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<span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Rise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Civil War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Britain_seeks_control_over_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain_seeks_control_over_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Britain seeks control over trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain_seeks_control_over_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Gallwey_Treaty_of_1892" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Gallwey_Treaty_of_1892"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>The Gallwey Treaty of 1892</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Gallwey_Treaty_of_1892-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Massacre_of_1897" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Massacre_of_1897"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>The Massacre of 1897</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Massacre_of_1897-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_figures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_figures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Notable figures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_figures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rituals_and_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rituals_and_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Rituals and law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rituals_and_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rituals and law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rituals_and_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_sacrifice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_sacrifice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Human sacrifice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_sacrifice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Burials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Burials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Burials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Burials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation_of_son_and_mother" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_of_son_and_mother"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Separation of son and mother</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation_of_son_and_mother-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Divinity_of_the_Oba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Divinity_of_the_Oba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Divinity of the Oba</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Divinity_of_the_Oba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Architecture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-City_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>City walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_contact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_contact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>European contact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_contact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oral_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oral_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Oral traditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oral_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kingdom of Benin</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%86" title="إمبراطورية بنين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إمبراطورية بنين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinu_de_Ben%C3%ADn" title="Reinu de Benín – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reinu de Benín" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin_%C4%B0mperiyas%C4%B1" title="Benin İmperiyası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Benin İmperiyası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BD_(%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Бенін (гістарычная дзяржава) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бенін (гістарычная дзяржава)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regne_de_Ben%C3%ADn" title="Regne de Benín – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Regne de Benín" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninsk%C3%A1_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Beninská říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Beninská říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigreich_Benin" title="Königreich Benin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Königreich Benin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Ben%C3%ADn" title="Reino de Benín – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reino de Benín" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benina_Imperio" title="Benina Imperio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Benina Imperio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beningo_Erresuma" title="Beningo Erresuma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Beningo Erresuma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royaume_du_B%C3%A9nin" title="Royaume du Bénin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Royaume du Bénin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B2%A0%EB%8B%8C_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="베닌 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="베닌 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masarautar_Benin" title="Masarautar Benin – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Masarautar Benin" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բենինի թագավորություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բենինի թագավորություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="बेनिन साम्राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बेनिन साम्राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninsko_Kraljevstvo" title="Beninsko Kraljevstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Beninsko Kraljevstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Benin" title="Kerajaan Benin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerajaan Benin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%C3%ADnveldi%C3%B0" title="Benínveldið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Benínveldið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_del_Benin" title="Regno del Benin – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regno del Benin" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ufalme_wa_Benin" title="Ufalme wa Benin – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ufalme wa Benin" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benino_karalyst%C4%97" title="Benino karalystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Benino karalystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Benin" title="Kerajaan Benin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerajaan Benin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninkrijk_Benin" title="Koninkrijk Benin – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koninkrijk Benin" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%99%E3%83%8B%E3%83%B3%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="ベニン王国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ベニン王国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ningrik_Beniin" title="Köningrik Beniin – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Köningrik Beniin" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konged%C3%B8mmet_Benin" title="Kongedømmet Benin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kongedømmet Benin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%B3lestwo_Benin" title="Królestwo Benin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Królestwo Benin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_do_Benim" title="Império do Benim – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império do Benim" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regatul_Benin" title="Regatul Benin – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Regatul Benin" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Бенинское царство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бенинское царство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%86" title="سلطنت بينن – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سلطنت بينن" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Краљевина Бенин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Краљевина Бенин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninsko_Carstvo" title="Beninsko Carstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Beninsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beninin_kuningaskunta" title="Beninin kuningaskunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Beninin kuningaskunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kungariket_Benin" title="Kungariket Benin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kungariket Benin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benin_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu" title="Benin İmparatorluğu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Benin İmparatorluğu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1byintyok_Bini" title="A̱byintyok Bini – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱byintyok Bini" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country 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.ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of Benin</div><div class="ib-country-names">Otedo</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1180–1897</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Benin_1625_locator.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The extent of Benin in 1625"><img alt="The extent of Benin in 1625" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Benin_1625_locator.png/250px-Benin_1625_locator.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Benin_1625_locator.png/375px-Benin_1625_locator.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Benin_1625_locator.png/500px-Benin_1625_locator.png 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="612" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The extent of Benin in 1625</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data">Edo<br />(now <a href="/wiki/Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin City</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Edo_language" title="Edo language">Edo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Igbo_language" title="Igbo language">Igbo</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Edo_people#Traditional_beliefs" title="Edo people">Edo Religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Christianity">Catholic Christianity</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Oba_of_Benin#List_of_Obas_of_the_Benin_Kingdom" title="Oba of Benin">Oba</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1180–1246 (first) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Eweka_I" title="Eweka I">Eweka I</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1888–1897 (last) </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ovonramwen" title="Ovonramwen">Ovonramwen</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1180</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Annexed by the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1897</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Igodomigodo" title="Igodomigodo">Igodomigodo</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria Protectorate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate_%281900%E2%80%931914%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Kingdom of Benin</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as <b>Great Benin</b> or <b>Benin Kingdom</b> is a kingdom within what is now southern Nigeria.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has no historical relation to the modern republic of <a href="/wiki/Benin" title="Benin">Benin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was known as <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a> from the 17th century until 1975. The Kingdom of Benin's capital was Edo, now known as <a href="/wiki/Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin City</a> in <a href="/wiki/Edo_State" title="Edo State">Edo State</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>. The Benin Kingdom was "one of the oldest and most developed <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a> in the coastal hinterland of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>". It grew out of the previous <a href="/wiki/Edo_people" title="Edo people">Edo</a> Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Igodomigodo" title="Igodomigodo">Igodomigodo</a> around the 11th century AD,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStrayer2013695–696_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrayer2013695–696-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and lasted until it was annexed by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> in 1897.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 15th and 16th centuries, the kingdom reached the height of its prosperity, expanding its territory, trading with European powers, and creating a remarkable artistic legacy in cast bronze, iron, carved ivory, and other materials. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:312px;max-width:312px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:202px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leopard_africa.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A leopard" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Leopard_africa.jpg/152px-Leopard_africa.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Leopard_africa.jpg/228px-Leopard_africa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Leopard_africa.jpg/304px-Leopard_africa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Leopard" title="Leopard">leopard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">totem</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Oba_of_Benin" title="Oba of Benin">kings and emperors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Benin_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Benin empire">Benin</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:202px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Adult_Female_Python_sebae_1.33aspect.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A python" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Adult_Female_Python_sebae_1.33aspect.jpg/152px-Adult_Female_Python_sebae_1.33aspect.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Adult_Female_Python_sebae_1.33aspect.jpg/228px-Adult_Female_Python_sebae_1.33aspect.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Adult_Female_Python_sebae_1.33aspect.jpg/304px-Adult_Female_Python_sebae_1.33aspect.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1377" data-file-height="1836" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Python_(genus)" title="Python (genus)">python</a>, totem of the kings and emperors of Benin</div></div></div></div></div> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 1st century BC, the Benin territory was partially agricultural; and it became primarily agricultural by around 500 AD, but hunting and gathering still remained important. Also by 500, iron was in use by the inhabitants of the Benin territory.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Benin City (formerly Edo) sprang up by around 1000, in a forest that could be easily defended. The dense vegetation and narrow paths made the city easy to defend against attacks. The rainforest, which Benin City is situated in, helped in the development of the city because of its vast resources – fish from rivers and creeks, animals to hunt, leaves for roofing, plants for medicine, ivory for carving and trading, and wood for boat building – that could be exploited. However, domesticated animals, from the forest and surrounding areas, could not survive, due to a disease spread by <a href="/wiki/Tsetse_fly" title="Tsetse fly">tsetse flies</a>; after centuries of exposure, some animals, such as cattle and goats, developed a resistance to the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The original name of the kingdom of Benin, at its creation some time in the first millennium CE, was <a href="/wiki/Igodomigodo" title="Igodomigodo">Igodomigodo</a>, as its inhabitants called it. Their ruler was called <a href="/wiki/Ogiso" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogiso">Ogiso</a> – the ruler of the sky.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ogiso began to use the <a href="/wiki/Ada_and_Eben" class="mw-redirect" title="Ada and Eben">Ada and Eben</a> sceptres as symbols of their authority from around ~16AD.