal-beheading-cicero-last-defender-roman-republic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson1975203–205-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawson1975203–205_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawson1975">Rawson 1975</a>, p. 203–205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskell, H.J. <i>This was Cicero</i> (1964) p. 296</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Castren and Pietilä-Castren: "Antiikin käsikirja", <i>Handbook of antiquity</i> (2000) p. 237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERawson197525-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawson197525_131-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawson1975">Rawson 1975</a>, p. 25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreggiari200776ff-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreggiari200776ff_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreggiari2007">Treggiari 2007</a>, pp. 76ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETreggiari2007133-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETreggiari2007133_133-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTreggiari2007">Treggiari 2007</a>, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rawson_1975_225-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rawson_1975_225_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRawson1975">Rawson 1975</a>, p. 225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskell H.J.: <i>This was Cicero</i>, p. 95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haskell_1964_249-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Haskell_1964_249_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haskell, H.J.: "This was Cicero" (1964) p. 249</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cicero, <i>Letters to Atticus</i>, 12.14. 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Sellers</a>, NYU Press, 1994</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Jefferson, "Letter to Henry Lee," 8 May 1825, in The Political Thought of American Statesmen, eds. Morton Frisch and Richard Stevens (Itasca, Ill.: F. E. Peacock Publishers, 1973), 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAulard1901" class="citation book cs1">Aulard, François-Alphonse (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/histoirepolitiqu01aula"><i>Histoire politique de la Révolution française: Origines et Développement de la Démocratie et de la République (1789–1804)</i></a>. Librairie Armand Colin. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/histoirepolitiqu01aula/page/5">5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+politique+de+la+R%C3%A9volution+fran%C3%A7aise%3A+Origines+et+D%C3%A9veloppement+de+la+D%C3%A9mocratie+et+de+la+R%C3%A9publique+%281789%E2%80%931804%29&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Librairie+Armand+Colin&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Aulard&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7ois-Alphonse&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoirepolitiqu01aula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell2000" class="citation book cs1">Powell, Jim (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/triumphofliberty00powe/page/2"><i>The Triumph of Liberty: A 2,000 Year History Told Through the Lives of Freedom's Greatest Champions</i></a>. Free Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/triumphofliberty00powe/page/2">2–10</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85967-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-85967-5"><bdi>978-0-684-85967-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Triumph+of+Liberty%3A+A+2%2C000+Year+History+Told+Through+the+Lives+of+Freedom%27s+Greatest+Champions&rft.pages=2-10&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-684-85967-5&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftriumphofliberty00powe%2Fpage%2F2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bailey, D.R.S. <i>Cicero's letters to Atticus</i> (1978) p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Letters to Atticus I & II</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noted in Michael Parenti, <i>The Assassination of Julius Caesar: A People's History of Ancient Rome</i>, 2003:86. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56584-797-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-56584-797-0">1-56584-797-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicero" class="citation web cs1">Cicero. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170119051143/https://elearning-gilman.remote-learner.net/pluginfile.php/51701/mod_resource/content/0/Cicero--Justifying_Caesar_s_Death.pdf">"On Duties"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elearning-gilman.remote-learner.net/pluginfile.php/51701/mod_resource/content/0/Cicero--Justifying_Caesar_s_Death.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 19 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+Duties&rft.au=Cicero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Felearning-gilman.remote-learner.net%2Fpluginfile.php%2F51701%2Fmod_resource%2Fcontent%2F0%2FCicero--Justifying_Caesar_s_Death.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParenti2004" class="citation book cs1">Parenti, Michael (2004). <i>The assassination of Julius Caesar: a people's history of ancient Rome</i>. New York: New Press. pp. 93, 107–11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-797-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-797-2"><bdi>978-1-56584-797-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+assassination+of+Julius+Caesar%3A+a+people%27s+history+of+ancient+Rome&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=93%2C+107-11&rft.pub=New+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-56584-797-2&rft.aulast=Parenti&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpielvogel2011" class="citation book cs1">Spielvogel, Jackson (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat00jack_3/page/492"><i>Western Civilization since 1300</i></a>. Cengage Learning. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/westerncivilizat00jack_3/page/492">492</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-34219-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-34219-7"><bdi>978-1-111-34219-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization+since+1300&rft.pages=492&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-111-34219-7&rft.aulast=Spielvogel&rft.aufirst=Jackson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwesterncivilizat00jack_3%2Fpage%2F492&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomiša" class="citation journal cs1">Tomiša, Mario. 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Herrick, James (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=29VRCgAAQBAJ&q=Cicero+rhetoric+philosophy+books+survived&pg=PA94"><i>The History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction</i></a>. Routledge. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34784-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-34784-2"><bdi>978-1-317-34784-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619065435/https://books.google.com/books?id=29VRCgAAQBAJ&q=Cicero+rhetoric+philosophy+books+survived&pg=PA94#v=snippet&q=Cicero%20rhetoric%20philosophy%20books%20survived&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Theory+of+Rhetoric%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-34784-2&rft.aulast=A.+Herrick&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D29VRCgAAQBAJ%26q%3DCicero%2Brhetoric%2Bphilosophy%2Bbooks%2Bsurvived%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDueck2020" class="citation book cs1">Dueck, Daniela (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VhIHEAAAQBAJ&q=Cicero+speeches+88+recorded+58+survived&pg=PA58"><i>Illiterate Geography in Classical Athens and Rome</i></a>. Routledge. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-22502-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-22502-0"><bdi>978-1-000-22502-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619065948/https://books.google.com/books?id=VhIHEAAAQBAJ&q=Cicero+speeches+88+recorded+58+survived&pg=PA58#v=snippet&q=Cicero%20speeches%2088%20recorded%2058%20survived&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Illiterate+Geography+in+Classical+Athens+and+Rome&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-000-22502-0&rft.aulast=Dueck&rft.aufirst=Daniela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVhIHEAAAQBAJ%26q%3DCicero%2Bspeeches%2B88%2Brecorded%2B58%2Bsurvived%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._Richardson_Jr.1976" class="citation news cs1">L. Richardson Jr. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=formiae&highlight=formia">"The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200527073336/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0006:entry=formiae&highlight=formia">Archived</a> from the original on 27 May 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Princeton+Encyclopedia+of+Classical+Sites&rft.date=1976&rft.au=L.+Richardson+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0006%3Aentry%3Dformiae%26highlight%3Dformia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRedazione_ANSA2015" class="citation news cs1">Redazione ANSA (25 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ansa.it/english/news/2015/07/21/mayor-launches-appeal-to-save-ciceros-villa-from-ruin_55a57cf3-5104-4a1a-8e19-bc4cd3261dbd.html">"Mayor launches appeal to save Cicero's villa from ruin"</a>. ANSA English. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180619085928/http://www.ansa.it/english/news/2015/07/21/mayor-launches-appeal-to-save-ciceros-villa-from-ruin_55a57cf3-5104-4a1a-8e19-bc4cd3261dbd.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mayor+launches+appeal+to+save+Cicero%27s+villa+from+ruin&rft.date=2015-07-25&rft.au=Redazione+ANSA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ansa.it%2Fenglish%2Fnews%2F2015%2F07%2F21%2Fmayor-launches-appeal-to-save-ciceros-villa-from-ruin_55a57cf3-5104-4a1a-8e19-bc4cd3261dbd.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/RV/Villa%20Cicero.htm">"Villa Cicero"</a>. pompeiiinpictures.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180623121845/http://pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/RV/Villa%20Cicero.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 23 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=William+Shakespeare+%E2%80%93+Julius+Caesar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FWilliam-Shakespeare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/79974/enwp"><i>Julius Caesar</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Turner_Classic_Movies" title="Turner Classic Movies">TCM Movie Database</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/71069/enwp"><i>Cleopatra</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Turner_Classic_Movies" title="Turner Classic Movies">TCM Movie Database</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/title/79976/enwp"><i>Julius Caesar</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/Turner_Classic_Movies" title="Turner Classic Movies">TCM Movie Database</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181206002013/https://www.hbo.com/rome/cast-and-crew">"Rome – Cast and Crew"</a>. <i>HBO</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bigfinish.com&rft.atitle=1.+Cicero+Series+01+%E2%80%93+Big+Finish+Originals+%E2%80%93+Big+Finish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bigfinish.com%2Freleases%2Fv%2Fcicero-series-01-1777&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bigfinish.com/contributors/v/David-Llewellyn-2366">"David Llewellyn – Contributions – Big Finish"</a>. <i>www.bigfinish.