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id="toc-Republican_nomination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_election" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_election"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 General election </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_election-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Administration </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Administration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Administration subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cabinet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cabinet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Cabinet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cabinet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vice_presidency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vice_presidency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Vice presidency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vice_presidency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Press_corps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Press_corps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Press corps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Press_corps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continuity_of_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continuity_of_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Continuity of government </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continuity_of_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_appointments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_appointments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Judicial appointments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_appointments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_affairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_affairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Foreign affairs </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Foreign_affairs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Foreign affairs subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Foreign_affairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cold_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cold_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Cold War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cold_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-National_security_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#National_security_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 National security policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-National_security_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ballistic_missiles_and_arms_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ballistic_missiles_and_arms_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Ballistic missiles and arms control </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ballistic_missiles_and_arms_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_Korean_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_Korean_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 End of the Korean War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_Korean_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Covert_actions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Covert_actions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Covert actions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Covert_actions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defeating_the_Bricker_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defeating_the_Bricker_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Defeating the Bricker Amendment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defeating_the_Bricker_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asia_and_Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asia_and_Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 East Asia and Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asia_and_Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_East" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_East"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Middle East </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_East-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Suez_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suez_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.1 Suez crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suez_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eisenhower_Doctrine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eisenhower_Doctrine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.2 Eisenhower Doctrine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eisenhower_Doctrine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 South Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Latin America </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-U-2_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#U-2_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10 U-2 Crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-U-2_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_international_trips" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_international_trips"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.11 List of international trips </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_international_trips-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Domestic_affairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Domestic_affairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Domestic affairs </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Domestic_affairs-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Domestic affairs subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Domestic_affairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_Republicanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Republicanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Modern Republicanism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Republicanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiscal_policy_and_the_economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiscal_policy_and_the_economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Fiscal policy and the economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiscal_policy_and_the_economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immigration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immigration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Immigration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immigration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-McCarthyism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#McCarthyism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 McCarthyism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-McCarthyism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Civil rights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.1 First term </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_term" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_term"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.2 Second term </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_term-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lavender_Scare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lavender_Scare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.3 Lavender Scare </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lavender_Scare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atoms_for_Peace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atoms_for_Peace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Atoms for Peace </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atoms_for_Peace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interstate_Highway_System" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interstate_Highway_System"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Interstate Highway System </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interstate_Highway_System-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ARPA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ARPA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 ARPA </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ARPA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_program_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_program_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 Space program and education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_program_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_unions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_unions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.10 Labor unions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_unions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.11 Environmental issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mid-term_elections_of_1958" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mid-term_elections_of_1958"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.12 Mid-term elections of 1958 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mid-term_elections_of_1958-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Twenty-third_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Twenty-third_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.13 Twenty-third Amendment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Twenty-third_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-States_admitted_to_the_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#States_admitted_to_the_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.14 States admitted to the Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-States_admitted_to_the_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Health issues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elections_during_the_Eisenhower_presidency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elections_during_the_Eisenhower_presidency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Elections during the Eisenhower presidency </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Elections_during_the_Eisenhower_presidency-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Elections during the Eisenhower presidency subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Elections_during_the_Eisenhower_presidency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1954_mid-term_elections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1954_mid-term_elections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 1954 mid-term elections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1954_mid-term_elections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1956_re-election_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1956_re-election_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 1956 re-election campaign </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1956_re-election_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1958_mid-term_elections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1958_mid-term_elections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 1958 mid-term elections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1958_mid-term_elections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1960_election_and_transition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1960_election_and_transition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 1960 election and transition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1960_election_and_transition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Farewell_address" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farewell_address"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4.1 Farewell address </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Farewell_address-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_reputation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_reputation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Historical reputation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historical_reputation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Historical reputation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Historical_reputation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Creativity_as_president" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creativity_as_president"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Creativity as president </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creativity_as_president-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Works_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Works cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-References_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biographical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biographical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Biographical </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biographical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Scholarly studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_and_military_policy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_and_military_policy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Foreign and military policy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_and_military_policy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6 Primary sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 9 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-9" aria-hidden="true" > 9 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%AA_%D8%AF._%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%86%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="رئاسة دوايت د. أيزنهاور – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رئاسة دوايت د. أيزنهاور" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabinett_Eisenhower" title="Kabinett Eisenhower – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kabinett Eisenhower" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidencia_de_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidencia de Dwight D. Eisenhower – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Presidencia de Dwight D. Eisenhower" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%A9sidence_de_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Présidence de Dwight D. Eisenhower – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Présidence de Dwight D. Eisenhower" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidenza_di_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidenza di Dwight D. Eisenhower – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Presidenza di Dwight D. Eisenhower" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%98_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%93%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%99%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A0%D7%94%D7%90%D7%95%D7%90%D7%A8" title="הקבינט של ארצות הברית בממשל דווייט אייזנהאואר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הקבינט של ארצות הברית בממשל דווייט אייזנהאואר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kabinet-Eisenhower" title="Kabinet-Eisenhower – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kabinet-Eisenhower" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabinet_Dwighta_Eisenhowera" title="Gabinet Dwighta Eisenhowera – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Gabinet Dwighta Eisenhowera" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%94%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%95%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Президентство Дуайта Ейзенхауера – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Президентство Дуайта Ейзенхауера" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet 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searchaux" style="display:none">U.S. presidential administration from 1953 to 1961</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="padding-bottom:2px; padding-top:2px;"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:0; padding-bottom:1px;"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower"><img alt="Dwight D. Eisenhower" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg/220px-Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg/330px-Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg/440px-Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2660" data-file-height="3474" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal; padding-top:2px;">Official portrait, 1959</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="padding-top:2px;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961</td></tr><tr><th><div align="left">Vice President</div></th><td><div><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a></div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Cabinet</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="#Administration">See list</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Election</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">1952</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956</a></li></ul></div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Seat_of_government" title="Seat of government">Seat</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div style="line-height:normal; padding-top:1px;"><div style="width:100%"><div style="float: left; text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em;" class="noprint">← <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a></div><div style="float: right; text-align:right;padding-left:0.5em;" class="noprint"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> →</div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"> <hr class="nomobile" style="background:#eee; height:5px; clear:both; margin:0 0 8px;" /> <div class="center"><div style="display:inline-block; padding:6px 0 2px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/100px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/200px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /></a></div> <div style="line-height:normal; min-height:1px; padding-bottom:;">Seal of the president (since 1960)</div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="margin-top:7px; padding-top:0;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eisenhowerlibrary.gov/">Library website</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 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div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214851843"><table class="sidebar nomobile sidebar-person vcard hlist" style="border-color: #d69d36"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><table><tbody><tr> <td class="sidebar-person-title-image" style="background-color: #002466;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dwight_D._Eisenhower,_official_photo_portrait,_May_29,_1959_(cropped)(3).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg/75px-Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg/113px-Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg/150px-Dwight_D._Eisenhower%2C_official_photo_portrait%2C_May_29%2C_1959_%28cropped%29%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2660" data-file-height="3474" /></a></td> <td class="sidebar-person-title" style="background-color: #002466;color: #FFF;"><div>This article is part of a series about</div><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></td> </tr></tbody></table></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower#Early_life_and_education" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Early Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Military Career</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">World War II</div> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Expeditionary_Force" title="Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force">Supreme Allied Commander in Europe</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">D-Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="German Instrument of Surrender">Surrender of Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day" title="Victory in Europe Day">VE-Day</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_in_Europe" title="Crusade in Europe">Crusade in Europe</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">34th President of the United States</div> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Presidency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">Timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidential transition of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Transition</a></li> <li>Inaugurations <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower">first</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Second inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower">second</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">First Term</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War#Armistice_(July_1953_–_November_1954)" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%9362)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold War (1953–62)">Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Look_(policy)" title="New Look (policy)">New Look</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Second Term</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_crisis" title="Sputnik crisis">Sputnik crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_gap" title="Missile gap">Missile gap</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Education_Act" title="National Defense Education Act">NDEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Admission of states <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Statehood_Act" title="Alaska Statehood Act">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Admission_Act" title="Hawaii Admission Act">Hawaii</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">U-2 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower%27s_farewell_address" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower's farewell address">Farewell Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy">Kennedy transition</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style=""><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center;">Presidential campaigns</div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style="text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Republican Party presidential primaries">1952 campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draft_Eisenhower_movement" title="Draft Eisenhower movement">Draft movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">Election</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1956 Republican Party presidential primaries">1956 campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">Election</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div> <hr /> <div style="font-weight: bold;line-height:normal;">Post-Presidency</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower#Legacy_and_memory" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Presidential_Library,_Museum_and_Boyhood_Home" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home">Presidential library and museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="List of memorials to Dwight D. Eisenhower">Tributes and memorials</a></li></ul> <hr /> <div class="skin-invert-image"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower's signature"><img alt="Dwight D. Eisenhower's signature" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Dwight_Eisenhower_Signature.svg/150px-Dwight_Eisenhower_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Dwight_Eisenhower_Signature.svg/225px-Dwight_Eisenhower_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Dwight_Eisenhower_Signature.svg/300px-Dwight_Eisenhower_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="80" /></a></div> <img alt="Seal of the President of the United States" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/70px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/105px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg/140px-Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="2425" /> <a href="/wiki/General_of_the_Army_(United_States)" title="General of the Army (United States)"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/US-O11_insignia.svg/50px-US-O11_insignia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="46" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/US-O11_insignia.svg/75px-US-O11_insignia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/US-O11_insignia.svg/100px-US-O11_insignia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1676" data-file-height="1541" /></a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_personal_coats_of_arms_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of personal coats of arms of presidents of the United States"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Coat_of_Arms_of_Dwight_Eisenhower.svg/40px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Dwight_Eisenhower.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="54" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Coat_of_Arms_of_Dwight_Eisenhower.svg/60px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Dwight_Eisenhower.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Coat_of_Arms_of_Dwight_Eisenhower.svg/80px-Coat_of_Arms_of_Dwight_Eisenhower.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="677" /></a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dwight_D._Eisenhower_series" title="Template:Dwight D. Eisenhower series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Dwight_D._Eisenhower_series&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Dwight D. Eisenhower series (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dwight_D._Eisenhower_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dwight D. Eisenhower series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>'s tenure as the <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">34th president of the United States</a> began with <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower">his first inauguration</a> on January 20, 1953, and ended on January 20, 1961. Eisenhower, a <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> from <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>, took office following his landslide victory over <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> nominee <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Adlai Stevenson</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">1952 presidential election</a>. Four years later, in the <a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956 presidential election</a>, he defeated Stevenson again, to win re-election in a larger landslide. Eisenhower was limited to two terms and was succeeded by Democrat <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>, who won the <a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">1960 presidential election</a>. Eisenhower held office during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, a period of geopolitical tension between the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>. Eisenhower's <a href="/wiki/New_Look_(policy)" title="New Look (policy)">New Look policy</a> stressed the importance of <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">nuclear weapons as a deterrent</a> to military threats, and the United States built up a stockpile of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">nuclear weapons delivery</a> systems during Eisenhower's presidency. Soon after taking office, Eisenhower negotiated an end to the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, resulting in the partition of <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>. Following the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a>, Eisenhower promulgated the <a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a>, strengthening U.S. commitments in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. In response to the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a>, the Eisenhower administration broke ties with <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> and began preparations for an invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles, eventually resulting in the failed <a href="/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion" title="Bay of Pigs Invasion">Bay of Pigs Invasion</a>. Eisenhower also allowed the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> to engage in covert actions, such as the <a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a> and the <a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a>. In domestic affairs, Eisenhower supported a policy of modern Republicanism that occupied a middle ground between <a href="/wiki/Modern_liberalism_in_the_United_States" title="Modern liberalism in the United States">liberal</a> Democrats and the <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservative</a> wing of the Republican Party. Eisenhower continued <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> programs, expanded <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a>, and prioritized a balanced budget over tax cuts. He played a major role in establishing the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a>, a massive infrastructure project consisting of tens of thousands of miles of <a href="/wiki/Divided_highway" class="mw-redirect" title="Divided highway">divided highways</a>. After the launch of <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>, Eisenhower signed the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Education_Act" title="National Defense Education Act">National Defense Education Act</a> and presided over the creation of <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>. Eisenhower signed the first significant civil rights bill since the end of <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction</a> and although he didn't fully embrace the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>'s landmark <a href="/wiki/Segregation_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Segregation in the United States">desegregation</a> ruling in the 1954 case of <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>, he did enforce the Court's ruling. Eisenhower maintained positive approval ratings throughout his tenure, but the launch of Sputnik 1 and a poor economy contributed to Republican losses in the <a href="/wiki/1958_United_States_elections" title="1958 United States elections">1958 elections</a>. His preferred successor, Vice President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, won the <a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_National_Convention" title="1960 Republican National Convention">Republican nomination</a> but was narrowly defeated by John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election. Eisenhower left office popular with the public. Eisenhower is generally <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">ranked</a> among the 10 greatest presidents. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="1952_election">1952 election</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: 1952 election">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower#Presidential_campaign_of_1952" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower § Presidential campaign of 1952</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">1952 United States presidential election</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_elections" title="1952 United States elections">1952 United States elections</a>, <a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Republican Party presidential primaries">1952 Republican Party presidential primaries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_National_Convention" title="1952 Republican National Convention">1952 Republican National Convention</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Republican_nomination">Republican nomination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Republican nomination">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:I_like_Ike.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/I_like_Ike.jpg/220px-I_like_Ike.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/I_like_Ike.jpg/330px-I_like_Ike.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/I_like_Ike.jpg/440px-I_like_Ike.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="769" /></a><figcaption>Eisenhower presidential campaign, Baltimore, Maryland <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> September 1952</figcaption></figure> Going into the <a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Republican Party presidential primaries">1952 Republican presidential primaries</a>, the two major contenders for the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> presidential nomination were General <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> and Senator <a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Robert A. Taft</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>. Governor <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> of <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> and former Governor <a href="/wiki/Harold_Stassen" title="Harold Stassen">Harold Stassen</a> of <a href="/wiki/Minnesota" title="Minnesota">Minnesota</a> also sought the nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey10-1">[1]</a> Taft led the <a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_the_United_States" title="Conservatism in the United States">conservative wing</a> of the party, which rejected many of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare">social welfare</a> programs created in the 1930s and supported a <a href="/wiki/Non-interventionism" title="Non-interventionism">noninterventionist</a> foreign policy. Taft had been a candidate for the Republican nomination twice before but had been defeated both times by <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Republican" title="Rockefeller Republican">moderate Republicans</a> from New York: <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Wendell Willkie</a> in 1940 and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Thomas E. Dewey</a> in 1948.<a href="#cite_note-RedrawingLines-2">[2]</a> Dewey, the party's presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948, led the moderate wing of the party, centered in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern states</a>. These moderates supported most of the New Deal and tended to be <a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">interventionists</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>. Dewey himself declined to run for president a third time, but he and other moderates sought to use his influence to ensure that 1952 Republican ticket hewed closer to their wing of the party.<a href="#cite_note-RedrawingLines-2">[2]</a> To this end, they assembled a <a href="/wiki/Draft_Eisenhower_movement" title="Draft Eisenhower movement">Draft Eisenhower movement</a> in September 1951. Two weeks later, at the <a href="/wiki/National_Governors_Association" title="National Governors Association">National Governors' Conference</a> meeting, seven Republican governors endorsed his candidacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey7–8-3">[3]</a> Eisenhower, then serving as the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander" title="Supreme Allied Commander">Supreme Allied Commander</a> of <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, had long been mentioned as a possible presidential contender, but he was reluctant to become involved in partisan politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson1–2-4">[4]</a> Nonetheless, he was troubled by Taft's non-interventionist views, especially his opposition to <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a>, which Eisenhower considered to be an important <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deterrence</a> against Soviet aggression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmbrose,_volume_1496-5">[5]</a> He was also motivated by the corruption that he believed had crept into the federal government during the later years of the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">Truman administration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey11–12-6">[6]</a> Eisenhower suggested in late 1951 that he would not oppose any effort to nominate him for president, although he still refused to seek the nomination actively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson19–20-7">[7]</a> In January 1952, Senator <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Jr." title="Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.">Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.</a> announced that Eisenhower's name would be entered in the March <a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_primary" class="mw-redirect" title="New Hampshire primary">New Hampshire primary</a>, even though he had not yet officially entered the race.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey10-1">[1]</a> The result in New Hampshire was a solid Eisenhower victory with 46,661 votes to 35,838 for Taft and 6,574 for Stassen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey13-8">[8]</a> In April, Eisenhower resigned from his NATO command and returned to the United States. The Taft forces put up a strong fight in the remaining primaries, and, by the time of the July <a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_National_Convention" title="1952 Republican National Convention">1952 Republican National Convention</a>, it was still unclear whether Taft or Eisenhower would win the presidential nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson20–21-9">[9]</a> When the 1952 Republican National Convention opened in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, Eisenhower's managers accused Taft of "stealing" delegate votes in Southern states, claiming that Taft's allies had unfairly denied delegate spots to Eisenhower supporters and put Taft delegates in their place. Lodge and Dewey proposed to evict the pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace them with pro-Eisenhower delegates; they called this proposal "Fair Play." Although Taft and his supporters angrily denied this charge, the convention voted to support Fair Play 658 to 548, and Taft lost many Southern delegates. Eisenhower also received two more boosts: first when several uncommitted state delegations, such as Michigan and Pennsylvania, decided to support him; and second, when Stassen released his delegates and asked them to support Eisenhower. The removal of many pro-Taft Southern delegates and the support of the uncommitted states decided the nomination in Eisenhower's favor, which he won on the first ballot. Afterward, Senator <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> of California was nominated by acclamation as his vice-presidential running mate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey23-10">[10]</a> Nixon, whose name came to the forefront early and often in preconvention conversations among Eisenhower's campaign managers, was selected because of his youth (39 years old) and solid anti-communist record.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon472–473-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_election">General election</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: General election">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1952.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/ElectoralCollege1952.svg/330px-ElectoralCollege1952.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/ElectoralCollege1952.svg/495px-ElectoralCollege1952.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/ElectoralCollege1952.svg/660px-ElectoralCollege1952.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>1952 Electoral College vote results</figcaption></figure> Incumbent President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> fared poorly in the polls and decided to not run in 1952. There was no clear frontrunner for the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> presidential nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson20-12">[12]</a> Delegates to the <a href="/wiki/1952_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1952 Democratic National Convention">1952 Democratic National Convention</a> in Chicago, nominated Illinois governor <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Adlai E. Stevenson</a> for president on the third ballot. Senator <a href="/wiki/John_Sparkman" title="John Sparkman">John Sparkman</a> of Alabama was selected as his running mate. The convention ended with widespread confidence that the party had selected a powerful presidential contender who would field a competitive campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey24-13">[13]</a> Stevenson concentrated on giving a series of thoughtful speeches around the nation. Although his style thrilled intellectuals and academics, some political experts wondered if he were speaking "over the heads" of most of his listeners, and they dubbed him an "egghead," based on his baldness and intellectual demeanor. His biggest liability however, was Truman's unpopularity. Even though Stevenson had not been a part of the Truman administration, voters largely ignored his record and burdened him with Truman's. Historian Herbert Parmet says that Stevenson: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">failed to dispel the widespread recognition that, for a divided America, torn by paranoia and unable to understand what had disrupted the anticipated tranquility of the postwar world, the time for change had really arrived. Neither Stevenson nor anyone else could have dissuaded the electorate from its desire to repudiate 'Trumanism.'<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></blockquote> Republican strategy during the fall campaign focused on Eisenhower's unrivaled popularity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon477-15">[15]</a> Ike traveled to 45 of the 48 <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a>; his heroic image and plain talk excited the large crowds who heard him <a href="/wiki/Whistle_stop_train_tour" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistle stop train tour">speak from the campaign train's rear platform</a>. In his speeches, Eisenhower never mentioned Stevenson by name, instead relentlessly attacking the alleged failures of the Truman administration: "Korea, Communism, and corruption."<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In addition to the speeches, he got his message out to voters through 30-second television advertisements; this was the first presidential election in which television played a major role.<a href="#cite_note-DDEce-17">[17]</a> In domestic policy, Eisenhower attacked the growing influence of the federal government in the economy, while in foreign affairs, he supported a strong American role in stemming the expansion of Communism. Eisenhower adopted much of the rhetoric and positions of the contemporary GOP, and many of his public statements were designed to win over conservative supporters of Taft.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson22–23-18">[18]</a> A potentially devastating allegation hit when Nixon was accused by several newspapers of receiving $18,000 in undeclared "gifts" from wealthy California donors. Eisenhower and his aides considered dropping Nixon from the ticket and picking another running mate. Nixon responded to the allegations in a nationally televised speech, the "<a href="/wiki/Checkers_speech" title="Checkers speech">Checkers speech</a>," on September 23. In this speech, Nixon denied the charges against him, gave a detailed account of his modest financial assets, and offered a glowing assessment of Eisenhower's candidacy. The highlight of the speech came when Nixon stated that a supporter had given his daughters a gift—a dog named "Checkers"—and that he would not return it, because his daughters loved it. The public responded to the speech with an outpouring of support, and Eisenhower retained him on the ticket.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon480–490-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Ultimately, the burden of the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, Communist threat, and Truman administration scandals, as well as the popularity of Eisenhower, were too much for Stevenson to overcome.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Eisenhower won a landslide victory, taking 55.2 percent of the popular vote and 442 electoral votes. Stevenson received 44.5 percent of the popular vote and 89 electoral votes. Eisenhower won every state outside of the South, as well as Virginia, Florida, and Texas, each of which voted Republican for just the second time since the end of <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction</a>. In the concurrent congressional elections, Republicans won control of the House of Representatives and the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson26–27-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Administration">Administration</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidential transition of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Presidential transition of Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></div> Eisenhower entered the White House with a strong background in organizing complex operations (such as the invasion of Europe in 1944). More than any previous president he paid attention to improving staff performance and defining duties. He paid special attention to having a powerful Chief of Staff in <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Adams" title="Sherman Adams">Sherman Adams</a>, a former governor.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cabinet">Cabinet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cabinet">edit</a>]</div> <table class="infobox" style="width:auto;text-align:left;line-height:1.2em;margin-left:1em; margin-right:0; float:right; clear:right;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="3" style="line-height:1.5em;font-size:110%;background:#DCDCDC;text-align:center">The Eisenhower cabinet</th></tr><tr><th>Office</th><th>Name</th><th>Term</th></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#000"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></th><td>1953–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a></th><td>1953–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State" title="United States Secretary of State">Secretary of State</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a></th><td>1953–1959</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Herter" title="Christian Herter">Christian Herter</a></th><td>1959–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Secretary of the Treasury">Secretary of the Treasury</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/George_M._Humphrey" title="George M. Humphrey">George M. Humphrey</a></th><td>1953–1957</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Anderson_(Texas_politician)" title="Robert B. Anderson (Texas politician)">Robert B. Anderson</a></th><td>1957–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">Secretary of Defense</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Erwin_Wilson" title="Charles Erwin Wilson">Charles Erwin Wilson</a></th><td>1953–1957</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Neil_H._McElroy" title="Neil H. McElroy">Neil H. McElroy</a></th><td>1957–1959</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Gates_Jr." title="Thomas S. Gates Jr.">Thomas S. Gates Jr.</a></th><td>1959–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Herbert Brownell Jr.</a></th><td>1953–1957</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/William_P._Rogers" title="William P. Rogers">William P. Rogers</a></th><td>1957–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Postmaster_General" title="United States Postmaster General">Postmaster General</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Summerfield" title="Arthur Summerfield">Arthur Summerfield</a></th><td>1953–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior" title="United States Secretary of the Interior">Secretary of the Interior</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Douglas_McKay" title="Douglas McKay">Douglas McKay</a></th><td>1953–1956</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Fred_A._Seaton" title="Fred A. Seaton">Fred A. Seaton</a></th><td>1956–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Agriculture" title="United States Secretary of Agriculture">Secretary of Agriculture</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Taft_Benson" title="Ezra Taft Benson">Ezra Taft Benson</a></th><td>1953–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Commerce" title="United States Secretary of Commerce">Secretary of Commerce</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Weeks" title="Sinclair Weeks">Sinclair Weeks</a></th><td>1953–1958</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_H._Mueller" title="Frederick H. Mueller">Frederick H. Mueller</a></th><td>1959–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Labor" title="United States Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Patrick_Durkin" title="Martin Patrick Durkin">Martin Patrick Durkin</a></th><td>1953</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/James_P._Mitchell" title="James P. Mitchell">James P. Mitchell</a></th><td>1953–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Secretary of Health and Human Services">Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Oveta_Culp_Hobby" title="Oveta Culp Hobby">Oveta Culp Hobby</a></th><td>1953–1955</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Marion_B._Folsom" title="Marion B. Folsom">Marion B. Folsom</a></th><td>1955–1958</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Flemming" title="Arthur Flemming">Arthur Flemming</a></th><td>1958–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget" title="Office of Management and Budget">Director of the Bureau of the Budget</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dodge" title="Joseph Dodge">Joseph Dodge</a></th><td>1953–1954</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Rowland_Hughes" title="Rowland Hughes">Rowland Hughes</a></th><td>1954–1956</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Percival_Brundage" title="Percival Brundage">Percival Brundage</a></th><td>1956–1958</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Stans" title="Maurice Stans">Maurice Stans</a></th><td>1958–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_United_Nations" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Nations">Ambassador to the United Nations</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Jr." title="Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.">Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.</a></th><td>1953–1960</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/James_Jeremiah_Wadsworth" title="James Jeremiah Wadsworth">James Jeremiah Wadsworth</a></th><td>1960–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Mutual_Security_Agency" title="Mutual Security Agency">Director of the Mutual Security Agency</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Harold_Stassen" title="Harold Stassen">Harold Stassen</a></th><td>1953</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Defense_Mobilization" title="Office of Defense Mobilization">Director of the Office of Defense Mobilization</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Flemming" title="Arthur Flemming">Arthur Flemming</a></th><td>1953–1957</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Gray_(politician)" title="Gordon Gray (politician)">Gordon Gray</a></th><td>1957–1958</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Civil_Defense_Administration" title="Federal Civil Defense Administration">Administrator of the Federal Civil Defense Administration</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Val_Peterson" title="Val Peterson">Val Peterson</a></th><td>1953–1957</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Hoegh" title="Leo Hoegh">Leo Hoegh</a></th><td>1957–1958</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Civil_and_Defense_Mobilization" title="Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization">Director of the Office of Civil and Defense Mobilization</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Leo_Hoegh" title="Leo Hoegh">Leo Hoegh</a></th><td>1958–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Chair of the Atomic Energy Commission</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Dean_(lawyer)" title="Gordon Dean (lawyer)">Gordon Dean</a></th><td>1953</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis Strauss</a></th><td>1953–1958</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/John_A._McCone" title="John A. McCone">John A. McCone</a></th><td>1958–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff" title="White House Chief of Staff">Chief of Staff</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Adams" title="Sherman Adams">Sherman Adams</a></th><td>1953–1958</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Wilton_Persons" title="Wilton Persons">Wilton Persons</a></th><td>1958–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/White_House_Deputy_Chief_of_Staff" title="White House Deputy Chief of Staff">Deputy Chief of Staff</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Wilton_Persons" title="Wilton Persons">Wilton Persons</a></th><td>1953–1958</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_D._Morgan" title="Gerald D. Morgan">Gerald D. Morgan</a></th><td>1958–1961</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="background:#D1D1D1"></td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/White_House_Cabinet_Secretary" title="White House Cabinet Secretary">Cabinet Secretary</a></td><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_M._Rabb" title="Maxwell M. Rabb">Maxwell M. Rabb</a></th><td>1954–1958</td></tr><tr class="mw-empty-elt"></tr><tr><th style="font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Keith_Gray" title="Robert Keith Gray">Robert Keith Gray</a></th><td>1958–1961</td></tr></tbody></table> Eisenhower delegated the selection of his cabinet to two close associates, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Lucius D. Clay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Herbert Brownell Jr.