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise">Rise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A series of walls marked the incremental growth of the city from 850 AD until its decline in the 16th century. To enclose his palace he commanded the building of Benin's inner wall, and 11-kilometre-long (7 mi) earthen rampart girded by a moat 6 m (20 ft) deep. This was excavated in the early 1960s by <a href="/wiki/Graham_Connah" title="Graham Connah">Graham Connah</a>. Connah estimated that its construction if spread out over five dry seasons, would have required a workforce of 1,000 laborers working ten hours a day, seven days a week.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Ewuare also added great thoroughfares and erected nine fortified gateways. Excavations at Benin City have revealed that it was already flourishing around 1200–1300 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-:0a_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0a-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1440, <a href="/wiki/Oba_Ewuare" class="mw-redirect" title="Oba Ewuare">Oba Ewuare</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as Ewuare the Great, came to power and expanded the borders of the former city-state. It was only at this time that the administrative centre of the kingdom began to be referred to as Ubinu after the <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Portuguese</a> word and corrupted to Bini by the <a href="/wiki/Itsekhiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Itsekhiri">Itsekhiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a> and Edo who all lived together in the royal administrative centre of the kingdom. The Portuguese who arrived in an expedition led by <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Afonso_de_Aveiro" class="mw-redirect" title="João Afonso de Aveiro">João Afonso de Aveiro</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_Afonso_de_Aveiro" class="extiw" title="pt:João Afonso de Aveiro">pt</a>]</span> in 1485 would refer to it as Benin and the centre would become known as Benin City.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Oba had become the mount of power within the region. In the 15th century, Oba Ewuare is credited with turning Benin City into a city-state from a military fortress built by the Ogisos, protected by moats and walls. It was from this bastion that he launched his military campaigns and began the expansion of the kingdom from the Edo-speaking heartlands.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Excavations also uncovered a rural network of earthen walls 6,000 to 13,000 km (4,000 to 8,000 mi) long that would have taken an estimated 150 million man-hours to build and must have taken hundreds of years to build. These were apparently raised to mark out territories for towns and cities. Thirteen years after Ewuare's death, tales of Benin's splendors lured more Portuguese traders to the city gates.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Memorial_bust_of_a_king%27s_mother_iyoba,_Nigeria,_Benin_Kingdom,_early_16th_century_AD,_gunmetal_bronze_-_Ethnological_Museum,_Berlin_-_DSC02225.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Memorial_bust_of_a_king%27s_mother_iyoba%2C_Nigeria%2C_Benin_Kingdom%2C_early_16th_century_AD%2C_gunmetal_bronze_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC02225.JPG/220px-Memorial_bust_of_a_king%27s_mother_iyoba%2C_Nigeria%2C_Benin_Kingdom%2C_early_16th_century_AD%2C_gunmetal_bronze_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC02225.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Memorial_bust_of_a_king%27s_mother_iyoba%2C_Nigeria%2C_Benin_Kingdom%2C_early_16th_century_AD%2C_gunmetal_bronze_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC02225.JPG/330px-Memorial_bust_of_a_king%27s_mother_iyoba%2C_Nigeria%2C_Benin_Kingdom%2C_early_16th_century_AD%2C_gunmetal_bronze_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC02225.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Memorial_bust_of_a_king%27s_mother_iyoba%2C_Nigeria%2C_Benin_Kingdom%2C_early_16th_century_AD%2C_gunmetal_bronze_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC02225.JPG/440px-Memorial_bust_of_a_king%27s_mother_iyoba%2C_Nigeria%2C_Benin_Kingdom%2C_early_16th_century_AD%2C_gunmetal_bronze_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC02225.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a><figcaption>Bronze head of a queen mother, early 16th century</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Oba_Esigie" class="mw-redirect" title="Oba Esigie">Oba Esigie</a> expanded the kingdom eastwards, after defeating an invasion and attempted conquest of Benin by the Igala kingdom. Benin gained political strength and ascendancy over much of what is now mid-western Nigeria. Its wealth grew through its extensive trade, especially with the interior of the region, although the trade with Europeans that developed from the late 15th century onwards in pepper, slaves, cloth, and ivory provided a smaller, additional supplement to Benin's wealth and its economy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERyder1969_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERyder1969-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Benin ruled over the tribes of the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a> including the Western <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo</a> Tribes, <a href="/wiki/Ijaw_people" title="Ijaw people">Ijaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Itsekiri_people" title="Itsekiri people">Itshekiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isoko_people" title="Isoko people">Isoko</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a> amongst others. It also held sway over the Eastern <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba tribes</a> of Ondo, Ekiti, Mahin/Ugbo, and Ijebu.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its height in the 16th century, Benin dominated trade along the entire coastline from the Western Niger Delta, through Lagos reaching almost <a href="/wiki/Accra" title="Accra">Accra</a> in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The state developed an advanced artistic culture, especially in its famous artifacts of bronze, iron and ivory. These include bronze wall plaques and life-sized bronze heads depicting the Obas and Iyobas of Benin. These plaques also included other human and animal figures as well as items like ceremonial belts. Ivory was also used, as seen in the carving of ivory into ornate boxes, combs and armlets. The most well-known artifact is based on <a href="/wiki/Queen_Idia" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Idia">Queen Idia</a>, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Benin_ivory_mask" title="Benin ivory mask">Benin ivory mask</a>. Ivory masks were meant to be worn around the waist of kings.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_War">Civil War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ruling in the late 16th century, Oba Ehengbuda was the last of the warrior kings; after his reign the empire gradually shrank in size, losing control over territories in the west.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The end of his reign saw a rise in the power of prominent officials, and during the following decades many Oba's enjoyed short and turbulent reigns as various branches of the royal family fought for position. The death of Oba Ohuan in 1641 may have marked the end of the direct father-to-son line of succession going back to <a href="/wiki/Eweka_I" title="Eweka I">Eweka I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001363_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001363-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Officials also increasingly controlled the military and trade, as cloth came to replace the previously dominant pepper and ivory as trade commodities.