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190719144700/https://www.bigfinish.com/contributors/v/David-Llewellyn-2366">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bigfinish.com&rft.atitle=David+Llewellyn+%E2%80%93+Contributions+%E2%80%93+Big+Finish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bigfinish.com%2Fcontributors%2Fv%2FDavid-Llewellyn-2366&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bigfinish.com/contributors/v/Scott-Handcock-891">"Scott Handcock – Contributions – Big Finish"</a>. <i>www.bigfinish.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190719144655/https://www.bigfinish.com/contributors/v/Scott-Handcock-891">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.bigfinish.com&rft.atitle=Scott+Handcock+%E2%80%93+Contributions+%E2%80%93+Big+Finish&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bigfinish.com%2Fcontributors%2Fv%2FScott-Handcock-891&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.festival-cannes.com/en/f/megalopolis/">"MEGALOPOLIS"</a>. <i>Festival de Cannes</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240505034904/https://www.festival-cannes.com/en/f/megalopolis/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Festival+de+Cannes&rft.atitle=MEGALOPOLIS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.festival-cannes.com%2Fen%2Ff%2Fmegalopolis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_sources">Modern sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Modern sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBadian1969" class="citation journal cs1">Badian, Ernst (1969). "Cicero and the Commission of 146 BC". <i>Collection Latomus</i>. <b>101</b>: 54–65.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Collection+Latomus&rft.atitle=Cicero+and+the+Commission+of+146+BC&rft.volume=101&rft.pages=54-65&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=Badian&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroughton1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Robert_Shannon_Broughton" title="Thomas Robert Shannon Broughton">Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon</a> (1952). <i>The magistrates of the Roman republic</i>. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+magistrates+of+the+Roman+republic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=American+Philological+Association&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Broughton&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Robert+Shannon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFergusonBalsdon2023" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Ferguson, John; <a href="/wiki/J._P._V._D._Balsdon" title="J. P. V. D. Balsdon">Balsdon, J P V D</a> (19 June 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero">"Marcus Tullius Cicero"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (online). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220714104556/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Marcus+Tullius+Cicero&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.date=2023-06-19&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Balsdon%2C+J+P+V+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FCicero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaldwell1965" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Caldwell" title="Taylor Caldwell">Caldwell, Taylor</a> (1965). <i>A Pillar of Iron</i>. New York: Doubleday & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05303-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-05303-7"><bdi>978-0-385-05303-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Pillar+of+Iron&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday+%26+Company&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=978-0-385-05303-7&rft.aulast=Caldwell&rft.aufirst=Taylor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowell1948" class="citation book cs1">Cowell, F R (1948). <i>Cicero and the Roman republic</i>. Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero+and+the+Roman+republic&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Cowell&rft.aufirst=F+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEveritt2001" class="citation book cs1">Everitt, Anthony (2001). <i>Cicero: the life and times of Rome's greatest politician</i>. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-375-50746-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-375-50746-5"><bdi>978-0-375-50746-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero%3A+the+life+and+times+of+Rome%27s+greatest+politician&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-375-50746-5&rft.aulast=Everitt&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGruen1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Erich_S._Gruen" title="Erich S. Gruen">Gruen, Erich S</a> (1974). <i>The Last Generation of the Roman Republic</i>. University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Generation+of+the+Roman+Republic&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Gruen&rft.aufirst=Erich+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaskell1942" class="citation book cs1">Haskell, H J (1942). <i>This was Cicero</i>. Alfred A. Knopf.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=This+was+Cicero&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Haskell&rft.aufirst=H+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrebs2020" class="citation journal cs1">Krebs, Christopher B. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/44864361">"Painting Catiline into a Corner. Form and Content in Cat. 1.1"</a>. <i>The Classical Quarterly</i>. <b>70</b> (2): 672–676. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0009838820000762">10.1017/S0009838820000762</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240517101323/https://www.academia.edu/44864361/PAINTING%20CATILINE%20INTO%20A%20CORNER%20FORM%20AND%20CONTENT%20IN%20CICEROS%20IN%20CATILINAM%201%201">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Painting+Catiline+into+a+Corner.+Form+and+Content+in+Cat.+1.1&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=672-676&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0009838820000762&rft.aulast=Krebs&rft.aufirst=Christopher+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F44864361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarch1989" class="citation journal cs1">March, Duane A (1989). "Cicero and the 'Gang of Five'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Classical World</i>. <b>82</b> (4): 225–234. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4350381">10.2307/4350381</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4350381">4350381</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Classical+World&rft.atitle=Cicero+and+the+%27Gang+of+Five%27&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=225-234&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4350381&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4350381%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=March&rft.aufirst=Duane+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNarducci2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Narducci, Emanuele (2009). <i>Cicerone. La parola e la politica</i> (in Italian). Laterza. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-420-7605-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-420-7605-6"><bdi>978-88-420-7605-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicerone.+La+parola+e+la+politica&rft.pub=Laterza&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-88-420-7605-6&rft.aulast=Narducci&rft.aufirst=Emanuele&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson1978" class="citation book cs1">Rawson, Beryl (1978). <i>The Politics of Friendship: Pompey and Cicero</i>. <a href="/wiki/Sydney_University_Press" title="Sydney University Press">Sydney University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Friendship%3A+Pompey+and+Cicero&rft.pub=Sydney+University+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Rawson&rft.aufirst=Beryl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson1972" class="citation journal cs1">Rawson, Elizabeth (1972). "Cicero the Historian and Cicero the Antiquarian". <i>Journal of Roman Studies</i>. <b>62</b>: 33–45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F298924">10.2307/298924</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/298924">298924</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161169064">161169064</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Cicero+the+Historian+and+Cicero+the+Antiquarian&rft.volume=62&rft.pages=33-45&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161169064%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F298924%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F298924&rft.aulast=Rawson&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawson1975" class="citation book cs1">Rawson, Elizabeth (1975). <i>Cicero: a portrait</i>. London: Allen Lane. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7139-0864-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7139-0864-5"><bdi>0-7139-0864-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1531175">1531175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero%3A+a+portrait&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1531175&rft.isbn=0-7139-0864-5&rft.aulast=Rawson&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichards2010" class="citation book cs1">Richards, Carl J (2010). <i>Why We're All Romans: The Roman Contribution to the Western World</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6778-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6778-8"><bdi>978-0-7425-6778-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+We%27re+All+Romans%3A+The+Roman+Contribution+to+the+Western+World&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-6778-8&rft.aulast=Richards&rft.aufirst=Carl+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScullard1963" class="citation book cs1">Scullard, H H (1963) [1959]. <i>From the Gracchi to Nero</i> (University paperback ed.). Methuen & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Gracchi+to+Nero&rft.edition=University+paperback&rft.pub=Methuen+%26+Co&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Scullard&rft.aufirst=H+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted 1968.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeager1972" class="citation book cs1">Seager, Robin (1972) [1958]. Introduction. <i>Fall of the Roman Republic: Six lives by Plutarch</i>. By Plutarch. Translated by Warner, Rex. Penguin Classics.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Fall+of+the+Roman+Republic%3A+Six+lives+by+Plutarch&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Seager&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1966" class="citation book cs1">Smith, R E (1966). <i>Cicero the Statesman</i>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero+the+Statesman&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=R+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrachan-Davidson1936" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Leigh_Strachan-Davidson" class="mw-redirect" title="James Leigh Strachan-Davidson">Strachan-Davidson, James Leigh</a> (1936). <i>Cicero and the Fall of the Roman Republic</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero+and+the+Fall+of+the+Roman+Republic&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1936&rft.aulast=Strachan-Davidson&rft.aufirst=James+Leigh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStumpf1991" class="citation book cs1">Stumpf, Gerd R. (1991). <i>Numismatische Studien zur Chronologie der römischen Statthalter in Kleinasien (122 v. Chr.