</a> Brownell, a legal aide to Dewey, became attorney general.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicker18–20-25">[25]</a> The office of Secretary of State went to <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a>, a long-time Republican spokesman on foreign policy who had helped design the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Charter">United Nations Charter</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco" title="Treaty of San Francisco">Treaty of San Francisco</a>. Dulles would travel nearly 560,000 miles (901,233 km) during his six years in office.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Outside of the cabinet, Eisenhower selected <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Adams" title="Sherman Adams">Sherman Adams</a> as <a href="/wiki/White_House_Chief_of_Staff" title="White House Chief of Staff">White House Chief of Staff</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Milton_S._Eisenhower" title="Milton S. Eisenhower">Milton S. Eisenhower</a>, the president's brother and a prominent college administrator, emerged as an important adviser.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson39–40-27">[27]</a> Eisenhower also elevated the role of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a>, and designated <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cutler" title="Robert Cutler">Robert Cutler</a> to serve as the first <a href="/wiki/National_Security_Advisor_(United_States)" title="National Security Advisor (United States)">National Security Advisor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson77–78-28">[28]</a> Eisenhower sought out leaders of big business for many of his other cabinet appointments. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Erwin_Wilson" title="Charles Erwin Wilson">Charles Erwin Wilson</a>, the CEO of <a href="/wiki/General_Motors" title="General Motors">General Motors</a>, was Eisenhower's first secretary of defense. In 1957, he was replaced by president of <a href="/wiki/Procter_%26_Gamble" title="Procter & Gamble">Procter & Gamble</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neil_H._McElroy" title="Neil H. McElroy">Neil H. McElroy</a>. For the position of secretary of the treasury, Ike selected <a href="/wiki/George_M._Humphrey" title="George M. Humphrey">George M. Humphrey</a>, the CEO of several steel and coal companies. His postmaster general, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_E._Summerfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur E. Summerfield">Arthur E. Summerfield</a>, and first secretary of the interior, <a href="/wiki/Douglas_McKay" title="Douglas McKay">Douglas McKay</a>, were both automobile distributors. Former senator <a href="/wiki/Sinclair_Weeks" title="Sinclair Weeks">Sinclair Weeks</a> became Secretary of Commerce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicker18–20-25">[25]</a> Eisenhower appointed <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dodge" title="Joseph Dodge">Joseph Dodge</a>, a longtime bank president who also had extensive government experience, as the director of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Management_and_Budget" title="Office of Management and Budget">Bureau of the Budget</a>. He became the first budget director to be given cabinet-level status.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson37-29">[29]</a> Other Eisenhower cabinet selections provided patronage to political bases. <a href="/wiki/Ezra_Taft_Benson" title="Ezra Taft Benson">Ezra Taft Benson</a>, a high-ranking member of <a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</a>, was chosen as secretary of agriculture; he was the only person appointed from the Taft wing of the party. As the first secretary of the new <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health,_Education,_and_Welfare" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare">Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW)</a>, Eisenhower named the wartime head of the Army's Women's Army Corps, <a href="/wiki/Oveta_Culp_Hobby" title="Oveta Culp Hobby">Oveta Culp Hobby</a>. She was the second woman to <a href="/wiki/List_of_female_United_States_Cabinet_Secretaries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of female United States Cabinet Secretaries">ever be a cabinet member</a>. <a href="/wiki/Martin_Patrick_Durkin" title="Martin Patrick Durkin">Martin Patrick Durkin</a>, a Democrat and president of the plumbers and steamfitters union, was selected as secretary of labor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicker18–20-25">[25]</a> As a result, it became a standing joke that Eisenhower's inaugural Cabinet was composed of "nine millionaires and a plumber."<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Dissatisfied with Eisenhower's labor policies, Durkin resigned after less than a year in office, and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/James_P._Mitchell" title="James P. Mitchell">James P. Mitchell</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson35–36-31">[31]</a> Eisenhower suffered a major political defeat when his nomination of <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis Strauss</a> as a later Secretary of Commerce was defeated in the U.S. Senate in 1959, in part due to Strauss's role in the <a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungSchilling147,_150-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vice_presidency">Vice presidency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vice presidency">edit</a>]</div> Eisenhower, who disliked partisan politics and politicians, left much of the building and sustaining of the Republican Party to Vice President Nixon.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Eisenhower knew how ill-prepared Vice President Truman had been on major issues such as the atomic bomb when he suddenly became president in 1945, and therefore made sure to keep Nixon fully involved in the administration. He gave Nixon multiple diplomatic, domestic, and political assignments so that he "evolved into one of Ike's most valuable subordinates." The office of vice president was thereby fundamentally upgraded from a minor ceremonial post to a major role in the presidential team.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Nixon went well beyond the assignment, "[throwing] himself into state and local politics, making hundreds of speeches across the land. With Eisenhower uninvolved in party building, Nixon became the de facto national GOP leader."<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Press_corps">Press corps</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Press corps">edit</a>]</div> In his two terms he delivered about 750 speeches and conducted 193 news conferences.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> On January 19, 1955, Eisenhower became the first president to conduct a televised <a href="/wiki/News_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="News conference">news conference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Reporters found performance at press conferences as awkward. Some concluded mistakenly that he was ill-informed or merely a figurehead. At times, he was able to use his reputation to deliberately obfuscate his position on difficult subjects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson41–42-38">[38]</a> His <a href="/wiki/White_House_Press_Secretary" title="White House Press Secretary">press secretary</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Hagerty" title="James Hagerty">James Hagerty</a>, was known for providing much more detail on the lifestyle of the president than previous press secretaries; for example, he covered in great detail Eisenhower's medical condition. Most of the time, he handled routine affairs such as daily reports on presidential activities, defending presidential policies, and assisting diplomatic visitors. He handled embarrassing episodes, such as those related to the Soviet <a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">downing of an American spy plane, the U-2 in 1960.</a> He handled press relations on Eisenhower's international trips, sometimes taking the blame from a hostile foreign press. Eisenhower often relied upon him for advice about public opinion, and how to phrase complex issues. Hagerty had a reputation for supporting civil rights initiatives.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Robert Hugh Ferrell</a> considered him to be the best press secretary in presidential history, because he "organized the presidency for the single innovation in press relations that has itself almost changed the nature of the nation's highest office in recent decades."<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continuity_of_government">Continuity of government</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Continuity of government">edit</a>]</div> As early as 1956, per a memo on page 256 of a 2021 book,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Eisenhower established emergency administrators in the event of a national crisis, such as a nuclear attack. The formerly classified memo, "Wartime Structure of the Executive Branch," specifies an Office of War Resources directly under the president, including a War Communications Administration and formerly undisclosed Office for Free World Cooperation. The memo does not specify person(s) selected to head the Office of War Resources. A 2010 publication confirms the Office of War Resources plan.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The selection and appointment of these administrator-designates was classified <a href="/wiki/Security_clearance" title="Security clearance">Top Secret</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In an emergency, each administrator was to take charge of a specifically activated agency to maintain the <a href="/wiki/Continuity_of_government" title="Continuity of government">continuity of government</a>. Named to the group were:<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <ul><li>Theodore F. Koop, Vice President of <a href="/wiki/CBS" title="CBS">CBS</a> – Emergency Censorship Agency</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Stanton_(executive)" title="Frank Stanton (executive)">Frank Stanton</a>, President of CBS – Emergency Communications Agency</li> <li>John Ed Warren, Senior Vice President of <a href="/wiki/First_National_City_Bank" class="mw-redirect" title="First National City Bank">First National City Bank</a> – Emergency Energy and Minerals Agency</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra_Taft_Benson" title="Ezra Taft Benson">Ezra Taft Benson</a>, Secretary of Agriculture – Emergency Food Agency</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aksel_Nielsen" title="Aksel Nielsen">Aksel Nielsen</a>, President of Title Guaranty Company – Emergency Housing Agency</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Mitchell" title="James P. Mitchell">James P. Mitchell</a>, Secretary of Labor – Emergency Manpower Agency</li> <li>Harold Boeschenstein, President of <a href="/wiki/Owens-Corning" class="mw-redirect" title="Owens-Corning">Owens-Corning</a> Fiberglass – Emergency Production Agency</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McChesney_Martin" title="William McChesney Martin">William McChesney Martin</a>, Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Board_of_Governors" title="Federal Reserve Board of Governors">Federal Reserve Board of Governors</a> – Emergency Stabilization Agency</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Pace" title="Frank Pace">Frank Pace</a>, Executive Vice President of <a href="/wiki/General_Dynamics" title="General Dynamics">General Dynamics</a> – Emergency Transport Agency (resigned January 8, 1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_P._Baker_(dean_of_Harvard_Business_School)" title="George P. Baker (dean of Harvard Business School)">George P. Baker</a>, Dean of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a> – Emergency Transport Agency (after January 8, 1959)</li></ul> Research in 2024 subsequently revealed the existence of standby emergency legislation to be used in a possible nuclear war situation. Known as the Defense Resources Act, this legislative text entered the Congressional Record in 1983. According to page 182 (printed page) of the relevant pdf, the Act would authorize establishment of Censorship of Communications and other emergency federal powers:<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> "Whenever the President shall deem that the public safety demands it, he may cause to be censored under such rules and regulations as he may from time to time establish, communications by mail, cable radio, television or other means of transmission crossing the borders of the United States which for the purposes of this section shall include territories and possessions, the Canal Zone, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Trust Territories and other areas under the jurisdiction of the United States, or communications which may be carried by any vessel, airplane or other means of transportation bound to or from any foreign country and touching at any port or place of the United States." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judicial_appointments">Judicial appointments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Judicial appointments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates">Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="List of federal judges appointed by Dwight D. Eisenhower">List of federal judges appointed by Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earl_Warren.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/220px-Earl_Warren.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/330px-Earl_Warren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Earl_Warren.jpg/440px-Earl_Warren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="773" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, the 14th <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice of the United States</a>, presided over the liberal <a href="/wiki/Warren_Court" title="Warren Court">Warren Court</a> from October 1953 until June 1969.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicker47–48-48">[48]</a></figcaption></figure> Eisenhower appointed five justices of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court of the United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> In 1953, Eisenhower nominated Governor Earl Warren to succeed <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Fred_M._Vinson" title="Fred M. Vinson">Fred M. Vinson</a>. Many conservative Republicans opposed Warren's nomination, but they were unable to block the appointment, and Warren's nomination was approved by the Senate in January 1954. Warren presided over a court that generated numerous liberal rulings on various topics, beginning in 1954 with the desegregation case of <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson141–142-50">[50]</a> Eisenhower approved of the Brown decision.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>'s death in late 1954 generated another vacancy on the Supreme Court, and Eisenhower successfully nominated federal appellate judge <a href="/wiki/John_Marshall_Harlan_II" title="John Marshall Harlan II">John Marshall Harlan II</a> to succeed Jackson. Harlan joined the conservative bloc on the bench, often supporting the position of Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/Felix_Frankfurter" title="Felix Frankfurter">Felix Frankfurter</a>.<a href="#cite_note-clouatre1-52">[52]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Minton" title="Sherman Minton">Sherman Minton</a> resigned in 1956, Eisenhower nominated state supreme court justice <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan" class="mw-redirect" title="William J. Brennan">William J. Brennan</a> to the Supreme Court. Eisenhower hoped that the appointment of Brennan, a liberal-leaning Catholic, would boost his own re-election campaign. Opposition from Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> and others delayed Brennan's confirmation, so Eisenhower placed Brennan on the court via a <a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">recess appointment</a> in 1956; the Senate confirmed Brennan's nomination in early 1957. Brennan joined Warren as a leader of the court's liberal bloc. <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Forman_Reed" title="Stanley Forman Reed">Stanley Reed</a>'s retirement in 1957 created another vacancy, and Eisenhower nominated federal appellate judge <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Whittaker" title="Charles Evans Whittaker">Charles Evans Whittaker</a>, who would serve on the Supreme Court for just five years before resigning. The fifth and final Supreme Court vacancy of Eisenhower's tenure arose in 1958 due to the retirement of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Hitz_Burton" class="mw-redirect" title="Harold Hitz Burton">Harold Burton</a>. Eisenhower successfully nominated federal appellate judge <a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Potter Stewart</a> to succeed Burton, and Stewart became a centrist on the court.<a href="#cite_note-clouatre1-52">[52]</a> Eisenhower paid attention to Supreme Court appointments. Other judicial nominees were selected by the Attorney General, Herbert Brownell, usually in consultation with the state's senators.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The administration appointed 45 judges to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Courts_of_Appeals" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Courts of Appeals">United States Courts of Appeals</a>, and 129 judges to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States district courts">United States district courts</a>. Since nearly all were appointed to serve specific geographical area, their regional origins matched the national population. All were white men. Most judges had an upper-middle-class background. One in five attended an Ivy League undergraduate college; half attended an Ivy League law school. Party affiliation was decisive: 93% of the men were Republicans, 7% Democrats; relatively few had been conspicuous in elective politics. Nearly 80% of the men were Protestants, 15% Catholic, and 6% Jewish.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_affairs">Foreign affairs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Foreign affairs">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration">Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cold_War">Cold War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cold War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cold_War_WorldMap_1953.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cold_War_WorldMap_1953.png/400px-Cold_War_WorldMap_1953.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cold_War_WorldMap_1953.png/600px-Cold_War_WorldMap_1953.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cold_War_WorldMap_1953.png/800px-Cold_War_WorldMap_1953.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>A map of the geopolitical situation in 1953</figcaption></figure> The Cold War dominated international politics in the 1950s. As both the United States and the Soviet Union possessed <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a>, any conflict presented the risk of escalation into nuclear warfare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008651–652-55">[55]</a> The isolationist element led by Senator Taft would avoid war by staying out of European affairs. Eisenhower's 1952 candidacy was motivated by his opposition to Taft's isolationist views in opposition to NATO and American reliance on <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a> with Western Europe. Eisenhower continued the basic Truman administration policy of <a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">containment</a> of Soviet expansion but added a concern with propaganda suggesting eventual liberation of Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Eisenhower's overall Cold War policy was codified in NSC 174, which held that the <a href="/wiki/Rollback" title="Rollback">rollback</a> of Soviet influence was a long-term goal, but that NATO would not provoke war with the Soviet Union. Peace would be maintained by being so much stronger in terms of atomic weapons than the USSR that it would never risk using its much larger land-based army to attack Western Europe. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008665-57">[57]</a> He planned for to mobilize psychological insights, CIA intelligence and American scientific technological superiority counter conventional Soviet forces.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> died in March 1953, <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Malenkov" title="Georgy Malenkov">Georgy Malenkov</a> took leadership of the Soviet Union. Malenkov proposed a "peaceful coexistence" with the West, and British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> proposed a summit of the world leaders. Fearing that the summit would delay the rearmament of <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, and skeptical of Malenkov's intentions, Eisenhower rejected the summit idea. In April, Eisenhower delivered his "<a href="/wiki/Chance_for_Peace_speech" title="Chance for Peace speech">Chance for Peace speech</a>," in which he called for an armistice in Korea, free elections to re-unify Germany, the "full independence" of Eastern European nations, and United Nations control of atomic energy. Though well received in the West, the Soviet leadership viewed Eisenhower's speech as little more than propaganda. In 1954, a more confrontational leader, <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>, took charge in the Soviet Union. Eisenhower became increasingly skeptical of the possibility of cooperation with the Soviet Union after it refused to support his <a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a> proposal, which called for the creation of the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> and the creation of peaceful <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> plants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicker22–24,_44-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="National_security_policy">National security policy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: National security policy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Look_(policy)" title="New Look (policy)">New Look (policy)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eisenhower_inspects_YB52.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Eisenhower_inspects_YB52.jpg/260px-Eisenhower_inspects_YB52.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Eisenhower_inspects_YB52.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="290" /></a><figcaption>Eisenhower and members of his Cabinet inspect the YB-52 prototype of the <a href="/wiki/B-52_Stratofortress" class="mw-redirect" title="B-52 Stratofortress">B-52</a>, c.1954</figcaption></figure> Eisenhower unveiled the New Look, his first <a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a> policy, on October 30, 1953. It reflected his concern for balancing the Cold War military commitments of the United States with the risk of overwhelming the nation's financial resources. The new policy emphasized reliance on <a href="/wiki/Military_strategy#Cold_War_strategy" title="Military strategy">strategic</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>, rather than <a href="/wiki/Conventional_weapon" title="Conventional weapon">conventional</a> military power, to <a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deter</a> both conventional and nuclear military threats.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The U.S. military developed a strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_triad" title="Nuclear triad">triad</a> of land-based <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missiles</a> (ICBMs), <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bomber" title="Strategic bomber">strategic bombers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Submarine-launched_ballistic_missile" title="Submarine-launched ballistic missile">submarine-launched ballistic missiles</a> (SLBMs).<a href="#cite_note-roman-61">[61]</a> Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower insisted on having plans to <a href="/wiki/Massive_retaliation" title="Massive retaliation">retaliate</a>, fight, and win a nuclear war against the Soviets, although he hoped he would never feel forced to use such weapons.<a href="#cite_note-Real_Eisenhower-62">[62]</a> As the fighting in Korea ended, Eisenhower sharply reduced the reliance on expensive Army divisions. Historian Saki Dockrill argues that his long-term strategy was to promote the collective security of NATO and other American allies, strengthen the Third World against Soviet pressures, avoid another Korean stalemate, and produce a momentum that would steadily weaken Soviet power and influence. Dockrill points to Eisenhower's use of multiple assets against the Soviet Union: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Eisenhower knew that the United States had many other assets that could be translated into influence over the Soviet bloc—its democratic values and institutions, its rich and competitive capitalist economy, its intelligence technology and skills in obtaining information as to the enemy's capabilities and intentions, its psychological warfare and covert operations capabilities, its negotiating skills, and its economic and military assistance to the Third World.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></blockquote>In 1953, the Eisenhower administration's <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a> wrote three policy papers on opposing the People's Republic of China.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[64]</a>: 88  NSC 146 proposed backing Republic of China maritime raids and raids against the Chinese mainland.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[64]</a>: 88  NSC 148 proposed to foster and support anti-communist Chinese elements both inside and outside of the country.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[64]</a>: 88  NSC 166 proposed strategies to deny the PRC full status in the international community, pursuant to the view that making any concessions would strengthen the PRC.<a href="#cite_note-Crean-64">[64]</a>: 88  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ballistic_missiles_and_arms_control">Ballistic missiles and arms control</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ballistic missiles and arms control">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thor_first_launch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Thor_first_launch.jpg/260px-Thor_first_launch.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Thor_first_launch.jpg/390px-Thor_first_launch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Thor_first_launch.jpg/520px-Thor_first_launch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="554" data-file-height="686" /></a><figcaption>First test launch of the <a href="/wiki/PGM-17_Thor" title="PGM-17 Thor">PGM-17 Thor</a> from <a href="/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Air_Force_Station_Space_Launch_Complex_17" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 17">Cape Canaveral Launch Complex 17B</a>, January 25, 1957</figcaption></figure> Eisenhower held office during a period in which both the United States and the Soviet Union developed nuclear stockpiles theoretically capable of destroying not just each other, but all life on Earth. The United States had tested the first <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> in 1945, and both the superpowers had tested <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_weapon" title="Thermonuclear weapon">thermonuclear weapons</a> by the end of 1953.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHitchcock201894–95-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bomber" title="Strategic bomber">Strategic bombers</a> had been the delivery method of previous nuclear weapons, but Eisenhower sought to create a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_triad" title="Nuclear triad">nuclear triad</a> consisting of land-launched nuclear missiles, nuclear-missile-armed submarines, and strategic aircraft. Throughout the 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union developed <a href="/wiki/Intercontinental_ballistic_missile" title="Intercontinental ballistic missile">intercontinental ballistic missile</a> (ICBMs) and <a href="/wiki/Intermediate-range_ballistic_missile" title="Intermediate-range ballistic missile">intermediate-range ballistic missile</a> (IRBMs) capable of delivering nuclear warheads. Eisenhower also presided over the development of the <a href="/wiki/UGM-27_Polaris" title="UGM-27 Polaris">UGM-27 Polaris</a> missile, which was capable of being launched from submarines, and continued funding for long-range bombers like the <a href="/wiki/Boeing_B-52_Stratofortress" title="Boeing B-52 Stratofortress">Boeing B-52 Stratofortress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHitchcock2018384–389-66">[66]</a> In January 1956 the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a> began developing the <a href="/wiki/PGM-17_Thor" title="PGM-17 Thor">Thor</a>, a 1,500 miles (2,400 km) <a href="/wiki/Intermediate-range_ballistic_missile" title="Intermediate-range ballistic missile">Intermediate-range ballistic missile</a>. The program proceeded quickly, and beginning in 1958 the first of 20 <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> Thor squadrons became operational in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>. This was the first experiment at sharing strategic nuclear weapons in <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> and led to other placements abroad of American nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Critics at the time, led by Democratic Senator <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> of Massachusetts levied charges to the effect that there was a "<a href="/wiki/Missile_gap" title="Missile gap">missile gap</a>", that is, the U.S. had fallen militarily behind the Soviets because of their lead in space. Historians now discount those allegations, although they agree that Eisenhower did not effectively respond to his critics.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In fact, the Soviet Union did not deploy ICBMs until after Eisenhower left office, and the U.S. retained an overall advantage in nuclear weaponry. Eisenhower was aware of the American advantage in ICBM development because of intelligence gathered by <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_U-2" title="Lockheed U-2">U-2 planes</a>, which had begun flying over the Soviet Union in 1956.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson419–420-69">[69]</a> The administration decided the best way to minimize the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">proliferation of nuclear weapons</a> was to tightly control knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium#Enrichment_methods" title="Enriched uranium">gas-centrifuge technology</a>, which was essential to turn ordinary uranium into <a href="/wiki/Weapons-grade_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons-grade uranium">weapons-grade uranium</a>. American diplomats by 1960 reached agreement with the German, Dutch, and British governments to limit access to the technology. The four-power understanding on gas-centrifuge secrecy would last until 1975, when scientist <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadeer_Khan" title="Abdul Qadeer Khan">Abdul Qadeer Khan</a> took the Dutch centrifuge technology to <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> France sought American help in developing its own <a href="/wiki/France_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="France and weapons of mass destruction">nuclear program</a>, but Eisenhower rejected these overtures due to France's instability and his distrust of French leader <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_Korean_War">End of the Korean War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: End of the Korean War">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:December_4,_1952_-_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_(left)_reviews_troops_of_the_Republic_of_Korea%27s_Capitol_Division_77_18_867.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/December_4%2C_1952_-_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_%28left%29_reviews_troops_of_the_Republic_of_Korea%27s_Capitol_Division_77_18_867.jpg/220px-December_4%2C_1952_-_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_%28left%29_reviews_troops_of_the_Republic_of_Korea%27s_Capitol_Division_77_18_867.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/December_4%2C_1952_-_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_%28left%29_reviews_troops_of_the_Republic_of_Korea%27s_Capitol_Division_77_18_867.jpg/330px-December_4%2C_1952_-_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_%28left%29_reviews_troops_of_the_Republic_of_Korea%27s_Capitol_Division_77_18_867.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/December_4%2C_1952_-_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_%28left%29_reviews_troops_of_the_Republic_of_Korea%27s_Capitol_Division_77_18_867.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption>Eisenhower (left) reviews troops of the Republic of Korea's Capitol Division, December 1952</figcaption></figure> During his campaign, Eisenhower said he would go to Korea to end the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>, which had begun on June 25, 1950, when <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> and its dictator <a href="/wiki/Kim_Il_Sung" title="Kim Il Sung">Kim Il-sung</a> invaded <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson208–210,_261-72">[72]</a> The U.S. had joined the war to prevent the fall of South Korea, later expanding the mission to include victory over the Communist regime in North Korea.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The intervention of <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Republic of China">Chinese</a> forces in late 1950 led to a protracted stalemate around the <a href="/wiki/38th_parallel_north" title="38th parallel north">38th parallel north</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson210–215,_223–233-74">[74]</a> Truman had begun peace talks in mid-1951, but the issue of North Korean and Chinese prisoners remained a sticking point. Over 40,000 prisoners from the two countries refused repatriation, but North Korea and China nonetheless demanded their return.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson232–233-75">[75]</a> Upon taking office, Eisenhower demanded a solution, warning China that he would use nuclear weapons if the war continued. Whether China was informed of the potential for nuclear force is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korean</a> leader <a href="/wiki/Syngman_Rhee" title="Syngman Rhee">Syngman Rhee</a> attempted to derail peace negotiations by releasing North Korean prisoners who refused repatriation, but Rhee agreed to accept an armistice after Eisenhower threatened to withdraw all U.S. forces from Korea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHitchcock2018105–107-77">[77]</a> On July 27, 1953, the United States, North Korea, and China agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Korean_Armistice_Agreement" title="Korean Armistice Agreement">Korean Armistice Agreement</a>, ending the Korean War.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Historian Edward C. Keefer says that in accepting the American demands that POWs could refuse to return to their home country, "China and North Korea still swallowed the bitter pill, probably forced down in part by the atomic ultimatum."<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Historian William I. Hitchcock writes that the key factors in reaching the armistice were the exhaustion of North Korean forces and the desire of the Soviet leaders (who exerted pressure on China) to avoid nuclear war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHitchcock2018104–105-80">[80]</a> The armistice led to decades of uneasy peace between North Korea and South Korea. The United States and South Korea signed a <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Treaty_Between_the_United_States_and_the_Republic_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea">defensive treaty</a> in October 1953, and the U.S. would continue to station thousands of soldiers in South Korea long after the end of the Korean War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008660–661-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Covert_actions">Covert actions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Covert actions">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg/220px-President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg/330px-President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg/440px-President_Eisenhower_and_John_Foster_Dulles_in_1956.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption> President Eisenhower (left, pictured here in 1956) with U.S. Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a>, the advocate of the <a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a></figcaption></figure> Eisenhower, while accepting the doctrine of containment, sought to counter the Soviet Union through more active means as detailed in the State-Defense report <a href="/wiki/NSC_68" title="NSC 68">NSC 68</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The Eisenhower administration and the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA) used <a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">covert action</a> to interfere with governments abroad. An early use of covert action was against the elected <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iran" title="Prime Minister of Iran">Prime Minister of Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Mosaddeq" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Mosaddeq">Mohammed Mosaddeq</a>, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a> (or Operation Ajax).<a href="#cite_note-millercenter.org-83">[83]</a> Rumors of Soviet subversion had surfaced due to the nationalization of the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iranian_Oil_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Iranian Oil Company">Anglo-Iranian Oil Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Ervand_Abrahamian" title="Ervand Abrahamian">Ervand Abrahamian</a> states that Iran's oil was the central focus of the coup, for both the British and the U.S., though "much of the discourse at the time linked it to the Cold War."<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The CIA also instigated the <a href="/wiki/1954_Guatemalan_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Guatemalan coup d'état">1954 Guatemalan coup d'état</a> (or Operation PBSuccess). President <a href="/wiki/Jacobo_Arbenz_Guzm%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán">Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán</a>'s ambitious <a href="/wiki/Decree_900" title="Decree 900">agrarian reform</a> program attempted to grant land to millions of landless peasants. This program threatened the land holdings of the <a href="/wiki/United_Fruit_Company" title="United Fruit Company">United Fruit Company</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> American fears heightened when Arbenz purchased weapons from Communist Czechoslovakia. In June 1954, the CIA helped counterrevolutionaries remove Arbenz from power.<a href="#cite_note-millercenter.org-83">[83]</a> The CIA then orchestrated a series of power transfers that ended with the confirmation of <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Castillo_Armas" title="Carlos Castillo Armas">Carlos Castillo Armas</a> as president in July 1954.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Critics have produced conspiracy theories about the causal factors, but according to historian Stephen M. Streeter, CIA documents show the United Fruit Company played no major role in Eisenhower's decision, that the Eisenhower administration did not need to be forced into the action by any lobby groups, and that Soviet influence in Guatemala was minimal.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> In the election of <a href="/wiki/Patrice_Lumumba" title="Patrice Lumumba">Patrice Lumumba</a> as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>, and his acceptance of Soviet support during the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a>, the CIA saw "another possible Cuba." This view swayed the White House. President Eisenhower discussed plans at a <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Security_Council" title="United States National Security Council">National Security Council</a> meeting on August 18, 1960, to assassinate Lumumba.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> However, the plot to poison him was abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Declassified documents indicate that the Congolese leaders who overthrew Lumumba and transferred him to the <a href="/wiki/Katanga_Province" title="Katanga Province">Katangan</a> authorities, including <a href="/wiki/Mobutu_Sese_Seko" title="Mobutu Sese Seko">Mobutu Sese Seko</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kasa-Vubu" title="Joseph Kasa-Vubu">Joseph Kasa-Vubu</a>, received money and weapons directly from the CIA.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeating_the_Bricker_Amendment">Defeating the Bricker Amendment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Defeating the Bricker Amendment">edit</a>]</div> In January 1953, Senator <a href="/wiki/John_W._Bricker" title="John W. Bricker">John W. Bricker</a> of Ohio re-introduced the <a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a>, which would limit the president's treaty making power and ability to enter into executive agreements with foreign nations. Fears that the steady stream of post-World War II-era international treaties and executive agreements entered into by the U.S. were undermining the nation's <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> united isolationists, conservative Democrats, most Republicans, and numerous professional groups and civic organizations behind the amendment.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Believing that the amendment would weaken the president to such a degree that it would be impossible for the U.S. to exercise leadership on the global stage,<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Eisenhower worked with Senate Minority Leader <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> to defeat Bricker's proposal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008657-99">[99]</a> Although the amendment started out with 56 co-sponsors, it went down to defeat in the U.S. Senate in 1954 on 42–50 vote. Later in 1954, a watered-down version of the amendment missed the required two-thirds majority in the Senate by one vote.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> This episode proved to be the last hurrah for the isolationist Republicans, as younger conservatives increasingly turned to an internationalism based on aggressive anti-communism, typified by Senator <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Barry Goldwater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> Eisenhower sought troop reductions in Europe by sharing of defense responsibilities with NATO allies. Europeans, however, never quite trusted the idea of nuclear deterrence and were reluctant to shift away from NATO into a proposed <a href="/wiki/European_Defence_Community" class="mw-redirect" title="European Defence Community">European Defence Community</a> (EDC).<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Like Truman, Eisenhower believed that the rearmament of West Germany was vital to NATO's strategic interests. The administration backed an <a href="/wiki/London_and_Paris_Conferences" title="London and Paris Conferences">arrangement</a>, devised by Churchill and British Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Eden" title="Anthony Eden">Anthony Eden</a>, in which West Germany was rearmed and became a fully sovereign member of NATO in return for promises to not establish atomic, biological, or chemical weapons programs. European leaders also created the <a href="/wiki/Western_European_Union" title="Western European Union">Western European Union</a> to coordinate European defense. In response to the integration of West Germany into NATO, Eastern bloc leaders established the <a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a>. <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, which had been <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Austria" title="Allied-occupied Austria">jointly-occupied</a> by the Soviet Union and the Western powers, regained its sovereignty with the 1955 <a href="/wiki/Austrian_State_Treaty" title="Austrian State Treaty">Austrian State Treaty</a>. As part of the arrangement that ended the occupation, Austria <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Neutrality" title="Declaration of Neutrality">declared its neutrality</a> after gaining independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008668–670-103">[103]</a> The Eisenhower administration placed a high priority on undermining Soviet influence on Eastern Europe, and escalated a propaganda war under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Douglas_Jackson" title="Charles Douglas Jackson">Charles Douglas Jackson</a>. The United States dropped over 300,000 propaganda leaflets in Eastern Europe between 1951 and 1956, and <a href="/wiki/Radio_Free_Europe/Radio_Liberty" title="Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty">Radio Free Europe</a> sent broadcasts throughout the region. A <a href="/wiki/Uprising_of_1953_in_East_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Uprising of 1953 in East Germany">1953 uprising in East Germany</a> briefly stoked the administration's hopes of a decline in Soviet influence, but the USSR quickly crushed the insurrection. In 1956, a <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">major uprising</a> broke out in <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>. After Hungarian leader <a href="/wiki/Imre_Nagy" title="Imre Nagy">Imre Nagy</a> promised the establishment of a multiparty democracy and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev dispatched 60,000 soldiers into Hungary to crush the rebellion. The United States strongly condemned the military response but did not take direct action, disappointing many Hungarian revolutionaries. After the revolution, the United States shifted from encouraging revolt to seeking cultural and economic ties as a means of undermining Communist regimes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008664–668-104">[104]</a> Among the administration's <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diplomacy" title="Cultural diplomacy">cultural diplomacy</a> initiatives were continuous goodwill tours by the "soldier-musician ambassadors" of the <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Army_Symphony_Orchestra" title="Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra">Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> In 1953, Eisenhower opened relations with Spain under dictator <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>. Despite its undemocratic nature, Spain's strategic position in light of the Cold War and anti-communist position led Eisenhower to build a trade and military alliance with the Spanish through the <a href="/wiki/Pact_of_Madrid" title="Pact of Madrid">Pact of Madrid</a>. These relations brought an end to Spain's isolation after World War II, which in turn led to a Spanish economic boom known as the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_miracle" title="Spanish miracle">Spanish miracle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia_and_Southeast_Asia">East Asia and Southeast Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: East Asia and Southeast Asia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ngo_Dinh_Diem_at_Washington_-_ARC_542189.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ngo_Dinh_Diem_at_Washington_-_ARC_542189.jpg/220px-Ngo_Dinh_Diem_at_Washington_-_ARC_542189.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ngo_Dinh_Diem_at_Washington_-_ARC_542189.jpg/330px-Ngo_Dinh_Diem_at_Washington_-_ARC_542189.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ngo_Dinh_Diem_at_Washington_-_ARC_542189.jpg/440px-Ngo_Dinh_Diem_at_Washington_-_ARC_542189.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2961" data-file-height="2356" /></a><figcaption>President Eisenhower and Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> greet President <a href="/wiki/Ng%C3%B4_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Di%E1%BB%87m" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngô Đình Diệm">Ngô Đình Diệm</a> of <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnam</a>, May 1957</figcaption></figure> After the end of World War II, the <a href="/wiki/Vi%E1%BB%87t_Minh" class="mw-redirect" title="Việt Minh">Việt Minh</a> launched an insurrection against the French-backed <a href="/wiki/State_of_Vietnam" title="State of Vietnam">State of Vietnam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008661–662-109">[109]</a> Seeking to support France and prevent the fall of Vietnam to Communism, the U.S. played a major role in financing French military operations in Vietnam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson292–293-110">[110]</a> By 1954, the Eisenhower administration was paying more than 75 percent of the France's military expenditures in the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-millercenter.org-83">[83]</a> The French requested U.S. aid in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Dien_Bien_Phu" title="Battle of Dien Bien Phu">Battle of Dien Bien Phu</a>, which proved to be the climactic battle of the war. Seeking to rally public support for the intervention, Eisenhower espoused the <a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">domino theory</a>, which held that the fall of Vietnam would lead to the fall of other countries to communism. Congress refused to endorse intervention without the participation of Britain and a pledge from France to grant independence for Vietnam. The French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu on May 7, 1954. At the contemporaneous <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conference_(1954)" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneva Conference (1954)">Geneva Conference</a>, Dulles convinced Chinese and Soviet leaders to pressure Viet Minh leaders to accept a temporary partition of Vietnam; the country was divided into a Communist northern half (under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a>) and a non-Communist southern half (under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Ngo_Dinh_Diem" title="Ngo Dinh Diem">Ngo Dinh Diem</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008661–662-109">[109]</a> Despite some doubts about the strength of Diem's government, the Eisenhower administration directed aid to the South in the hopes of creating a bulwark against further Communist expansion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson97–98-111">[111]</a> With Eisenhower's approval, Diem refused to hold elections which had been scheduled for 1956 to re-unify Vietnam in contravention of the conditions his administration agreed to at the Geneva Conference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson296–298-112">[112]</a> In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of U.S. <a href="/wiki/Military_advisor" title="Military advisor">military advisors</a> in South Vietnam to 900.