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001367_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001367-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A civil war broke out around 1689, around the time that Oba Ewuakpe ascended to the throne. <i>Iyase</i> Ode and lower-ranked members of the royal administration revolted against their superiors attempts to control them. The Oba brought in troops from another city but could not defeat the rebels, and Benin city was sacked. The war continued for roughly 10 years before negotiations brought them to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001369-71_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001369-71-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ewuakpe's succession, however, was disputed between his two sons Ozuere and Akenzua. Akenzua and his close ally, a traditional chief who bore the title <i>Ezomo</i>, eventually prevailed over the younger Ozuere and his ally, the <i>Iyase</i> Ode in a decisive battle in 1721. Cleanup and reconquest of rebel areas, however, took another 10 years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001373-4_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001373-4-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With renewed stability in the kingdom and, Oba Akenzua benefited from trade with Europeans and was to be one of the richest obas in the kingdom's history.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Britain_seeks_control_over_trade">Britain seeks control over trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Britain seeks control over trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Costumes_de_Differents_Pays,_%27Femme_de_Qualite,_et_Femme_du_Commun_du_Royaume_de_Benin%27_LACMA_M.83.190.307.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Femme_de_Qualite%2C_et_Femme_du_Commun_du_Royaume_de_Benin%27_LACMA_M.83.190.307.jpg/200px-Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Femme_de_Qualite%2C_et_Femme_du_Commun_du_Royaume_de_Benin%27_LACMA_M.83.190.307.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Femme_de_Qualite%2C_et_Femme_du_Commun_du_Royaume_de_Benin%27_LACMA_M.83.190.307.jpg/300px-Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Femme_de_Qualite%2C_et_Femme_du_Commun_du_Royaume_de_Benin%27_LACMA_M.83.190.307.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Femme_de_Qualite%2C_et_Femme_du_Commun_du_Royaume_de_Benin%27_LACMA_M.83.190.307.jpg/400px-Costumes_de_Differents_Pays%2C_%27Femme_de_Qualite%2C_et_Femme_du_Commun_du_Royaume_de_Benin%27_LACMA_M.83.190.307.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1403" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of two women from the kingdom of Benin, 1797</figcaption></figure> <p>Benin's economy was thriving in the early to mid 19th century with the development of the trade in palm oil, and the continuation of the trade in textiles, ivory and other resources. To preserve the kingdom's independence, the Oba gradually banned the export of goods from Benin, until the trade was exclusively in palm oil.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By the latter half of the 19th century, Britain desired a closer relationship with the Kingdom of Benin; as British officials were increasingly interested in controlling trade in the area and in accessing the kingdom's palm oil, kola nut, ivory and potentially rubber resources, following the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Hevea_brasiliensis" title="Hevea brasiliensis">Hevea brasiliensis</a> saplings, via <a href="/wiki/Kew_Gardens" title="Kew Gardens">Kew Gardens</a> in 1895.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several attempts were made to achieve this end beginning with the official visit of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Richard Francis Burton</a> in 1862 when he was consul at <a href="/wiki/Fernando_P%C3%B3_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando Pó (island)">Fernando Pó</a>. Following that came attempts to establish a treaty between Benin and the United Kingdom by Hewtt, Blair and Annesley in 1884, 1885 and 1886 respectively. However, these efforts did not yield any results. The kingdom resisted becoming a British protectorate throughout the 1880s, but the British remained persistent. Progress was made 1892 during the visit of Vice-Consul <a href="/wiki/Henry_Galway" title="Henry Galway">Henry Gallwey</a>. This mission was the first official visit after Burton's. Moreover, it would also set in motion the events to come that would lead to Oba Ovonramwen's fall from power.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Gallwey_Treaty_of_1892">The Gallwey Treaty of 1892</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The Gallwey Treaty of 1892"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 19th century, the Kingdom of Benin managed to retain its independence and the Oba exercised a monopoly over trade which British merchants in the region found irksome. The territory was coveted by an influential group of investors for its rich natural resources such as palm-oil, and ivory. After British consul Richard Burton visited Benin in 1862 he wrote of Benin's as a place of "gratuitous barbarity which stinks of death", a narrative which was publicized in Britain and increased support for the territory's colonization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970385_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970385-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of this, the kingdom maintained its independence and was not visited by another representative of Britain until 1892 when <a href="/wiki/Henry_Galway" title="Henry Galway">Henry Gallwey</a>, the British Vice-Consul of the Oil Rivers Protectorate (later the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Coast_Protectorate" title="Niger Coast Protectorate">Niger Coast Protectorate</a>), visited Benin City hoping to open up trade and ultimately annex Benin Kingdom and transform it into a <a href="/wiki/British_protectorate" title="British protectorate">British protectorate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970385–400_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970385–400-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gallwey was able to get Omo n’Oba (<a href="/wiki/Ovonramwen" title="Ovonramwen">Ovonramwen</a>) and his chiefs to sign a treaty which gave Britain legal justification for exerting greater influence over the Empire. While the treaty itself contains text suggesting Ovonramwen sought Benin to become a protectorate, this was contrasted by Gallwey's own account, which suggests the Oba was hesitant to sign the treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although some suggest that humanitarian motivations were driving Britain's actions,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> letters written between colonial administrators suggest that economic motivations were predominant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970387_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970387-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty itself does not explicitly mention anything about Benin's "bloody customs" that Burton had written about, and instead only includes a vague clause about ensuring "the general progress of civilization".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970387_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970387-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Massacre_of_1897">The Massacre of 1897</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Massacre of 1897"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Benin_Expedition_of_1897" title="Benin Expedition of 1897">Benin Expedition of 1897</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:West_African_flag_RMG_L4479.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/West_African_flag_RMG_L4479.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-West_African_flag_RMG_L4479.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/West_African_flag_RMG_L4479.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-West_African_flag_RMG_L4479.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/West_African_flag_RMG_L4479.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-West_African_flag_RMG_L4479.