-163 n. Chr.)</i>. Saarbrücker Druckerei und Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783925036583" title="Special:BookSources/9783925036583"><bdi>9783925036583</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Numismatische+Studien+zur+Chronologie+der+r%C3%B6mischen+Statthalter+in+Kleinasien+%28122+v.+Chr.-163+n.+Chr.%29&rft.pub=Saarbr%C3%BCcker+Druckerei+und+Verlag&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9783925036583&rft.aulast=Stumpf&rft.aufirst=Gerd+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1918" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, H (1918). <i>Cicero: A sketch of his life and works</i>. Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero%3A+A+sketch+of+his+life+and+works&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=A.C.+McClurg+%26+Co.&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTempest2011" class="citation book cs1">Tempest, Kathryn (2011). <i>Cicero: politics and persuasion in ancient Rome</i>. London: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-246-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84725-246-3"><bdi>978-1-84725-246-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero%3A+politics+and+persuasion+in+ancient+Rome&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84725-246-3&rft.aulast=Tempest&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTreggiari2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Treggiari" title="Susan Treggiari">Treggiari, S</a> (2007). <i>Terentia, Tullia and Publilia: the women of Cicero's family</i>. London: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Terentia%2C+Tullia+and+Publilia%3A+the+women+of+Cicero%27s+family&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Treggiari&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUttschenko1978" class="citation book cs1">Uttschenko, Sergej L (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/790155087"><i>Cicero</i></a>. Translated by Pattloch, Rosemarie. Berlin, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Deutscher_Verlag_der_Wissenschaften" title="Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften">Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619070058/https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?method=simpleSearch&cqlMode=true&query=idn%3D790155087">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Germany&rft.pub=Deutscher+Verlag+der+Wissenschaften&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Uttschenko&rft.aufirst=Sergej+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fd-nb.info%2F790155087&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWistrand1979" class="citation book cs1">Wistrand, M (1979). <i>Cicero </i>Imperator<i>: Studies in Cicero's Correspondence 51–47 BC</i>. Göteborg: University of Gothenburg.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero+Imperator%3A+Studies+in+Cicero%27s+Correspondence+51%E2%80%9347+BC&rft.place=G%C3%B6teborg&rft.pub=University+of+Gothenburg&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Wistrand&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiedemann1994" class="citation book cs1">Wiedemann, Thomas E J (1994). <i>Cicero and the end of the Roman Republic</i>. London: Bristol Classical Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85399-193-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-85399-193-7"><bdi>1-85399-193-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31494651">31494651</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cicero+and+the+end+of+the+Roman+Republic&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Bristol+Classical+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31494651&rft.isbn=1-85399-193-7&rft.aulast=Wiedemann&rft.aufirst=Thomas+E+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYates1974" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frances_Yates" title="Frances Yates">Yates, Frances A</a> (1974). <i>The Art of Memory</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-95001-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-95001-3"><bdi>978-0-226-95001-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Memory&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-226-95001-3&rft.aulast=Yates&rft.aufirst=Frances+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_sources">Ancient sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Ancient sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCic._Att." class="citation book cs1">Cicero (1999). <i>Letters to Atticus</i>. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Shackleton Bailey, D R. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99571-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99571-0"><bdi>978-0-674-99571-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+to+Atticus&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-99571-0&rft.au=Cicero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCic._Brut." class="citation book cs1">Cicero (1939). <i>Brutus</i>. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Hendrickson, G L; Hubbell, H M.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brutus&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1939&rft.au=Cicero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCic._Cat." class="citation book cs1">Cicero (1974). <i>In Catiliniam</i>. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by MacDonald, C. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99358-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99358-7"><bdi>978-0-674-99358-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Catiliniam&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-674-99358-7&rft.au=Cicero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCic._Fam." class="citation book cs1">Cicero (2001). <i>Letters to friends</i>. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Shackleton Bailey, D R. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99588-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99588-8"><bdi>978-0-674-99588-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Letters+to+friends&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-674-99588-8&rft.au=Cicero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCic._Off." class="citation book cs1">Cicero (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi055"><i>De Officiis</i></a> [<i>On Duties</i>]. Translated by Miller, Walter. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99033-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-99033-3"><bdi>978-0-674-99033-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231126074729/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:latinLit:phi0474.phi055">Archived</a> from the original on 26 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2023</span> – via Perseus Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Officiis&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=978-0-674-99033-3&rft.au=Cicero&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3Durn%3Acts%3AlatinLit%3Aphi0474.phi055&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSall._Cat." class="citation book cs1">Sallust (1921) [1st century BC]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae*.html"><i>Bellum Catilinae</i></a> [<i><a href="/wiki/Bellum_Catilinae" title="Bellum Catilinae">War of Catiline</a></i>]. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Rolfe, John C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220731043828/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Sallust/Bellum_Catilinae%2A.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2021</span> – via LacusCurtius.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bellum+Catilinae&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1921&rft.au=Sallust&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FSallust%2FBellum_Catilinae%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlutarch" class="citation book cs1">Plutarch. <i>Parallel Lives</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parallel+Lives&rft.au=Plutarch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlut._Caes." class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html"><i>Life of Caesar</i></a>. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 3. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte. 1916 [2nd century AD]. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40115288">40115288</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200410020040/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2023</span> – via LacusCurtius.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Caesar&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40115288&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPlutarch%2FLives%2FCrassus%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlut._Cic." class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero*.html"><i>Life of Cicero</i></a>. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 7. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte. 1919 [2nd century AD]. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40115288">40115288</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240131100133/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Cicero%2A.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2021</span> – via LacusCurtius.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Cicero&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1919&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40115288&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPlutarch%2FLives%2FCicero%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlut._Crass." class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html"><i>Life of Crassus</i></a>. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 3. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte. 1916 [2nd century AD]. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40115288">40115288</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200410020040/http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Crassus*.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 April 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2023</span> – via LacusCurtius.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Crassus&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40115288&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPlutarch%2FLives%2FCrassus%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlut._Pomp." class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pompey*.html"><i>Life of Pompey</i></a>. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 5. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte. 1917 [2nd century AD]. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40115288">40115288</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080420154411/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Cic.+Q.+fr.+2.3">Archived</a> from the original on 20 April 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2023</span> – via LacusCurtius.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Pompey&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1917&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40115288&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2FPlutarch%2FLives%2FPompey%2A.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlut._Sull." class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.perseus.org/texts/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg033.perseus-eng1"><i>Life of Sulla</i></a>. Loeb Classical Library. Vol. 4. Translated by Perrin, Bernadotte. 