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._President_Eisenhower_visited_TAIWAN_%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%89%BE%E6%A3%AE%E8%B1%AA%E6%96%BC1960%E5%B9%B46%E6%9C%88%E8%A8%AA%E5%95%8F%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97%E6%99%82%E8%88%87%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/U.S._President_Eisenhower_visited_TAIWAN_%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%89%BE%E6%A3%AE%E8%B1%AA%E6%96%BC1960%E5%B9%B46%E6%9C%88%E8%A8%AA%E5%95%8F%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97%E6%99%82%E8%88%87%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1-2.jpg/220px-U.S._President_Eisenhower_visited_TAIWAN_%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%89%BE%E6%A3%AE%E8%B1%AA%E6%96%BC1960%E5%B9%B46%E6%9C%88%E8%A8%AA%E5%95%8F%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97%E6%99%82%E8%88%87%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/U.S._President_Eisenhower_visited_TAIWAN_%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%89%BE%E6%A3%AE%E8%B1%AA%E6%96%BC1960%E5%B9%B46%E6%9C%88%E8%A8%AA%E5%95%8F%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97%E6%99%82%E8%88%87%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1-2.jpg/330px-U.S._President_Eisenhower_visited_TAIWAN_%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%89%BE%E6%A3%AE%E8%B1%AA%E6%96%BC1960%E5%B9%B46%E6%9C%88%E8%A8%AA%E5%95%8F%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97%E6%99%82%E8%88%87%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/U.S._President_Eisenhower_visited_TAIWAN_%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%89%BE%E6%A3%AE%E8%B1%AA%E6%96%BC1960%E5%B9%B46%E6%9C%88%E8%A8%AA%E5%95%8F%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97%E6%99%82%E8%88%87%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1-2.jpg/440px-U.S._President_Eisenhower_visited_TAIWAN_%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E8%89%BE%E6%A3%AE%E8%B1%AA%E6%96%BC1960%E5%B9%B46%E6%9C%88%E8%A8%AA%E5%95%8F%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%8F%B0%E5%8C%97%E6%99%82%E8%88%87%E8%94%A3%E4%B8%AD%E6%AD%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1102" data-file-height="689" /></a><figcaption>Eisenhower with <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_President" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China President">Republic of China President</a> <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> during his visit to <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> in June 1960</figcaption></figure> Eisenhower's commitment in South Vietnam was part of a broader program to contain China and the Soviet Union in East Asia. In 1954, the United States and seven other countries created the <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia_Treaty_Organization" title="Southeast Asia Treaty Organization">Southeast Asia Treaty Organization</a> (SEATO), a defensive alliance dedicated to preventing the spread of Communism in <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>. In September 1954, China began shelling the islands of <a href="/wiki/Quemoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Quemoy">Quemoy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matsu_Islands" title="Matsu Islands">Matsu</a> which were controlled by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China">Republic of China</a> (ROC). The shelling nearly escalated to nuclear war when Eisenhower considered using <a href="/wiki/Tactical_nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Tactical nuclear weapons">tactical nuclear weapons</a> to prevent the invasion of Taiwan, the main island controlled by the ROC. The <a href="/wiki/First_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="First Taiwan Strait Crisis">crisis</a> ended when China halted its shelling and both sides agreed to diplomatic talks; a <a href="/wiki/Second_Taiwan_Strait_Crisis" title="Second Taiwan Strait Crisis">second crisis</a> in 1958 would end in a similar fashion. During the first crisis, the United States and the ROC signed a <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Defense_Treaty_between_the_United_States_and_the_Republic_of_China" title="Mutual Defense Treaty between the United States and the Republic of China">mutual defense treaty</a>, which committed the United States to the defense of Taiwan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008663–664,_693-114">[114]</a> The CIA also supported <a href="/wiki/Chushi_Gangdruk" title="Chushi Gangdruk">dissidents</a> in the <a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a>, but China crushed the uprising.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008692-115">[115]</a> By the end of 1954, the National Security Council, <a href="/wiki/Joint_Chiefs_of_Staff" title="Joint Chiefs of Staff">Joint Chiefs of Staff</a>, and State Department had urged Eisenhower, on at least five occasions, to drop atomic bombs on China, but each time he refused.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, rebels in <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulawesi" title="Sulawesi">Sulawesi</a> formed in February 1958 the <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Indonesia" title="Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia">PRRI</a>-<a href="/wiki/Permesta" title="Permesta">Permesta</a> Movement which the goal of overthrowing the <a href="/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a> government. Due to their anti-communist rhetoric, the rebels received money, weapons, and manpower from the <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a>. This support ended when <a href="/wiki/Allen_Lawrence_Pope" title="Allen Lawrence Pope">Allen Lawrence Pope</a>, an American pilot, was shot down after a bombing raid on government-held <a href="/wiki/Ambon,_Maluku" title="Ambon, Maluku">Ambon</a> in April 1958. In April 1958, the central government responded by launching airborne and seaborne military invasions on <a href="/wiki/Padang,_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Padang, Indonesia">Padang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manado" title="Manado">Manado</a>, the rebel capitals. By the end of 1958, the rebels had been militarily defeated, and the remaining rebel guerrilla forces surrendered in August 1961.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Middle East">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_foreign_policy_in_the_Middle_East" title="United States foreign policy in the Middle East">United States foreign policy in the Middle East</a></div> The Middle East became increasingly important to U.S. foreign policy during the 1950s. After the 1953 Iranian coup, the U.S. supplanted Britain as the most influential ally of Iran. Eisenhower encouraged the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Pact">Baghdad Pact</a>, a military alliance consisting of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Pakistan. As it did in several other regions, the Eisenhower administration sought to establish stable, friendly, anti-Communist regimes in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World">Arab World</a>. The U.S. attempted to mediate the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a>, but Israel's unwillingness to give up its gains from the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a> and Arab hostility towards Israel prevented any agreement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008672–674-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Suez_crisis">Suez crisis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Suez crisis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasser_and_Eisenhower,_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Nasser_and_Eisenhower%2C_1960.jpg/220px-Nasser_and_Eisenhower%2C_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Nasser_and_Eisenhower%2C_1960.jpg/330px-Nasser_and_Eisenhower%2C_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Nasser_and_Eisenhower%2C_1960.jpg/440px-Nasser_and_Eisenhower%2C_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="583" data-file-height="498" /></a><figcaption>Eisenhower meeting with Egyptian President <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> during Nasser's visit to United Nations in New York City, September 1960</figcaption></figure> In 1952, a revolution led by <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> had <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_revolution_of_1952" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian revolution of 1952">overthrown</a> the pro-British Egyptian government. After taking power as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Egypt" title="Prime Minister of Egypt">Prime Minister of Egypt</a> in 1954, Nasser played the Soviet Union and the United States against each other, seeking aid from both sides. Eisenhower sought to bring Nasser into the American sphere of influence through economic aid, but Nasser's <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> and opposition to Israel served as a source of friction between the United States and Egypt. One of Nasser's main goals was the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a>, which would provide immense hydroelectric power and help irrigate much of Egypt. Eisenhower attempted to use American aid for the financing of the construction of the dam as leverage for other areas of foreign policy, but aid negotiations collapsed. In July 1956, just a week after the collapse of the aid negotiations, Nasser nationalized the British-run <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a>, sparking the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson126–128-120">[120]</a> The British strongly protested the nationalization, and formed a plan with France and Israel to capture the canal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008674–675-121">[121]</a> Eisenhower opposed military intervention, and he repeatedly told British Prime Minister Anthony Eden that the U.S. would not tolerate an invasion.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Though opposed to the nationalization of the canal, Eisenhower feared that a military intervention would disrupt global trade and alienate Middle Eastern countries from the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson129–130-123">[123]</a> Israel attacked Egypt in October 1956, quickly seizing control of the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>. France and Britain launched air and naval attacks after Nasser refused to renounce Egypt's nationalization of the canal. Nasser responded by sinking dozens of ships, preventing operation of the canal. Angered by the attacks, which risked sending Arab states into the arms of the Soviet Union, the Eisenhower administration proposed a cease fire and used economic pressure to force France and Britain to withdraw.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008675–676-124">[124]</a> The incident marked the end of British and French dominance in the Middle East and opened the way for greater American involvement in the region.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> In early 1958, Eisenhower used the threat of economic sanctions to coerce Israel into withdrawing from the Sinai Peninsula, and the Suez Canal resumed operations under the control of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson163-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eisenhower_Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Eisenhower Doctrine">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Foxhole_-_Lebanon_-_Beirut_-_July_1958.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Foxhole_-_Lebanon_-_Beirut_-_July_1958.jpg/220px-Foxhole_-_Lebanon_-_Beirut_-_July_1958.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Foxhole_-_Lebanon_-_Beirut_-_July_1958.jpg/330px-Foxhole_-_Lebanon_-_Beirut_-_July_1958.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Foxhole_-_Lebanon_-_Beirut_-_July_1958.jpg/440px-Foxhole_-_Lebanon_-_Beirut_-_July_1958.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3920" data-file-height="2653" /></a><figcaption>A U.S. Marine in a foxhole outside <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a> during the <a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></figcaption></figure> In response to the <a href="/wiki/Power_vacuum" title="Power vacuum">power vacuum</a> in the Middle East following the Suez Crisis, the Eisenhower administration developed a new policy designed to stabilize the region against Soviet threats or internal turmoil. Given the collapse of British prestige and the rise of Soviet interest in the region, the president informed Congress on January 5, 1957, that it was essential for the U.S. to accept new responsibilities for the security of the Middle East. Under the policy, known as the <a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a>, any Middle Eastern country could request American economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression. Eisenhower found it difficult to convince leading Arab states or Israel to endorse the doctrine, but he applied the new doctrine by dispensing economic aid to shore up the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, encouraging <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>'s neighbors to consider military operations against it, and sending <a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">U.S. troops into Lebanon</a> to prevent a radical revolution from sweeping over that country.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The troops sent to Lebanon never saw any fighting, but the deployment marked the only time during Eisenhower's presidency when U.S. troops were sent abroad into a potential combat situation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson423-128">[128]</a> Douglas Little argues that Washington's decision to use the military resulted from a determination to support a beleaguered, conservative pro-Western regime in Lebanon, repel Nasser's pan-Arabism, and limit Soviet influence in the oil-rich region. However, Little concludes that the unnecessary American action brought negative long-term consequences, notably the undermining of Lebanon's fragile, multi-ethnic political coalition and the alienation of Arab nationalism throughout the region.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> To keep the pro-American King Hussein of Jordan in power, the CIA sent millions of dollars a year of subsidies. In the mid-1950s the U.S. supported allies in Lebanon, Iraq, Turkey and Saudi Arabia and sent fleets to be near Syria.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> However, 1958 was to become a difficult year in U.S. foreign policy; in 1958 Syria and Egypt were merged into the "United Arab Republic", anti-American and anti-government revolts started occurring in Lebanon, causing the Lebanese president Chamoun to ask America for help, and the very pro-American King Feisal the 2nd of Iraq was overthrown by a group of nationalistic military officers.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> It was quite "commonly believed that [Nasser] ... stirred up the unrest in Lebanon and, perhaps, had helped to plan the Iraqi revolution."<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Though U.S. aid helped Lebanon and Jordan avoid revolution, the Eisenhower doctrine enhanced Nasser's prestige as the preeminent <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalist</a>. Partly as a result of the bungled U.S. intervention in Syria, Nasser established the short-lived <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>, a political union between Egypt and Syria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008678–679-133">[133]</a> The U.S. also lost a sympathetic Middle Eastern government due to the <a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">1958 Iraqi coup d'état</a>, which saw King <a href="/wiki/Faisal_II_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Faisal II of Iraq">Faisal II</a> replaced by General <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Karim_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Karim Qasim">Abd al-Karim Qasim</a> as the leader of Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson191–192-134">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: South Asia">edit</a>]</div> The 1947 <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_India" title="Partition of India">partition</a> of <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British India</a> created two new independent states, India and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>. Indian Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a> pursued a non-aligned policy in the Cold War, and frequently criticized U.S. policies. Largely out of a desire to build up military strength against the more populous India, Pakistan sought close relations with the United States, joining both the Baghdad Pact and SEATO. This U.S.–Pakistan alliance alienated India from the United States, causing India to move towards the Soviet Union. In the late 1950s, the Eisenhower administration sought closer relations with India, sending aid to stem the 1957 Indian economic crisis. The United States also participated in the World Agriculture Fair held in New Delhi in 1959, setting up one of the biggest pavilions at the fair, showcasing agricultural machinery and various packaged foods from the country.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Eisenhower inaugurated the U.S. Pavilion along with Indian President <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Prasad" title="Rajendra Prasad">Rajendra Prasad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> By the end of his administration, <a href="/wiki/India%E2%80%93United_States_relations" title="India–United States relations">relations between the United States and India</a> had moderately improved, but Pakistan remained the main U.S. ally in South Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008679–681-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Latin America">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fidel_Castro_-_UN_General_Assembly_1960.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fidel_Castro_-_UN_General_Assembly_1960.jpg/170px-Fidel_Castro_-_UN_General_Assembly_1960.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fidel_Castro_-_UN_General_Assembly_1960.jpg/255px-Fidel_Castro_-_UN_General_Assembly_1960.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Fidel_Castro_-_UN_General_Assembly_1960.jpg/340px-Fidel_Castro_-_UN_General_Assembly_1960.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2460" data-file-height="3672" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a> (center) at a meeting of the 1960 <a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a></figcaption></figure> For much of his administration, Eisenhower largely continued the policy of his predecessors in Latin America, supporting U.S.-friendly governments regardless of whether they held power through authoritarian means. The Eisenhower administration expanded military aid to Latin America, and used <a href="/wiki/Pan-Americanism" title="Pan-Americanism">Pan-Americanism</a> as a tool to prevent the spread of Soviet influence. In the late 1950s, several Latin American governments fell, partly due to a recession in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008683–686-138">[138]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> was particularly close to the United States outside the <a href="/wiki/Windward_Passage" title="Windward Passage">Windward Passage</a> near the shores of <a href="/wiki/Duvalier_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Duvalier dynasty">Haiti</a> under the administration of <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Duvalier" title="François Duvalier">François Duvalier</a> (Papa Doc), who came to power as the Haitian dictator in 1957, and 300,000 American tourists visited Cuba each year in the late 1950s. Cuban president <a href="/wiki/Fulgencio_Batista" title="Fulgencio Batista">Fulgencio Batista</a> sought close ties with both the U.S. government and major U.S. companies, and American <a href="/wiki/Organized_crime" title="Organized crime">organized crime</a> also had a strong presence in Cuba.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008686–67-139">[139]</a> In January 1959, the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a> ousted Batista. The new regime, led by <a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Fidel Castro</a>, quickly legalized the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Cuba" title="Communist Party of Cuba">Communist Party of Cuba</a>, sparking U.S. fears that Castro would align with the Soviet Union. When Castro visited the United States in April 1959, Eisenhower refused to meet with him, delegating the task to Nixon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicker108–109-140">[140]</a> In the aftermath of the Cuban Revolution, the Eisenhower administration began to encourage democratic government in Latin America and increased economic aid to the region. As Castro drew closer to the Soviet Union, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations, launched a near-total <a href="/wiki/United_States_embargo_against_Cuba" title="United States embargo against Cuba">embargo</a>, and began preparations for an invasion of Cuba by Cuban exiles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008688–689-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="U-2_Crisis">U-2 Crisis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: U-2 Crisis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Air_Force_U-2_(2139646280).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/US_Air_Force_U-2_%282139646280%29.jpg/220px-US_Air_Force_U-2_%282139646280%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/US_Air_Force_U-2_%282139646280%29.jpg/330px-US_Air_Force_U-2_%282139646280%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/US_Air_Force_U-2_%282139646280%29.jpg/440px-US_Air_Force_U-2_%282139646280%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_U-2" title="Lockheed U-2">U-2</a> reconnaissance aircraft in flight</figcaption></figure> U.S. and Soviet leaders met at the 1955 <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit</a>, the first such <a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union%E2%80%93United_States_summits" title="List of Soviet Union–United States summits">summit</a> since the 1945 <a href="/wiki/Potsdam_Conference" title="Potsdam Conference">Potsdam Conference</a>. No progress was made on major issues; the two sides had major differences on German policy, and the Soviets dismissed Eisenhower's "<a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_Open_Skies#History" title="Treaty on Open Skies">Open Skies</a>" proposal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008670-142">[142]</a> Despite the lack of agreement on substantive issues, the conference marked the start of a minor thaw in Cold War relations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson303–304-143">[143]</a> Khruschev <a href="/wiki/State_visit_by_Nikita_Khrushchev_to_the_United_States" title="State visit by Nikita Khrushchev to the United States">toured the United States in September 1959</a>, and he and Eisenhower conducted high-level talks regarding nuclear disarmament and the status of <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>. Eisenhower wanted limits on nuclear weapons testing and on-site inspections of nuclear weapons, while Khruschev initially sought the total elimination of nuclear arsenals. Both wanted to limit total military spending and prevent <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear proliferation</a>, but Cold War tensions made negotiations difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008696–698-144">[144]</a> Towards the end of his second term, Eisenhower was determined to reach a nuclear test ban treaty as part of an overall move towards <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">détente</a> with the Soviet Union. Khrushchev had also become increasingly interested in reaching an accord, partly due to the growing <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_split" title="Sino-Soviet split">Sino-Soviet split</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson214–215-145">[145]</a> By 1960, the major unresolved issue was on-site inspections, as both sides sought nuclear test bans. Hopes for reaching a nuclear agreement at a May 1960 summit in Paris were derailed by the <a href="/wiki/U-2_Crisis_of_1960" class="mw-redirect" title="U-2 Crisis of 1960">downing of an American U-2 spy plane</a> (conducting photographic <a href="/wiki/Aerial_reconnaissance" title="Aerial reconnaissance">aerial reconnaissance</a>) over the Soviet Union.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008696–698-144">[144]</a> The Eisenhower administration, initially thinking the pilot had died in the crash, authorized the release of a cover story claiming that the plane was a "weather research aircraft" which had unintentionally strayed into Soviet airspace after the pilot had radioed "difficulties with his oxygen equipment" while flying over Turkey.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Further, Eisenhower said that his administration had not been spying on the Soviet Union; when the Soviets produced the pilot, Captain <a href="/wiki/Francis_Gary_Powers" title="Francis Gary Powers">Francis Gary Powers</a>, the Americans were caught misleading the public, and the incident resulted in international embarrassment for the United States.<a href="#cite_note-'70s-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-us_news-148">[148]</a> The Senate <a href="/wiki/Foreign_Relations_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign Relations Committee">Foreign Relations Committee</a> held a lengthy inquiry into the U-2 incident.<a href="#cite_note-The_Cold_War-149">[149]</a> During the Paris Summit, Eisenhower accused Khrushchev "of sabotaging this meeting, on which so much of the hopes of the world have rested."<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Later, Eisenhower stated the summit had been ruined because of that "stupid U-2 business."<a href="#cite_note-The_Cold_War-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_international_trips">List of international trips</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: List of international trips">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_President_Dwight_Eisenhower_Presidential_Trips.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/US_President_Dwight_Eisenhower_Presidential_Trips.PNG/330px-US_President_Dwight_Eisenhower_Presidential_Trips.PNG" decoding="async" width="330" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/US_President_Dwight_Eisenhower_Presidential_Trips.PNG/495px-US_President_Dwight_Eisenhower_Presidential_Trips.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/US_President_Dwight_Eisenhower_Presidential_Trips.PNG/660px-US_President_Dwight_Eisenhower_Presidential_Trips.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>Eisenhower made sixteen international trips to 27 countries during his presidency.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a></figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable sortable" border="1" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width: 3%;"> </th> <th style="width: 17%;">Dates </th> <th style="width: 13%;">Country </th> <th style="width: 12%;">Locations </th> <th style="width: 55%;">Details </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td>December 2–5, 1952 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea_%281949%E2%80%931984%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a> </td> <td>Visit to <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean combat zone.</a> (Visit made as president-elect.) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td>October 19, 1953 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="400" /> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nueva_Ciudad_Guerrero" title="Nueva Ciudad Guerrero">Nueva Ciudad Guerrero</a> </td> <td>Dedication of <a href="/wiki/Falcon_Dam" title="Falcon Dam">Falcon Dam</a>, with President <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_Ruiz_Cortines" title="Adolfo Ruiz Cortines">Adolfo Ruiz Cortines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td>November 13–15, 1953 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ottawa" title="Ottawa">Ottawa</a> </td> <td>State visit. Met with Governor General <a href="/wiki/Vincent_Massey" title="Vincent Massey">Vincent Massey</a> and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Louis_St._Laurent" title="Louis St. Laurent">Louis St. Laurent</a>. Addressed Parliament. </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td>December 4–8, 1953 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_Bermuda" title="Hamilton, Bermuda">Hamilton</a> </td> <td>Attended the <a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Conference" title="Bermuda Conference">Bermuda Conference</a> with Prime Minister Winston Churchill and French Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Laniel" title="Joseph Laniel">Joseph Laniel</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td>July 16–23, 1955 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" />  <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> </td> <td>Attended the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">Geneva Summit</a> with British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Eden" title="Anthony Eden">Anthony Eden</a>, French Premier <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Faure" title="Edgar Faure">Edgar Faure</a> and Soviet Premier <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bulganin" title="Nikolai Bulganin">Nikolai Bulganin</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td>July 21–23, 1956 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/23px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/35px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Flag_of_Panama.svg/45px-Flag_of_Panama.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Panama" title="Panama">Panama</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Panama_City" title="Panama City">Panama City</a> </td> <td>Attended the meeting of the presidents of the American republics. </td></tr> <tr> <td>7 </td> <td>March 20–24, 1957 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bermuda_%281910%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> </td> <td>Hamilton </td> <td>Met with Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Harold_Macmillan" title="Harold Macmillan">Harold Macmillan</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>8 </td> <td>December 14–19, 1957 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> </td> <td>Attended the <a href="/wiki/1957_Paris_summit" title="1957 Paris summit">First NATO summit</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>9 </td> <td>July 8–11, 1958 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td> <td>Ottawa </td> <td>Informal visit. Met with Governor General Vincent Massey and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/John_Diefenbaker" title="John Diefenbaker">John Diefenbaker</a>. Addressed Parliament. </td></tr> <tr> <td>10 </td> <td>February 19–20, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="400" /> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acapulco" title="Acapulco">Acapulco</a> </td> <td>Informal meeting with President <a href="/wiki/Adolfo_L%C3%B3pez_Mateos" title="Adolfo López Mateos">Adolfo López Mateos</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>11 </td> <td>June 26, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%281921%E2%80%931957%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> </td> <td>Joined Queen <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II</a> in ceremony opening the <a href="/wiki/St._Lawrence_Seaway" title="St. Lawrence Seaway">St. Lawrence Seaway</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">12 </td> <td>August 26–27, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bonn" title="Bonn">Bonn</a> </td> <td>Informal meeting with Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> and President <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Heuss" title="Theodor Heuss">Theodor Heuss</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>August 27 – September 2, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balmoral_Castle" title="Balmoral Castle">Balmoral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chequers" title="Chequers">Chequers</a> </td> <td>Informal visit. Met Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and Queen Elizabeth II. </td></tr> <tr> <td>September 2–4, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> </td> <td>Paris </td> <td>Informal meeting with President <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> and Italian Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Segni" title="Antonio Segni">Antonio Segni</a>. Addressed <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Council" title="North Atlantic Council">North Atlantic Council</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>September 4–7, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Culzean_Castle" title="Culzean Castle">Culzean Castle</a> </td> <td>Rested before returning to the United States. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="12">13 </td> <td>December 4–6, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> </td> <td>Informal visit. Met with President <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gronchi" title="Giovanni Gronchi">Giovanni Gronchi</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 6, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Palace" title="Apostolic Palace">Apostolic Palace</a> </td> <td>Audience with <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 6–7, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ankara" title="Ankara">Ankara</a> </td> <td>Informal visit. Met with President <a href="/wiki/Cel%C3%A2l_Bayar" title="Celâl Bayar">Celâl Bayar</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 7–9, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Karachi" title="Karachi">Karachi</a> </td> <td>Informal visit. Met with President <a href="/wiki/Ayub_Khan_(Field_Marshal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayub Khan (Field Marshal)">Ayub Khan</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 9, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Afghanistan_%281931%E2%80%931973%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a> </td> <td>Informal visit. Met with King <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Zahir_Shah" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohammed Zahir Shah">Mohammed Zahir Shah</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 9–14, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Delhi" title="New Delhi">New Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agra" title="Agra">Agra</a> </td> <td>Met with President <a href="/wiki/Rajendra_Prasad" title="Rajendra Prasad">Rajendra Prasad</a> and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru" title="Jawaharlal Nehru">Jawaharlal Nehru</a>. Addressed <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India">Parliament</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 14, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/State_flag_of_Iran_%281933%E2%80%931964%29.svg/23px-State_flag_of_Iran_%281933%E2%80%931964%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/State_flag_of_Iran_%281933%E2%80%931964%29.svg/35px-State_flag_of_Iran_%281933%E2%80%931964%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/State_flag_of_Iran_%281933%E2%80%931964%29.svg/46px-State_flag_of_Iran_%281933%E2%80%931964%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a> </td> <td>Met with Shah <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Reza_Pahlavi" title="Mohammad Reza Pahlavi">Mohammad Reza Pahlavi</a>. Addressed <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Consultative_Assembly_(Iran)" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Consultative Assembly (Iran)">Parliament</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 14–15, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greece_%281822-1978%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> </td> <td>Official visit. Met with King <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Greece" title="Paul of Greece">Paul</a> and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Konstantinos_Karamanlis" title="Konstantinos Karamanlis">Konstantinos Karamanlis</a>. Addressed <a href="/wiki/Hellenic_Parliament" title="Hellenic Parliament">Parliament</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 17, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flag_of_Tunisia_%281959%E2%80%931999%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tunisia_%281959%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flag_of_Tunisia_%281959%E2%80%931999%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tunisia_%281959%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Flag_of_Tunisia_%281959%E2%80%931999%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tunisia_%281959%E2%80%931999%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /> <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> </td> <td>Tunis </td> <td>Met with President <a href="/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba" title="Habib Bourguiba">Habib Bourguiba</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 18–21, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Toulon" title="Toulon">Toulon</a>, Paris </td> <td>Conference with President <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a>, British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Harold_Macmillan" title="Harold Macmillan">Harold Macmillan</a> and West German Chancellor <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 21–22, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_of_Spain_%281945%E2%80%931977%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281945%E2%80%931977%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_of_Spain_%281945%E2%80%931977%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281945%E2%80%931977%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Flag_of_Spain_%281945%E2%80%931977%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281945%E2%80%931977%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> </td> <td>Met with Generalissimo <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>December 22, 1959 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/23px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/35px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/45px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Casablanca" title="Casablanca">Casablanca</a> </td> <td>Met with King <a href="/wiki/Mohammed_V_of_Morocco" title="Mohammed V of Morocco">Mohammed V</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">14 </td> <td>February 23–26, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg/22px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg/33px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg/43px-Flag_of_Brazil_%281889%E2%80%931960%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="700" /> <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bras%C3%ADlia" title="Brasília">Brasília</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro" title="Rio de Janeiro">Rio de Janeiro</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a> </td> <td>Met with President <a href="/wiki/Juscelino_Kubitschek" title="Juscelino Kubitschek">Juscelino Kubitschek</a>. Addressed <a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="National Congress of Brazil">Brazilian Congress</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>February 26–29, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/35px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/46px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Buenos_Aires" title="Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mar_del_Plata" title="Mar del Plata">Mar del Plata</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Carlos_de_Bariloche" class="mw-redirect" title="San Carlos de Bariloche">San Carlos de Bariloche</a> </td> <td>Met with President <a href="/wiki/Arturo_Frondizi" title="Arturo Frondizi">Arturo Frondizi</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>February 29 – March 2, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Santiago" title="Santiago">Santiago</a> </td> <td>Met with President <a href="/wiki/Jorge_Alessandri" title="Jorge Alessandri">Jorge Alessandri</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>March 2–3, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/23px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/35px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/45px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /> <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Montevideo" title="Montevideo">Montevideo</a> </td> <td>Met with President <a href="/wiki/Benito_Nardone" title="Benito Nardone">Benito Nardone</a>. Returned to the U.S. via Buenos Aires and Suriname. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">15 </td> <td>May 15–19, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> </td> <td>Paris </td> <td>Conference with President Charles de Gaulle, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and Soviet Premier <a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>May 19–20, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /> <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> </td> <td>Official visit. Met with President <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9rico_Tom%C3%A1s" title="Américo Tomás">Américo Tomás</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">16 </td> <td>June 14–16, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Philippines_%28navy_blue%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manila" title="Manila">Manila</a> </td> <td>State visit. Met with President <a href="/wiki/Carlos_P._Garcia" title="Carlos P. Garcia">Carlos P. Garcia</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>June 18–19, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China</a> (<a href="/wiki/Formosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Formosa">Formosa</a>/<a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a> </td> <td>State visit. Met with President <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>June 19–20, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a> </td> <td>Seoul </td> <td>Met with Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Heo_Jeong" class="mw-redirect" title="Heo Jeong">Heo Jeong</a>. Addressed the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_South_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of South Korea">National Assembly</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>17 </td> <td>October 24, 1960 </td> <td><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico_%281934-1968%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="400" /> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ciudad_Acu%C3%B1a" title="Ciudad Acuña">Ciudad Acuña</a> </td> <td>Informal visit. Met with President Adolfo López Mateos. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Domestic_affairs">Domestic affairs</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Domestic affairs">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Republicanism">Modern Republicanism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Modern Republicanism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eisenhower_in_the_Oval_Office.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Eisenhower_in_the_Oval_Office.jpg/260px-Eisenhower_in_the_Oval_Office.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Eisenhower_in_the_Oval_Office.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="297" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>Eisenhower in the Oval Office, February 29, 1956.</figcaption></figure> Eisenhower's approach to politics was described by contemporaries as "modern Republicanism," which occupied a middle ground between the liberalism of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> and the conservatism of the Old Guard of the Republican Party.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKabaservice14–15-153">[153]</a> A strong performance in the 1952 elections gave Republicans narrow majorities in both chambers of the <a href="/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress" title="83rd United States Congress">83rd United States Congress</a>. Led by Taft, the conservative faction introduced numerous bills to reduce the federal government's role in American life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson50–51-154">[154]</a> Although Eisenhower favored some reduction of the federal government's functions and had strongly opposed President Truman's <a href="/wiki/Fair_Deal" title="Fair Deal">Fair Deal</a>, he supported the continuation of <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a> and other New Deal programs that he saw as beneficial for the common good.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson30–31-155">[155]</a> Eisenhower presided over a reduction in domestic spending and reduced the government's role in subsidizing agriculture through passage of the <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Act_of_1954" title="Agricultural Act of 1954">Agricultural Act of 1954</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson53–55-156">[156]</a> but he did not advocate for the abolition of major New Deal programs such as Social Security or the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a>, and these programs remained in place throughout his tenure as president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson56–57-157">[157]</a> Republicans lost control of Congress in the 1954 mid-term elections, and they would not <a href="/wiki/Party_divisions_of_United_States_Congresses" title="Party divisions of United States Congresses">regain control of either chamber</a> until well after Eisenhower left office.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson168-158">[158]</a> Eisenhower's largely nonpartisan stance enabled him to work smoothly with the Speaker of the House <a href="/wiki/Sam_Rayburn" title="Sam Rayburn">Sam Rayburn</a> and Senate Majority Leader <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith648-159">[159]</a> Eisenhower was the last President to veto over 100 bills and only two of these vetoes were overridden, both towards the end of his second term. Though liberal members of Congress like <a href="/wiki/Hubert_Humphrey" title="Hubert Humphrey">Hubert Humphrey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Douglas_(Illinois_politician)" title="Paul Douglas (Illinois politician)">Paul Douglas</a> favored expanding federal aid to education, implementing a <a href="/wiki/National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">national health insurance</a> system, and directing federal assistance to impoverished areas, Rayburn and Johnson largely accepted Eisenhower's relatively conservative domestic policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson400–401-160">[160]</a> In his own party, Eisenhower maintained strong support with moderates, but he frequently clashed with conservative members of Congress, especially over foreign policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKabaservice17–18-161">[161]</a> Biographer <a href="/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Jean Edward Smith</a> describes the relationship between Rayburn, Johnson, and Eisenhower: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Ike, LBJ, and "Mr. Sam" did not trust one another completely and they did not see eye to eye on every issue, but they understood one another and had no difficulty working together. Eisenhower continued to meet regularly with the Republican leadership. But his weekly sessions with Rayburn and Johnson, usually in the evening, over drinks, were far more productive. For Johnson and Rayburn, it was shrewd politics to cooperate with Ike. Eisenhower was wildly popular in the country....By supporting a Republican president against the Old Guard of his own party, the Democrats hoped to share Ike's popularity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith648-159">[159]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiscal_policy_and_the_economy">Fiscal policy and the economy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Fiscal policy and the economy">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; text-align:center"> <caption>Federal finances and GDP during Eisenhower's presidency<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Fiscal Year </th> <th>Receipts </th> <th>Outlays </th> <th>Surplus/ Deficit </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> </th> <th>Debt as a % of GDP<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>1953 </th> <td>69.6 </td> <td>76.1 </td> <td>−6.5 </td> <td>382.1 </td> <td>57.2 </td></tr> <tr> <th>1954 </th> <td>69.7 </td> <td>70.9 </td> <td>−1.2 </td> <td>387.2 </td> <td>58.0 </td></tr> <tr> <th>1955 </th> <td>65.5 </td> <td>68.4 </td> <td>−3.0 </td> <td>406.3 </td> <td>55.8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>1956 </th> <td>74.6 </td> <td>70.6 </td> <td>3.9 </td> <td>438.3 </td> <td>50.7 </td></tr> <tr> <th>1957 </th> <td>80.0 </td> <td>76.6 </td> <td>3.4 </td> <td>463.4 </td> <td>47.3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>1958 </th> <td>79.6 </td> <td>82.4 </td> <td>−2.8 </td> <td>473.5 </td> <td>47.8 </td></tr> <tr> <th>1959 </th> <td>79.2 </td> <td>92.1 </td> <td>−12.8 </td> <td>504.6 </td> <td>46.5 </td></tr> <tr> <th>1960 </th> <td>92.5 </td> <td>92.2 </td> <td>0.3 </td> <td>534.3 </td> <td>44.3 </td></tr> <tr> <th>1961 </th> <td>94.4 </td> <td>97.7 </td> <td>−3.3 </td> <td>546.6 </td> <td>43.6 </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ref. </th> <td colspan="3"><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> </td> <td><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Eisenhower was a <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism" title="Fiscal conservatism">fiscal conservative</a> whose policy views were close to those of Taft— they agreed that a free enterprise economy should run itself.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Nonetheless, throughout Eisenhower's presidency, the top <a href="/wiki/Tax_rate#Marginal" title="Tax rate">marginal tax rate</a> was 91 percent—among the highest in American history.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> When Republicans gained control of both houses of the Congress following the 1952 election, conservatives pressed the president to support tax cuts. Eisenhower however, gave a higher priority to balancing the budget, refusing to cut taxes "until we have in sight a program of expenditure that shows that the factors of income and outgo will be balanced." Eisenhower kept the national debt low and <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> near zero;<a href="#cite_note-'70s_296-169">[169]</a> three of his eight budgets had a surplus.<a href="#cite_note-DDEda-170">[170]</a> Eisenhower built on the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> in a manner that embodied his thoughts on efficiency and cost-effectiveness. He sanctioned a major expansion of Social Security by a self-financed program.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> He supported such New Deal programs as the minimum wage and public housing—he greatly expanded federal aid to education and built the Interstate Highway system primarily as defense programs (rather than a jobs program).<a href="#cite_note-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46-172">[172]</a> In a private letter, Eisenhower wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Should any party attempt to abolish social security and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group of course, that believes you can do these things [...] Their number is negligible and they are stupid.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></blockquote> The 1950s were a period of economic expansion in the United States, and the <a href="/wiki/Gross_national_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross national product">gross national product</a> jumped from $355.3 billion in 1950 to $487.7 billion in 1960. Unemployment rates were also generally low, except for in 1958.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson311–312-174">[174]</a> There were three <a href="/wiki/Recession" title="Recession">recessions</a> during Eisenhower's administration—July 1953 through May 1954, August 1957 through April 1958, and April 1960 through February 1961, caused by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Board_of_Governors" title="Federal Reserve Board of Governors">Federal Reserve</a> clamping down too tight on the <a href="/wiki/Money_supply" title="Money supply">money supply</a> in an effort to wring out lingering wartime inflation.<a href="#cite_note-'70s_296-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Expenditures_in_the_United_States_federal_budget" title="Expenditures in the United States federal budget">federal spending</a> as a percentage of GDP fell from 20.4 to 18.4 percent—there has not been a decline of any size in federal spending as a percentage of GDP during any administration since.<a href="#cite_note-DDEda-170">[170]</a> Defense spending declined from $50.4 billion in fiscal year 1953 to $40.3 billion in fiscal year 1956, but then rose to $46.6 billion in fiscal year 1959.