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7200" data-file-height="3941" /></a><figcaption>An unidentified <a href="/wiki/West_African_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="West African flag">West African flag</a> supposedly brought to Britain by Lieutenant (later Admiral) <a href="/wiki/Francis_William_Kennedy" title="Francis William Kennedy">F. W. Kennedy</a> after the expedition</figcaption></figure> <p>A British delegation departed from the Oil Rivers Protectorate in 1897 with the stated aim of negotiating with the Oba of Benin regarding the trade agreement, which they felt he was not keeping. The leader of the delegation, <a href="/wiki/James_Robert_Phillips" title="James Robert Phillips">James Robert Phillips</a>, had asked his superiors in the British Foreign Office for permission to lead an armed British expedition to depose the Oba of Benin not long before the expedition,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but left for Benin City with a diplomatic delegation (or a reconnaissance mission disguised as a peaceful diplomatic delegation)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before receiving a reply to his request. Perceiving this to be an attempt to depose the Oba, the Oba's generals unilaterally ordered an attack on the delegation as it was approaching Benin City (which included eight unknowing British representatives and hundreds of African porters and labourers) all but two of whom were killed. A <a href="/wiki/Benin_Expedition_of_1897" title="Benin Expedition of 1897">punitive expedition</a> was launched in response, and a 1,200-men strong force, under the command of <a href="/wiki/Harry_Rawson" title="Harry Rawson">Sir Harry Rawson</a>, captured Benin City. They deliberately sought out and destroyed certain areas of the city, including those thought to belong to the chiefs responsible for the ambush of the British delegation, and in the process a fire burnt the palace and surrounding quarters, which the British claimed was accidental.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUsuanleleEdo200772-74_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUsuanleleEdo200772-74-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> There has much debate of why James Phillips set out on the mission to Benin without much weaponry.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have argued he was going on a peaceful mission. Such commentators argue that the message from the Oba that his festival would not permit him to receive European visitors touched the humanitarian side of Phillips's character because of an incorrect assumption that the festival included human sacrifice.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Igbafe, this does not explain why Phillips set out before he had received a reply from the Foreign Office to his request where he stated that: </p><blockquote><p><i>F.O. 2/I02, Phillips to F.O. no. 105 of i6 Nov 1896. Phillips wrote that 'there is nothing in the shape of a standing army. ... and the inhabitants appear to be if not a peace-loving at any rate a most unwarlike people whose only exploits during many generations had been an occasional quarrel with their neighbours about trade or slave raiding and it appears at least improbable that they have any arms to speak of except the usual number of trade guns... When Captain Gallwey visited the city the only canon he saw were half a dozen old Portuguese guns. They were lying on the grass unmounted'. Compare this with the opinion of his immediate predecessor, Ralph Moor, who was convinced that 'the people in all the villages are no doubt possessed of arms' (F.O. 2/84, Moor to F.O. no. 39 of I2 Sept. 1895).</i></p></blockquote> <p>Igbafe also points to Phillips' November 1896 advocacy of military force regarding Benin, arguing that this is inconsistent with the perception of Phillips as a man of peace in January 1897. Igbafe posits that Phillips was going on a reconnaissance mission and that Phillips' haste to Benin can be explained by a belief that nothing bad would happen to him or his party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIgbafe1970-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The expeditionary force also took the <a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Art of the Kingdom of Benin">palace art</a> as war booty. The looted portrait figures, busts, and groups created in iron, carved ivory, and especially in brass (conventionally termed the "<a href="/wiki/Benin_Bronzes" title="Benin Bronzes">Benin Bronzes</a>") were sold off to defray the cost of the expedition and some were accessioned to the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>; most were sold elsewhere and are now on display in various museums around the world. In March 2021, institutions in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin, Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aberdeen" title="Aberdeen">Aberdeen, Scotland</a> announced decisions to return <a href="/wiki/Benin_Bronzes" title="Benin Bronzes">Benin Bronzes</a> in their possession to their place of origin.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British occupied Benin, which was absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Coast_Protectorate" title="Niger Coast Protectorate">British Niger Coast Protectorate</a> and eventually into British <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria" title="Colonial Nigeria">colonial Nigeria</a>. A general emancipation of slaves followed in the wake of British occupation<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Britain also imposed a system of forced labour in Benin<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUsuanleleEdo200776-7_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUsuanleleEdo200776-7-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in surrounding areas,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as they did throughout other parts of southern Nigeria.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British launched an additional operation in 1899, called the "Benin Territories Expedition", against rebels still holding out against the British. The British burnt down numerous towns, and destroyed farms in an attempt to starve the rebels into submission.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUsuanleleEdo200772-74_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUsuanleleEdo200772-74-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 1899 expedition, military resistance in the former Kingdom of Benin against the British occupation ceased. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_figures">Notable figures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Notable figures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org">House of Eweka</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><a href="/wiki/Nigerian" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian">Nigerian</a> <a href="/wiki/Royal_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal dynasty">royal dynasty</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Parent house</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oduduwa" title="Oduduwa">Oodua</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Current region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founded</th><td class="infobox-data">c.12th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Founder</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Oranmiyan" class="mw-redirect" title="Oranmiyan">Oranmiyan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Current head</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ewuare_II" title="Ewuare II">Ewuare II</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Titles</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oba_of_Benin" title="Oba of Benin">Oba</a> of Benin <br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iyoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Iyoba">Iyoba</a> of Benin</li> <li>Edaiken of Benin</li> <li>Iyasere of Benin</li> <li>Enogie of Benin</li> <li>Okhaemwen of Benin</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odionwere" title="Odionwere">Odionwere</a> of Benin</li> <li>Olooi of Benin</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Style_(manner_of_address)" class="mw-redirect" title="Style (manner of address)">Style(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Omo n'Oba, Uku Akpolopolo</i> <br /><a href="/wiki/Majesty" title="Majesty">Majesty</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Royal_Highness" title="Royal Highness">Royal Highness</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Members</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ewuare" title="Ewuare">Ewuare</a> <br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idia" title="Idia">Idia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esigie" title="Esigie">Esigie</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Connected families</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ife#The_King_(The_Ooni_of_Ife)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ife">Ife royal family</a> <br /> <a href="/wiki/Alaafin" title="Alaafin">Oyo royal family</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Traditions</th><td class="infobox-data">Bini religion <br /> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motto</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Edo Orisiagbon</i> (<a href="/wiki/Bini_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Bini language">Bini</a> for "Benin, the Cradle of the World")</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Cadet branches</th><td class="infobox-data"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akenzua_II" title="Akenzua II">Akenzua</a> (Benin) <br /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ado_(Lagos_Oba)" title="Ado (Lagos Oba)">Ado</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lagos" title="Lagos">Lagos</a> (Maternally)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osupa" title="Osupa">Osupa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akure_Kingdom" title="Akure Kingdom">Akure</a> (Maternally)</li> <li>Abodi (Ikale)</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Below are several notable figures of the Kingdom of Benin<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1965317-34_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1965317-34-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idia" title="Idia">Queen Idia</a> was the wife of <a href="/wiki/Ozolua" title="Ozolua">Oba Ozolua</a>, the Oba who reigned in about 1481 AD. She was a famous warrior who received much of the credit for the victories of her son as his political counsel, together with her mystical powers and medicinal knowledge, were viewed as critical elements of <a href="/wiki/Esigie" title="Esigie">Esigie's</a> success on the battlefield. Queen Idia became more popular when an ivory carving of her face was adopted as the symbol of FESTAC in 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotan" title="Emotan">Emotan</a> was a trader who sold her wares at the exact point where her statue now stands. She was historically credited with setting up the first primary school in the kingdom and saving the monarchy during one of its lowest moments. She helped the <a href="/wiki/Ewuare" title="Ewuare">Oba Ewuare</a> in reclaiming the throne from his usurper brother, Oba Uwaifiokun who reigned about 1432 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Queen Iden is yet another heroine whose sacrifice helped shape Benin Kingdom. She was the queen during the reign of Oba Ewuape in about 1700 AD. She is known to have volunteered herself as a sacrificial lamb for the welfare of her husband and that of the entire kingdom after she consulted the oracle and was informed that human sacrifice would be needed to appease the gods and restore peace and unity in the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Asoro" class="mw-redirect" title="General Asoro">General Asoro</a> the Warrior was the sword bearer to <a href="/wiki/Ovonramwen" title="Ovonramwen">King Ovonramwen</a> (the Oba of Benin) in 1897. He participated in the defence of Benin during the 1897 expedition, engaging the British expeditionary force sent to capture the Oba. A quote uttered by the general that "no other person [should] dare pass this road except the Oba" (So kpon Oba) was later translated to "SAKPONBA", which a well known road in Benin was named after.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Chief Obasogie was not just an outstanding Benin warrior of old who defended the kingdom against external invasion but also a talented blacksmith and sculptor.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rituals_and_law">Rituals and law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Rituals and law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_sacrifice">Human sacrifice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Human sacrifice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Forty-one female skeletons thrown into a pit were discovered by the <a href="/wiki/Archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeologist">archaeologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Graham_Connah" title="Graham Connah">Graham Connah</a>. These findings indicate that <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifice</a> or execution of criminals took place in Benin in the thirteenth century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the early days, human sacrifices were a part of the state religion. But many of the accounts of the sacrifices, says <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a> J. D. Graham, are exaggerated or based on rumour and speculation. He says that all of the evidence "points to a limited, ritual custom of human sacrifice, many of the written accounts referring to the human sacrifices describe them as actually being executed criminals".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1965327-30_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1965327-30-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Edo historian Professor Philip Igbafe states that in pre-colonial Benin, the tradition was that only slaves could be sacrificed. This could include hardened criminals and those who had committed serious crimes, who would either be executed or sold into slavery. Sacrifices were made at the anniversary of the Oba's father, at the annual bead ceremony, and to propitiate the gods when poor weather threatened crops or when an epidemic threatened. In addition, the threat of a major calamity or national disaster was also an occasion for sacrifices.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Humans were sacrificed in an annual ritual in honour of the god of iron, where warriors from Benin City would perform an acrobatic dance while suspended from the trees. The ritual recalled a mythical war against the sky.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sacrifices of a man, a woman, a goat, a cow and a ram were also made to a god called "the king of death". The god, named Ogiuwu, was worshipped at a special altar in the centre of Benin City.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There were two separate annual series of rites that honored past Obas. Sacrifices were performed every fifth day. At the end of each series of rites, the current Oba's deceased father was honored with a public festival. During the festival, twelve criminals, chosen from a prison where the worst criminals were held, were sacrificed.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the eighteenth century, three to four people were sacrificed at the mouth of the Benin River annually, to attract European trade, according to one source.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Burials">Burials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Burials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The monarchy of Benin was <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_monarchy" title="Hereditary monarchy">hereditary</a>; the eldest son was to become the new Oba. In order to validate the succession of the kingship, the eldest son had to bury his father and perform elaborate rituals. If the eldest son failed to complete these tasks, he might be disqualified from becoming king.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation_of_son_and_mother">Separation of son and mother</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Separation of son and mother"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the son was installed as king, his mother – after having been invested with the title of <a href="/wiki/Iyoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Iyoba">Iyoba</a> – was transferred to a <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palace</a> just outside Benin City, in a place called Uselu. The mother held a considerable amount of power; she was, however, never allowed to meet her son – who was now a divine ruler – again.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Divinity_of_the_Oba">Divinity of the Oba</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Divinity of the Oba"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Benin, the Oba was seen as <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a>. The Oba's divinity and sacredness was the focal point of the kingship. The Oba was shrouded in mystery; he only left his palace on ceremonial occasions. It was previously punishable by death to assert that the Oba performed human acts, such as eating, sleeping, dying or washing. The Oba was also credited with having magical powers.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also controlled a powerful bureaucratic apparatus whose decrees were obeyed to the letter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001359_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirshickThornton2001359-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Benin_city.