1916 [2nd century AD]. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/40115288">40115288</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240619070053/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0007.tlg033.perseus-eng1">Archived</a> from the original on 19 June 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2023</span> – via Perseus Digital Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+of+Sulla&rft.series=Loeb+Classical+Library&rft.date=1916&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F40115288&rft.au=Plutarch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdata.perseus.org%2Ftexts%2Furn%3Acts%3AgreekLit%3Atlg0007.tlg033.perseus-eng1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Cicero" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Cicero">Cicero</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Cicero</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Cicero&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Cicero">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Cicero&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><b>By Cicero</b> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Cicero&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Cicero">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?at=wp&au=Cicero&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li></ul> </div></div> </div><p><b>Works by Cicero</b> </p><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalog.perseus.org/catalog/urn:cite:perseus:author.364">Works by Cicero at Perseus Digital Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/cicero">Works by Cicero in eBook form</a> at <a href="/wiki/Standard_Ebooks" title="Standard Ebooks">Standard Ebooks</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/128">Works by Cicero</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Cicero%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Cicero%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Cicero%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Cicero%22%29%20OR%20%28%22106-43%22%20AND%20Cicero%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Cicero</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/3336">Works by Cicero</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.stoictherapy.com/elibrary#cicero">Works by Cicero</a> at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Latin_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="The Latin Library">The Latin Library</a> (Latin): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cic.html">Works of Cicero</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dcc.dickinson.edu/cicero-verres/preface-and-acknowledgements">Dickinson College Commentaries: <i>Against Verres 2.1.53–86</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dcc.dickinson.edu/cicero-de-imperio/preface-and-acknowledgments">Dickinson College Commentaries: <i>On Pompey's Command (De Imperio) 27–49</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/horace_ms_1b.html">Horace MS 1b Laelius de Amicitia at OPenn</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_066.html">Lewis E 66 Epistolae ad familiares (Letters to friends)</a></li></ul> <p><b>Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time</b> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>'s biography of Cicero contained in the <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/674" class="extiw" title="gutenberg:674"><i>Parallel Lives</i></a> </p> <ul><li><i>Life of Cicero</i> by Anthony Trollope, <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8945" class="extiw" title="gutenberg:8945">Volume I</a> & <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/28676" class="extiw" title="gutenberg:28676">Volume II</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11448" class="extiw" title="gutenberg:11448"><i>Cicero</i> by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (<i>Ancient Classics for English Readers</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13481" class="extiw" title="gutenberg:13481"><i>Roman life in the days of Cicero</i> by Rev. Alfred J. Church</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11256" class="extiw" title="gutenberg:11256"><i>Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero</i></a> by <a href="/wiki/W._Warde_Fowler" class="mw-redirect" title="W. Warde Fowler">W. Warde Fowler</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060114090741/http://www.heraklia.fws1.com/contemporaries/cicero/">"At Heraklia website"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.heraklia.fws1.com/contemporaries/cicero/">the original</a> on 14 January 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=At+Heraklia+website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.heraklia.fws1.com%2Fcontemporaries%2Fcicero%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cicero.html">Dryden's translation of <i>Cicero</i> from Plutarch's <i>Parallel Lives</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://community.middlebury.edu/~harris/LatinAuthors/Cicero.html">At Middlebury College website</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaphael_Woolf" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Raphael Woolf. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cicero/">"Cicero"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cicero&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.au=Raphael+Woolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcicero%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACicero" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Julius_Caesar_(consul_64_BC)" title="Lucius Julius Caesar (consul 64 BC)">L. Julius Caesar</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marcius_Figulus_(consul_64_BC)" title="Gaius Marcius Figulus (consul 64 BC)">C. Marcius Figulus</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"><b> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Roman consul</a> </b><br />63 BC <br />With: <b> <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Antonius_Hybrida" title="Gaius Antonius Hybrida">C. Antonius Hybrida</a> </b> </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Decimus_Junius_Silanus_(consul)" title="Decimus Junius Silanus (consul)">D. Junius Silanus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Licinius_Murena_(consul)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Licinius Murena (consul)">L. Licinius Murena</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cicero" title="Template:Cicero"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cicero" title="Template talk:Cicero"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cicero" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cicero"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Marcus_Tullius_Cicero" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Marcus Tullius Cicero</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_life_of_Cicero" title="Personal life of Cicero">Personal life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_career_of_Cicero" title="Political career of Cicero">Political career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writings_of_Cicero" title="Writings of Cicero">Writings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatises</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhetoric<br />and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Inventione" title="De Inventione">De Inventione</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore" title="De Oratore">De Oratore</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Oratore,_Book_III" title="De Oratore, Book III">Book III</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Dialogue_Concerning_Oratorical_Partitions" title="A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions">De Partitionibus Oratoriae</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Optimo_Genere_Oratorum" title="De Optimo Genere Oratorum">De Optimo Genere Oratorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brutus_(Cicero)" title="Brutus (Cicero)">Brutus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Orator_(Cicero)" title="Orator (Cicero)">Orator</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Legibus" title="De Legibus">De Legibus</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Hortensius_(Cicero)" title="Hortensius (Cicero)">Hortensius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Academica_(Cicero)" title="Academica (Cicero)">Academica</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Consolatio_(Cicero)" title="Consolatio (Cicero)">Consolatio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_finibus_bonorum_et_malorum" title="De finibus bonorum et malorum">De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tusculanae_Disputationes" title="Tusculanae Disputationes">Tusculanae Disputationes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Natura_Deorum" title="De Natura Deorum">De Natura Deorum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Divinatione" title="De Divinatione">De Divinatione</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_fato" title="De fato">De Fato</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cato_Maior_de_Senectute" title="Cato Maior de Senectute">Cato Maior de Senectute</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laelius_de_Amicitia" title="Laelius de Amicitia">Laelius de Amicitia</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De Re Publica</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Somnium_Scipionis" title="Somnium Scipionis">Somnium Scipionis</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Paradoxa_Stoicorum" title="Paradoxa Stoicorum">Paradoxa Stoicorum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:M-T-Cicero.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marcus Tullius Cicero"><img alt="Marcus Tullius Cicero" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/M-T-Cicero.jpg/80px-M-T-Cicero.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/M-T-Cicero.jpg/120px-M-T-Cicero.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/M-T-Cicero.jpg/160px-M-T-Cicero.