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson289-176">[176]</a> Although defense spending declined compared to the final years of the Truman administration, defense spending under Eisenhower remained much higher than it had been prior to the Korean War and consistently made up at least ten percent of the U.S. gross domestic product.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHitchcock2018101-177">[177]</a> The stock market performed very well while Eisenhower was in the White House, with the <a href="/wiki/Dow_Jones_Industrial_Average" title="Dow Jones Industrial Average">Dow Jones Industrial Average</a> more than doubling (from 288 to 634),<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> and personal income increased by 45 percent.<a href="#cite_note-DDEda-170">[170]</a> Due to low-cost government loans, the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Credit_card" title="Credit card">credit card</a>, and other factors, total private debt (not including corporations) grew from $104.8 billion in 1950 to $263.3 billion in 1960.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson315-179">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immigration">Immigration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Immigration">edit</a>]</div> During the early 1950s, ethnic groups in the United States mobilized to liberalize the admission of refugees from Europe who had been displaced by war and the Iron Curtain.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> The result was the <a href="/wiki/Refugee_Relief_Act" title="Refugee Relief Act">Refugee Relief Act</a> of 1953, which permitted the admission of 214,000 <a href="/wiki/Immigrants_to_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Immigrants to the United States">immigrants to the United States</a> from European countries between 1953 and 1956, over and above existing immigration quotas. The old quotas were quite small for Italy and Eastern Europe, but those areas received priority in the new law. The 60,000 Italians were the largest of the refugee groups.<a href="#cite_note-ARZolberg-181">[181]</a> Despite the arrival of the refugees, the percentage of foreign-born individuals continued to drop, as the pre-1914 arrivals died out, falling to 5.4% in 1960. The percentage of native-born individuals with at least one foreign-born parent also fell to a new low, at 13.4 percent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson326–327-182">[182]</a> Responding to public outcry, primarily from California, about the perceived costs of services for <a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal immigrants</a> from Mexico, the president charged <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Swing" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Swing">Joseph Swing</a>, Director of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Immigration_and_Naturalization_Service" title="Immigration and Naturalization Service">Immigration and Naturalization Service</a>, with the task of regaining control of the <a href="/wiki/Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Mexico–United States border">border</a>. On June 17, 1954, Swing launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Wetback" title="Operation Wetback">Operation Wetback</a>, the roundup and deportation of undocumented immigrants in selected areas of California, Arizona, and Texas. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Border_Patrol" title="United States Border Patrol">U.S. Border Patrol</a> later reported that over 1.3 million people (a number viewed by many to be inflated) were deported or left the U.S. voluntarily under the threat of deportation in 1954.<a href="#cite_note-ARZolberg-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Meanwhile, the number of Mexicans immigrating legally from Mexico grew rapidly during this period, from 18,454 in 1953 to 65,047 in 1956.<a href="#cite_note-ARZolberg-181">[181]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: McCarthyism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/McCarthyism" title="McCarthyism">McCarthyism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg/310px-Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg/465px-Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/Welch-McCarthy-Hearings.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Joseph_N._Welch" title="Joseph N. Welch">Joseph N. Welch</a> (left) being questioned by U.S. Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> (right), June 9, 1954.</figcaption></figure> With the onset of the Cold War, the House of Representatives established the <a href="/wiki/House_Un-American_Activities_Committee" title="House Un-American Activities Committee">House Un-American Activities Committee</a> to investigate alleged disloyal activities, and a new Senate committee made Senator <a href="/wiki/Joseph_McCarthy" title="Joseph McCarthy">Joseph McCarthy</a> of Wisconsin a national leader and namesake of the anti-Communist movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson46–47-184">[184]</a> Though McCarthy remained a popular figure when Eisenhower took office, his constant attacks on the State Department and the army, and his reckless disregard for due process, offended many Americans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson17–18,_63-185">[185]</a> Privately, Eisenhower held McCarthy and his tactics in contempt, writing, "I despise [McCarthy's tactics], and even during the political campaign of '52 I not only stated publicly (and privately to him) that I disapproved of those methods, but I did so in his own State."<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Eisenhower's reluctance to publicly oppose McCarthy drew criticism even from many of Eisenhower's own advisers, but the president worked incognito to weaken the popular senator from Wisconsin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson62–63-187">[187]</a> In early 1954, after McCarthy escalated his investigation into the army, Eisenhower moved against McCarthy by releasing a report indicating that McCarthy had pressured the army to grant special privileges to an associate, <a href="/wiki/G._David_Schine" title="G. David Schine">G. David Schine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson69–70-188">[188]</a> Eisenhower also refused to allow members of the executive branch to testify in the <a href="/wiki/Army%E2%80%93McCarthy_hearings" title="Army–McCarthy hearings">Army–McCarthy hearings</a>, contributing to the collapse of those hearings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson70–71-189">[189]</a> Following those hearings, Senator <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Flanders" title="Ralph Flanders">Ralph Flanders</a> introduced a successful measure to censure McCarthy; Senate Democrats voted unanimously for the censure, while half of the Senate Republicans voted for it. The censure ended McCarthy's status as a major player in national politics, and he died of liver failure in 1957.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson270-190">[190]</a> Though he disagreed with McCarthy on tactics, Eisenhower considered Communist infiltration to be a serious threat, and he authorized department heads to dismiss employees if there was cause to believe those employees might be disloyal to the United States. Under the direction of Dulles, the State Department purged over 500 employees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson64-191">[191]</a> With Eisenhower's approval, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> (FBI) stepped up domestic surveillance efforts, establishing <a href="/wiki/COINTELPRO" title="COINTELPRO">COINTELPRO</a> in 1956.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson264-192">[192]</a> In 1957, the Supreme Court handed down a series of decisions that bolstered constitutional protections and curbed the power of the <a href="/wiki/Smith_Act" title="Smith Act">Smith Act</a>, resulting in a decline of prosecutions of suspected Communists during the late 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson416–418-193">[193]</a> In 1953, Eisenhower refused to commute the <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">death sentences</a> of <a href="/wiki/Julius_and_Ethel_Rosenberg" title="Julius and Ethel Rosenberg">Julius and Ethel Rosenberg</a>, two U.S. citizens who were convicted in 1951 of providing nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union. This provoked a worldwide outburst of picketing and demonstrations in favor of the Rosenbergs, along with editorials in otherwise pro-American newspapers and a plea for clemency from the Pope. Eisenhower, supported by public opinion and the media at home, ignored the overseas demand.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> The Rosenbergs were executed via electric chair in July 1953. Among Eisenhower's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a> (AEC) into McCarthy's witch hunt for communists, which might interfere with the AEC's work on <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogen bomb">hydrogen bombs</a> and other weapons programs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmbrose,_volume_2167-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungSchilling132-196">[196]</a> In December 1953, Eisenhower learned that one of America's nuclear scientists, <a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">J. Robert Oppenheimer</a>, had been accused of being a spy for the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy305–306-197">[197]</a> Although Eisenhower never really believed that these allegations were true,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy305-198">[198]</a> in January 1954 he ordered that "a blank wall" be placed between Oppenheimer and all defense-related activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungSchilling128-199">[199]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Oppenheimer_security_hearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Oppenheimer security hearing">Oppenheimer security hearing</a> was conducted later that year, resulting in the physicist losing his security clearance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy310–311-200">[200]</a> The matter was controversial at the time and remained so in later years, with Oppenheimer achieving a certain martyrdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoungSchilling132-196">[196]</a> The case would reflect poorly on Eisenhower as well, but the president had never examined it in any detail and had instead relied excessively upon the advice of his subordinates, especially that of AEC chairman <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Strauss" title="Lewis Strauss">Lewis Strauss</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy316–317-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_rights">Civil rights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Civil rights">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_term">First term</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: First term">edit</a>]</div> In the 1950s, African Americans in the South faced mass disenfranchisement and <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racially segregated</a> schools, bathrooms, and drinking fountains. Even outside of the South, African Americans faced employment discrimination, housing discrimination, and high rates of poverty and unemployment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson380–383-202">[202]</a> Civil rights had emerged as a major national and global issue in the 1940s, partly due to the negative example set by <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson137–138-203">[203]</a> Segregation damaged relations with African countries, undercut U.S. calls for <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a>, and emerged as a major theme in Soviet propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008681–682-204">[204]</a> After General Eisenhower had desegregated Army units in the European Theater of Operations in 1944, President Truman continued the process of <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States" title="Desegregation in the United States">desegregating</a> the <a href="/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed Forces of the United States">Armed Forces</a> in 1948, but actual implementation had been slow. Southern Democrats strongly resisted integration, and many Southern leaders had endorsed Eisenhower in 1952 after the latter indicated his opposition to federal efforts to compel integration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson138–139-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> Upon taking office, Eisenhower moved quickly to end resistance to desegregation of the military by using government control of spending to compel compliance from military officials. "Wherever federal funds are expended," he told reporters in March, "I do not see how any American can justify a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds." Later, when Secretary of the Navy <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Anderson_(Texas_politician)" title="Robert B. Anderson (Texas politician)">Robert B. Anderson</a> stated in a report, "The Navy must recognize the customs and usages prevailing in certain geographic areas of our country which the Navy had no part in creating," Eisenhower responded, "We have not taken and we shall not take a single backward step. There must be no second class citizens in this country."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith710–711-207">[207]</a> Eisenhower also sought to end discrimination in federal hiring and in Washington, D.C. facilities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson140-208">[208]</a> Despite these actions, Eisenhower continued to resist becoming involved in the expansion of voting rights, the desegregation of public education, or the eradication of employment discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson137–138-203">[203]</a> <a href="/wiki/E._Frederic_Morrow" title="E. Frederic Morrow">E. Frederic Morrow</a>, the lone black member of the White House staff, met only occasionally with Eisenhower, and was left with the impression that Eisenhower had little interest in understanding the lives of African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson144–145-209">[209]</a> On May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court handed down its <a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_court_decisions_in_the_United_States" title="List of landmark court decisions in the United States">landmark</a> ruling in <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>, declaring state laws establishing separate <a href="/wiki/Public_school_(government_funded)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public school (government funded)">public schools</a> for black and white students to be unconstitutional. Right before the decision passed, Eisenhower's <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a> filed an <a href="/wiki/Amicus_brief" class="mw-redirect" title="Amicus brief">amicus brief</a> in favor of desegregation in the landmark case. Nevertheless, Eisenhower told <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a>, in private, that "These [southern whites] are not bad people. All they are concerned about is to see that their sweet little girls are not required to sit in school alongside some big overgrown Negroes." After the decision, Eisenhower condemned the Supreme Court's holding, in private, stating that he believed it "set back progress in the South at least fifteen years."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson389–394-210">[210]</a> The president's public response promised to enforce the decision, but he did not praise the decision, saying "The Supreme Court has spoken and I am sworn to uphold the constitutional processes in this country and I will obey." Over the succeeding six years of his presidency, author <a href="/wiki/Robert_Caro" title="Robert Caro">Robert Caro</a> notes, Eisenhower would never "publicly support the ruling; not once would he say that Brown was morally right".<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> His silence left civil rights leaders with the impression that Eisenhower did not care much about the day-to-day plight of blacks in America, and it served as a source of encouragement for segregationists vowing to resist school desegregation.<a href="#cite_note-DDEda-170">[170]</a> These segregationists conducted a campaign of "<a href="/wiki/Massive_resistance" title="Massive resistance">massive resistance</a>," violently opposing those who sought to desegregate public education in the South. In 1956, most of Southern members of Congress signed the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Manifesto" title="Southern Manifesto">Southern Manifesto</a>, which called for the overturning of Brown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson396–398-212">[212]</a> Eisenhower's silence on the matter ties in to the idea of this being a 'Cold War Case',<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> suggested by Dudziak, suggesting that Eisenhower's priority could have been protecting international reputation. The <a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Death of Emmett Till in 1955</a> was another landmark moment in the Civil Rights Movement. Following Emmett's death, his mother, Mamie Till, wrote to Eisenhower asking for support on the matter but received no response.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_term">Second term</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Second term">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Operation_Arkansas,_Little_Rock_Nine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Operation_Arkansas%2C_Little_Rock_Nine.jpg/220px-Operation_Arkansas%2C_Little_Rock_Nine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Operation_Arkansas%2C_Little_Rock_Nine.jpg/330px-Operation_Arkansas%2C_Little_Rock_Nine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Operation_Arkansas%2C_Little_Rock_Nine.jpg/440px-Operation_Arkansas%2C_Little_Rock_Nine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3753" data-file-height="2904" /></a><figcaption>Soldiers from the <a href="/wiki/101st_Airborne_Division" title="101st Airborne Division">101st Airborne Division</a> escort the <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> to <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Central_High_School" title="Little Rock Central High School">Central High School</a> in Arkansas, September 1957</figcaption></figure> As Southern leaders continued to resist desegregation, Eisenhower sought to answer calls for stronger federal action by introducing a civil rights bill.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> The bill included provisions designed to increase the protection of African American voting rights; approximately <a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction Era">80% of African Americans were disenfranchised</a> in the mid-1950s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson145–146-216">[216]</a> The civil rights bill passed the House relatively easily, but faced strong opposition in the Senate from Southerners, and the bill passed only after many of its original provisions were removed. Though some black leaders urged him to reject the watered-down bill as inadequate, Eisenhower signed the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a> into law. It was the first federal law designed to protect African Americans since the end of <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Reconstruction Era">Reconstruction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson147–148-217">[217]</a> The act created the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">United States Commission on Civil Rights</a> and established a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">civil rights division</a> in the Justice Department, but it also required that defendants in voting rights cases receive a <a href="/wiki/Jury_trial" title="Jury trial">jury trial</a>. The inclusion of the last provision made the act ineffectual, since white jurors in the South would not vote to convict defendants for interfering with the voting rights of African Americans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson413-218">[218]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photograph_of_President_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957_(H.R._6127)_in_His_Office_at_the_Naval_Base_in_Newport,_Rhode_Island_-_NARA_-_7865612.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Photograph_of_President_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957_%28H.R._6127%29_in_His_Office_at_the_Naval_Base_in_Newport%2C_Rhode_Island_-_NARA_-_7865612.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Photograph_of_President_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957_%28H.R._6127%29_in_His_Office_at_the_Naval_Base_in_Newport%2C_Rhode_Island_-_NARA_-_7865612.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Photograph_of_President_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957_%28H.R._6127%29_in_His_Office_at_the_Naval_Base_in_Newport%2C_Rhode_Island_-_NARA_-_7865612.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2532" data-file-height="3194" /></a><figcaption>President Eisenhower signing the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a> on September 9, 1957</figcaption></figure> Eisenhower hoped that the passage of the Civil Rights Act would, at least temporarily, remove the issue of civil rights from the forefront of national politics, but events in Arkansas would force him into action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson148–150-219">[219]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Board_of_education" title="Board of education">school board</a> of <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock,_Arkansas" title="Little Rock, Arkansas">Little Rock, Arkansas</a> created a federal court-approved plan for desegregation, with the program to begin implementation at <a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Central_High_School" title="Little Rock Central High School">Little Rock Central High School</a>. Fearing that desegregation would complicate his re-election efforts, Governor <a href="/wiki/Orval_Faubus" title="Orval Faubus">Orval Faubus</a> mobilized the <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="National Guard of the United States">National Guard</a> to prevent nine black students, known as the "<a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a>," from entering Central High. Though Eisenhower had not fully embraced the cause of civil rights, he was determined to uphold federal authority and to prevent an incident that could embarrass the United States on the international stage. The pressures of the Cold War were obviously on Eisenhower's mind, seen by his statement in a speech to the nation saying: 'Our enemies are gloating over this incident and using it everywhere to misrepresent our whole nation.' In addition to Faubus's refusal to withdraw the National Guard, a mob prevented the black students from attending Central High. In response, Eisenhower signed Executive order <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_10730" class="extiw" title="s:Executive Order 10730">10730</a>, which federalized the <a href="/wiki/Arkansas_National_Guard" title="Arkansas National Guard">Arkansas National Guard</a> and ordered them to support the integration after which they protected the African American students in defiance of the Governor's command.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> Furthermore, Eisenhower also sent the army into Little Rock, who also ensured that the Little Rock Nine could attend Central High. Defeated, Faubus derided Eisenhower's actions, claiming that Little Rock had become "occupied territory," and in 1958 he retaliatory shut down Little Rock high schools, though the shut down was temporary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson150–155-221">[221]</a> Towards the end of his second term, Eisenhower proposed another civil rights bill designed to help protect voting rights, but Congress once again passed a bill with weaker provisions than Eisenhower had requested. Eisenhower signed the bill into law as the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson156–157-222">[222]</a> By 1960, 6.4% of Southern black students attended integrated schools and thousands of black voters had registered to vote, but millions of African Americans remained disenfranchised.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson157-223">[223]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lavender_Scare">Lavender Scare</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Lavender Scare">edit</a>]</div> Eisenhower's administration contributed to the McCarthyist <a href="/wiki/Lavender_Scare" title="Lavender Scare">Lavender Scare</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> with President Eisenhower issuing his <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_10450" title="Executive Order 10450">Executive Order 10450</a> in 1953.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> During Eisenhower's presidency, thousands of lesbian and gay applicants were barred from federal employment and over 5,000 federal employees were fired under suspicions of being homosexual.<a href="#cite_note-documenting-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> From 1947 to 1961, the number of firings based on sexual orientation were far greater than those for membership in the Communist party,<a href="#cite_note-documenting-226">[226]</a> and government officials intentionally campaigned to make "homosexual" synonymous with "Communist traitor" such that they were treated as a national security threat stemming from the belief they were susceptible to blackmail and exploitation.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atoms_for_Peace">Atoms for Peace</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Atoms for Peace">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_power" title="History of nuclear power">History of nuclear power</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History of nuclear weapons</a></div> Eisenhower gave the <a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a> speech to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">United Nations General Assembly</a> on December 8, 1953, advocating for constructive use of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a> for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Nuclear energy policy of the United States">electrical energy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">nuclear arms race</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">proliferation</a>. The speech lead to the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1954" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1954">Atomic Energy Act of 1954</a> which allowed the civilian world to develop nuclear fission technology for peaceful and prosperous purposes.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interstate_Highway_System">Interstate Highway System</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Interstate Highway System">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Cadillacsquareexcerpt.ogg" title="File:Cadillacsquareexcerpt.ogg">Remarks in Cadillac Square, Detroit</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="79" data-mwtitle="Cadillacsquareexcerpt.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/Cadillacsquareexcerpt.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/de/Cadillacsquareexcerpt.ogg/Cadillacsquareexcerpt.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ACadillacsquareexcerpt.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">President Eisenhower delivered remarks about the need for a new highway program at Cadillac Square in Detroit on October 29, 1954 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/interstate/audiotext.cfm">Text of speech excerpt</a></div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing this file? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Highway_Program_-_National_System_of_Interstate_Highways_-_Rural_Status_of_Improvement,_1965.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/National_Highway_Program_-_National_System_of_Interstate_Highways_-_Rural_Status_of_Improvement%2C_1965.png/220px-National_Highway_Program_-_National_System_of_Interstate_Highways_-_Rural_Status_of_Improvement%2C_1965.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/National_Highway_Program_-_National_System_of_Interstate_Highways_-_Rural_Status_of_Improvement%2C_1965.png/330px-National_Highway_Program_-_National_System_of_Interstate_Highways_-_Rural_Status_of_Improvement%2C_1965.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/National_Highway_Program_-_National_System_of_Interstate_Highways_-_Rural_Status_of_Improvement%2C_1965.png/440px-National_Highway_Program_-_National_System_of_Interstate_Highways_-_Rural_Status_of_Improvement%2C_1965.png 2x" data-file-width="2242" data-file-height="1423" /></a><figcaption>1955 map: The planned status of U.S. Highways in 1965, as a result of the developing Interstate Highway System</figcaption></figure> One of Eisenhower's most enduring achievements was the <a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a>, which Congress authorized through the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aid_Highway_Act_of_1956" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956">Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956</a>. Historian <a href="/wiki/James_T._Patterson_(historian)" title="James T. Patterson (historian)">James T. Patterson</a> describes the act as the "only important law" passed during Eisenhower's first term aside from the expansion of Social Security.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson274-231">[231]</a> In 1954, Eisenhower appointed General <a href="/wiki/Lucius_D._Clay" title="Lucius D. Clay">Lucius D. Clay</a> to head a committee charged with proposing an interstate highway system plan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith652-232">[232]</a> The president's support for the project was influenced by his experiences as a young army officer crossing the country as part of the <a href="/wiki/1919_Motor_Transport_Corps_convoy" title="1919 Motor Transport Corps convoy">1919 Army Convoy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a> Summing up motivations for the construction of such a system, Clay stated, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">It was evident we needed better highways. We needed them for safety, to accommodate more automobiles. We needed them for defense purposes, if that should ever be necessary. And we needed them for the economy. Not just as a public works measure, but for future growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmbrose,_volume_2301,_326-234">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith652–653-235">[235]</a></blockquote> Clay's committee proposed a 10-year, $100 billion program, which would build 40,000 miles of <a href="/wiki/Dual_carriageway" title="Dual carriageway">divided highways</a> linking all American cities with a population of greater than 50,000. Eisenhower initially preferred a system consisting of <a href="/wiki/Toll_road" title="Toll road">toll roads</a>, but Clay convinced Eisenhower that toll roads were not feasible outside of the highly populated coastal regions. In February 1955, Eisenhower forwarded Clay's proposal to Congress. The bill quickly won approval in the Senate, but House Democrats objected to the use of public <a href="/wiki/Bond_(finance)" title="Bond (finance)">bonds</a> as the means to finance construction. Eisenhower and the House Democrats agreed to instead finance the system through the <a href="/wiki/Highway_Trust_Fund" title="Highway Trust Fund">Highway Trust Fund</a>, which itself would be funded by a <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a> tax.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith651–654-236">[236]</a> Another major infrastructure project, the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_Seaway" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence Seaway">Saint Lawrence Seaway</a>, was also completed during Eisenhower's presidency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith650-237">[237]</a> In long-term perspective the Interstate Highway System was a remarkable success, that has done much to sustain Eisenhower's positive reputation. In larger cities poor rental neighborhoods were paved over—the land owners were compensated but not the black and poor white residents. Otherwise the system has been well received in retrospect. As the nation's rail system for passengers collapsed, the new highways created opportunities for city workers to commute from suburbia and delivery trucks to reach towns remote from the rail net.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> Suburbs became even more attractive as thousands of new subdivisions provided better schools and larger, cheaper housing than was available in the overcrowded central cities. Shopping malls were invented around 1960, and flourished for a half century.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> Tourism dramatically expanded as well, creating a demand for more service stations, motels, restaurants and visitor attractions. There was much more long-distance movement to the Sunbelt for winter vacations, or for permanent relocation. In rural areas, towns and small cities off the grid lost out as shoppers followed the interstate, and new factories were located where land was cheap, workers could drive instead of taking the city bus, and trucks were no longer slowed by clogged street traffic.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ARPA">ARPA</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: ARPA">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/DARPA#History" title="DARPA">Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)</a> was put together by Eisenhower and his <a href="/wiki/President%27s_Science_Advisory_Committee" title="President's Science Advisory Committee">Science Advisory Committee</a> in early 1958 in response to the successful launch of the first orbital satellite from the Soviet Union <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a>. ARPA eventually created the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> which was a predecessor to the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_program_and_education">Space program and education</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Space program and education">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">Space policy of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vanguard_rocket_explodes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Vanguard_rocket_explodes.jpg/220px-Vanguard_rocket_explodes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Vanguard_rocket_explodes.jpg/330px-Vanguard_rocket_explodes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Vanguard_rocket_explodes.jpg/440px-Vanguard_rocket_explodes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Vanguard_TV3" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanguard TV3">Vanguard TV3</a> rocket explodes on launch; the missile was facetiously referred to as "Flopnik"</figcaption></figure> In 1955, in separate announcements four days apart, both the United States and the Soviet Union publicly announced that they would launch artificial Earth satellites within the next few years. The July 29, announcement from the White House stated that the U.S. would launch "small Earth circling satellites" between July 1, 1957, and December 31, 1958, as part of the American contribution to the <a href="/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year" title="International Geophysical Year">International Geophysical Year</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchefter3–5-244">[244]</a> Americans were astonished when October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched its <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_1" title="Sputnik 1">Sputnik 1</a> satellite into <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">orbit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> Three months later, a nationally televised test of the American <a href="/wiki/Vanguard_TV3" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanguard TV3">Vanguard TV3</a> missile failed in an embarrassing fashion; the missile was facetiously referred to as "Flopnik" and "Stay-putnik."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson418-246">[246]</a> To many, the success of the Soviet satellite program suggested that the Soviet Union had made a substantial leap forward in technology that posed a serious threat to U.S. national security. While Eisenhower initially downplayed the gravity of the Soviet launch, public fear and anxiety about the perceived technological gap grew. Americans rushed to build nuclear bomb shelters, while the Soviet Union boasted about its new superiority as a world power.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> The president was, as <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Prime Minister of the United Kingdom">British prime minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Harold_Macmillan" title="Harold Macmillan">Harold Macmillan</a> observed during a June 1958 visit to the U.S., "under severe attack for the first time" in his presidency.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon805-248">[248]</a> Economist <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Baruch" title="Bernard Baruch">Bernard Baruch</a> wrote in an open letter to the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Herald_Tribune" title="New York Herald Tribune">New York Herald Tribune</a> titled "The Lessons of Defeat": "While we devote our industrial and technological power to producing new model automobiles and more gadgets, the Soviet Union is conquering space. ... It is Russia, not the United States, who has had the imagination to hitch its wagon to the stars and the skill to reach for the moon and all but grasp it. America is worried. It should be."<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> The launch spurred a series of federal government initiatives ranging from defense to education. Renewed emphasis was placed on the <a href="/wiki/Explorers_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Explorers program">Explorers program</a> (which had earlier been supplanted by <a href="/wiki/Project_Vanguard" title="Project Vanguard">Project Vanguard</a>) to launch an American satellite into orbit; this was accomplished on January 31, 1958, with the successful launch of <a href="/wiki/Explorer_1" title="Explorer 1">Explorer 1</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchefter25–26-250">[250]</a> In February 1958, Eisenhower authorized formation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency, later renamed the <a href="/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency">Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</a> (DARPA), within the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Defense_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Defense (United States)">Department of Defense</a> to develop <a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">emerging technologies</a> for the U.S. military. The new agency's first major project was the <a href="/wiki/Corona_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corona (satellite)">Corona</a> satellite, which was designed to replace the U-2 spy plane as a source of photographic evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHitchcock2018394–395-251">[251]</a> In 1959 he promoted the <a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act" title="National Aeronautics and Space Act">National Aeronautics and Space Act</a>, which established <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> as a civilian space agency. It represented a consensus that he forged among key interest groups, including scientists committed to basic research; the Pentagon which had to match the Soviet military achievement; corporate America looking for new business; and a strong new trend in public opinion looking up to space exploration.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> NASA took over the space technology research started by DARPA, as well as the air force's manned satellite program, <a href="/wiki/Man_In_Space_Soonest" class="mw-redirect" title="Man In Space Soonest">Man In Space Soonest</a>, which was renamed as <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> The project's <a href="/wiki/Mercury_Seven" title="Mercury Seven">first seven</a> astronauts were announced on April 9, 1959.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> In September 1958, the president signed into law the <a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Education_Act" title="National Defense Education Act">National Defense Education Act</a>, a four-year program that poured billions of dollars into the U.S. education system. In 1953 the government spent $153 million, and colleges took $10 million of that funding; however, by 1960 the combined funding grew almost six-fold as a result.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> Meanwhile, during the late 1950s and into the 1960s, NASA, the Department of Defense, and various private sector corporations developed multiple communications satellite research and development programs.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor_unions">Labor unions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Labor unions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States#Unions_since_1955" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor history of the United States § Unions since 1955</a></div> Union membership peaked in the mid-1950s, when unions consisted of about one-quarter of the total work force. The <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">Congress of Industrial Organizations</a> and the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a> merged in 1955 to form the <a href="/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO" class="mw-redirect" title="AFL–CIO">AFL–CIO</a>, the largest federation of unions in the United States. Unlike some of his predecessors, AFL–CIO leader <a href="/wiki/George_Meany" title="George Meany">George Meany</a> did not emphasize organizing unskilled workers and workers in the South.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson325–326-257">[257]</a> During the late 1940s and the 1950s, both the business community and local Republicans sought to weaken unions, partly because they played a major role in funding and campaigning for Democratic candidates.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> The Eisenhower administration also worked to consolidate the anti-union potential inherent in <a href="/wiki/Labor_Management_Relations_Act_of_1947" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor Management Relations Act of 1947">Taft–Hartley Act</a> of 1947.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> Republicans sought to delegitimize unions by focusing on their shady activities, and the Justice Department, the Labor Department, and Congress all conducted investigations of criminal activity and racketeering in high-profile labor unions, especially the <a href="/wiki/International_Brotherhood_of_Teamsters" title="International Brotherhood of Teamsters">Teamsters Union</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Select_or_special_committee_(United_States_Congress)" title="Select or special committee (United States Congress)">select Senate committee</a>, the <a href="/wiki/McClellan_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="McClellan Committee">McClellan Committee</a>, was created in January 1957, and its hearings targeted Teamsters Union president <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Hoffa" title="Jimmy Hoffa">Jimmy Hoffa</a> as a public enemy.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Public opinion polls showed growing distrust toward unions, and especially union leaders—or "labor bosses," as Republicans called them. The bipartisan <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Coalition" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservative Coalition">Conservative Coalition</a>, with the support of liberals such as the Kennedy brothers, won new congressional restrictions on organized labor in the 1959 <a href="/wiki/Landrum-Griffin_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Landrum-Griffin Act">Landrum-Griffin Act</a>. The main impact of that act was to force more democracy on the previously authoritarian union hierarchies.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> However, in the 1958 elections, the unions fought back against state <a href="/wiki/Right-to-work_law" title="Right-to-work law">right-to-work laws</a> and defeated many conservative Republicans.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_issues">Environmental issues</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Environmental issues">edit</a>]</div> The environmental movement was starting to grow—it gained national stature by 1970. Liberals (and the Democratic Party) wanted national control of natural resources—the level at which organized ideological pressures were effective. Conservatives (and the Republican Party) wanted state or local control, whereby the financial benefit of local businesses could be decisive. In a debate going back to the early 20th century, preservationists wanted to protect the inherent natural beauty of the national parks, whereas economic maximizers wanted to build dams and divert water flows. Eisenhower articulated the conservative position in December 1953, declaring that conservation was not about "locking up and putting resources beyond the possibility of wastage or usage," but instead involved "the intelligent use of all the resources we have, for the welfare and benefit of all the American people."<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> Liberals and environmentalists mobilized against Secretary of the Interior <a href="/wiki/Douglas_McKay" title="Douglas McKay">Douglas McKay</a> – a businessman with little knowledge of nature. They alleged he promoted "giveaways" to mining companies regardless of environmental damage. They forced his resignation in 1956.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> Eisenhower's personal activity on environmental issues came in foreign policy. He supported the Geneva Convention of 1958 that provided a strong foundation for international accords governing the use of the world's high seas, especially regarding fishing interests. Eisenhower also promoted the peaceful use of atomic energy for the production of electricity, with strong controls against diversion into nuclear weapons. However, there was little attention to nuclear waste.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mid-term_elections_of_1958">Mid-term elections of 1958</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Mid-term elections of 1958">edit</a>]</div> The economy began to decline in mid-1957 and reached its nadir in early 1958. The <a href="/wiki/Recession_of_1958" title="Recession of 1958">Recession of 1958</a> was the worst economic downturn of Eisenhower's tenure, as the unemployment rate reached a high of 7.5%. The poor economy, Sputnik, the federal intervention in Little Rock, and a contentious budget battle all sapped Eisenhower's popularity, with <a href="/wiki/Gallup_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup (company)">Gallup</a> polling showing that his approval rating dropped from 79 percent in February 1957 to 52 percent in March 1958.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson175–176-270">[270]</a> A controversy broke out in mid-1958 after a House subcommittee discovered that White House Chief of Staff Sherman Adams had accepted an expensive gift from Bernard Goldfine, textile manufacturer under investigation by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a> (FTC). Adams denied the accusation that he had interfered with the FTC investigation on Goldfine's behalf, but Eisenhower forced him to resign in September 1958.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson180–182-271">[271]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/United_States_elections,_1958" class="mw-redirect" title="United States elections, 1958">1958 mid-term elections</a> approached, the Democrats attacked Eisenhower over the Space Race, the controversy relating to Adams, and other issues, but the biggest issue of the campaign was the economy, which had not yet fully recovered. Republicans suffered major defeats in the elections, as Democrats picked up over forty seats in the House and over ten seats in the Senate. Several leading Republicans, including Bricker and Senate Minority Leader <a href="/wiki/William_Knowland" title="William Knowland">William Knowland</a>, lost their re-election campaigns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson183–184-272">[272]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twenty-third_Amendment">Twenty-third Amendment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Twenty-third Amendment">edit</a>]</div> Under the original <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">constitutional</a> rules governing the <a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral College (United States)">Electoral College</a>, presidential electors were apportioned to <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a> only. As a result, the District of Columbia was excluded from the presidential election process. Several constitutional amendments to provide the district's citizens with appropriate rights of voting in national elections for president and vice president were introduced in Congress during the 1950s. Eisenhower was a persistent advocate for the voting rights of D.C. residents.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> On June 16, 1960, the <a href="/wiki/86th_United_States_Congress" title="86th United States Congress">86th Congress</a> approved a constitutional amendment extending the right to vote in presidential election to citizens residing in the District of Columbia by granting the district electors in the Electoral College, as if it were a state. After the requisite number <a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">state legislatures</a> ratified the proposed amendment, it became the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> on March 29, 1961.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="States_admitted_to_the_Union">States admitted to the Union</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: States admitted to the Union">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mike_stepovich_we%27re_in.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Mike_stepovich_we%27re_in.jpg/220px-Mike_stepovich_we%27re_in.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Mike_stepovich_we%27re_in.jpg/330px-Mike_stepovich_we%27re_in.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Mike_stepovich_we%27re_in.jpg/440px-Mike_stepovich_we%27re_in.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1569" /></a><figcaption>President Eisenhower, <a href="/wiki/Mike_Stepovich" title="Mike Stepovich">Mike Stepovich</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fred_A._Seaton" title="Fred A. Seaton">Fred A. Seaton</a> celebrate Alaska statehood.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Statehood_Act" title="Alaska Statehood Act">Alaska Statehood Act</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Admission_Act" title="Hawaii Admission Act">Hawaii Admission Act</a></div> Eisenhower had called for the admission of <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> as states during his 1952 campaign, but various issues delayed their statehood. Hawaii faced opposition from Southern members of Congress who objected to the island chain's large non-white population, while concerns about military bases in Alaska convinced Eisenhower to oppose statehood for the territory early in his tenure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson58-277">[277]</a> In 1958, Eisenhower reached an agreement with Congress on a bill that provided for the admission of Alaska and set aside large portions of Alaska for military bases. Eisenhower signed the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Statehood_Act" title="Alaska Statehood Act">Alaska Statehood Act</a> into law in July 1958, and Alaska became the 49th state on January 3, 1959. Months later on March 18, 1959, Eisenhower signed the <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Admission_Act" title="Hawaii Admission Act">Hawaii Admission Act</a>, and Hawaii became the 50th state on August 21, 1959.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson180-278">[278]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_issues">Health issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Health issues">edit</a>]</div> Eisenhower was the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office. However, people around him covered up medical information that might hurt him politically by raising doubts about his good health. On September 24, 1955, while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious heart attack.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> Howard Snyder, his personal physician, misdiagnosed the symptoms as indigestion, and failed to call in the help that was urgently needed. Snyder later falsified his own records to cover his blunder and to protect Eisenhower's need to project that he was healthy enough to do his job.