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ancient_Benin_city.JPG/220px-Ancient_Benin_city.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ancient_Benin_city.JPG/330px-Ancient_Benin_city.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ancient_Benin_city.JPG/440px-Ancient_Benin_city.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1157" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of <a href="/wiki/Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin City</a> by a Dutch illustrator in 1668. The wall-like structure in the centre probably represents the walls of Benin.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Impluvium" title="Impluvium">Impluvium</a> was used in <a href="/wiki/Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin</a> architecture to store rainwater. Among the residences of the nobility, a compluvium channeled the rainwater into the impluvium in order to permit light and air through the walls since windows were absent among these structures. The stored rainwater in the impluvium was discharged out of the house through a drainage system beneath the floor.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological works from the mid 20th century has revealed the existence of edge-laid <a href="/wiki/Potsherd" class="mw-redirect" title="Potsherd">potsherd</a> <a href="/wiki/Pavers_(flooring)" title="Pavers (flooring)">pavements</a> in Benin city, dated around or prior to the 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Walls of Benin">Walls of Benin</a> are a series of <a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(archaeology)" title="Earthworks (archaeology)">earthworks</a> made up of banks and ditches, called <i><span style="font-family:serif;">I</span>ya</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Edo_language" title="Edo language">Edo language</a> in the area around present-day <a href="/wiki/Benin_City" title="Benin City">Benin City</a>, the capital of present-day <a href="/wiki/Edo_State" title="Edo State">Edo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>. They consist of 15 kilometres (9.3 miles) of city iya and an estimated 16,000 kilometres (9,900 miles) in the rural area around Benin.<sup id="cite_ref-Protection_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Protection-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some estimates suggest that the walls of Benin may have been constructed between the thirteenth and mid-fifteenth century CE<sup id="cite_ref-Ogundiran_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ogundiran-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others suggest that the walls of Benin (in the Esan region) may have been constructed during the first millennium AD.<sup id="cite_ref-Ogundiran_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ogundiran-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MacEachern_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacEachern-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="City_walls">City walls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: City walls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Walls of Benin">Benin City walls</a> have been known to Westerners since around 1500. Around 1500, the Portuguese explorer <a href="/wiki/Duarte_Pacheco_Pereira" title="Duarte Pacheco Pereira">Duarte Pacheco Pereira</a>, briefly described the walls during his travels. In Pereira's <i>Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis</i>, 1505, we read: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The houses are built of sun-dried bricks covered with palm leaves. Benin, which is 80 leagues [<i>sic</i>] long by 40 leagues [<i>sic</i>] broad, is always at war with its neighbours from whom it obtains captives, whom we buy at from 12 to 15 brass or copper manillas.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Another description given around 1600, one hundred years after Pereira's description, is by the Dutch explorer Dierick Ruiters.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pereira's account of the walls is as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>This city is about a <a href="/wiki/League_(unit)" title="League (unit)">league</a> long from gate to gate; it has no wall but is surrounded by a large moat, very wide and deep, which suffices for its defence.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Graham_Connah" title="Graham Connah">Graham Connah</a> suggests that Pereira was probably mistaken with his description by saying that there was no wall. Connah says, "[Pereira] considered that a bank of earth was not a wall in the sense of the <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> of his day."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ruiters' account of the walls is as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>At the gate where I entered on horseback, I saw a very high bulwark, very thick of earth, with a very deep broad ditch, but it was dry, and full of high trees... That gate is a reasonable good gate, made of wood in their manner, which is to be shut, and there always there is watch holden.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg/220px-Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg/330px-Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg/440px-Drawing_of_Benin_City_made_by_an_English_officer_1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="641" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>Benin in 1897</figcaption></figure> <p>Estimates for the initial construction of the walls range from the first millennium to the mid-fifteenth century. According to Connah, oral tradition and travelers' accounts suggest a construction date of 1450–1500.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been estimated that, assuming a ten-hour work day, a labour force of 5,000 men could have completed the walls within 97 days, or by 2,421 men in 200 days. However, these estimates have been criticized for not taking into account the time it would have taken to extract earth from an ever deepening hole and the time it would have taken to heap the earth into a high bank.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unknown whether slavery or some other type of labour was used in the construction of the walls. </p><p>The walls were built of a ditch and dike structure; the ditch dug to form an inner moat with the excavated earth used to form the exterior rampart. </p><p>The Benin Walls were partially demolished by the British in 1897 during their <a href="/wiki/Benin_Expedition_of_1897" title="Benin Expedition of 1897">1897 punitive expedition</a>. Scattered pieces of the structure remain in Edo, with the vast majority of them being used by the locals for building purposes. What remains of the wall itself continues to be torn down for <a href="/wiki/Real_estate" title="Real estate">real estate</a> developments in Nigeria.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fred_Pearce" title="Fred Pearce">Fred Pearce</a> wrote in New Scientist: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They extend for some 16,000 km in all, in a mosaic of more than 500 interconnected settlement boundaries. They cover 2,510 sq. miles (6,500 square kilometres) and were all dug by the Edo people. In all, they are four times longer than the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a>, and consumed a hundred times more material than the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Cheops" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Pyramid of Cheops">Great Pyramid of Cheops</a>. They took an estimated 150 million hours of digging to construct, and are perhaps the largest single archaeological phenomenon on the planet.<sup id="cite_ref-African_Queen_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-African_Queen-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Ethnomathematics" title="Ethnomathematics">Ethnomathematician</a> <a href="/wiki/Ron_Eglash" title="Ron Eglash">Ron Eglash</a> has discussed the planned layout of the city using <a href="/wiki/Fractals" class="mw-redirect" title="Fractals">fractals</a> as the basis, not only in the city itself and the villages but even in the rooms of houses. He commented that "When Europeans first came to Africa, they considered the architecture very disorganised and thus primitive. It never occurred to them that the Africans might have been using a form of mathematics that they hadn’t even discovered yet."