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="953" /></a><figcaption>Marcus Tullius Cicero</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Orations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Imperio_Cn._Pompei" title="De Imperio Cn. Pompei">De Imperio Cn. Pompei</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catilinarian_orations" title="Catilinarian orations">In Catilinam I–IV</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Toga_Candida" title="In Toga Candida">In Toga Candida</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Milone" title="Pro Milone">Pro Milone</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Marcello" title="Pro Marcello">Pro Marcello</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philippicae" title="Philippicae">Philippicae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Judicial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Quinctio" title="Pro Quinctio">Pro Quinctio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Roscio_Amerino" title="Pro Roscio Amerino">Pro Roscio Amerino</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Divinatio_in_Caecilium" title="Divinatio in Caecilium">Divinatio in Caecilium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Verrem" title="In Verrem">In Verrem</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Tullio" title="Pro Tullio">Pro Tullio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Caecina" title="Pro Caecina">Pro Caecina</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Cluentio" title="Pro Cluentio">Pro Cluentio</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Archia_Poeta" title="Pro Archia Poeta">Pro Archia Poeta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_Caelio" title="Pro Caelio">Pro Caelio</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Epistulae_ad_Atticum" title="Epistulae ad Atticum">Epistulae ad Atticum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epistulae_ad_Brutum" title="Epistulae ad Brutum">Epistulae ad Brutum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epistulae_ad_Familiares" title="Epistulae ad Familiares">Epistulae ad Familiares</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Epistulae_ad_Quintum_Fratrem" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem">Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">Summum bonum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Works_of_Plutarch" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Plutarch" title="Template:Plutarch"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Plutarch" title="Template talk:Plutarch"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Plutarch" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Plutarch"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Works_of_Plutarch" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Works of <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Parallel_Lives" title="Parallel Lives">Parallel Lives</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Moralia" title="Moralia">Moralia</a></i> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/De_genio_Socratis" title="De genio Socratis">De genio Socratis</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_the_Malice_of_Herodotus" title="On the Malice of Herodotus">On the Malice of Herodotus</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Plutarch" title="Pseudo-Plutarch">Pseudo-Plutarch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcibiades" title="Alcibiades">Alcibiades</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Marcius_Coriolanus" title="Gnaeus Marcius Coriolanus">Coriolanus</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Caesar_(Plutarch)" title="Life of Caesar (Plutarch)">life</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aratus_of_Sicyon" title="Aratus of Sicyon">Aratus of Sicyon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes II of Persia">Artaxerxes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a><sup><small>2</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristides" title="Aristides">Aristides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato the Elder</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Crassus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicias" title="Nicias">Nicias</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_of_Macedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Demetrius I of Macedon">Demetrius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Antony</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demosthenes" title="Demosthenes">Demosthenes</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dion_of_Syracuse" title="Dion of Syracuse">Dion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Junius_Brutus" title="Marcus Junius Brutus">Brutus</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Maximus_Verrucosus" title="Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus">Fabius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pericles" title="Pericles">Pericles</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucullus" title="Lucullus">Lucullus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cimon" title="Cimon">Cimon</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander" title="Lysander">Lysander</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lycurgus" title="Lycurgus">Lycurgus</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelopidas" title="Pelopidas">Pelopidas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Marcellus" title="Marcus Claudius Marcellus">Marcellus</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philopoemen" title="Philopoemen">Philopoemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Titus_Quinctius_Flamininus" title="Titus Quinctius Flamininus">Flamininus</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phocion" title="Phocion">Phocion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Agesilaus_II" title="Agesilaus II">Agesilaus</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Publius_Valerius_Poplicola" title="Publius Valerius Poplicola">Poplicola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solon" title="Solon">Solon</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhus_of_Epirus" title="Pyrrhus of Epirus">Pyrrhus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theseus" title="Theseus">Theseus</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Sertorius" title="Quintus Sertorius">Sertorius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eumenes" title="Eumenes">Eumenes</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agis_IV" title="Agis IV">Agis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cleomenes_III" title="Cleomenes III">Cleomenes</a><sup><small>1</small></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gracchus" title="Tiberius Gracchus">Tiberius Gracchus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Gracchus" title="Gaius Gracchus">Gaius Gracchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timoleon" title="Timoleon">Timoleon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aemilius_Paullus_Macedonicus" title="Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus">Aemilius Paulus</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistocles" title="Themistocles">Themistocles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Furius_Camillus" title="Marcus Furius Camillus">Camillus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Translators and editors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Amyot" title="Jacques Amyot">Jacques Amyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Hugh_Clough" title="Arthur Hugh Clough">Arthur Hugh Clough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dryden" title="John Dryden">John Dryden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philemon_Holland" title="Philemon Holland">Philemon Holland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_North" title="Thomas North">Thomas North</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><sup><small>1</small></sup> Comparison extant</li> <li><sup><small>2</small></sup> Four unpaired <i>Lives</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Seven_virtues_in_Christian_ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christian_virtue_ethics" title="Template:Christian virtue ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christian_virtue_ethics" title="Template talk:Christian virtue ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christian_virtue_ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christian virtue ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Seven_virtues_in_Christian_ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Seven_virtues" title="Seven virtues">Seven virtues</a> in <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Four<br /><a href="/wiki/Cardinal_virtues" title="Cardinal virtues">cardinal virtues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a> (<i>Prudentia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice_(virtue)" title="Justice (virtue)">Justice</a> (<i>Iustitia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">Fortitude</a> (<i>Fortitudo</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a> (<i>Temperantia</i>)</li></ul> <ul><li>Sources: <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i>, Book IV</li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Faith,_Hope_and_Love,_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Faith, Hope and Love, as portrayed by Mary Lizzie Macomber (1861–1916)"><img alt="Faith, Hope and Love, as portrayed by Mary Lizzie Macomber (1861–1916)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg/100px-Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg/150px-Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg/200px-Faith%2C_Hope_and_Love%2C_Mary_Lizzie_Macomber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="729" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption>Faith, Hope and Love, as portrayed by Mary Lizzie Macomber (1861–1916)</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Three<br /><a href="/wiki/Theological_virtues" title="Theological virtues">theological virtues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Christianity" title="Faith in Christianity">Faith</a> (<i>Fides</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_(virtue)" title="Hope (virtue)">Hope</a> (<i>Spes</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Love</a> (<i>Caritas</i>)</li></ul> <ul><li>Sources: <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1_Corinthians_13" class="mw-redirect" title="1 Corinthians 13">1 Corinthians 13</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Seven lively virtues<br />versus<br /><a href="/wiki/Seven_deadly_sins" title="Seven deadly sins">Seven deadly sins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chastity" title="Chastity">Chastity</a> (<i>Castitas</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperance_(virtue)" title="Temperance (virtue)">Temperance</a> (<i>Temperantia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charity_(Christian_virtue)" title="Charity (Christian virtue)">Charity</a> (<i>Caritas</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diligence" title="Diligence">Diligence</a> (<i>Diligentia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">Kindness</a> (<i>Humanitas</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patience" title="Patience">Patience</a> (<i>Patientia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">Humility</a> (<i>Humilitas</i>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lust" title="Lust">Lust</a> (<i>Luxuria</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluttony" title="Gluttony">Gluttony</a> (<i>Gula</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greed" title="Greed">Greed</a> (<i>Avaritia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloth_(deadly_sin)" title="Sloth (deadly sin)">Sloth</a> (<i>Acedia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anger" title="Anger">Wrath</a> (<i>Ira</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envy" title="Envy">Envy</a> (<i>Invidia</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pride" title="Pride">Pride</a> (<i>Superbia</i>)</li></ul> <ul><li>Source: <a href="/wiki/Prudentius" title="Prudentius">Prudentius</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Psychomachia" title="Psychomachia">Psychomachia</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li>People: <a href="/wiki/Evagrius_Ponticus" title="Evagrius Ponticus">Evagrius Ponticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cassian" title="John Cassian">John Cassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Binsfeld" title="Peter Binsfeld">Peter Binsfeld</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%">Related concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_sin" title="Christian views on sin">Sin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_the_Old_Covenant" title="Christian views on the Old Covenant">Old Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamartiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamartiology">Hamartiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="background-color:gold"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Political_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Political_philosophy" title="Template