<a href="#cite_note-Ferrell1992_IllAdvised-280">[280]</a><a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> The heart attack required six weeks' hospitalization, and Eisenhower did not resume his normal work schedule until early 1956. During Eisenhower's period of recuperation, Nixon, Dulles, and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the president.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson113–114-283">[283]</a> Eisenhower suffered a stroke in November 1957, but he quickly recovered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson174–175-284">[284]</a> His health was generally good for the remainder of his second term.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Elections_during_the_Eisenhower_presidency">Elections during the Eisenhower presidency</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Elections during the Eisenhower presidency">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin-left:1em"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Party_divisions_of_United_States_Congresses" title="Party divisions of United States Congresses">Republican seats in Congress</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Congress </th> <th>Senate </th> <th>House </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/83rd_United_States_Congress" title="83rd United States Congress">83rd</a><a href="#cite_note-Congress-286">[a]</a> </th> <td>48 </td> <td>221 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/84th_United_States_Congress" title="84th United States Congress">84th</a> </th> <td>47 </td> <td>203 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/85th_United_States_Congress" title="85th United States Congress">85th</a> </th> <td>47 </td> <td>201 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/86th_United_States_Congress" title="86th United States Congress">86th</a> </th> <td>34 </td> <td>153 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/87th_United_States_Congress" title="87th United States Congress">87th</a><a href="#cite_note-Congress-286">[a]</a> </th> <td>36 </td> <td>175 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1954_mid-term_elections">1954 mid-term elections</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: 1954 mid-term elections">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1954_United_States_elections" title="1954 United States elections">1954 United States elections</a></div> In the 1954 mid-term elections, Democrats took control of both houses of Congress. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1956_re-election_campaign">1956 re-election campaign</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: 1956 re-election campaign">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower#Election_of_1956" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower § Election of 1956</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956 United States presidential election</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_elections" title="1956 United States elections">1956 United States elections</a>, <a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1956 Republican Party presidential primaries">1956 Republican Party presidential primaries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_National_Convention" title="1956 Republican National Convention">1956 Republican National Convention</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gallup_Poll-Approval_Rating-Dwight_D_Eisenhower.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Gallup_Poll-Approval_Rating-Dwight_D_Eisenhower.png/330px-Gallup_Poll-Approval_Rating-Dwight_D_Eisenhower.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Gallup_Poll-Approval_Rating-Dwight_D_Eisenhower.png/495px-Gallup_Poll-Approval_Rating-Dwight_D_Eisenhower.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Gallup_Poll-Approval_Rating-Dwight_D_Eisenhower.png/660px-Gallup_Poll-Approval_Rating-Dwight_D_Eisenhower.png 2x" data-file-width="1793" data-file-height="992" /></a><figcaption>Graph of Eisenhower's <a href="/wiki/Gallup_(company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup (company)">Gallup</a> approval ratings</figcaption></figure> In July 1955, <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">TIME</a> Magazine lauded the president for bringing "prosperity to the nation," noting that, "In the 29 months since Dwight Eisenhower moved into the White House, a remarkable change has come over the nation. Blood pressure and temperature have gone down; nerve endings have healed over. The new tone could be described in a word: confidence."<a href="#cite_note-287">[286]</a> This sentiment was reflected by Eisenhower's <a href="/wiki/Gallup_poll" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallup poll">Gallup poll</a> approval rating, which ranged between 68 and 79 percent during his first term.<a href="#cite_note-DDEce-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[287]</a> Eisenhower's September 1955 heart attack engendered speculation about whether he would be able to seek a second term, but his doctor pronounced him fully recovered in February 1956, and soon thereafter Eisenhower announced his decision to run for reelection.<a href="#cite_note-289">[288]</a> Eisenhower had considered retiring after one term, but decided to run again in part because he viewed his potential successors from both parties as inadequate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson114–116-290">[289]</a> Eisenhower did not trust Nixon as able to lead the country if he acceded to the presidency, and he attempted to remove Nixon from the 1956 ticket by offering him the position of Secretary of Defense. Nixon declined the offer, and refused to take his name out of consideration for re-nomination unless Eisenhower demanded it. Unwilling to split the party, and unable to find the perfect replacement for Nixon, Eisenhower decided not to oppose Nixon's re-nomination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson119–121-291">[290]</a> Though Harold Stassen and some other Republicans worked to coax someone to challenge Nixon, the vice president remained highly popular among the Republican leadership and rank-and-file voters. He was unanimously re-nominated at the <a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_National_Convention" title="1956 Republican National Convention">1956 Republican National Convention</a>.<a href="#cite_note-292">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-293">[292]</a> Eisenhower, meanwhile, was renominated with no opposition. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1956.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/ElectoralCollege1956.svg/330px-ElectoralCollege1956.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/ElectoralCollege1956.svg/495px-ElectoralCollege1956.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/ElectoralCollege1956.svg/660px-ElectoralCollege1956.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>President Eisenhower defeated Democrat <a href="/wiki/Adlai_Stevenson_II" title="Adlai Stevenson II">Adlai Stevenson II</a> in the 1956 presidential election</figcaption></figure> At the <a href="/wiki/1956_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1956 Democratic National Convention">1956 Democratic National Convention</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago, Illinois</a>, Adlai Stevenson was renominated on the first ballot, despite a strong challenge from New York governor <a href="/wiki/W._Averell_Harriman" title="W. Averell Harriman">W. Averell Harriman</a>, who was backed by former president Truman. Stevenson announced that he would leave the choice of the candidate for vice president to the convention; he gave no indication of who he would prefer to have for a running mate. Delegates chose Senator <a href="/wiki/Estes_Kefauver" title="Estes Kefauver">Estes Kefauver</a> of Tennessee on the second ballot.<a href="#cite_note-294">[293]</a> Eisenhower campaigned on his record of economic prosperity and his Cold War foreign policy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson122–123-295">[294]</a> He also attacked Democrats for allegedly blocking his legislative programs and derided Stevenson's proposal to ban the testing of nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson124–125-296">[295]</a> Stevenson called for an acceleration of disarmament talks with the Soviet Union and increased government spending on social programs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Democrats introduced the tactic of <a href="/wiki/Negative_campaigning" title="Negative campaigning">negative television ads</a>, generally attacking Nixon rather than Eisenhower.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson305-297">[296]</a> The Suez Crisis and the Hungarian Revolution became the focus of Eisenhower's attention in the final weeks of the campaign, and his actions in the former crises boosted his popularity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson135–136-298">[297]</a> On election day, Eisenhower won by an even greater margin than he had four years earlier, taking 457 electoral votes to Stevenson's 73. He won over 57 percent of the popular vote, taking over 35 million votes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson309-299">[298]</a> Eisenhower maintained his 1952 gains among Democrats, especially white urban Southerners and Northern Catholics, while the growing suburbs added to his Republican base. Compared to the 1952 election, Eisenhower gained Kentucky, Louisiana, and West Virginia, while losing Missouri.<a href="#cite_note-300">[299]</a> In interviews with pollsters, his voters were less likely to bring up his leadership record. Instead what stood out this time, "was the response to personal qualities— to his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness."<a href="#cite_note-301">[300]</a> Eisenhower's victory did not provide a strong <a href="/wiki/Coattail_effect" title="Coattail effect">coattail effect</a> for other Republican candidates, and Democrats retained control of Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson136-302">[301]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1958_mid-term_elections">1958 mid-term elections</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: 1958 mid-term elections">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1958_United_States_elections" title="1958 United States elections">1958 United States elections</a></div> In the 1958 mid-term elections, Democrats retained control of both houses of Congress. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1960_election_and_transition">1960 election and transition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: 1960 election and transition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_elections" title="1960 United States elections">1960 United States elections</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1960_presidential_campaign" title="Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign">Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_1960_presidential_campaign" title="John F. Kennedy 1960 presidential campaign">John F. Kennedy 1960 presidential campaign</a>, <a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">1960 United States presidential election</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy">Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ElectoralCollege1960.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ElectoralCollege1960.svg/330px-ElectoralCollege1960.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ElectoralCollege1960.svg/495px-ElectoralCollege1960.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/ElectoralCollege1960.svg/660px-ElectoralCollege1960.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1020" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>Democrat <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> defeated Republican <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> in the 1960 presidential election.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MEETING_BETWEEN_PRESIDENT_DWIGHT_D._EISENHOWER_(DDE)_AND_PRESIDENT-ELECT_KENNEDY-AR6180-C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/MEETING_BETWEEN_PRESIDENT_DWIGHT_D._EISENHOWER_%28DDE%29_AND_PRESIDENT-ELECT_KENNEDY-AR6180-C.jpg/220px-MEETING_BETWEEN_PRESIDENT_DWIGHT_D._EISENHOWER_%28DDE%29_AND_PRESIDENT-ELECT_KENNEDY-AR6180-C.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/MEETING_BETWEEN_PRESIDENT_DWIGHT_D._EISENHOWER_%28DDE%29_AND_PRESIDENT-ELECT_KENNEDY-AR6180-C.jpg/330px-MEETING_BETWEEN_PRESIDENT_DWIGHT_D._EISENHOWER_%28DDE%29_AND_PRESIDENT-ELECT_KENNEDY-AR6180-C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/MEETING_BETWEEN_PRESIDENT_DWIGHT_D._EISENHOWER_%28DDE%29_AND_PRESIDENT-ELECT_KENNEDY-AR6180-C.jpg/440px-MEETING_BETWEEN_PRESIDENT_DWIGHT_D._EISENHOWER_%28DDE%29_AND_PRESIDENT-ELECT_KENNEDY-AR6180-C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2359" /></a><figcaption>Outgoing president Dwight D. Eisenhower and President-elect <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> on December 6, 1960</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution</a>, ratified in 1951, established a two-term limit for the presidency. As the amendment had not applied to President Truman, Eisenhower became the first president constitutionally limited to two terms. Eisenhower nonetheless closely watched the <a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">1960 presidential election</a>, which he viewed as a referendum on his presidency. He attempted to convince Secretary of the Treasury Robert Anderson to seek the Republican nomination, but Anderson declined to enter the race.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson226–227-303">[302]</a> Eisenhower offered Nixon lukewarm support in the <a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Republican Party presidential primaries">1960 Republican primaries</a>. When asked by reporters to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, Eisenhower joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one. I don't remember."<a href="#cite_note-304">[303]</a> Eisenhower and Nixon in fact had become unequal friends, but learned from and respected each other.<a href="#cite_note-305">[304]</a> Despite the lack of strong support from Eisenhower, Nixon's successful cultivation of party elites ensured that he faced only a weak challenge from Governor <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Rockefeller" title="Nelson Rockefeller">Nelson Rockefeller</a> for the <a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_National_Convention" title="1960 Republican National Convention">Republican nomination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicker116–117-306">[305]</a> The 1960 campaign was dominated by the Cold War and the economy. John F. Kennedy become the Democratic nominee; to keep Southern Democrats he chose Johnson as his running mate. Kennedy alleged a serious "missile gap" and endorsed federal aid for education, an increased minimum wage, and the establishment of a federal health insurance program for the elderly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson434–439-307">[306]</a> Nixon, meanwhile, wanted to win on his own, and did not take up Eisenhower's offers for help.<a href="#cite_note-308">[307]</a> To Eisenhower's great disappointment, Kennedy defeated Nixon in an extremely close election.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson436–437-309">[308]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="931" data-mwtitle="Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/90/Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg/Eisenhower_farewell_address.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AEisenhower_farewell_address.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio><figcaption>Eisenhower's farewell address, January 17, 1961. Length 15:30.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Farewell_address">Farewell address</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Farewell address">edit</a>]</div> During the campaign, Eisenhower had privately lambasted Kennedy's inexperience and connections to <a href="/wiki/Political_machine" title="Political machine">political machines</a>, but after the election he worked with Kennedy to ensure a smooth transition. He personally met twice with Kennedy, emphasizing especially the danger posed by Cuba.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson229-310">[309]</a> On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the <a href="/wiki/Oval_Office" title="Oval Office">Oval Office</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DDEFarewell-311">[310]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Eisenhower%27s_farewell_address" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenhower's farewell address">farewell address</a>, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method ..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the <a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">military–industrial complex</a>."<a href="#cite_note-DDEFarewell-311">[310]</a> Eisenhower's address reflected his fear that military spending and the desire to ensure total security would be pursued to the detriment of other goals, including a sound economy, efficient social programs, and individual liberties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson230-312">[311]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_reputation">Historical reputation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Historical reputation">edit</a>]</div> Eisenhower was popular among the general public when he left office, but for a decade or two commentators viewed Eisenhower as a "do-nothing" president who left many of the major decisions to his subordinates. Paul Holbo and Robert W. Sellen state that critics portrayed Eisenhower "typically with a golf club in his hand and a broad but vapid grin on his face. [...] [L]iberal intellectuals compared him unfavorably with their standard for president, Franklin D. Roosevelt. They gave 'Ike' especially low marks for his seeming aloofness from politics, his refusal to battle publicly with Senator Joseph McCarthy, and his reluctance to assume active party leadership."<a href="#cite_note-313">[312]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eisenhower_Statue_Abilene_Kansas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Eisenhower_Statue_Abilene_Kansas.jpg/220px-Eisenhower_Statue_Abilene_Kansas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Eisenhower_Statue_Abilene_Kansas.jpg/330px-Eisenhower_Statue_Abilene_Kansas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Eisenhower_Statue_Abilene_Kansas.jpg/440px-Eisenhower_Statue_Abilene_Kansas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Dwight D. Eisenhower statue in "Champion of Peace" circle in <a href="/wiki/Abilene,_Kansas" title="Abilene, Kansas">Abilene, Kansas</a></figcaption></figure> Historians writing in the 1960s were negative on Eisenhower's foreign policy, seeing "the popular general as an amiable but bumbling leader who presided over the 'great postponement' of critical national and international issues during the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-314">[313]</a> Historians obtained access for the first time to Eisenhower's private papers in the 1970s, leaving historians "virtually unanimous in applauding Ike's consistent exercise of mature judgment, prudence, and restraint and in celebrating his signal accomplishment of maintaining peace and during unusually perilous periods in international relations."<a href="#cite_note-McMahon_p._455-315">[314]</a> Liberal historian <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schlesinger,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.">Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.</a> a staunch supporter of Adlai Stevenson at the time, had his eyes opened: "the Eisenhower papers...unquestionably alter the old picture....Eisenhower showed much more energy, interest, self-confidence, purpose, cunning, and command than many of us supposed in the 1950s."<a href="#cite_note-McMahon_p._455-315">[314]</a> Eisenhower's reputation peaked in the early 1980s; by 1985 a postrevisionist reaction had set in, and a more complex assessment of the Eisenhower administration was being presented.<a href="#cite_note-316">[315]</a> The new factor was the availability of previously closed records and papers showed that Eisenhower shrewdly maneuvered behind the scenes, avoiding controversial issues while retaining control of his administration. Historians have also noted the limits of some of Eisenhower's achievements; he avoided taking strong public stances on McCarthyism or civil rights, and Cold War tensions were high at the end of his presidency.<a href="#cite_note-millerlegacy-317">[316]</a> Recent polls of historians and political scientists have generally <a href="/wiki/Historical_rankings_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Historical rankings of presidents of the United States">ranked</a> Eisenhower in the top quartile of presidents. A 2018 poll of the <a href="/wiki/American_Political_Science_Association" title="American Political Science Association">American Political Science Association</a>'s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Eisenhower as the seventh best president.<a href="#cite_note-318">[317]</a> A 2017 <a href="/wiki/C-SPAN" title="C-SPAN">C-SPAN</a> poll of historians ranked Eisenhower as the fifth best president.<a href="#cite_note-319">[318]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/John_Lewis_Gaddis" title="John Lewis Gaddis">John Lewis Gaddis</a> has summarized the turnaround in evaluations: <blockquote>Historians long ago abandoned the view that Eisenhower's was a failed presidency. He did, after all, end the Korean War without getting into any others. He stabilized, and did not escalate, the Soviet-American rivalry. He strengthened European alliances while withdrawing support from European colonialism. He rescued the Republican Party from isolationism and McCarthyism. He maintained prosperity, balanced the budget, promoted technological innovation, facilitated (if reluctantly) the civil rights movement and warned, in the most memorable farewell address since Washington's, of a "military–industrial complex" that could endanger the nation's liberties. Not until Reagan would another president leave office with so strong a sense of having accomplished what he set out to do.<a href="#cite_note-320">[319]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creativity_as_president">Creativity as president</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Creativity as president">edit</a>]</div> Eisenhower formed a love for painting throughout his life. His first inspiration was in the portrait of Mamie Eisenhower by Thomas E. Stephens and the artwork of his friend Winston Churchill, which led him to create his own art. With more personal time after World War II, he tried to copy the portrait by Stephens. Having believed painting was a "sheer waste of money", he continued his own painting after being given a painting set and not wanting to waste that money. The reluctant hobby gradually became a place of enjoyment, most often in creating copies of pictures, portraits, or magazine images. Eisenhower enjoyed the process of making the painting rather than the end goal it produced and often gave his work away rather than keeping it. He described most of his paintings as "daub" – something clumsy and crude – though he did not lack talent. His drive to accomplish ensured that his paintings were above average. In his later life he preferred painting landscapes, primarily hills, and it became a favorite past time. Eisenhower's paintings remain a historical representation of him as a multifaceted man.<a href="#cite_note-321">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[321]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Congress-286">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Congress_286-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Congress_286-1">b</a> A small portion of the 83rd Congress (January 3, 1953 – January 19, 1953) took place under President Truman, and only a small portion of the 87th Congress (January 3, 1961 – January 19, 1961) took place during Eisenhower's second term. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey10-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPusey10_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPusey10_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPusey">Pusey</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-RedrawingLines-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RedrawingLines_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RedrawingLines_2-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSullivan2009" class="citation book cs1">Sullivan, Timothy J. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newyorkstaterise00sull_685">New York State and the Rise of Modern Conservatism: Redrawing Party Lines</a>. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newyorkstaterise00sull_685/page/n19">8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7643-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-7643-7"><bdi>978-0-7914-7643-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+York+State+and+the+Rise+of+Modern+Conservatism%3A+Redrawing+Party+Lines&rft.place=Albany&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-7643-7&rft.aulast=Sullivan&rft.aufirst=Timothy+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewyorkstaterise00sull_685&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey7–8-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPusey7–8_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPusey">Pusey</a>, pp. 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson1–2-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson1–2_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmbrose,_volume_1496-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmbrose,_volume_1496_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmbrose,_volume_1">Ambrose, volume 1</a>, p. 496. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey11–12-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPusey11–12_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPusey">Pusey</a>, pp. 11–12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson19–20-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson19–20_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 19–20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey13-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPusey13_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPusey">Pusey</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson20–21-9"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson20–21_9-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 20–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey23-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPusey23_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPusey">Pusey</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon472–473-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon472–473_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyon">Lyon</a>, pp. 472–473. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson20-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson20_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPusey24-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPusey24_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPusey">Pusey</a>, p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChester_J._Pach2017" class="citation book cs1">Chester J. Pach, ed. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uqyhDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136">A Companion to Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>. Wiley. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781119027331" title="Special:BookSources/9781119027331"><bdi>9781119027331</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781119027331&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuqyhDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon477-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon477_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyon">Lyon</a>, p. 477. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_North_RobertsScott_John_HammondValerie_A._Sulfaro2012" class="citation book cs1">Robert North Roberts; Scott John Hammond; Valerie A. Sulfaro (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ejc-dCYi9WMC&pg=PA255">Presidential Campaigns, Slogans, Issues, and Platforms</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313380921" title="Special:BookSources/9780313380921"><bdi>9780313380921</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Presidential+Campaigns%2C+Slogans%2C+Issues%2C+and+Platforms&rft.pages=255&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780313380921&rft.au=Robert+North+Roberts&rft.au=Scott+John+Hammond&rft.au=Valerie+A.+Sulfaro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dejc-dCYi9WMC%26pg%3DPA255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DDEce-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DDEce_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DDEce_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/campaigns-and-elections">"Dwight D. Eisenhower: Campaigns and Elections"</a>. Miller Center of Public Affairs University of Virginia. October 4, 2016. Retrieved May 9, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dwight+D.+Eisenhower%3A+Campaigns+and+Elections&rft.pub=Miller+Center+of+Public+Affairs+University+of+Virginia&rft.date=2016-10-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Feisenhower%2Fcampaigns-and-elections&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson22–23-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson22–23_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 22–23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon480–490-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon480–490_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyon">Lyon</a>, pp. 480–490. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGuckin1968" class="citation journal cs1">McGuckin, Henry E. Jr. (December 1968). "A value analysis of Richard Nixon's 1952 campaign-fund speech". The Southern Speech Journal. 33 (4): 259–269. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F10417946809371948">10.1080/10417946809371948</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Southern+Speech+Journal&rft.atitle=A+value+analysis+of+Richard+Nixon%27s+1952+campaign-fund+speech&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E259-%3C%2Fspan%3E269&rft.date=1968-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F10417946809371948&rft.aulast=McGuckin&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> James C. Davies, "Charisma in the 1952 Campaign." American Political Science Review 48.4 (1954): 1083–1102. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson26–27-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson26–27_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Francis H. Heller, "The Eisenhower White House." Presidential Studies Quarterly 23.3 (1993): 509–517 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551110">online</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> John W. Sloan, "The management and decision-making style of President Eisenhower." 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Retrieved February 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Democracynow.org&rft.atitle=50+Years+After+the+CIA%27s+First+Overthrow+of+a+Democratically+Elected+Foreign+Government+We+Take+a+Look+at+the+1953+US+Backed+Coup+in+Iran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.democracynow.org%2F2003%2F8%2F25%2F50_years_after_the_cias_first%23transcript&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2009" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, Allan D. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uyh8kdcuA1kC&pg=PA171">The Geography of Genocide</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_Press_of_America" title="University Press of America">University Press of America</a>. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-4097-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-4097-8"><bdi>978-0-7618-4097-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210814142731/https://books.google.com/books?id=Uyh8kdcuA1kC&pg=PA171">Archived</a> from the original on August 14, 2021. Retrieved September 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geography+of+Genocide&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-4097-8&rft.aulast=Cooper&rft.aufirst=Allan+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUyh8kdcuA1kC%26pg%3DPA171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDosal1995" class="citation book cs1">Dosal, Paul J. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7vcGTI4Q22YC&pg=PA2">Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala, 1899–1944</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-84202-590-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-84202-590-4"><bdi>978-0-84202-590-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210414103453/https://books.google.com/books?id=7vcGTI4Q22YC&pg=PA2">Archived</a> from the original on April 14, 2021. Retrieved September 30, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doing+Business+with+the+Dictators%3A+A+Political+History+of+United+Fruit+in+Guatemala%2C+1899%E2%80%931944&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-84202-590-4&rft.aulast=Dosal&rft.aufirst=Paul+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7vcGTI4Q22YC%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2016" class="citation news cs1">Jones, Maggie (June 30, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/magazine/the-secrets-in-guatemalas-bones.html">"The Secrets in Guatemala's Bones"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161215224850/http://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/magazine/the-secrets-in-guatemalas-bones.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 15, 2016. Retrieved February 15, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Secrets+in+Guatemala%27s+Bones&rft.date=2016-06-30&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Maggie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2016%2F07%2F03%2Fmagazine%2Fthe-secrets-in-guatemalas-bones.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFImmerman1982" class="citation book cs1">Immerman, Richard H. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ciainguatemalafo0000imme">The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention</a>. University of Texas Press. pp. 173–178. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71083-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-71083-2"><bdi>978-0-292-71083-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+CIA+in+Guatemala%3A+The+Foreign+Policy+of+Intervention&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E173-%3C%2Fspan%3E178&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-292-71083-2&rft.aulast=Immerman&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fciainguatemalafo0000imme&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStreeter2000" class="citation journal cs1">Streeter, Stephen M. (2000). "Interpreting the 1954 U.S. Intervention in Guatemala: Realist, Revisionist, and Postrevisionist Perspectives". History Teacher. 34 (1): 61–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3054375">10.2307/3054375</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3054375">3054375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Teacher&rft.atitle=Interpreting+the+1954+U.S.+Intervention+in+Guatemala%3A+Realist%2C+Revisionist%2C+and+Postrevisionist+Perspectives&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E74&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3054375&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3054375%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Streeter&rft.aufirst=Stephen+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Stephen M. Streeter, Managing the Counterrevolution: The United States and Guatemala, 1954–1961 (Ohio UP, 2000), pp. 7–9, 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_G._Rabe1988" class="citation book cs1">Stephen G. Rabe (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o2SFNdAiB7UC&pg=PA62">Eisenhower and Latin America: The Foreign Policy of Anticommunism</a>. UNC Press Books. pp. 62–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807842041" title="Special:BookSources/9780807842041"><bdi>9780807842041</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower+and+Latin+America%3A+The+Foreign+Policy+of+Anticommunism&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E62-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.pub=UNC+Press+Books&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780807842041&rft.au=Stephen+G.+Rabe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do2SFNdAiB7UC%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeiner2007" class="citation book cs1">Weiner, Tim (2007). Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA. Doubleday. pp. 187–189.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legacy+of+Ashes%3A+The+History+of+the+CIA&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E187-%3C%2Fspan%3E189&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Weiner&rft.aufirst=Tim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLardner2000" class="citation news cs1">Lardner, George (August 8, 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2000/08/08/did-ike-authorize-a-murder/62252bba-24ea-4290-a316-69bf647c0a94/">"Did Ike Authorize a Murder?"</a>. The Washington Post. <q>The CIA acted as though the president had given the go-ahead, sending one of its scientists to the Congo in September 1960 with a vial of deadly poison that could be injected into something Lumumba might eat. ... The poison, however, was never used, and CIA operatives were unable to get to Lumumba before he was eventually captured by Congolese rivals and killed ....</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Did+Ike+Authorize+a+Murder%3F&rft.date=2000-08-08&rft.aulast=Lardner&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Fpolitics%2F2000%2F08%2F08%2Fdid-ike-authorize-a-murder%2F62252bba-24ea-4290-a316-69bf647c0a94%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Stephen Weissman, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.udel.edu/globalagenda/2003/student/readings/CIAlumumba.html">Opening the Secret Files on Lumumba's Murder</a>", Washington Post, 21 July 2001. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParker1954" class="citation journal cs1">Parker, John J. (April 1954). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openscholarship.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3498&context=law_lawreview">"The American Constitution and the Treaty Making Power"</a>. Washington University Law Quarterly. 1954 (2): 115–131. Retrieved May 29, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+University+Law+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+American+Constitution+and+the+Treaty+Making+Power&rft.volume=1954&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E131&rft.date=1954-04&rft.aulast=Parker&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fopenscholarship.wustl.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3498%26context%3Dlaw_lawreview&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaimondo" class="citation web cs1">Raimondo, Justin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antiwar.com/essays/bricker.html">"The Bricker Amendment"</a>. Redwood City, California: Randolph Bourne Institute. Retrieved May 29, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Bricker+Amendment&rft.place=Redwood+City%2C+California&rft.pub=Randolph+Bourne+Institute&rft.aulast=Raimondo&rft.aufirst=Justin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.antiwar.com%2Fessays%2Fbricker.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCiment2015" class="citation book cs1">Ciment, James (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pnGsBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA173">Postwar America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History</a>. Routledge. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317462354" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317462354"><bdi>978-1317462354</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Postwar+America%3A+An+Encyclopedia+of+Social%2C+Political%2C+Cultural%2C+and+Economic+History&rft.pages=173&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317462354&rft.aulast=Ciment&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpnGsBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA173&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008657-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008657_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, p. 657. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTananbaum1985" class="citation journal cs1">Tananbaum, Duane A. (1985). "The Bricker Amendment Controversy: Its Origins and Eisenhower's Role". Diplomatic History. 9 (1): 73–93. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-7709.1985.tb00523.x">10.1111/j.1467-7709.1985.tb00523.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomatic+History&rft.atitle=The+Bricker+Amendment+Controversy%3A+Its+Origins+and+Eisenhower%27s+Role&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E73-%3C%2Fspan%3E93&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-7709.1985.tb00523.x&rft.aulast=Tananbaum&rft.aufirst=Duane+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolan1992" class="citation journal cs1">Nolan, Cathal J. (Spring 1992). "The Last Hurrah of Conservative Isolationism: Eisenhower, Congress, and the Bricker Amendment". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 22 (2): 337–349. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27550951">27550951</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Last+Hurrah+of+Conservative+Isolationism%3A+Eisenhower%2C+Congress%2C+and+the+Bricker+Amendment&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E337-%3C%2Fspan%3E349&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F27550951%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nolan&rft.aufirst=Cathal+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDockrill1994" class="citation journal cs1">Dockrill, Saki (1994). "Cooperation and suspicion: The United States' alliance diplomacy for the security of Western Europe, 1953–54". Diplomacy & Statecraft. 5 (1): 138–182. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09592299408405912">10.1080/09592299408405912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diplomacy+%26+Statecraft&rft.atitle=Cooperation+and+suspicion%3A+The+United+States%27+alliance+diplomacy+for+the+security+of+Western+Europe%2C+1953%E2%80%9354&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E138-%3C%2Fspan%3E182&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09592299408405912&rft.aulast=Dockrill&rft.aufirst=Saki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008668–670-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008668–670_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 668–670. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008664–668-104"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008664–668_104-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 664–668. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m34Xfvg9GdIC&q=Eisenhower">Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War Naima Prevots. Wesleyan University Press, CT. 1998 p. 11 Dwight D. Eisenhower requests funds to present the best American cultural achievements abroad on books.google.com</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.7aso.org/htmldocs/ascronsp.html">7th Army Symphony Chronology – General Palmer authorizes Samuel Adler to found the orchestra in 1952</a> on 7aso.org </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=k9SOCgAAQBAJ&dq=Seventh+Army+Symphony+Orchestra+Samuel+Adler&pg=PA311">A Dictionary for the Modern Composer</a>, Emily Freeman Brown, Scarecrow Press, Oxford, 2015, p. 311 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810884014" title="Special:BookSources/9780810884014">9780810884014</a> Seventh Army Symphony Orchestra founded by Samuel Adler in 1952 on <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com">https://books.google.com</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanley_G._Payne2011" class="citation book cs1">Stanley G. Payne (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S6Ie_HYgjUwC&pg=PA458">The Franco Regime, 1936–1975</a>. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 458. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299110734" title="Special:BookSources/9780299110734"><bdi>9780299110734</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Franco+Regime%2C+1936%E2%80%931975&rft.pages=458&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780299110734&rft.au=Stanley+G.+Payne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS6Ie_HYgjUwC%26pg%3DPA458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008661–662-109">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008661–662_109-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008661–662_109-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 661–662. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson292–293-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson292–293_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, pp. 292–293. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson97–98-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson97–98_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 97–98. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson296–298-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson296–298_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, pp. 296–298. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160803124531/http://www.swarthmore.edu/library/peace/conscientiousobjection/OverviewVietnamWar.htm">"Vietnam War"</a>. Swarthmore College Peace Collection. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.swarthmore.edu/library/peace/conscientiousobjection/OverviewVietnamWar.htm">the original</a> on August 3, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vietnam+War&rft.pub=Swarthmore+College+Peace+Collection&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.swarthmore.edu%2Flibrary%2Fpeace%2Fconscientiousobjection%2FOverviewVietnamWar.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008663–664,_693-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008663–664,_693_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 663–664, 693. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008692-115"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008692_115-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, p. 692. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmbrose,_volume_2">Ambrose, volume 2</a>, p. 229 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoadnigh2002" class="citation book cs1">Roadnigh, Andrew (2002). United States Policy towards Indonesia in the Truman and Eisenhower Years. New York: <a href="/wiki/Palgrave_Macmillan" title="Palgrave Macmillan">Palgrave Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-79315-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-79315-3"><bdi>0-333-79315-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=United+States+Policy+towards+Indonesia+in+the+Truman+and+Eisenhower+Years&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-333-79315-3&rft.aulast=Roadnigh&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinzer2013" class="citation book cs1">Kinzer, Stephen (2013). The Brothers: John Foster Dulles, Allen Dulles, and Their Secret World War. New York: Times Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Brothers%3A+John+Foster+Dulles%2C+Allen+Dulles%2C+and+Their+Secret+World+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Kinzer&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008672–674-119"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008672–674_119-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 672–674. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson126–128-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson126–128_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 126–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008674–675-121"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008674–675_121-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 674–675. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> See Anthony Eden, and Dwight D. Eisenhower, Eden-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1955–1957 (U of North Carolina Press, 2006) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson129–130-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson129–130_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 129–130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008675–676-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008675–676_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 675–676. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCole_C._Kingseed1995" class="citation book cs1">Cole C. Kingseed (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AqsJLxe2VHEC">Eisenhower and the Suez Crisis of 1956</a>. Louisiana State U.P. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807140857" title="Special:BookSources/9780807140857"><bdi>9780807140857</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower+and+the+Suez+Crisis+of+1956&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+U.P.&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=9780807140857&rft.au=Cole+C.+Kingseed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAqsJLxe2VHEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson163-126"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson163_126-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHahn2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hahn, Peter L. (March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-147615271/securing-the-middle-east-the-eisenhower-doctrine">"Securing the Middle East: The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957"</a>. Presidential Studies Quarterly. 36 (1): 38–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1741-5705.2006.00285.x">10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00285.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Securing+the+Middle+East%3A+The+Eisenhower+Doctrine+of+1957&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E38-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=2006-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1741-5705.2006.00285.x&rft.aulast=Hahn&rft.aufirst=Peter+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Flibrary%2Fjournal%2F1G1-147615271%2Fsecuring-the-middle-east-the-eisenhower-doctrine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson423-128"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson423_128-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, p. 423. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Douglas Little, "His finest hour? Eisenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East crisis." Diplomatic History 20.1 (1996): 27–54. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Stephen Ambrose, The Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy, 1938–1980 (1980) p. 463 </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Eisenhower, White House Years, vol. 2: Waging Peace 1956–1961 (1965) p. 268 </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> R. Louis Owen, A Revolutionary Year: The Middle East in 1958 (2002) p. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008678–679-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008678–679_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 678–679. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson191–192-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson191–192_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 191–192. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epw.in/system/files/pdf/1960_12/4-5-6/the_world_agricultural_fair.pdf">"The World Agricultural Fair"</a> (PDF). Economic and Political Weekly.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Economic+and+Political+Weekly&rft.atitle=The+World+Agricultural+Fair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epw.in%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fpdf%2F1960_12%2F4-5-6%2Fthe_world_agricultural_fair.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-opening-the-world-agriculture-fair-new-delhi">"Remarks at the Opening of the World Agriculture Fair in New Delhi"</a>. The American Presidency Project.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Presidency+Project&rft.atitle=Remarks+at+the+Opening+of+the+World+Agriculture+Fair+in+New+Delhi.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.presidency.ucsb.edu%2Fdocuments%2Fremarks-the-opening-the-world-agriculture-fair-new-delhi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008679–681-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008679–681_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 679–681. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008683–686-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008683–686_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 683–686. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008686–67-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008686–67_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 686–67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicker108–109-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWicker108–109_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWicker">Wicker</a>, pp. 108–109. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008688–689-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008688–689_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 688–689. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008670-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008670_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, p. 670. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson303–304-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson303–304_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, pp. 303–304. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerring2008696–698-144">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008696–698_144-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerring2008696–698_144-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHerring2008">Herring 2008</a>, pp. 696–698. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson214–215-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson214–215_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 214–215. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFontaine1968" class="citation book cs1">Fontaine, André (1968). History of the Cold War, vol. 2: From the Korean War to the present. Translated by R. Bruce. Pantheon Books. p. 338.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Cold+War%2C+vol.+2%3A+From+the+Korean+War+to+the+present&rft.pages=338&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Fontaine&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-'70s-147"><a href="#cite_ref-'70s_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrum2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Frum" title="David Frum">Frum, David</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/27">How We Got Here: The '70s</a>. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/27">27</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04195-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04195-4"><bdi>978-0-465-04195-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+We+Got+Here%3A+The+%2770s&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-465-04195-4&rft.aulast=Frum&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhowwegothere70sd00frum%2Fpage%2F27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-us_news-148"><a href="#cite_ref-us_news_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalsh2008" class="citation magazine cs1">Walsh, Kenneth T. (June 6, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usnews.com/articles/news/politics/2008/06/06/presidential-lies-and-deceptions.html">"Presidential Lies and Deceptions"</a>. U.S. News & World Report.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Presidential+Lies+and+Deceptions&rft.date=2008-06-06&rft.aulast=Walsh&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Farticles%2Fnews%2Fpolitics%2F2008%2F06%2F06%2Fpresidential-lies-and-deceptions.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Cold_War-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Cold_War_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Cold_War_149-1">b</a> Bogle, Lori Lynn, ed. (2001), The Cold War, Routledge, p. 104. 978-0815337218 </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Events-of-1960/The-Paris-Summit-Falls-Apart/12295509435928-2/">"1960 Year In Review: The Paris Summit Falls Apart"</a>. UPI. 1960. Retrieved April 30, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=1960+Year+In+Review%3A+The+Paris+Summit+Falls+Apart&rft.date=1960&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upi.com%2FAudio%2FYear_in_Review%2FEvents-of-1960%2FThe-Paris-Summit-Falls-Apart%2F12295509435928-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/eisenhower-dwight-d">"Travels of President Dwight D. Eisenhower"</a>. U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Travels+of+President+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+State+Office+of+the+Historian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fdepartmenthistory%2Ftravels%2Fpresident%2Feisenhower-dwight-d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibwc.state.gov/Organization/Operations/Field_Offices/Falcon.html">International Boundary and Water Commission; Falcon Dam</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100408104729/http://www.ibwc.state.gov/Organization/Operations/Field_Offices/Falcon.html">Archived</a> 2010-04-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKabaservice14–15-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKabaservice14–15_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKabaservice">Kabaservice</a>, pp. 14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson50–51-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson50–51_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 50–51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson30–31-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson30–31_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson53–55-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson53–55_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 53–55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson56–57-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson56–57_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 56–57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson168-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson168_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith648-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith648_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith648_159-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith">Smith</a>, p. 648. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson400–401-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson400–401_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, pp. 400–401. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKabaservice17–18-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKabaservice17–18_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKabaservice">Kabaservice</a>, pp. 17–18. </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> All figures, except for debt percentage, are presented in billions of dollars. The receipt, outlay, deficit, GDP, and debt figures are calculated for the <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_year#United_States" title="Fiscal year">fiscal year</a>, which ended on June 30 prior to 1976. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Represents the national debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/omb/historical-tables/">"Historical Tables"</a>. White House. Office of Management and Budget. Table 1.1. Retrieved March 4, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=White+House&rft.atitle=Historical+Tables&rft.pages=Table+1.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftrumpwhitehouse.archives.gov%2Fomb%2Fhistorical-tables%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/omb/historical-tables/">"Historical Tables"</a>. White House. Office of Management and Budget. Table 1.2. Retrieved March 4, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=White+House&rft.atitle=Historical+Tables&rft.pages=Table+1.2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftrumpwhitehouse.archives.gov%2Fomb%2Fhistorical-tables%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/omb/historical-tables/">"Historical Tables"</a>. White House. Office of Management and Budget. Table 7.1. Retrieved March 4, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=White+House&rft.atitle=Historical+Tables&rft.pages=Table+7.1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftrumpwhitehouse.archives.gov%2Fomb%2Fhistorical-tables%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowen2011" class="citation book cs1">Bowen, Michael (2011). The Roots of Modern Conservatism: Dewey, Taft, and the Battle for the Soul of the Republican Party. University of North Carolina Press. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807834855" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807834855"><bdi>978-0807834855</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roots+of+Modern+Conservatism%3A+Dewey%2C+Taft%2C+and+the+Battle+for+the+Soul+of+the+Republican+Party&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0807834855&rft.aulast=Bowen&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillan2015" class="citation web cs1">Gillan, Joshua (November 15, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2015/nov/15/bernie-s/income-tax-rates-were-90-percent-under-eisenhower-/">"Income tax rates were 90 percent under Eisenhower, Sanders says"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PolitiFact.com" class="mw-redirect" title="PolitiFact.com">PolitiFact.com</a>. Retrieved January 3, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PolitiFact.com&rft.atitle=Income+tax+rates+were+90+percent+under+Eisenhower%2C+Sanders+says&rft.date=2015-11-15&rft.aulast=Gillan&rft.aufirst=Joshua&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.politifact.com%2Ftruth-o-meter%2Fstatements%2F2015%2Fnov%2F15%2Fbernie-s%2Fincome-tax-rates-were-90-percent-under-eisenhower-%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-'70s_296-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-'70s_296_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-'70s_296_169-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrum2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Frum" title="David Frum">Frum, David</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/296">How We Got Here: The '70s</a>. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/296">296</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04195-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-04195-4"><bdi>978-0-465-04195-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+We+Got+Here%3A+The+%2770s&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=296&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-465-04195-4&rft.aulast=Frum&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhowwegothere70sd00frum%2Fpage%2F296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DDEda-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DDEda_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DDEda_170-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DDEda_170-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DDEda_170-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/domestic-affairs">"Dwight D. Eisenhower: Domestic Affairs"</a>. Miller Center of Public Affairs University of Virginia. October 4, 2016. Retrieved May 9, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dwight+D.+Eisenhower%3A+Domestic+Affairs&rft.pub=Miller+Center+of+Public+Affairs+University+of+Virginia&rft.date=2016-10-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Feisenhower%2Fdomestic-affairs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan1994" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, Iwan W. (1994). Beyond the Liberal Consensus: Political History of the United States Since 1965. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1850652045" title="Special:BookSources/978-1850652045"><bdi>978-1850652045</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+the+Liberal+Consensus%3A+Political+History+of+the+United+States+Since+1965&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=C+Hurst+%26+Co+Publishers+Ltd&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1850652045&rft.aulast=Morgan&rft.aufirst=Iwan+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46-172"><a href="#cite_ref-Roderick_P._Hart_2001_46_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoderick_P._Hart2001" class="citation book cs1">Roderick P. Hart (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U44JMDQO8IoC&pg=PA46">Politics, Discourse, and American Society: New Agendas</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0742500716" title="Special:BookSources/978-0742500716"><bdi>978-0742500716</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics%2C+Discourse%2C+and+American+Society%3A+New+Agendas&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0742500716&rft.au=Roderick+P.+Hart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU44JMDQO8IoC%26pg%3DPA46&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer2009" class="citation book cs1">Mayer, Michael S. (2009). The Eisenhower Years. Facts On File. p. xii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5387-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5387-2"><bdi>978-0-8160-5387-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Eisenhower+Years&rft.pages=xii&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5387-2&rft.aulast=Mayer&rft.aufirst=Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson311–312-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson311–312_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, pp. 311–312. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarone2004" class="citation book cs1">Barone, Michael (2004). Hard America, Soft America: Competition Vs. Coddling and the Battle for the Nation's Future. New York: Three Rivers Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-5324-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4000-5324-7"><bdi>978-1-4000-5324-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hard+America%2C+Soft+America%3A+Competition+Vs.+Coddling+and+the+Battle+for+the+Nation%27s+Future&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Three+Rivers+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4000-5324-7&rft.aulast=Barone&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson289-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson289_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, p. 289. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHitchcock2018101-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHitchcock2018101_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHitchcock2018">Hitchcock 2018</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1998" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Sunny J. (1998). Trading 102: getting down to business. John Wiley & Sons. p. 203. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471181330" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471181330"><bdi>978-0471181330</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Trading+102%3A+getting+down+to+business&rft.pages=203&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0471181330&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Sunny+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson315-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson315_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, p. 315. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Danielle Battisti, "The American Committee on Italian Migration, Anti-Communism, and Immigration Reform." Journal of American Ethnic History 31.2 (2012): 11–40. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/jamerethnhist.31.2.0011">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-ARZolberg-181">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ARZolberg_181-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARZolberg_181-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ARZolberg_181-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZolberg2006" class="citation book cs1">Zolberg, Aristide R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nationbydesignim00zolb">A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America</a>. 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During this period, more than 1,000 men and women were fired for suspected homosexuality from the State Department alone—a far greater number than were dismissed for their membership in the Communist party.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documenting+Discrimination+on+the+Basis+of+Sexual+Orientation+and+Gender+Identity+in+State+Employment&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pub=The+Williams+Institute+on+Sexual+Orientation+and+Gender+Identity+Law+and+Public+Policy+at+the+University+of+California+Los+Angeles+School+of+Law&rft.date=2009-09&rft.aulast=Sears&rft.aufirst=Brad&rft.au=Hunter%2C+Nan+D.&rft.au=Mallory%2C+Christy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwilliamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F5_History.pdf%23page%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdkins2016" class="citation web cs1">Adkins, Judith (August 15, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2016/summer/lavender.html">"'These People Are Frightened to Death' Congressional Investigations and the Lavender Scare"</a>. archives.gov. 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Retrieved January 15, 2018. <q>Historians estimate that somewhere between 5,000 and tens of thousands of gay workers lost their jobs during the Lavender Scare.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=archives.gov&rft.atitle=%27These+People+Are+Frightened+to+Death%27+Congressional+Investigations+and+the+Lavender+Scare&rft.date=2016-08-15&rft.aulast=Adkins&rft.aufirst=Judith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fpublications%2Fprologue%2F2016%2Fsummer%2Flavender.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSearsHunterMallory2009" class="citation book cs1">Sears, Brad; Hunter, Nan D.; Mallory, Christy (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170206215755/http://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/5_History.pdf#page=3">Documenting Discrimination on the Basis of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in State Employment</a> (PDF). Los Angeles: The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy at the University of California Los Angeles School of Law. pp. 5–3. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/wp-content/uploads/5_History.pdf#page=3">the original</a> (PDF) on February 6, 2017. Retrieved January 15, 2018. <q>Johnson has demonstrated that during this era government officials intentionally engaged in campaigns to associate homosexuality with Communism: 'homosexual' and 'pervert' became synonyms for 'Communist' and 'traitor.'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Documenting+Discrimination+on+the+Basis+of+Sexual+Orientation+and+Gender+Identity+in+State+Employment&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E5-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pub=The+Williams+Institute+on+Sexual+Orientation+and+Gender+Identity+Law+and+Public+Policy+at+the+University+of+California+Los+Angeles+School+of+Law&rft.date=2009-09&rft.aulast=Sears&rft.aufirst=Brad&rft.au=Hunter%2C+Nan+D.&rft.au=Mallory%2C+Christy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwilliamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F5_History.pdf%23page%3D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iaea.org/about/history/atoms-for-peace-speech">"Address by Mr. Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly"</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">IAEA</a>. December 8, 1953. 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Retrieved August 17, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EPA&rft.atitle=Summary+of+the+Atomic+Energy+Act&rft.date=2013-02-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Flaws-regulations%2Fsummary-atomic-energy-act&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson274-231"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson274_231-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, p. 274. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith652-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith652_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith">Smith</a>, p. 652. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBucklin2016" class="citation journal cs1">Bucklin, Steven J. (December 15, 2016). "'Who needs Roads?' The Interstate Highway System in South Dakota after 60 Years". South Dakota History. 46 (4): 287–325. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0361-8676">0361-8676</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=South+Dakota+History&rft.atitle=%27Who+needs+Roads%3F%27+The+Interstate+Highway+System+in+South+Dakota+after+60+Years&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E287-%3C%2Fspan%3E325&rft.date=2016-12-15&rft.issn=0361-8676&rft.aulast=Bucklin&rft.aufirst=Steven+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmbrose,_volume_2301,_326-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmbrose,_volume_2301,_326_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAmbrose,_volume_2">Ambrose, volume 2</a>, pp. 301, 326. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith652–653-235"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith652–653_235-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith">Smith</a>, pp. 652–653. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith651–654-236"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith651–654_236-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith">Smith</a>, pp. 651–654. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith650-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith650_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSmith">Smith</a>, p. 650. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1979" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, James P. 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(2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210427153828/https://soc.razi.ac.ir/documents/960564/0/critical%20cultural%20policy%20studies.pdf#page=341">"All the world's a mall: Reflections on the social and economic consequences of the American shopping center"</a> (PDF). Critical Cultural Policy Studies. pp. 327–334. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470690079.ch25">10.1002/9780470690079.ch25</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780470690079" title="Special:BookSources/9780470690079"><bdi>9780470690079</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://soc.razi.ac.ir/documents/960564/0/critical%20cultural%20policy%20studies.pdf#page=341">the original</a> (PDF) on April 27, 2021. Retrieved April 27, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=All+the+world%27s+a+mall%3A+Reflections+on+the+social+and+economic+consequences+of+the+American+shopping+center&rft.btitle=Critical+Cultural+Policy+Studies&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E327-%3C%2Fspan%3E334&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9780470690079.ch25&rft.isbn=9780470690079&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsoc.razi.ac.ir%2Fdocuments%2F960564%2F0%2Fcritical%2520cultural%2520policy%2520studies.pdf%23page%3D341&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlas2010" class="citation journal cs1">Blas, Elisheva (2010). "The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways: The Road to Success?". History Teacher. 44 (1): 127–142. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25799401">25799401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Teacher&rft.atitle=The+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower+National+System+of+Interstate+and+Defense+Highways%3A+The+Road+to+Success%3F&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E127-%3C%2Fspan%3E142&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25799401%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Blas&rft.aufirst=Elisheva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxLove1998" class="citation book cs1">Cox, Wendell; Love, Jean (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yrPmj_ieBq0C&dq=Interstate+and+Defense+Highways&pg=PA1">The Best Investment a Nation Ever Made: A Tribute to the Dwight D. Eisenhower System of Interstate and Defense Highways</a>. Diane Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780788141867" title="Special:BookSources/9780788141867"><bdi>9780788141867</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Best+Investment+a+Nation+Ever+Made%3A+A+Tribute+to+the+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower+System+of+Interstate+and+Defense+Highways&rft.pub=Diane+Publishing&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780788141867&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=Wendell&rft.au=Love%2C+Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyrPmj_ieBq0C%26dq%3DInterstate%2Band%2BDefense%2BHighways%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerroSocial_Implecations_of_Computing_course" class="citation web cs1">Ferro, David; Social Implecations of Computing course. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weber.edu/digitalhistory/internet_history.html">"A Little Internet History..."</a> <a href="/wiki/Weber_State_University" title="Weber State University">Weber State University</a>. Retrieved August 17, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Weber+State+University&rft.atitle=A+Little+Internet+History...&rft.aulast=Ferro&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Social+Implecations+of+Computing+course&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weber.edu%2Fdigitalhistory%2Finternet_history.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyd" class="citation web cs1">Boyd, Andy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://engines.egr.uh.edu/episode/3144">"The Birth of the Internet"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cullen_College_of_Engineering" title="Cullen College of Engineering">Cullen College of Engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Houston" title="University of Houston">University of Houston</a>. Retrieved August 17, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cullen+College+of+Engineering%2C+University+of+Houston&rft.atitle=The+Birth+of+the+Internet&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fengines.egr.uh.edu%2Fepisode%2F3144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchefter3–5-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchefter3–5_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchefter">Schefter</a>, pp. 3–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardestyEisman2007" class="citation book cs1">Hardesty, Von; Eisman, Gene (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicrivalryinsid0000hard/page/74">Epic Rivalry: The Inside Story of the Soviet and American Space Race</a>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/epicrivalryinsid0000hard/page/74">74</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-0119-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-0119-6"><bdi>978-1-4262-0119-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epic+Rivalry%3A+The+Inside+Story+of+the+Soviet+and+American+Space+Race&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=74&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4262-0119-6&rft.aulast=Hardesty&rft.aufirst=Von&rft.au=Eisman%2C+Gene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fepicrivalryinsid0000hard%2Fpage%2F74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson418-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson418_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, p. 418. </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLightbody1999" class="citation book cs1">Lightbody, Bradley (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coldwar0000ligh">The Cold War</a>. Questions and analysis in history. London: Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/coldwar0000ligh/page/54">54</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-19526-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-19526-3"><bdi>978-0-415-19526-3</bdi></a>. <q>u2 intelligence supremacy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cold+War&rft.place=London&rft.series=Questions+and+analysis+in+history&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-19526-3&rft.aulast=Lightbody&rft.aufirst=Bradley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcoldwar0000ligh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELyon805-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELyon805_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLyon">Lyon</a>, p. 805. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrompton2007" class="citation book cs1">Crompton, Samuel (2007). 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March 12, 2008. Retrieved May 10, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Presidential+Approval+Ratings%E2%80%94Gallup+Historical+Statistics+and+Trends&rft.pub=Gallup&rft.date=2008-03-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gallup.com%2Fpoll%2F116677%2Fpresidential-approval-ratings-gallup-historical-statistics-trends.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161129060948/https://eisenhower.archives.gov/all_about_ike/presidential/1956_campaign.html">"1956 Presidential Campaign"</a>. Abilene, Kansas: Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum & Boyhood Home; National Archives and Records Administration. 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Chicago Tribune. Retrieved May 10, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chicago+Tribune&rft.atitle=Happy+To+Get+Nixon+Again+For+%2756%3A+Ike&rft.date=1956-03-15&rft.aulast=Burd&rft.aufirst=Laurence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchives.chicagotribune.com%2F1956%2F03%2F15%2Fpage%2F1%2Farticle%2Fhappy-to-get-nixon-again-for-56-ike%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence1956" class="citation news cs1">Lawrence, W. H. (August 23, 1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://partners.nytimes.com/library/politics/camp/560823convention-gop-ra.html">"Eisenhower and Nixon Are Renominated; G.O.P. Convention Is Unanimous on Both; Stassen Gives Up, Seconds Vice President"</a>. 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Vol. 56, no. 8. London: History Today. Retrieved May 10, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Today&rft.atitle=Adlai+Stevenson%27s+Second+Run&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=8&rft.date=2006-08-08&rft.aulast=Cavendish&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historytoday.com%2Frichard-cavendish%2Fadlai-stevenson%25E2%2580%2599s-second-run&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson122–123-295"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson122–123_295-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 122–123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson124–125-296"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson124–125_296-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 124–125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson305-297"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson305_297-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, p. 305. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson135–136-298"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson135–136_298-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 135–136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson309-299"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson309_299-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, p. 309. </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlford1963" class="citation magazine cs1">Alford, Robert R. (1963). "The role of social class in American voting behavior". Western Political Quarterly. Vol. 16, no. 1. pp. 180–194.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Western+Political+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+role+of+social+class+in+American+voting+behavior&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E180-%3C%2Fspan%3E194&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Alford&rft.aufirst=Robert+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngus_Campbell1960" class="citation book cs1">Angus Campbell; et al. (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JeYUrs_GOcMC&pg=PA56">The American Voter</a>. University of Chicago Press. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226092546" title="Special:BookSources/9780226092546"><bdi>9780226092546</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Voter&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=9780226092546&rft.au=Angus+Campbell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJeYUrs_GOcMC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson136-302"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson136_302-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson226–227-303"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson226–227_303-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 226–227. </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRick_Perlstein2010" class="citation book cs1">Rick Perlstein (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dM_enWzoghoC&pg=PA50">Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451606263" title="Special:BookSources/9781451606263"><bdi>9781451606263</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nixonland%3A+The+Rise+of+a+President+and+the+Fracturing+of+America&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781451606263&rft.au=Rick+Perlstein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdM_enWzoghoC%26pg%3DPA50&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> John Kitch, "Eisenhower and Nixon: A Friendship of Unequals." 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Farrell, Richard Nixon: the life (2017) pp. 89–90 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson436–437-309"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPatterson436–437_309-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPatterson">Patterson</a>, pp. 436–437. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson229-310"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson229_310-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, pp. 229. </li> <li id="cite_note-DDEFarewell-311">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DDEFarewell_311-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DDEFarewell_311-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-unfit"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513222105/http://www.usa-presidents.info/speeches/eisenhower-farewell.html">"Dwight D. Eisenhower Farewell Address"</a>. USA Presidents. Archived from the original on May 13, 2008. Retrieved May 23, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dwight+D.+Eisenhower+Farewell+Address&rft.pub=USA+Presidents&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usa-presidents.info%2Fspeeches%2Feisenhower-farewell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson230-312"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPachRichardson230_312-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPachRichardson">Pach & Richardson</a>, p. 230. </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> Paul S. Holbo, and Robert W. Sellen, eds. The Eisenhower era: the age of consensus (1974), pp. 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> Robert J. McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101#3 (1986), pp. 453–473, quoting p. 453. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2151625">online</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-McMahon_p._455-315">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McMahon_p._455_315-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McMahon_p._455_315-1">b</a> McMahon, "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism," p. 455. </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> Peter G. Boyle, "Eisenhower" Historian (1994), Issue 43, pp. 9–11 </li> <li id="cite_note-millerlegacy-317"><a href="#cite_ref-millerlegacy_317-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPach2016" class="citation web cs1">Pach, Chester J. Jr. (October 4, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower/impact-and-legacy">"DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER: IMPACT AND LEGACY"</a>. Miller Center. Retrieved December 5, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Miller+Center&rft.atitle=DWIGHT+D.+EISENHOWER%3A+IMPACT+AND+LEGACY&rft.date=2016-10-04&rft.aulast=Pach&rft.aufirst=Chester+J.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmillercenter.org%2Fpresident%2Feisenhower%2Fimpact-and-legacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRottinghausVaughn2018" class="citation news cs1">Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin S. (February 19, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/">"How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?"</a>. New York Times. Retrieved May 14, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=How+Does+Trump+Stack+Up+Against+the+Best+%E2%80%94+and+Worst+%E2%80%94+Presidents%3F&rft.date=2018-02-19&rft.aulast=Rottinghaus&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rft.au=Vaughn%2C+Justin+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Finteractive%2F2018%2F02%2F19%2Fopinion%2Fhow-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall">"Presidential Historians Survey 2017"</a>. C-SPAN. Retrieved May 14, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=C-SPAN&rft.atitle=Presidential+Historians+Survey+2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.c-span.org%2Fpresidentsurvey2017%2F%3Fpage%3Doverall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> John Lewis Gaddis, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/books/review/eisenhower-in-war-and-peace-by-jean-edward-smith.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all">"He Made It Look Easy: 'Eisenhower in War and Peace', by Jean Edward Smith"</a>, New York Times Book Review, April 20, 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whitehousehistory.org/galleries/eisenhower-paintings">"Eisenhower Paintings"</a>. White House Historical Association. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=White+House+Historical+Association&rft.atitle=Eisenhower+Paintings&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitehousehistory.org%2Fgalleries%2Feisenhower-paintings&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckett2007" class="citation web cs1">Beckett, Sister Wendy (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whitehousehistory.org/president-eisenhower-the-painter">"President Eisenhower: The Painter"</a>. WHHA. Retrieved November 25, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WHHA&rft.atitle=President+Eisenhower%3A+The+Painter&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Beckett&rft.aufirst=Sister+Wendy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitehousehistory.org%2Fpresident-eisenhower-the-painter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Works cited">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose,_volume_1" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ambrose, Stephen E. (1983). Eisenhower. Vol. I: Soldier, General of the Army, President–Elect, 1890–1952. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0671440695" title="Special:BookSources/978-0671440695"><bdi>978-0671440695</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0671440695&rft.aulast=Ambrose&rft.aufirst=Stephen+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbrose,_volume_2" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ambrose, Stephen E. (1984). Eisenhower. Vol. II: President and Elder Statesman, 1952–1969. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0671605650" title="Special:BookSources/978-0671605650"><bdi>978-0671605650</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0671605650&rft.aulast=Ambrose&rft.aufirst=Stephen+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bohri, László. "Rollback, Liberation, Containment, or Inaction? US Policy and Eastern Europe in the 1950s." Journal of Cold War Studies 1.3 (1999): 67–110. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1162/152039799316976814">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBundy" class="citation book cs1">Bundy, McGeorge (1988). Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years. New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-52278-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-52278-8"><bdi>0-394-52278-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Danger+and+Survival%3A+Choices+About+the+Bomb+in+the+First+Fifty+Years&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-394-52278-8&rft.aulast=Bundy&rft.aufirst=McGeorge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Dockrill, Saki (1994). "Cooperation and suspicion: The United States' alliance diplomacy for the security of Western Europe, 1953–54". Diplomacy & Statecraft. 5#1: 138–182 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09592299408405912?journalCode=fdps20">online</a></li> <li>Dockrill, Saki. (1996) Eisenhower's New-Look National Security Policy, 1953–61 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Eisenhowers-New-Look-National-Security-1953-61/dp/0312158807/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerring2008" class="citation book cs1">Herring, George C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr">From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507822-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-507822-0"><bdi>978-0-19-507822-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Colony+to+Superpower%3B+U.S.+Foreign+Relations+Since+1776&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-507822-0&rft.aulast=Herring&rft.aufirst=George+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromcolonytosupe00herr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitchcock2018" class="citation book cs1">Hitchcock, William I. (2018). The Age of Eisenhower: America and the World in the 1950. Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1439175668" title="Special:BookSources/978-1439175668"><bdi>978-1439175668</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Eisenhower%3A+America+and+the+World+in+the+1950&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1439175668&rft.aulast=Hitchcock&rft.aufirst=William+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> The major scholarly synthesis; 645pp; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/28443/discussions/3685891/h-diplo-roundtable-xx-24-william-hitchcock-age-eisenhower-america">online review symposium</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKabaservice" class="citation book cs1">Kabaservice, Geoffrey (2012). Rule and Ruin: The Downfall of Moderation and the Destruction of the Republican Party, from Eisenhower to the Tea Party. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199768400" title="Special:BookSources/9780199768400"><bdi>9780199768400</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rule+and+Ruin%3A+The+Downfall+of+Moderation+and+the+Destruction+of+the+Republican+Party%2C+from+Eisenhower+to+the+Tea+Party&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780199768400&rft.aulast=Kabaservice&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLyon" class="citation book cs1">Lyon, Peter (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eisenhowerportra00lyon">Eisenhower: Portrait of the Hero</a>. Little Brown and Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0316540216" title="Special:BookSources/978-0316540216"><bdi>978-0316540216</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower%3A+Portrait+of+the+Hero&rft.pub=Little+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0316540216&rft.aulast=Lyon&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Feisenhowerportra00lyon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eisenhowerportra00lyon">online free to borrow</a></li> <li>McMahon, Robert J. "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly 101#3 (1986), pp. 453–473, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2151625">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPachRichardson" class="citation book cs1">Pach, Chester J.; Richardson, Elmo (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presidencyofdwig0000pach">The Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (Revised ed.). University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0437-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-0437-1"><bdi>978-0-7006-0437-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Presidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-0437-1&rft.aulast=Pach&rft.aufirst=Chester+J.&rft.au=Richardson%2C+Elmo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpresidencyofdwig0000pach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatterson" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_T._Patterson_(historian)" title="James T. Patterson (historian)">Patterson, James</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grandexpectation00patt">Grand Expectations: The United States 1945–1974</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195117974" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195117974"><bdi>978-0195117974</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grand+Expectations%3A+The+United+States+1945%E2%80%931974&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0195117974&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrandexpectation00patt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPusey" class="citation book cs1">Pusey, Merlo J. (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/eisenhowerthepre002645mbp#page/n11/mode/2up">Eisenhower The President</a>. Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/56-8365">56-8365</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower+The+President&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1956&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F56-8365&rft.aulast=Pusey&rft.aufirst=Merlo+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Feisenhowerthepre002645mbp%23page%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchefter" class="citation book cs1">Schefter, James (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceuncensored00sche">The Race: The uncensored story of how America beat Russia to the Moon</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49253-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-385-49253-9"><bdi>978-0-385-49253-9</bdi></a>. <q>isbn:0385492537.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Race%3A+The+uncensored+story+of+how+America+beat+Russia+to+the+Moon&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-385-49253-9&rft.aulast=Schefter&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fraceuncensored00sche&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Edward_Smith" title="Jean Edward Smith">Smith, Jean Edward</a> (2012). Eisenhower in War and Peace. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400066933" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400066933"><bdi>978-1400066933</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower+in+War+and+Peace&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1400066933&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Jean+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWicker" class="citation book cs1">Wicker, Tom (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rutherfordbhayes00tref">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a>. Times Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6907-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-6907-5"><bdi>978-0-8050-6907-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dwight+D.+Eisenhower&rft.pub=Times+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-6907-5&rft.aulast=Wicker&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frutherfordbhayes00tref&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungSchilling" class="citation book cs1">Young, Ken; Schilling, Warner R. (2019). Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-4516-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-4516-4"><bdi>978-1-5017-4516-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Super+Bomb%3A+Organizational+Conflict+and+the+Development+of+the+Hydrogen+Bomb&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-5017-4516-4&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Ken&rft.au=Schilling%2C+Warner+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Bibliography of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Bibliography of Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References_2">References</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation 1945–1964 (1965), Highly detailed and factual coverage of Congress and presidential politics; 1784 pages</li> <li>Damms, Richard V. The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961 (2002)</li> <li>Kaufman, Burton I. The A to Z of the Eisenhower era (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atozofeisenhower0000kauf">online</a></li> <li>Kaufman, Burton I. and Diane Kaufman. Historical Dictionary of the Eisenhower Era (2009), 320pp</li> <li>Mayer, Michael S. The Eisenhower Years (Facts on File, 2009), 1024pp; short biographies by experts of 500 prominent figures, with some primary sources. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5387-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8160-5387-1">0-8160-5387-1</a></li> <li>Olson, James S. Historical Dictionary of the 1950s (2000)</li> <li>Pach, Chester J. ed. A Companion to Dwight D. Eisenhower (2017), new essays by experts; stress on historiography.</li> <li>Schoenebaum, Eleanora, ed. Political Profiles the Eisenhower Years (1977); 757pp; short political biographies of 501 major players in politics in the 1950s.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biographical">Biographical</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Biographical">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Ambrose, Stephen E. Eisenhower: Soldier and President (2003). A revision and condensation of his earlier two-volume Eisenhower biography.</li> <li>Galambos, Louis. Eisenhower: Becoming the Leader of the Free World (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2020).</li> <li>Gellman, Irwin F. The President and the Apprentice: Eisenhower and Nixon, 1952–1961 (2015).</li> <li>Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed. 2002)</li> <li>Hoopes Townsend, Devil and John Foster Dulles (1973) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-316-37235-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-316-37235-8">0-316-37235-8</a>. a scholarly biography</li> <li>Krieg, Joann P. ed. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman (1987). 24 essays by scholars.</li> <li>Mason, Robert. "War Hero in the White House: Dwight Eisenhower and the Politics of Peace, Prosperity, and Party." in Profiles in Power (Brill, 2020) pp. 112–128.</li> <li>Newton, Jim, Eisenhower: The White House Years (Random House, 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eisenhowerwhiteh00newt">online</a>; popular history</li> <li>Nichols, David A. Eisenhower 1956: The President's Year of Crisis—Suez and the Brink of War (2012).</li> <li>Stebenne, David L. Modern republican: Arthur Larson and the Eisenhower years (Indiana UP, 2006).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scholarly_studies">Scholarly studies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Scholarly studies">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Alexander, Charles C. Holding the line: the Eisenhower era, 1952–1961 (1979) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/holdingline00alex">online</a></li> <li>Allen, Craig. Eisenhower and the mass media: peace, prosperity, & prime-time TV (U of North Carolina Press) (1993)</li> <li>Anderson J. W. Eisenhower, Brownell, and the Congress: The Tangled Origins of the Civil Rights Bill of 1956–1957. (U of Alabama Press, 1964).</li> <li>Blas, Elisheva. "The Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways: The Road to Success?." History Teacher 44.1 (2010): 127–142. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25799401">online</a></li> <li>Burrows, William E. This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age. New York: Random House, 1998. 282pp</li> <li>Divine, Robert A. Eisenhower and the Cold War (Oxford UP, 1981)</li> <li>Eulau Heinz, Class and Party in the Eisenhower Years. Free Press, 1962. voting behavior</li> <li>Greene, John Robert. I Like Ike: The Presidential Election of 1952 (2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Like-Ike-Presidential-Election-Elections/dp/0700624058/">excerpt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Greenstein" title="Fred Greenstein">Greenstein, Fred I.</a> The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/hiddenhandpresid0000gree">online</a></li> <li>Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption" Presidential Studies Quarterly, 27#2 (1997) pp. 333–41 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551734">in JSTOR</a>.</li> <li>Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962)</li> <li>Heller, Francis H. "The Eisenhower White House." Presidential Studies Quarterly 23.3 (1993): 509–517 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551110">online</a>.