talk:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Political_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Political philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Political_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizenship‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation" title="Emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_(political)" title="Legitimacy (political)">Legitimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obedience_(human_behavior)" class="mw-redirect" title="Obedience (human behavior)">Obedience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People" title="People">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progress" title="Progress">Progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime" title="Regime">Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utopia" title="Utopia">Utopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">Autocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutocracy" title="Plutocracy">Plutocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agrarianism" title="Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatism" title="Corporatism">Corporatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Localism_(politics)" title="Localism (politics)">Localism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populism" title="Populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Way" title="Third Way">Third Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(international_relations)" title="Balance of power (international relations)">Balance of power</a></li> <li><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Bellum_omnium_contra_omnes" title="Bellum omnium contra omnes">Bellum omnium contra omnes</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_politic" title="Body politic">Body politic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clash_of_Civilizations" title="Clash of Civilizations">Clash of civilizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">Divine right of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_as_a_model_for_the_state" title="Family as a model for the state">Family as a model for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_on_violence" title="Monopoly on violence">Monopoly on violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_and_positive_rights" title="Negative and positive rights">Negative and positive rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night-watchman_state" title="Night-watchman state">Night-watchman state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_lie" title="Noble lie">Noble lie</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Noblesse_oblige" title="Noblesse oblige">Noblesse oblige</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_society" title="Open society">Open society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordered_liberty" title="Ordered liberty">Ordered liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_position" title="Original position">Original position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overton_window" title="Overton window">Overton window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_nature" title="State of nature">State of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statolatry" title="Statolatry">Statolatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyranny_of_the_majority" title="Tyranny of the majority">Tyranny of the majority</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_philosophers" title="List of political philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antiquity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_political_philosophy" title="Plato's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophon" title="Xenophon">Xenophon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilius_of_Padua" title="Marsilius of Padua">Marsilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">Ockham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern<br />period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_de_La_Bo%C3%A9tie" title="Étienne de La Boétie">Boétie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Bodin" title="Jean Bodin">Bodin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques-B%C3%A9nigne_Bossuet" title="Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet">Bossuet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Filmer" title="Robert Filmer">Filmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugo_Grotius" title="Hugo Grotius">Grotius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hobbes%27s_moral_and_political_philosophy" title="Hobbes's moral and political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_VI_and_I" title="James VI and I">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_von_Pufendorf" title="Samuel von Pufendorf">Pufendorf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat" title="Frédéric Bastiat">Bastiat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cesare_Beccaria" title="Cesare Beccaria">Beccaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_St_John,_1st_Viscount_Bolingbroke" title="Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke">Bolingbroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Constant" title="Benjamin Constant">Constant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Donoso_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Juan Donoso Cortés">Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Godwin" title="William Godwin">Godwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Ludwig_von_Haller" title="Karl Ludwig von Haller">Haller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal" title="Muhammad Iqbal">Iqbal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Iqbal%27s_political_philosophy" title="Muhammad Iqbal's political philosophy">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">political philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Maistre" title="Joseph de Maistre">Maistre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini" title="Giuseppe Mazzini">Mazzini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Sade" title="Marquis de Sade">Sade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_de_Saint-Simon" title="Henri de Saint-Simon">Saint-Simon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Tucker" title="Benjamin Tucker">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Bernstein" title="Eduard Bernstein">Bernstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burnham" title="James Burnham">Burnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dmowski" title="Roman Dmowski">Dmowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Dugin" title="Aleksandr Dugin">Dugin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Fukuyama" title="Francis Fukuyama">Fukuyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek" title="Friedrich Hayek">Hayek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Mansfield" title="Harvey Mansfield">Mansfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Maurras" title="Charles Maurras">Maurras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Michels" title="Robert Michels">Michels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_von_Mises" title="Ludwig von Mises">Mises</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaetano_Mosca" title="Gaetano Mosca">Mosca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chantal_Mouffe" title="Chantal Mouffe">Mouffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Qutb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Rand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Rothbard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Schmitt" title="Carl Schmitt">Schmitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Sorel" title="Georges Sorel">Sorel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Othmar_Spann" title="Othmar Spann">Spann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Republic_(Plato)" title="Republic (Plato)">Republic</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 375 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_re_publica" title="De re publica">De re publica</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(51 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Law" title="Treatise on Law">Treatise on Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1274)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monarchia" title="Monarchia">Monarchia</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1313)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1532)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leviathan_(Hobbes_book)" title="Leviathan (Hobbes book)">Leviathan</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1651)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Two Treatises of Government</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1689)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Spirit_of_Law" title="The Spirit of Law">The Spirit of Law</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1748)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Social_Contract" title="The Social Contract">The Social Contract</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1762)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1790)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_Man" title="Rights of Man">Rights of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1791)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1848)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Liberty" title="On Liberty">On Liberty</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1859)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolt_of_the_Masses" title="The Revolt of the Masses">The Revolt of the Masses</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1929)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_Serfdom" title="The Road to Serfdom">The Road to Serfdom</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1944)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Open_Society_and_Its_Enemies" title="The Open Society and Its Enemies">The Open Society and Its Enemies</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1945)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Totalitarianism" title="The Origins of Totalitarianism">The Origins of Totalitarianism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1951)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_History_and_the_Last_Man" title="The End of History and the Last Man">The End of History and the Last Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1992)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism and individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Egalitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_thought" title="History of political thought">History of political thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_for_the_state" title="Justification for the state">Justification for the state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machiavellianism_(politics)" title="Machiavellianism (politics)">Machiavellianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">Political ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_spectrum" title="Political spectrum">Political spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">Left-wing politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrism" title="Centrism">Centrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_politics" title="Right-wing politics">Right-wing politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">Political theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_violence" title="Political violence">Political violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separatism" title="Separatism">Separatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">Social justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statism" title="Statism">Statism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totalitarianism" title="Totalitarianism">Totalitarianism</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_social_and_political_philosophy_articles" title="Index of social and political philosophy articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_philosophy" title="Category:Political philosophy">Category:Political philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Platonists" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Platonists" title="Template:Platonists"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Platonists" title="Template talk:Platonists"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Platonists" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Platonists"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Platonists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Academics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Opus" title="Philip of Opus">Philip of Opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristonymus_of_Athens" title="Aristonymus of Athens">Aristonymus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriscus_of_Scepsis" title="Coriscus of Scepsis">Coriscus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erastus_of_Scepsis" title="Erastus of Scepsis">Erastus of Scepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demetrius_of_Amphipolis" title="Demetrius of Amphipolis">Demetrius of Amphipolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euaeon_of_Lampsacus" title="Euaeon of Lampsacus">Euaeon of Lampsacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_of_Aenus" title="Heraclides of Aenus">Heraclides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Python_of_Aenus" title="Python of Aenus">Python of Aenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hestiaeus_of_Perinthus" title="Hestiaeus of Perinthus">Hestiaeus of Perinthus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lastheneia_of_Mantinea" title="Lastheneia of Mantinea">Lastheneia of Mantinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timolaus_of_Cyzicus" title="Timolaus of Cyzicus">Timolaus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiothea_of_Phlius" title="Axiothea of Phlius">Axiothea of Phlius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menedemus_of_Pyrrha" title="Menedemus of Pyrrha">Menedemus of Pyrrha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crantor" title="Crantor">Crantor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polemon_(scholarch)" title="Polemon (scholarch)">Polemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crates_of_Athens" title="Crates of Athens">Crates of Athens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Skeptics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocles_of_Cnidus" title="Diocles of Cnidus">Diocles of Cnidus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacydes_of_Cyrene" title="Lacydes of Cyrene">Lacydes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecles" title="Telecles">Telecles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evander_(philosopher)" title="Evander (philosopher)">Evander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegesinus_of_Pergamon" title="Hegesinus of Pergamon">Hegesinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hagnon_of_Tarsus" title="Hagnon of Tarsus">Hagnon of Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Stratonicea" title="Metrodorus of Stratonicea">Metrodorus of Stratonicea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitomachus_(philosopher)" title="Clitomachus (philosopher)">Clitomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmadas" title="Charmadas">Charmadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeschines_of_Neapolis" title="Aeschines of Neapolis">Aeschines of Neapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dio_of_Alexandria" title="Dio of Alexandria">Dio of Alexandria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudorus_of_Alexandria" title="Eudorus of Alexandria">Eudorus of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_the_Platonist" title="Gaius the Platonist">Gaius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albinus_(philosopher)" title="Albinus (philosopher)">Albinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Peloplaton" title="Alexander Peloplaton">Alexander Peloplaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atticus_(philosopher)" title="Atticus (philosopher)">Atticus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Tyre" title="Maximus of Tyre">Maximus of Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numenius_of_Apamea" title="Numenius of Apamea">Numenius of Apamea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Longinus_(philosopher)" title="Cassius Longinus (philosopher)">Longinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen_the_Pagan" title="Origen the Pagan">Origen the Pagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcidius" title="Calcidius">Calcidius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_students_of_Plotinus" title="List of students of Plotinus">Students</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelius" title="Amelius">Amelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sopater_of_Apamea" title="Sopater of Apamea">Sopater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eustathius_of_Cappadocia" title="Eustathius of Cappadocia">Eustathius of Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosipatra" title="Sosipatra">Sosipatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesius" title="Aedesius">Aedesius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexippus_(philosopher)" title="Dexippus (philosopher)">Dexippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysanthius" title="Chrysanthius">Chrysanthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_of_Asine" title="Theodorus of Asine">Theodorus of Asine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salutius" title="Salutius">Salutius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximus_of_Ephesus" title="Maximus of Ephesus">Maximus of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Myndus" title="Eusebius of Myndus">Eusebius of Myndus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus_of_Epirus" title="Priscus of Epirus">Priscus of Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_(philosopher)" title="Antoninus (philosopher)">Antoninus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius_Victorinus" title="Gaius Marius Victorinus">Gaius Marius Victorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Academy" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch_of_Athens" title="Plutarch of Athens">Plutarch of Athens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepigenia" title="Asclepigenia">Asclepigenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierocles_of_Alexandria" title="Hierocles of Alexandria">Hierocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrianus" title="Syrianus">Syrianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermias_(philosopher)" title="Hermias (philosopher)">Hermias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedesia" title="Aedesia">Aedesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Neapolis" title="Marinus of Neapolis">Marinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Alexandria" title="Isidore of Alexandria">Isidore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asclepiodotus_of_Alexandria" title="Asclepiodotus of Alexandria">Asclepiodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegias" title="Hegias">Hegias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenodotus_(philosopher)" title="Zenodotus (philosopher)">Zenodotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agapius_of_Athens" title="Agapius of Athens">Agapius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian_of_Lydia" title="Priscian of Lydia">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_the_Younger" title="Olympiodorus the Younger">Olympiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_the_Invincible" title="David the Invincible">David the Invincible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Dionysius_the_Areopagite" title="Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite">Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Scotus_Eriugena" title="John Scotus Eriugena">John Scotus Eriugena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Chartres" title="Bernard of Chartres">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_de_la_Porr%C3%A9e" title="Gilbert de la Porrée">Gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thierry_of_Chartres" title="Thierry of Chartres">Thierry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Ghent" title="Henry of Ghent">Henry of Ghent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoric_of_Freiberg" title="Theodoric of Freiberg">Theodoric of Freiberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meister_Eckhart" title="Meister Eckhart">Meister Eckhart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berthold_of_Moosburg" title="Berthold of Moosburg">Berthold of Moosburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Venice" title="Paul of Venice">Paul of Venice</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Florentine_Academy" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy_(Florence)" title="Platonic Academy (Florence)">Florentine Academy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristoforo_Landino" title="Cristoforo Landino">Cristoforo Landino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Platonists" title="Cambridge Platonists">Cambridge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Cudworth" title="Ralph Cudworth">Ralph Cudworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_More" title="Henry More">Henry More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Conway_(philosopher)" title="Anne Conway (philosopher)">Anne Conway</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Taylor_(neoplatonist)" title="Thomas Taylor (neoplatonist)">Thomas Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emanuel_Swedenborg" title="Emanuel Swedenborg">Emanuel Swedenborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Ralph Waldo Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Josiah Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bernard Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleksei_Losev" title="Aleksei Losev">Aleksei Losev</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Kaplan_(philosopher)" title="David Kaplan (philosopher)">David Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispin_Wright" title="Crispin Wright">Crispin Wright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Edward N. Zalta</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Ingarden" title="Roman Ingarden">Roman Ingarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Leo