</li> <li>Hitchcock, William I. <a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Eisenhower" title="The Age of Eisenhower">The Age of Eisenhower: America and the World in the 1950s</a> (2018). The major scholarly synthesis; 645pp; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://networks.h-net.org/node/28443/discussions/3685891/h-diplo-roundtable-xx-24-william-hitchcock-age-eisenhower-america">online review symposium</a></li> <li>Holbo, Paul S. and Robert W. Sellen, eds. The Eisenhower era: the age of consensus (1974), 196pp; 20 short excerpts from primary and secondary sources <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/eisenhowerera00holb">online</a></li> <li>Kabaservice, Geoffrey. Rule and ruin: The downfall of moderation and the destruction of the Republican Party, from Eisenhower to the Tea Party (Oxford UP, 2012).</li> <li>Kahn, Michael A. "Shattering the myth about President Eisenhower's Supreme Court appointments." Presidential Studies Quarterly 22.1 (1992): 47–56 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27550903">online</a>.</li> <li>King, James D., and James W. Riddlesperger Jr., "Presidential leadership of congressional civil rights voting: the cases of Eisenhower and Johnson." Policy Studies Journal 21.3 (1993): 544–555.</li> <li>Kingseed, Cole Christian. Eisenhower and the Suez Crisis of 1956 (1995)</li> <li>Krieg, Joanne P. ed. Dwight D. Eisenhower: Soldier, President, Statesman (1987), 283–296.</li> <li>Medhurst; Martin J. Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator (Greenwood Press, 1993).</li> <li>Nichols, David A. A matter of justice: Eisenhower and the beginning of the civil rights revolution (Simon and Schuster, 2007).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickett,_William_B.1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">Pickett, William B.</a> (1995). <a href="/wiki/Dwight_David_Eisenhower_and_American_Power" title="Dwight David Eisenhower and American Power">Dwight David Eisenhower and American Power</a>. Wheeling, Ill.: Harlan Davidson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88-295918-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88-295918-4"><bdi>978-0-88-295918-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31206927">31206927</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dwight+David+Eisenhower+and+American+Power&rft.place=Wheeling%2C+Ill.&rft.pub=Harlan+Davidson&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31206927&rft.isbn=978-0-88-295918-4&rft.au=Pickett%2C+William+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPickett,_William_B.2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_B._Pickett" title="William B. Pickett">Pickett, William B.</a> (2000). <a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Decides_To_Run" title="Eisenhower Decides To Run">Eisenhower Decides to Run: Presidential Politics and Cold War Strategy</a>. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56-663787-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56-663787-9"><bdi>978-1-56-663787-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43953970">43953970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eisenhower+Decides+to+Run%3A+Presidential+Politics+and+Cold+War+Strategy&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Ivan+R.+Dee&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43953970&rft.isbn=978-1-56-663787-9&rft.au=Pickett%2C+William+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Sylvia, Ronald D. "Presidential Decision Making and Leadership in the Civil Rights Era." Presidential Studies Quarterly 25#3 (1995), pp. 391–411. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27551457">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_and_military_policy">Foreign and military policy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Foreign and military policy">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Andrew, Christopher. For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush (1995), pp. 199–256.</li> <li>Bose, Meenekshi. Shaping and signaling presidential policy: The national security decision making of Eisenhower and Kennedy (Texas A&M UP, 1998).</li> <li>Bowie, Robert R. and Richard H. Immerman, eds. Waging peace: how Eisenhower shaped an enduring cold war strategy (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wagingpeacehowei00robe">online</a></li> <li>Brands, Henry W. Cold Warriors: Eisenhower's Generation and American Foreign Policy (Columbia UP, 1988).</li> <li>Broadwater; Jeff. Eisenhower & the Anti-Communist Crusade (U of North Carolina Press, 1992)</li> <li>Bury, Helen. Eisenhower and the Cold War arms race:'Open Skies' and the military-industrial complex (2014).</li> <li>Chernus, Ira. Apocalypse Management: Eisenhower and the Discourse of National Insecurity. (Stanford UP, 2008).</li> <li>Divine, Robert A. Eisenhower and the Cold War (1981)</li> <li>Divine, Robert A. Foreign Policy and U.S. Presidential Elections, 1952–1960 (1974).</li> <li>Dockrill, Saki. Eisenhower's New-Look National Security Policy, 1953–61 (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Eisenhowers-New-Look-National-Security-1953-61/dp/0312158807/">excerpt</a></li> <li>Falk, Stanley L. "The National Security Council under Truman, Eisenhower, and Kennedy." Political Science Quarterly 79.3 (1964): 403–434. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2145907">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson2005" class="citation journal cs1">Jackson, Michael Gordon (2005). "Beyond Brinkmanship: Eisenhower, Nuclear War Fighting, and Korea, 1953-1968". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 35 (1): 52–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1741-5705.2004.00235.x">10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00235.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Presidential+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Beyond+Brinkmanship%3A+Eisenhower%2C+Nuclear+War+Fighting%2C+and+Korea%2C+1953-1968&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1741-5705.2004.00235.x&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Michael+Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kaufman, Burton Ira. Trade and aid: Eisenhower's foreign economic policy, 1953–1961 (1982).</li> <li>Little, Douglas. "His finest hour? Eisenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East crisis." Diplomatic History 20.1 (1996): 27–54. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24913444">online</a></li> <li>Melanson, Richard A. and David A. Mayers, eds. Reevaluating Eisenhower: American foreign policy in the 1950s (1989) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reevaluatingeise00mela">online</a></li> <li>Rabe, Stephen G. Eisenhower and Latin America: The foreign policy of anticommunism (1988)</li> <li>Rosenberg, Victor. Soviet-American relations, 1953–1960: diplomacy and cultural exchange during the Eisenhower presidency (2005).</li> <li>Taubman, William. Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (2012), Pulitzer Prize</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Broadwater, Jeff. "President Eisenhower and the Historians: Is the General in Retreat?." Canadian Review of American Studies 22.1 (1991): 47–60.</li> <li>Burk, Robert. "Eisenhower Revisionism Revisited: Reflections on Eisenhower Scholarship", Historian, Spring 1988, Vol. 50, Issue 2, pp. 196–209</li> <li>Catsam, Derek. "The civil rights movement and the Presidency in the hot years of the Cold War: A historical and historiographical assessment." History Compass 6.1 (2008): 314–344. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.academia.edu/download/49536018/j.1478-0542.2007.00486.x20161011-25957-j208b5.pdf">online</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍]</li> <li>De Santis, Vincent P. "Eisenhower Revisionism," Review of Politics 38#2 (1976): 190–208.</li> <li>Hoxie, R. Gordon. "Dwight David Eisenhower: Bicentennial Considerations," Presidential Studies Quarterly 20 (1990), 263.</li> <li>Joes, Anthony James. "Eisenhower Revisionism and American Politics," in Joanne P. Krieg, ed., Dwight D. Eisenhower: Soldier, President, Statesman (1987), 283–296;</li> <li>Lee, R. Alton. Dwight D. Eisenhower: A Bibliography (1991) 3,660 citations to books and articles with short annotation.</li> <li>McAuliffe, Mary S. "Eisenhower, the President", Journal of American History 68 (1981), pp. 625–32 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1901942">1901942</a></li> <li>McMahon, Robert J. "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly (1986) 101#3 pp. 453–73 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2151625">2151625</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatray2011" class="citation journal cs1">Matray, James I (2011). "Korea's war at 60: A survey of the literature". Cold War History. 11 (1): 99–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14682745.2011.545603">10.1080/14682745.2011.545603</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153921372">153921372</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cold+War+History&rft.atitle=Korea%27s+war+at+60%3A+A+survey+of+the+literature&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E99-%3C%2Fspan%3E129&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14682745.2011.545603&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153921372%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Matray&rft.aufirst=James+I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Melanson, Richard A. and David Mayers, eds. Reevaluating Eisenhower: American Foreign Policy in the 1950s (1987)</li> <li>Polsky, Andrew J. "Shifting Currents: Dwight Eisenhower and the Dynamic of Presidential Opportunity Structure," Presidential Studies Quarterly, March 2015.</li> <li>Rabe, Stephen G. "Eisenhower Revisionism: A Decade of Scholarship," Diplomatic History (1993) 17#1 pp 97–115.</li> <li>Reichard, Gary W. "Eisenhower as President: The Changing View," South Atlantic Quarterly 77 (1978): 265–82</li> <li>Schlesinger Jr., Arthur. "The Ike Age Revisited," Reviews in American History (1983) 11#1 pp. 1–11 <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2701865">2701865</a></li> <li>Streeter, Stephen M. "Interpreting the 1954 U.S. Intervention In Guatemala: Realist, Revisionist, and Postrevisionist Perspectives," History Teacher (2000) 34#1 pp 61–74. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3054375">3054375</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190219130258/http://smsisaac.yolasite.com/resources/guatemala%20streeter.pdf">online</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Adams, Sherman. Firsthand Report: The Story of the Eisenhower Administration. 1961. by Ike's chief of staff</li> <li>Benson, Ezra Taft. Cross Fire: The Eight Years with Eisenhower (1962) Secretary of Agriculture * Brownell, Herbert and John P. Burke. Advising Ike: The Memoirs of Attorney General Herbert Brownell (1993).</li> <li>Eisenhower, Dwight D. Mandate for Change, 1953–1956, Doubleday and Co., 1963; his memoir</li> <li>Eisenhower, Dwight D. The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956–1961, Doubleday and Co., 1965; his memoir</li> <li>Papers of Dwight D. Eisenhower The 21 volume Johns Hopkins print edition of Eisenhower's papers includes: The Presidency: The Middle Way (vols. 14–17) and The Presidency: Keeping the Peace (vols. 18–21), his private letters and papers <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eisenhower.press.jhu.edu/about/index.html">online at subscribing libraries</a></li> <li>Eisenhower, Dwight D. Public Papers, covers 1953 through end of term in 1961. based on White House press releases <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=title%3A%28electronic%29%20AND%20creator%3A%28eisenhower%29">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Campbell_Hagerty1983" class="citation book cs1">James Campbell Hagerty (1983). <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hugh_Ferrell" title="Robert Hugh Ferrell">Ferrell, Robert H.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2XohAAAAMAAJ">The Diary of James C. Hagerty: Eisenhower in Mid-Course, 1954–1955</a>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253116253" title="Special:BookSources/9780253116253"><bdi>9780253116253</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Diary+of+James+C.+Hagerty%3A+Eisenhower+in+Mid-Course%2C+1954%E2%80%931955&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=9780253116253&rft.au=James+Campbell+Hagerty&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2XohAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APresidency+of+Dwight+D.+Eisenhower" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Hughes, Emmet John. The Ordeal of Power: A Political Memoir of the Eisenhower Years. 1963. Ike's speechwriter</li> <li>Nixon, Richard M. The Memoirs of Richard Nixon 1978.</li> <li>Documentary History of the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidency (13 vol. University Publications of America, 1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170305002427/http://cisupa.proquest.com/ws_display.asp?filter=upa_intermediate&item_id=%7B1D426C0A-1FEB-49EA-ADD8-84EED93255A0%7D">online table of contents</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Presidency_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/president/eisenhower">Miller Center on the Presidency at U of Virginia</a>, brief articles on Eisenhower and his presidency</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eisenhower.archives.gov/Research/Finding_Aids/E.html">Papers and Records of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Dwight_D._Eisenhower1021" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Template:Dwight D. Eisenhower"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Template talk:Dwight D. Eisenhower"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Dwight D. Eisenhower"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Dwight_D._Eisenhower1021" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">34th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1953–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe" title="Supreme Allied Commander Europe">Supreme Allied Commander Europe</a> (1951–1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Staff of the United States Army">Chief of Staff of the Army</a> (1945–1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Headquarters_Allied_Expeditionary_Force#Commander_and_senior_staff" title="Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force">Commander, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force</a> (1943–1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Military career</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Military career</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1919_Motor_Transport_Corps_convoy" title="1919 Motor Transport Corps convoy">1919 Motor Transport Corps convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Maneuvers" title="Louisiana Maneuvers">Louisiana Maneuvers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Theater_of_Operations_United_States_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="European Theater of Operations United States Army">European Theater of Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_Cassibile" title="Armistice of Cassibile">Armistice of Cassibile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/June_6,_1944,_order_of_the_day" title="June 6, 1944, order of the day">June 6, 1944, order of the day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_Western_Europe_speech" title="People of Western Europe speech">People of Western Europe speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Veritable" title="Operation Veritable">Operation Veritable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Declaration_(1945)" title="Berlin Declaration (1945)">Berlin Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Military Governor, U.S. Occupation Zone in Germany</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disarmed_Enemy_Forces" title="Disarmed Enemy Forces">Disarmed Enemy Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Advisory_Commission" title="European Advisory Commission">European Advisory Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Allied_Commander_Europe" title="Supreme Allied Commander Europe">Supreme Commander of NATO, 1951-1952</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Presidency</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidential transition of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="First inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower">1953 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Second inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower">1957 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union Address</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/February_1953_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="February 1953 State of the Union Address">1953</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1954_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1954 State of the Union Address">1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1955_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1955 State of the Union Address">1955</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1956 State of the Union Address">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1957_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1957 State of the Union Address">1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1958 State of the Union Address">1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1959 State of the Union Address">1959</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1960 State of the Union Address">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_12,_1961_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="January 12, 1961 State of the Union Address">1961</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Administration_and_Cabinet">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="List of federal judges appointed by Dwight D. Eisenhower">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower%27s_farewell_address" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenhower's farewell address">Farewell address</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy">Kennedy transition</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Dwight_David_Eisenhower/Executive_Orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Dwight David Eisenhower/Executive Orders">Executive Orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Dwight_David_Eisenhower/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Dwight David Eisenhower/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential Proclamations</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration">Foreign policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Doctrine" title="Eisenhower Doctrine">Eisenhower Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> <ul><li>1953; <a href="/wiki/Korean_Armistice_Agreement" title="Korean Armistice Agreement">Korean Armistice Agreement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 Iranian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chance_for_Peace_speech" title="Chance for Peace speech">"Chance for Peace" speech</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1953%E2%80%931962)" title="Cold War (1953–1962)">Cold War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domino_theory" title="Domino theory">Domino theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War#Crisis_and_escalation_(1953–62)" title="Cold War">Khrushchev, Eisenhower and De-Stalinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Look_(policy)" title="New Look (policy)">New Look policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Summit_(1955)" title="Geneva Summit (1955)">1955 Geneva Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_U-2_incident" title="1960 U-2 incident">1960 U-2 incident</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1954" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1954">Atomic Energy Act of 1954</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restricted_Data" title="Restricted Data">Restricted Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Trade_Development_and_Assistance_Act_of_1954" title="Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954">Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_for_Peace" title="Food for Peace">Food for Peace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EURATOM_Cooperation_Act_of_1958" title="EURATOM Cooperation Act of 1958">EURATOM Cooperation Act of 1958</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act" title="National Aeronautics and Space Act">National Aeronautics and Space Act</a> <ul><li>1958; <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_40" title="Operation 40">Operation 40</a> (1960)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Domestic policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_10479" title="Executive Order 10479">Executive Order 10479</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Continental_Shelf" title="Outer Continental Shelf">Outer Continental Shelf Act</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee_Relief_Act" title="Refugee Relief Act">Refugee Relief Act</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submerged_Lands_Act" title="Submerged Lands Act">Submerged Lands Act</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" title="United States Department of Health and Human Services">U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Act_of_1954" title="Agricultural Act of 1954">Agricultural Act of 1954</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Wool_Act_of_1954" title="National Wool Act of 1954">National Wool Act of 1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Milk_Program" title="Special Milk Program">Special Milk Program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excise_Tax_Reduction_Act_of_1954" title="Excise Tax Reduction Act of 1954">Excise Tax Reduction Act of 1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code" title="Internal Revenue Code">Internal Revenue Code of 1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watershed_Protection_and_Flood_Prevention_Act_of_1954" title="Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of 1954">Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act of 1954</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_Watershed_Program" title="Small Watershed Program">Small Watershed Program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Pollution_Control_Act_of_1955" title="Air Pollution Control Act of 1955">Air Pollution Control Act of 1955</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_Act_of_1956" title="Agricultural Act of 1956">Agricultural Act of 1956</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Bank_Act" title="Soil Bank Act">Soil Bank Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_Bank_Program" title="Soil Bank Program">Soil Bank Program</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Voting_Assistance_Program" title="Federal Voting Assistance Program">Federal Voting Assistance Program</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_Holding_Company_Act" title="Bank Holding Company Act">Bank Holding Company Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal-Aid_Highway_Act_of_1956" title="Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956">Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System" title="Interstate Highway System">Interstate Highway System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highway_Trust_Fund" title="Highway Trust Fund">Highway Trust Fund</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_and_Wildlife_Act" title="Fish and Wildlife Act">Fish and Wildlife Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_to_People_Student_Ambassador_Program" title="People to People Student Ambassador Program">People to People Student Ambassador Program</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_Council_on_Fitness,_Sports_and_Nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="President's Council on Fitness, Sports and Nutrition">President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Commission_on_Civil_Rights" title="United States Commission on Civil Rights">U.S. Commission on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Civil_Rights_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division">U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Plant_Pest_Act_of_1957" title="Federal Plant Pest Act of 1957">Federal Plant Pest Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine intervention</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price%E2%80%93Anderson_Nuclear_Industries_Indemnity_Act" title="Price–Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act">Price–Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Statehood_Act" title="Alaska Statehood Act">Alaska Statehood Act</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_Slaughter_Act" title="Humane Slaughter Act">Humane Slaughter Act</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Education_Act" title="National Defense Education Act">National Defense Education Act</a> <ul><li>1958; <a href="/wiki/Federal_Perkins_Loan" title="Federal Perkins Loan">Federal Perkins Loan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_loans_in_the_United_States" title="Student loans in the United States">Student loans in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Admission_Act" title="Hawaii Admission Act">Hawaii Admission Act</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple-Use_Sustained-Yield_Act_of_1960" title="Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960">Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikes_Act" title="Sikes Act">Sikes Act</a> (1960)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_in_Europe" title="Crusade in Europe">Crusade in Europe (1948)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Draft_Eisenhower_movement" title="Draft Eisenhower movement">Draft Eisenhower movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1948 Republican Party presidential primaries">Republican Party presidential primaries (1948</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Republican Party presidential primaries">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1956 Republican Party presidential primaries">1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_National_Convention" title="1952 Republican National Convention">Republican National Convention (1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_National_Convention" title="1956 Republican National Convention">1956)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">United States Presidential election (1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Bibliography of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Birthplace_State_Historic_Site" title="Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site">Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Presidential_Library,_Museum_and_Boyhood_Home" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home">Eisenhower Presidential Library, Museum, gravesite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Home" title="Eisenhower Home">Boyhood home</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_National_Historic_Site" title="Eisenhower National Historic Site">Eisenhower National Historic Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Memorial" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial">Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Executive_Office_Building" title="Eisenhower Executive Office Building">Eisenhower Executive Office Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wichita_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_National_Airport" title="Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport">Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Fellowships" title="Eisenhower Fellowships">Eisenhower Fellowships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Eisenhower Institute">Eisenhower Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Monument" title="Eisenhower Monument">Eisenhower Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_dollar" title="Eisenhower dollar">Eisenhower dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Centennial_silver_dollar" title="Eisenhower Centennial silver dollar">Eisenhower Centennial silver dollar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Army_Medical_Center" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center">Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Medical_Center" title="Eisenhower Medical Center">Eisenhower Medical Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Trophy" title="Eisenhower Trophy">Eisenhower Trophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Golf_Club" title="Eisenhower Golf Club">Eisenhower Golf Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts#Eisenhower_Theater" title="John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts">Eisenhower Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_(U.S._Capitol)" title="Statue of Dwight D. Eisenhower (U.S. Capitol)">Statue of Dwight D. Eisenhower (U.S. Capitol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Eisenhower" title="Fort Eisenhower">Fort Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Eisenhower" title="Mount Eisenhower">Mount Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_named_for_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="List of places named for Dwight D. Eisenhower">Places named for Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower#Tributes_and_memorials" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Other tributes and memorials</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_jacket" title="Eisenhower jacket">Eisenhower jacket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_Tree" title="Eisenhower Tree">Eisenhower Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusade_in_Europe#TV_series" title="Crusade in Europe">Crusade in Europe (1949 television series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House">Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ike_(miniseries)" title="Ike (miniseries)">Ike (1979 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ike:_Countdown_to_D-Day" title="Ike: Countdown to D-Day">Ike: Countdown to D-Day (2004 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_(play)" title="Pressure (play)">Pressure (2014 play)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Family of Dwight D. Eisenhower">Family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamie_Eisenhower" title="Mamie Eisenhower"> Mary "Mamie" Geneva Doud Eisenhower</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Eisenhower" title="John Eisenhower">John Eisenhower</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Eisenhower" title="David Eisenhower">David Eisenhower</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Eisenhower" title="Anne Eisenhower">Anne Eisenhower</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Eisenhower" title="Susan Eisenhower">Susan Eisenhower</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Jean_Eisenhower" title="Mary Jean Eisenhower">Mary Jean Eisenhower</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennie_Eisenhower" title="Jennie Eisenhower">Jennie Eisenhower</a> (great-granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_Stover_Eisenhower" title="Ida Stover Eisenhower">Ida Stover Eisenhower</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Eisenhower">Arthur Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_N._Eisenhower" title="Edgar N. Eisenhower">Edgar N. Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Roy Eisenhower">Roy Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earl_D._Eisenhower" title="Earl D. Eisenhower">Earl D. Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_S._Eisenhower" title="Milton S. Eisenhower">Milton S. Eisenhower</a> (brother)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eisenhower_baseball_controversy" title="Eisenhower baseball controversy">Eisenhower baseball controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camp_David" title="Camp David">Camp David</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/And_I_don%27t_care_what_it_is" title="And I don't care what it is">And I don't care what it is</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace_Award" title="Atoms for Peace Award">Atoms for Peace Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_Outer_Space" title="Introduction to Outer Space">Introduction to Outer Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddie_Slovik" title="Eddie Slovik">Eddie Slovik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kay_Summersby" title="Kay Summersby">Kay Summersby</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">← Harry S. Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Category:Dwight D. Eisenhower">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Richard_Nixon1004" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Richard_Nixon" title="Template:Richard Nixon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Richard_Nixon" title="Template talk:Richard Nixon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Richard_Nixon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Richard Nixon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Richard_Nixon1004" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">37th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1969–1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">36th</a> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> (1953–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">U.S. Senator</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_California" title="List of United States senators from California">from California</a> (1950–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">U.S. Representative</a> for <a href="/wiki/California%27s_12th_congressional_district" title="California's 12th congressional district">CA–12</a> (1947–1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidential transition of Richard Nixon">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Richard_Nixon" title="First inauguration of Richard Nixon">First inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Second inauguration of Richard Nixon">Second inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_Doctrine" title="Nixon Doctrine">Nixon Doctrine</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Bring_Us_Together" title="Bring Us Together">Bring Us Together</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixonomics" title="Nixonomics">Economic policies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_shock" title="Nixon shock">Nixon shock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tar_Baby_Option" class="mw-redirect" title="Tar Baby Option">Tar Baby Option</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reorganization_Plan_No._3" class="mw-redirect" title="Reorganization Plan No. 3">creation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States#Nixon_administration" title="Space policy of the United States">Space exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_Cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Cancer">1971 National Cancer Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Menu" title="Operation Menu">Cambodian bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Accords" title="Paris Peace Accords">Paris Peace Accords</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Peace_with_Honor" title="Peace with Honor">Peace with Honor</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamization" title="Vietnamization">Vietnamization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_majority" title="Silent majority">Silent majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1962%E2%80%931979)" title="Cold War (1962–1979)">Cold War period</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linkage_(policy)" title="Linkage (policy)">Linkage policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Drug_Abuse_Prevention_and_Control_Act_of_1970" title="Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970">Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_visit_to_the_Lincoln_Memorial" title="Richard Nixon's visit to the Lincoln Memorial">1970 Lincoln Memorial visit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_visit_by_Richard_Nixon_to_China" title="1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China">1972 visit to China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Communiqu%C3%A9" title="Shanghai Communiqué">Shanghai Communiqué</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Summit_(1972)" title="Moscow Summit (1972)">1972 Moscow Summit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ballistic_Missile_Treaty" title="Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty">Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_Arms_Limitation_Talks" title="Strategic Arms Limitation Talks">SALT I Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agreement_on_the_Prevention_of_Nuclear_War" title="Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War">Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threshold_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Threshold Test Ban Treaty">Threshold Test Ban Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Species_Act_of_1973" title="Endangered Species Act of 1973">Endangered Species Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shafer_Commission" title="Shafer Commission">National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="War on Drugs">War on Drugs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration#History_and_mandate" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">Drug Enforcement Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_policy_of_the_Richard_Nixon_administration" title="Cannabis policy of the Richard Nixon administration">Cannabis policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon%27s_Enemies_List" title="Nixon's Enemies List">Enemies List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Master_list_of_Nixon%27s_political_opponents" title="Master list of Nixon's political opponents">list of opponents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_CHAOS" title="Operation CHAOS">Operation CHAOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal" title="Watergate scandal">Watergate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Watergate_scandal" title="Timeline of the Watergate scandal">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_White_House_tapes" title="Nixon White House tapes">White House tapes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Nixon" title="United States v. Nixon">United States v. Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Watergate_Committee" title="United States Senate Watergate Committee">Senate Watergate Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_process_against_Richard_Nixon" title="Impeachment process against Richard Nixon">impeachment process</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/I_am_not_a_crook" class="mw-redirect" title="I am not a crook">I am not a crook</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_scandal#Resignation" title="Watergate scandal">Resignation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_resignation_speech" title="Richard Nixon's resignation speech">speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardon_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Pardon of Richard Nixon">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union Address</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1970_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1970 State of the Union Address">1970</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1971_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1971 State of the Union Address">1971</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1972 State of the Union Address">1972</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1973_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1973 State of the Union Address">1973</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1974_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1974 State of the Union Address">1974</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_desk" title="Wilson desk">Wilson desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Richard_Nixon" title="List of federal judges appointed by Richard Nixon">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Richard Nixon Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_judicial_appointment_controversies" title="Richard Nixon judicial appointment controversies">controversies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Richard_Milhous_Nixon/Executive_orders" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Richard Milhous Nixon/Executive orders">Executive Orders</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Richard_Milhous_Nixon/Presidential_Proclamations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Author:Richard Milhous Nixon/Presidential Proclamations">Presidential Proclamations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_Foundation" title="Richard Nixon Foundation">Richard Nixon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_Presidential_Library_and_Museum" title="Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum">Presidential Library and Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birthplace_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Birthplace of Richard Nixon">Birthplace and boyhood home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Checkers_speech" title="Checkers speech">Checkers speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Richard_Nixon%27s_motorcade" title="Attack on Richard Nixon's motorcade">1958 motorcade attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_Debate" title="Kitchen Debate">Kitchen Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_40" title="Operation 40">Operation 40</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon%27s_November_1962_press_conference" title="Richard Nixon's November 1962 press conference">"Last press conference"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_White_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida White House">Florida White House</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/La_Casa_Pacifica" title="La Casa Pacifica">La Casa Pacifica</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_the_National_Interest" title="Center for the National Interest">Nixon Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_v._General_Services_Administration" title="Nixon v. General Services Administration">Nixon v. General Services Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Death and state funeral of Richard Nixon">Death and state funeral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Six_Crises" title="Six Crises">Six Crises (1962)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Bibliography of Richard Nixon">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_history_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Electoral history of Richard Nixon">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>U.S. House of Representatives: <a href="/wiki/1946_California%27s_12th_congressional_district_election" title="1946 California's 12th congressional district election">1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" title="1948 United States House of Representatives elections">1948</a></li> <li>U.S. Senate: <a href="/wiki/1950_United_States_Senate_election_in_California" title="1950 United States Senate election in California">1950</a></li> <li>California gubernatorial election: <a href="/wiki/1962_California_gubernatorial_election" title="1962 California gubernatorial election">1962</a></li> <li>GOP presidential primaries: <a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Republican Party presidential primaries">1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1964 Republican Party presidential primaries">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1968 Republican Party presidential primaries">1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1972 Republican Party presidential primaries">1972</a></li> <li>GOP national conventions: <a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_National_Convention" title="1952 Republican National Convention">1952</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_National_Convention" title="1956 Republican National Convention">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_National_Convention" title="1960 Republican National Convention">1960</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1960_presidential_campaign" title="Richard Nixon 1960 presidential campaign">campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention" title="1968 Republican National Convention">1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1968_presidential_campaign" title="Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign">campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Republican_National_Convention" title="1972 Republican National Convention">1972</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1972_presidential_campaign" title="Richard Nixon 1972 presidential campaign">campaign</a></li></ul></li> <li>Presidential elections: <a href="/wiki/1952_United_States_presidential_election" title="1952 United States presidential election">1952</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Presidential transition of Dwight D. Eisenhower">transition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_United_States_presidential_election" title="1956 United States presidential election">1956</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_election" title="1960 United States presidential election">1960</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_United_States_presidential_debates" title="1960 United States presidential debates">debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidential transition of John F. Kennedy">Kennedy transition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_United_States_presidential_election" title="1968 United States presidential election">1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_United_States_presidential_election" title="1972 United States presidential election">1972</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon">Popular culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Nixon_goes_to_China" title="Nixon goes to China">Nixon goes to China</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millhouse_(film)" title="Millhouse (film)">Millhouse (1971 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Evening_with_Richard_Nixon" title="An Evening with Richard Nixon">An Evening with Richard Nixon</a> (1972 play)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_(film)" title="Richard (film)">Richard</a> (1972 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Another_Nice_Mess" title="Another Nice Mess">Another Nice Mess</a> (1972 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_More_Years" title="Four More Years">Four More Years (1972 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeach_the_President" title="Impeach the President">Impeach the President (1973 song)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Werewolf_of_Washington" title="The Werewolf of Washington">The Werewolf of Washington</a> (1973 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Madness" title="White House Madness">White House Madness (1975 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_the_President%27s_Men_(film)" title="All the President's Men (film)">All the President's Men (1976 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Public_Burning" title="The Public Burning">The Public Burning</a> (1977 novel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington:_Behind_Closed_Doors" title="Washington: Behind Closed Doors">Washington: Behind Closed Doors</a> (1977 miniseries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secret_Honor" title="Secret Honor">Secret Honor (1984 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_in_China" title="Nixon in China">Nixon in China (1987 opera)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Final_Days_(1989_film)" title="The Final Days (1989 film)">The Final Days</a> (1989 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_(film)" title="Nixon (film)">Nixon (1995 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elvis_Meets_Nixon" title="Elvis Meets Nixon">Elvis Meets Nixon (1997 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Futurama_characters#Richard_Nixon" title="List of Futurama characters">Futurama</a> (1999 TV series)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_(film)" title="Dick (film)">Dick (1999 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon%27s_China_Game" title="Nixon's China Game">Nixon's China Game</a> (2000 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Side_of_the_Moon_(2002_film)" title="Dark Side of the Moon (2002 film)">Dark Side of the Moon</a> (2002 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Assassination_of_Richard_Nixon" title="The Assassination of Richard Nixon">The Assassination of Richard Nixon</a> (2004 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_interviews" title="Nixon interviews">Frost–Nixon interviews</a> (<a href="/wiki/Frost/Nixon_(play)" title="Frost/Nixon (play)">2006 play</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frost/Nixon_(film)" title="Frost/Nixon (film)">2008 film</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Dynamite" title="Black Dynamite">Black Dynamite</a> (2009 film)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/The_Impossible_Astronaut" title="The Impossible Astronaut">The Impossible Astronaut</a>" (2011 TV episode)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Nixon" title="Our Nixon">Our Nixon (2013 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-Men:_Days_of_Future_Past" title="X-Men: Days of Future Past">X-Men: Days of Future Past</a> (2014 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crooked_(novel)" title="Crooked (novel)">Crooked</a> (2015 novel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elvis_%26_Nixon" title="Elvis & Nixon">Elvis & Nixon (2016 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Post_(film)" title="The Post (film)">The Post</a> (2017 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watergate_(board_game)" title="Watergate (board game)">Watergate</a> (2019 board game)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Richard_M._Nixon" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. postage stamp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Recordings_and_Materials_Preservation_Act" title="Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act">Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_Townhouse" title="Presidential Townhouse">Presidential Townhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon_mask" title="Richard Nixon mask">Richard Nixon mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nixon_diamond" title="Nixon diamond">Nixon diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Staff</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Brennan" title="Jack Brennan">Jack Brennan</a> (aide de camp)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Chotiner" title="Murray Chotiner">Murray Chotiner</a> (early campaign manager)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manolo_Sanchez_(Nixon_staff_member)" class="mw-redirect" title="Manolo Sanchez (Nixon staff member)">Manolo Sanchez</a> (valet)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_Mary_Woods" title="Rose Mary Woods">Rose Mary Woods</a> (secretary)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Nixon" title="Pat Nixon">Thelma "Pat" Ryan Nixon</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tricia_Nixon_Cox" title="Tricia Nixon Cox">Tricia Nixon Cox</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julie_Nixon_Eisenhower" title="Julie Nixon Eisenhower">Julie Nixon Eisenhower</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Nixon_Cox" title="Christopher Nixon Cox">Christopher Nixon Cox</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennie_Eisenhower" title="Jennie Eisenhower">Jennie Eisenhower</a> (granddaughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_A._Nixon" title="Francis A. Nixon">Francis A. Nixon</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Milhous_Nixon" title="Hannah Milhous Nixon">Hannah Milhous Nixon</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Nixon" title="Donald Nixon">Donald Nixon</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Nixon" title="Edward Nixon">Edward Nixon</a> (brother)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">← Lyndon B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Richard_Nixon" title="Category:Richard Nixon">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_United_States390" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Presidents of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Presidents of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_United_States390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">Presidents of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidents and presidencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="display:flex"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;flex:1;text-align:left;white-space:nowrap"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_Washington" title="Presidency of George Washington">1789–1797</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">1797–1801</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Thomas_Jefferson" title="Presidency of Thomas Jefferson">1801–1809</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Madison" title="Presidency of James Madison">1809–1817</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Monroe" title="James Monroe">James Monroe</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Monroe" title="Presidency of James Monroe">1817–1825</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Presidency of John Quincy Adams">1825–1829</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Jackson" title="Andrew Jackson">Andrew Jackson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Jackson" title="Presidency of Andrew Jackson">1829–1837</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Van_Buren" title="Martin Van Buren">Martin Van Buren</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Martin_Van_Buren" title="Presidency of Martin Van Buren">1837–1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison" title="William Henry Harrison">William Henry Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Harrison#Presidency_(1841)" title="William Henry Harrison">1841</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler" title="John Tyler">John Tyler</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Tyler" title="Presidency of John Tyler">1841–1845</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_K._Polk" title="James K. Polk">James K. Polk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_K._Polk" title="Presidency of James K. Polk">1845–1849</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor" title="Zachary Taylor">Zachary Taylor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor#Presidency_(1849–1850)" title="Zachary Taylor">1849–1850</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millard_Fillmore" title="Millard Fillmore">Millard Fillmore</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Millard_Fillmore" title="Presidency of Millard Fillmore">1850–1853</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Pierce" title="Franklin Pierce">Franklin Pierce</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_Pierce" title="Presidency of Franklin Pierce">1853–1857</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Buchanan" title="James Buchanan">James Buchanan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_James_Buchanan" title="Presidency of James Buchanan">1857–1861</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">1861–1865</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">1865–1869</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">1869–1877</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Rutherford B. Hayes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">1877–1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">James A. Garfield</a> (<a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield#Presidency_(1881)" title="James A. Garfield">1881</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Chester A. Arthur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">1881–1885</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#First_presidency_(1885–1889)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1885–1889</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Benjamin Harrison</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">1889–1893</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grover_Cleveland" title="Grover Cleveland">Grover Cleveland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidencies_of_Grover_Cleveland#Second_presidency_(1893–1897)" title="Presidencies of Grover Cleveland">1893–1897</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">William McKinley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">1897–1901</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">1901–1909</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidency of William Howard Taft">1909–1913</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">1913–1921</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">1921–1923</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">1923–1929</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Herbert Hoover</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">1929–1933</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt">1933–1945</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Harry_S._Truman" title="Presidency of Harry S. Truman">1945–1953</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">1953–1961</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_F._Kennedy" title="Presidency of John F. Kennedy">1961–1963</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson">1963–1969</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">1969–1974</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Gerald Ford</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Gerald_Ford" title="Presidency of Gerald Ford">1974–1977</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Jimmy_Carter" title="Presidency of Jimmy Carter">1977–1981</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">1981–1989</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">1989–1993</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Bill_Clinton" title="Presidency of Bill Clinton">1993–2001</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">2001–2009</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">2009–2017</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">2017–2021</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> (<a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">2021–2025</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (<a href="/wiki/Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="Second presidency of Donald Trump">2025–present</a>)</li></ol> </div></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Presidency timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_Washington_presidency" title="Timeline of the George Washington presidency">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_Adams_presidency" title="Timeline of the John Adams presidency">J. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_McKinley_presidency" title="Timeline of the William McKinley presidency">McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Theodore_Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Theodore Roosevelt presidency">T. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_William_Howard_Taft_presidency" title="Timeline of the William Howard Taft presidency">Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Warren_G._Harding_presidency" title="Timeline of the Warren G. Harding presidency">Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Calvin_Coolidge_presidency" title="Timeline of the Calvin Coolidge presidency">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Herbert_Hoover_presidency" title="Timeline of the Herbert Hoover presidency">Hoover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Franklin_D._Roosevelt_presidency" title="Timeline of the Franklin D. Roosevelt presidency">F. D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Harry_S._Truman_presidency" title="Timeline of the Harry S. Truman presidency">Truman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_presidency" title="Timeline of the Dwight D. Eisenhower presidency">Eisenhower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_John_F._Kennedy_presidency" title="Timeline of the John F. Kennedy presidency">Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Lyndon_B._Johnson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency">L. B. Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Richard_Nixon_presidency" title="Timeline of the Richard Nixon presidency">Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Gerald_Ford_presidency" title="Timeline of the Gerald Ford presidency">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Jimmy_Carter_presidency" title="Timeline of the Jimmy Carter presidency">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Ronald_Reagan_presidency" title="Timeline of the Ronald Reagan presidency">Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_H._W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency">G. H. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Bill_Clinton_presidency" title="Timeline of the Bill Clinton presidency">Clinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_George_W._Bush_presidency" title="Timeline of the George W. Bush presidency">G. W. Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Barack_Obama_presidency" title="Timeline of the Barack Obama presidency">Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Donald_Trump_presidencies" title="Timeline of the Donald Trump presidencies">Trump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Joe_Biden_presidency" title="Timeline of the Joe Biden presidency">Biden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Presidents of the United States">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Republican_Party1308" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#FFB6B6;;background:#E81B23; color:white"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Template:Republican Party (United States)"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Template talk:Republican Party (United States)"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Republican Party (United States)"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Republican_Party1308" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#FFB6B6;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="History of the Republican Party (United States)">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Party_System" title="Third Party System">Third Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Party_System" title="Fourth Party System">Fourth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Party_System" title="Fifth Party System">Fifth Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Party_System" title="Sixth Party System">Sixth Party System</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Republican_Party_presidential_tickets" title="List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets">Presidential tickets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Convention" title="Republican National Convention">national conventions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="List of Republican Party presidential primaries">presidential primaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1856_Republican_National_Convention" title="1856 Republican National Convention">1856 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">Frémont</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_L._Dayton" title="William L. Dayton">Dayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1860_Republican_National_Convention" title="1860 Republican National Convention">1860 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">Hamlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_National_Union_National_Convention" title="1864 National Union National Convention">1864 (Baltimore)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a>/<a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_Republican_National_Convention" title="1868 Republican National Convention">1868 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a>/<a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Colfax" title="Schuyler Colfax">Colfax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1872_Republican_National_Convention" title="1872 Republican National Convention">1872 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1876_Republican_National_Convention" title="1876 Republican National Convention">1876 (Cincinnati)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Rutherford B. Hayes">Hayes</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_A._Wheeler" title="William A. Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1880_Republican_National_Convention" title="1880 Republican National Convention">1880 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">Garfield</a>/<a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Arthur" title="Chester A. Arthur">Arthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1884_Republican_National_Convention" title="1884 Republican National Convention">1884 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">Blaine</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_A._Logan" title="John A. Logan">Logan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1888_Republican_National_Convention" title="1888 Republican National Convention">1888 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Harrison</a>/<a href="/wiki/Levi_P._Morton" title="Levi P. Morton">Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1892_Republican_National_Convention" title="1892 Republican National Convention">1892 (Minneapolis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison" title="Benjamin Harrison">Harrison</a>/<a href="/wiki/Whitelaw_Reid" title="Whitelaw Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1896_Republican_National_Convention" title="1896 Republican National Convention">1896 (Saint Louis)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a>/<a href="/wiki/Garret_Hobart" title="Garret Hobart">Hobart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1900_Republican_National_Convention" title="1900 Republican National Convention">1900 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_McKinley" title="William McKinley">McKinley</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904_Republican_National_Convention" title="1904 Republican National Convention">1904 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Fairbanks" title="Charles W. Fairbanks">Fairbanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_Republican_National_Convention" title="1908 Republican National Convention">1908 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</a>/<a href="/wiki/James_S._Sherman" title="James S. Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_National_Convention" title="1912 Republican National Convention">1912 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">Taft</a>/<a href="/wiki/James_S._Sherman" title="James S. Sherman">Sherman</a>/<a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Murray_Butler" title="Nicholas Murray Butler">Butler</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1912_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1912 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Republican_National_Convention" title="1916 Republican National Convention">1916 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Hughes</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Fairbanks" title="Charles W. Fairbanks">Fairbanks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1916_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1916 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_Republican_National_Convention" title="1920 Republican National Convention">1920 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Harding</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1920_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1920 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1924_Republican_National_Convention" title="1924 Republican National Convention">1924 (Cleveland)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_G._Dawes" title="Charles G. Dawes">Dawes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1924_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1924 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1928_Republican_National_Convention" title="1928 Republican National Convention">1928 (Kansas City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_Curtis" title="Charles Curtis">Curtis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1928_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1928 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1932_Republican_National_Convention" title="1932 Republican National Convention">1932 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hoover" title="Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_Curtis" title="Charles Curtis">Curtis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1932_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1932 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1936_Republican_National_Convention" title="1936 Republican National Convention">1936 (Cleveland)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alf_Landon" title="Alf Landon">Landon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Frank_Knox" title="Frank Knox">Knox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1936 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1940_Republican_National_Convention" title="1940 Republican National Convention">1940 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Wendell_Willkie" title="Wendell Willkie">Willkie</a>/<a href="/wiki/Charles_L._McNary" title="Charles L. McNary">McNary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1940_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1940 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1944_Republican_National_Convention" title="1944 Republican National Convention">1944 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Dewey</a>/<a href="/wiki/John_W._Bricker" title="John W. Bricker">Bricker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1944_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1944 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1948_Republican_National_Convention" title="1948 Republican National Convention">1948 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Dewey" title="Thomas E. Dewey">Dewey</a>/<a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Warren</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1948 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_National_Convention" title="1952 Republican National Convention">1952 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a>/<a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1952 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_National_Convention" title="1956 Republican National Convention">1956 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Eisenhower</a>/<a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1956_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1956 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_National_Convention" title="1960 Republican National Convention">1960 (Chicago)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge_Jr." title="Henry Cabot Lodge Jr.">Lodge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1960_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1960 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Republican_National_Convention" title="1964 Republican National Convention">1964 (San Francisco)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Goldwater" title="Barry Goldwater">Goldwater</a>/<a href="/wiki/William_E._Miller" title="William E. Miller">Miller</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1964_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1964 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_National_Convention" title="1968 Republican National Convention">1968 (Miami Beach)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Agnew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1968_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1968 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1972_Republican_National_Convention" title="1972 Republican National Convention">1972 (Miami Beach)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Nixon</a>/<a href="/wiki/Spiro_Agnew" title="Spiro Agnew">Agnew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1972_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1972 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1976_Republican_National_Convention" title="1976 Republican National Convention">1976 (Kansas City)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Ford</a>/<a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1976_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1976 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_National_Convention" title="1980 Republican National Convention">1980 (Detroit)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1980_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1980 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_National_Convention" title="1984 Republican National Convention">1984 (Dallas)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a>/<a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1984_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1984 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_National_Convention" title="1988 Republican National Convention">1988 (New Orleans)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dan_Quayle" title="Dan Quayle">Quayle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1988_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1988 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_National_Convention" title="1992 Republican National Convention">1992 (Houston)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dan_Quayle" title="Dan Quayle">Quayle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1992 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_Republican_National_Convention" title="1996 Republican National Convention">1996 (San Diego)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jack_Kemp" title="Jack Kemp">Kemp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1996_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="1996 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2000_Republican_National_Convention" title="2000 Republican National Convention">2000 (Philadelphia)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2000_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2000 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2004_Republican_National_Convention" title="2004 Republican National Convention">2004 (New York)</a>: <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a>/<a href="/wiki/Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Cheney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2004_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2004 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Republican_National_Convention" title="2008 Republican National Convention">2008 (St. Paul)</a>: <a href="/wiki/John_McCain" title="John McCain">McCain</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Palin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2008_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2008 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2012_Republican_National_Convention" title="2012 Republican National Convention">2012 (Tampa)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Romney</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2012_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2012 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_Republican_National_Convention" title="2016 Republican National Convention">2016 (Cleveland)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2016 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Republican_National_Convention" title="2020 Republican National Convention">2020 (Charlotte/other locations)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Pence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2020_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2020 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Republican_National_Convention" title="2024 Republican National Convention">2024 (Milwaukee)</a>: <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Trump</a>/<a href="/wiki/JD_Vance" title="JD Vance">Vance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2024_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="2024 Republican Party presidential primaries">primaries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2028_Republican_National_Convention" title="2028 Republican National Convention">2028 (Houston)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">Presidential</a> <a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)" title="Administration (government)">administrations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="Presidency of Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a> (1861–1865)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Presidency of Andrew Johnson">Johnson</a> (1865–1868)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a> (1869–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Rutherford_B._Hayes" title="Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes">Hayes</a> (1877–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_A._Garfield" title="James A. Garfield">Garfield</a> (1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Chester_A._Arthur" title="Presidency of Chester A. Arthur">Arthur</a> (1881–1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Benjamin_Harrison" title="Presidency of Benjamin Harrison">Harrison</a> (1889–1893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_McKinley" title="Presidency of William McKinley">McKinley</a> (1897–1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> (1901–1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_William_Howard_Taft" title="Presidency of William Howard Taft">Taft</a> (1909–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidency of Warren G. Harding">Harding</a> (1921–1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Calvin_Coolidge" title="Presidency of Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a> (1923–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Herbert_Hoover" title="Presidency of Herbert Hoover">Hoover</a> (1929–1933)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Eisenhower</a> (1953–1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Richard_Nixon" title="Presidency of Richard Nixon">Nixon</a> (1969–1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Gerald_Ford" title="Presidency of Gerald Ford">Ford</a> (1974–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Ronald_Reagan" title="Presidency of Ronald Reagan">Reagan</a> (1981–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_H._W._Bush" title="Presidency of George H. W. Bush">G. H. W. Bush</a> (1989–1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">G. W. Bush</a> (2001–2009)</li> <li>Trump (<a href="/wiki/First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">2017–2021</a>; <a href="/wiki/Second_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="Second presidency of Donald Trump">2025–present</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Party leaders of the United States Senate">U.S. Senate leaders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Senate_Republican_Conference" title="Senate Republican Conference">Conference chairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_P._Hale" title="John P. Hale">J. P. Hale</a> (1859–1862)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_B._Anthony" title="Henry B. Anthony">Anthony</a> (1862–1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">Sherman</a> (1884–1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._Edmunds" title="George F. Edmunds">Edmunds</a> (1885–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sherman" title="John Sherman">Sherman</a> (1891–1897)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Allison" title="William B. Allison">Allison</a> (1897–1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Hale" title="Eugene Hale">E. Hale</a> (1908–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelby_M._Cullom" title="Shelby M. Cullom">Cullom</a> (1911–1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_H._Gallinger" title="Jacob H. Gallinger">Gallinger</a> (1913–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Lodge</a> (1918–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Curtis" title="Charles Curtis">Curtis</a> (1924–1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_E._Watson" title="James E. Watson">Watson</a> (1929–1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_L._McNary" title="Charles L. McNary">McNary</a> (1933–1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Austin" title="Warren Austin">Austin</a> (1940–1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_L._McNary" title="Charles L. McNary">McNary</a> (1941–1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_H._White" title="Wallace H. White">White</a> (1944–1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_S._Wherry" title="Kenneth S. Wherry">Wherry</a> (1949–1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Styles_Bridges" title="Styles Bridges">Bridges</a> (1952–1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Taft" title="Robert A. Taft">Taft</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Knowland" title="William Knowland">Knowland</a> (1953–1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Dirksen" title="Everett Dirksen">Dirksen</a> (1959–1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Scott" title="Hugh Scott">Scott</a> (1969–1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Baker" title="Howard Baker">Baker</a> (1977–1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Stevens" title="Ted Stevens">Stevens</a> (1979–1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Baker" title="Howard Baker">Baker</a> (1980–1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a> (1985–1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trent_Lott" title="Trent Lott">Lott</a> (1996–2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Frist" title="Bill Frist">Frist</a> (2003–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitch_McConnell" title="Mitch McConnell">McConnell</a> (2007–2025)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Thune" title="John Thune">John Thune</a> (2025–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">U.S. House leaders</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of speakers of the United States House of Representatives">Speakers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/House_Republican_Conference" title="House Republican Conference">Conference chairs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Pennington" title="William Pennington">Pennington</a> (1860–1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galusha_A._Grow" title="Galusha A. Grow">Grow</a> (1861–1863)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schuyler_Colfax" title="Schuyler Colfax">Colfax</a> (1863–1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_M._Pomeroy" title="Theodore M. Pomeroy">Pomeroy</a> (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Blaine" title="James G. Blaine">Blaine</a> (1869–1875)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._McCrary" title="George W. McCrary">McCrary</a> (1875–1877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Hale" title="Eugene Hale">Hale</a> (1877–1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_P._Frye" title="William P. Frye">Frye</a> (1879–1881)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Warren_Keifer" title="J. Warren Keifer">Keifer</a> (1881–1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gurney_Cannon" title="Joseph Gurney Cannon">Cannon</a> (1883–1889)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brackett_Reed" title="Thomas Brackett Reed">Reed</a> (1889–1891)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Henderson_(politician)" title="Thomas J. Henderson (politician)">T. J. Henderson</a> (1891–1895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Brackett_Reed" title="Thomas Brackett Reed">Reed</a> (1895–1899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_B._Henderson" title="David B. Henderson">D. B. Henderson</a> (1899–1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gurney_Cannon" title="Joseph Gurney Cannon">Cannon</a> (1903–1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Robert_Mann_(Illinois_politician)" title="James Robert Mann (Illinois politician)">Mann</a> (1911–1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_H._Gillett" title="Frederick H. Gillett">Gillett</a> (1919–1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Longworth" title="Nicholas Longworth">Longworth</a> (1925–1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Snell" title="Bertrand Snell">Snell</a> (1931–1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Martin_Jr." title="Joseph W. Martin Jr.">Martin</a> (1939–1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Halleck" title="Charles A. Halleck">Halleck</a> (1959–1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerald_Ford" title="Gerald Ford">Ford</a> (1965–1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jacob_Rhodes" title="John Jacob Rhodes">Rhodes</a> (1973–1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Michel" title="Robert H. Michel">Michel</a> (1981–1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Gingrich</a> (1995–1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Hastert" title="Dennis Hastert">Hastert</a> (1999–2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Boehner" title="John Boehner">Boehner</a> (2007–2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ryan" title="Paul Ryan">Ryan</a> (2015–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_McCarthy" title="Kevin McCarthy">McCarthy</a> (2019–2023)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Johnson" title="Mike Johnson">Johnson</a> (2023–present)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Committee" title="Republican National Committee">RNC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Chairs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_D._Morgan" title="Edwin D. Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jarvis_Raymond" title="Henry Jarvis Raymond">Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Lawrence_Ward" title="Marcus Lawrence Ward">Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Claflin" title="William Claflin">Claflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_D._Morgan" title="Edwin D. Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachariah_Chandler" title="Zachariah Chandler">Chandler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Donald_Cameron" title="J. Donald Cameron">Cameron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Jewell" title="Marshall Jewell">Jewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_M._Sabin" title="Dwight M. Sabin">Sabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin_Jones_(industrialist)" title="Benjamin Franklin Jones (industrialist)">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Quay" title="Matthew Quay">Quay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_S._Clarkson" title="James S. Clarkson">Clarkson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James_Campbell" title="William James Campbell">Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_H._Carter" title="Thomas H. Carter">Carter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hanna" title="Mark Hanna">Hanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Clay_Payne" title="Henry Clay Payne">Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Cortelyou" title="George B. Cortelyou">Cortelyou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._New" title="Harry S. New">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Harris_Hitchcock" title="Frank Harris Hitchcock">Hitchcock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Fremont_Hill" title="John Fremont Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Rosewater" title="Victor Rosewater">Rosewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_D._Hilles" title="Charles D. Hilles">Hilles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Russell_Willcox" title="William Russell Willcox">Wilcox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_H._Hays" title="Will H. Hays">Hays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_T._Adams" title="John T. Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Butler" title="William M. Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hubert_Work" title="Hubert Work">Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_H._Huston" title="Claudius H. Huston">Huston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simeon_D._Fess" title="Simeon D. Fess">Fess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everett_Sanders" title="Everett Sanders">Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_P._Fletcher" title="Henry P. Fletcher">Fletcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hamilton_(Kansas_politician)" title="John Hamilton (Kansas politician)">Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_W._Martin_Jr." title="Joseph W. Martin Jr.">Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailey_Walsh" title="Bailey Walsh">Walsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_E._Spangler" title="Harrison E. Spangler">Spangler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Brownell_Jr." title="Herbert Brownell Jr.">Brownell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._Carroll_Reece" title="B. Carroll Reece">Reece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Scott" title="Hugh Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Gabrielson" title="Guy Gabrielson">Gabrielson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Summerfield" title="Arthur Summerfield">Summerfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Wesley_Roberts" title="C. Wesley Roberts">Roberts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_W._Hall" title="Leonard W. Hall">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meade_Alcorn" title="Meade Alcorn">Alcorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thruston_Ballard_Morton" title="Thruston Ballard Morton">T. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Miller" title="William E. Miller">Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dean_Burch" title="Dean Burch">Burch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_C._Bliss" title="Ray C. Bliss">Bliss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogers_Morton" title="Rogers Morton">R. Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dole" title="Bob Dole">Dole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">Bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(politician)" title="Mary Louise Smith (politician)">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Brock" title="Bill Brock">Brock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Richards_(Utah_politician)" title="Richard Richards (Utah politician)">Richards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Laxalt" title="Paul Laxalt">Laxalt</a>/<a href="/wiki/Frank_Fahrenkopf" title="Frank Fahrenkopf">Fahrenkopf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Fahrenkopf" title="Frank Fahrenkopf">Fahrenkopf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Atwater" title="Lee Atwater">Atwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Yeutter" title="Clayton Yeutter">Yeutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bond_(political_executive)" title="Richard Bond (political executive)">Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haley_Barbour" title="Haley Barbour">Barbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Nicholson_(Secretary_of_Veterans_Affairs)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Nicholson (Secretary of Veterans Affairs)">Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Gilmore" title="Jim Gilmore">Gilmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Racicot" title="Marc Racicot">Racicot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Gillespie" title="Ed Gillespie">Gillespie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Mehlman" title="Ken Mehlman">Mehlman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mel_Mart%C3%ADnez" title="Mel Martínez">Martínez</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mike_Duncan_(politician)" title="Mike Duncan (politician)">Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Duncan_(politician)" title="Mike Duncan (politician)">Duncan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Steele" title="Michael Steele">Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reince_Priebus" title="Reince Priebus">Priebus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronna_McDaniel" title="Ronna McDaniel">McDaniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Whatley" title="Michael Whatley">Whatley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Chair elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2009_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2009 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2011 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2013_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2013 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2015_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2015 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2017 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2019_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2019 Republican National Committee chairmanship election (page does not exist)">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2021_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2021 Republican National Committee chairmanship election (page does not exist)">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2023_Republican_National_Committee_chairmanship_election" title="2023 Republican National Committee chairmanship election">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Republican_National_Committee_leadership_elections" title="2024 Republican National Committee leadership elections">2024</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_parties_of_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="List of state parties of the Republican Party (United States)">Parties</a> by state and territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">State</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Republican_Party" title="Alabama Republican Party">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Republican_Party" title="Alaska Republican Party">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_Republican_Party" title="Arizona Republican Party">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Arkansas" title="Republican Party of Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Republican_Party" title="California Republican Party">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_Republican_Party" title="Colorado Republican Party">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Republican_Party" title="Connecticut Republican Party">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_State_Committee_of_Delaware" title="Republican State Committee of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Florida" title="Republican Party of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Republican_Party" title="Georgia Republican Party">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_Republican_Party" title="Hawaii Republican Party">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_Republican_Party" title="Idaho Republican Party">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Republican_Party" title="Illinois Republican Party">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_Republican_Party" title="Indiana Republican Party">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Iowa" title="Republican Party of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_Republican_Party" title="Kansas Republican Party">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Kentucky" title="Republican Party of Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Louisiana" title="Republican Party of Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_Republican_Party" title="Maine Republican Party">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_Republican_Party" title="Maryland Republican Party">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Republican_Party" title="Massachusetts Republican Party">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Republican_Party" title="Michigan Republican Party">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Minnesota" title="Republican Party of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Republican_Party" title="Mississippi Republican Party">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_Republican_Party" title="Missouri Republican Party">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_Republican_Party" title="Montana Republican Party">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Republican_Party" title="Nebraska Republican Party">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_Republican_Party" title="Nevada Republican Party">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_Republican_State_Committee" title="New Hampshire Republican State Committee">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Republican_Party" title="New Jersey Republican Party">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_New_Mexico" title="Republican Party of New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Republican_State_Committee" title="New York Republican State Committee">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Republican_Party" title="North Carolina Republican Party">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota_Republican_Party" title="North Dakota Republican Party">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_Republican_Party" title="Ohio Republican Party">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Republican_Party" title="Oklahoma Republican Party">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_Republican_Party" title="Oregon Republican Party">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Republican_Party" title="Pennsylvania Republican Party">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_Republican_Party" title="Rhode Island Republican Party">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_Republican_Party" title="South Carolina Republican Party">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_Republican_Party" title="South Dakota Republican Party">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Republican_Party" title="Tennessee Republican Party">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Texas" title="Republican Party of Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_Republican_Party" title="Utah Republican Party">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_Republican_Party" title="Vermont Republican Party">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Virginia" title="Republican Party of Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_State_Republican_Party" title="Washington State Republican Party">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_Republican_Party" title="West Virginia Republican Party">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Wisconsin" title="Republican Party of Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyoming_Republican_Party" title="Wyoming Republican Party">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_American_Samoa" title="Republican Party of American Samoa">American Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Republican_Party" title="District of Columbia Republican Party">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Guam" title="Republican Party of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(Northern_Mariana_Islands)" title="Republican Party (Northern Mariana Islands)">Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Republican Party of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Republican Party of the Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)_organizations" title="Republican Party (United States) organizations">Affiliated organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Congress</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_Republican_Conference" title="House Republican Conference">House Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legislative_Digest" title="Legislative Digest">Legislative Digest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steering_and_Policy_Committees_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Steering and Policy Committees of the United States House of Representatives">Steering and Policy Committees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senate_Republican_Conference" title="Senate Republican Conference">Senate Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate_Republican_Policy_Committee" title="United States Senate Republican Policy Committee">Policy Committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factions_in_the_Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Factions in the Republican Party (United States)">Factions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Caucus" title="Freedom Caucus">Freedom Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_Solvers_Caucus" title="Problem Solvers Caucus">Problem Solvers Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Governance_Group" title="Republican Governance Group">Republican Governance Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Study_Committee" title="Republican Study Committee">Republican Study Committee</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Fundraising groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Congressional_Committee" title="National Republican Congressional Committee">National Republican Congressional Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Redistricting_Trust" title="National Republican Redistricting Trust">National Republican Redistricting Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Republican_Senatorial_Committee" title="National Republican Senatorial Committee">National Republican Senatorial Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Attorneys_General_Association" title="Republican Attorneys General Association">Republican Attorneys General Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Governors_Association" title="Republican Governors Association">Republican Governors Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Sectional groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_Republicans" title="College Republicans">College Republicans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_chairpersons_of_the_College_Republicans" title="List of chairpersons of the College Republicans">Chairmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Hispanic_Conference" title="Congressional Hispanic Conference">Congressional Hispanic Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_Cabin_Republicans" title="Log Cabin Republicans">Log Cabin Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Republican_Association" title="National Black Republican Association">National Black Republican Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Hindu_Coalition" title="Republican Hindu Coalition">Republican Hindu Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Jewish_Coalition" title="Republican Jewish Coalition">Republican Jewish Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Hispanic_Assembly" title="Republican National Hispanic Assembly">Republican National Hispanic Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicans_Abroad" title="Republicans Abroad">Republicans Abroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teen_Age_Republicans" title="Teen Age Republicans">Teen Age Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Republicans" title="Young Republicans">Young Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicans_Overseas" title="Republicans Overseas">Republicans Overseas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_School_Republican_National_Federation" title="High School Republican National Federation">High School Republican National Federation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Factional groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Main_Street_Partnership" title="Republican Main Street Partnership">Republican Main Street Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Majority_for_Choice" title="Republican Majority for Choice">Republican Majority for Choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Liberty_Caucus" title="Republican Liberty Caucus">Republican Liberty Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_National_Coalition_for_Life" title="Republican National Coalition for Life">Republican National Coalition for Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ConservAmerica" title="ConservAmerica">ConservAmerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty_Caucus" title="Liberty Caucus">Liberty Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ripon_Society" title="Ripon Society">Ripon Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Wish_List_(political_organization)" title="The Wish List (political organization)">The Wish List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#FFB6B6;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Republican_Party_presidential_primaries" title="List of Republican Party presidential primaries">Primaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_presidential_debates" title="Republican Party presidential debates">Debates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_history_of_the_Republican_Party" title="Bibliography of the history of the Republican Party">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Democracy_Union" title="International Democracy Union">International Democracy Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_modern_American_conservatism" title="Timeline of modern American conservatism">Timeline of modern American conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trumpism" title="Trumpism">Trumpism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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