Strauss</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000139322910">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/78769600">VIAF</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/370158790731438852347">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/100196617">3</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/126144814493626773404">4</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/32861/">FAST</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PCjxmp4wP3BRF6RbHVG67pP">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/118520814">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79032166">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11885977m">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11885977m">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00436023">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Cicero, Marcus Tullius"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/CFIV006643">Italy</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35028404">Australia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn19981000486&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX841248">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/43683">Portugal</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p06825878X">Netherlands</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90053491">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000011711&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000033379&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000065341">Chile</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=78428">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogo.bn.gov.ar/F/?func=direct&local_base=BNA10&doc_number=000027773">Argentina</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC199605097">Korea</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/1zcf88vk3gb8kvv">Sweden</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810547060105606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/29827">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007259614705171">Israel</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000074064">Finland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058523527306706">Catalonia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14105921">Belgium</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00596013?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500242756">ULAN</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/5c8bd706-95c3-4e91-9388-27a944203a16">MusicBrainz</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kulturnav.org/511d87a9-cff7-4848-8e7e-f23e4cf2b240">KulturNav</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/801765">Trove</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118520814.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/118520814">DDB</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/02665234X">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6tb1bsj">SNAC</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rism.online/people/50044507">RISM</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cicero&oldid=1258465502">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cicero&oldid=1258465502</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a 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140.398 26 Template:Cite_web"," 5.16% 137.678 1 Template:IPA"," 5.07% 135.413 2 Template:Refn"," 4.68% 124.894 1 Template:Infobox_philosopher"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.588","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":24771083,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFA._Herrick2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbbott1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAulard1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBadian1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaños2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerry2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoardman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBolchazy-Carducci2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroughton1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaldwell1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCic._Att.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCic._Brut.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCic._Cat.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCic._Fam.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCic._Off.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCicero\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFCicero1930\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClayton\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowell1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDueck2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnglert2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEveritt2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaria2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFergusonBalsdon2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFilippo_Coarelli2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodey2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffinBoardmanGriffinMurray2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrillo2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGruen1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGwatkin1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaskell1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaskell1964\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFHiggins2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebs2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebs2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFL._Richardson_Jr.1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMansky2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarch1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMary_Beard2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthew_Sharpe\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerriam-Webster,_Inc1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontesquieu\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFNarducci2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicgorski\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParenti2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeter_Gay1966\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFPlattsDeLaine2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlut._Caes.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlut._Cic.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlut._Crass.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlut._Pomp.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlut._Sull.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlutarch\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPowell2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawson1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawson1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawson1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRedazione_ANSA2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReed2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichards2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSall._Cat.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuel_Ball_Platner_\u0026amp;_Thomas_Ashby1929\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScullard1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeager1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShackleton_Bailey1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapiro2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpielvogel2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteven_M._Cerutti1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStockton1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrachan-Davidson1936\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStumpf1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1918\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTempest2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomiša\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTreggiari2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUttschenko1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiedemann1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWistrand1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWootton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYates1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZieliński\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Additional citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Rome and the fall of the Republic\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Rome topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Catholic virtue ethics\"] = 1,\n [\"Cicero\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 69,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 24,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 2,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911 poster\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 3,\n [\"Ethics\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 11,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 12,\n [\"Hlist\"] = 1,\n [\"IPA\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox person\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox philosopher\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 14,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Navboxes\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"OEtymD\"] = 2,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Plainlist\"] = 2,\n [\"Platonists\"] = 1,\n [\"Plutarch\"] = 1,\n [\"Political philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"ProQuest\"] = 2,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 2,\n [\"Republicanism sidebar\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 2,\n [\"Rhetoric\"] = 1,\n [\"S-aft\"] = 1,\n [\"S-bef\"] = 1,\n [\"S-end\"] = 1,\n [\"S-off\"] = 1,\n [\"S-start\"] = 1,\n [\"S-ttl\"] = 1,\n [\"Sep entry\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 68,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 3,\n [\"Social and political philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"StandardEbooks\"] = 1,\n [\"TCMDb title\"] = 3,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 4,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 14,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource author\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisourcelang\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiversity\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","320","19.0"],["?","300","17.9"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","140","8.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","4.8"],["type","80","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","80","4.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","3.6"],["validateData \u003Cmw.lua:728\u003E","60","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","60","3.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntity","60","3.6"],["[others]","440","26.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-44cqd","timestamp":"20241122140347","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Cicero","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Cicero","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1541","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1541","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-10-13T06:08:37Z","dateModified":"2024-11-19T22:06:39Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/8a\/Bust_of_Cicero_%281st-cent._BC%29_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg","headline":"Roman statesman, lawyer, orator, and philosopher (106\u201343 BC)"}</script> </body> </html>