<sup id="cite_ref-Koutonin_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koutonin-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benin_kingdom_Louvre_A97-4-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Benin_kingdom_Louvre_A97-4-1.jpg/220px-Benin_kingdom_Louvre_A97-4-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Benin_kingdom_Louvre_A97-4-1.jpg/330px-Benin_kingdom_Louvre_A97-4-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Benin_kingdom_Louvre_A97-4-1.jpg/440px-Benin_kingdom_Louvre_A97-4-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1550" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption>Bronze plate depicting two warriors wielding ceremonial swords</figcaption></figure> <p>Military operations relied on a well trained disciplined force.<sup id="cite_ref-Osadolor_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osadolor-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the head of the host stood the <a href="/wiki/Oba_of_Benin" title="Oba of Benin">Oba of Benin</a>. The monarch of the realm served as supreme military commander. Beneath him were subordinate generalissimos, the <i>Ezomo</i>, the <i>Iyase</i>, and others who supervised a Metropolitan Regiment based in the capital, and a Royal Regiment made up of hand-picked warriors that also served as bodyguards. Benin's queen mother, the <i>Iyoba</i>, also retained her own regiment – the "Queen's Own". The Metropolitan and Royal regiments were relatively stable semi-permanent or permanent formations. The Village Regiments provided the bulk of the fighting force and were mobilized as needed, sending contingents of warriors upon the command of the king and his generals. Formations were broken down into sub-units under designated commanders. Foreign observers often commented favorably on Benin's discipline and organization as "better disciplined than any other <a href="/wiki/Guinea_(region)" title="Guinea (region)">Guinea</a> nation", contrasting them with the slacker troops from the Gold Coast.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until the introduction of guns in the 15th century, traditional weapons like the spear, short sword, and bow held sway. Efforts were made to reorganize a local guild of blacksmiths in the 18th century to manufacture light firearms, but dependence on imports was still heavy. Before the coming of the gun, guilds of blacksmiths were charged with war production—particularly swords and iron spearheads. In addition, <a href="/wiki/Crossbowmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Crossbowmen">crossbowmen</a> formed a specialized unit of the Benin army. Archers and crossbowmen were trained in <a href="/wiki/Target_archery" title="Target archery">target</a> and <a href="/wiki/Field_archery" title="Field archery">field archery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Osadolor_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osadolor-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1514 or 1516, the Oba of Benin seized a Portuguese <a href="/wiki/Bombard_(weapon)" title="Bombard (weapon)">bombard</a> for use.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Benin's tactics were well organized, with preliminary plans weighed by the Oba and his sub-commanders. Logistics were organized to support missions from the usual porter forces, water transport via canoe, and requisitioning from localities the army passed through. Movement of troops via canoes was critically important in the lagoons, creeks and rivers of the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a>, a key area of Benin's domination. Tactics in the field seem to have evolved over time. While the head-on clash was well known, documentation from the 18th century shows greater emphasis on avoiding continuous battle lines, and more effort to encircle an enemy (<i>ifianyako</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Osadolor_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osadolor-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fortifications were important in the region and numerous military campaigns fought by Benin's soldiers revolved around sieges. Benin's military earthworks are the largest of such structures in the world, and Benin's rivals also built extensively. Barring a successful assault, most sieges were resolved by a strategy of attrition, slowly cutting off and starving out the enemy fortification until it capitulated. On occasion, however, European mercenaries were called on to aid with these sieges. In 1603–04 for example, European cannon helped batter and destroy the gates of a town near present-day <a href="/wiki/Lagos_State" title="Lagos State">Lagos</a>, allowing 10,000 warriors of Benin to enter and conquer it. As payment, the Europeans received items, such as palm oil and bundles of pepper.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The example of Benin shows the power of indigenous military systems, but also the role outside influences and new technologies brought to bear. This is a normal pattern among many nations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_contact">European contact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: European contact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first European travelers to reach Benin were <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_people" title="Portuguese people">Portuguese</a> explorers under João Afonso de Aveiro in about 1485. A strong mercantile relationship developed, with the Edo trading slaves and tropical products such as <a href="/wiki/Ivory_trade" title="Ivory trade">ivory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aframomum_melegueta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aframomum melegueta">pepper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> for European goods such as <a href="/wiki/Manilla_(money)" title="Manilla (money)">manillas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gun" title="Gun">guns</a>. In the early 16th century, the Oba sent an ambassador to <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a>, and the king of Portugal sent <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> missionaries to Benin City. Some residents of Benin City could still speak a <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a> Portuguese in the late 19th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benin,_portoghese,_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Benin%2C_portoghese%2C_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG/220px-Benin%2C_portoghese%2C_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Benin%2C_portoghese%2C_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG/330px-Benin%2C_portoghese%2C_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Benin%2C_portoghese%2C_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG/440px-Benin%2C_portoghese%2C_XVI-XVII_sec.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1498" data-file-height="1953" /></a><figcaption>Bronze plate depicting a Portuguese soldier, 16th–17th centuries</figcaption></figure> <p>The first English expedition to Benin was in 1553, and significant trading developed between Europe and Benin based on the export of ivory, palm oil, pepper, and later slaves. Visitors in the 16th and 19th centuries brought back to <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> tales of "Great Benin", a fabulous city of noble buildings, ruled over by a powerful king. A fanciful engraving of the settlement was made by a Dutch illustrator (from descriptions alone) and was shown in <a href="/wiki/Olfert_Dapper" title="Olfert Dapper">Olfert Dapper</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Description_of_Africa_(1668_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Description of Africa (1668 book)"><i>Naukeurige Beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche Gewesten</i></a>, published in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a> in 1668.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The work states the following about the royal palace: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The king's court is square and located on the right-hand side of the city, as one enters it through the gate of Gotton. It is about the same size as the city of <a href="/wiki/Haarlem" title="Haarlem">Haarlem</a> and entirely surrounded by a special wall, comparable to the one which encircles the town. It is divided into many magnificent palaces, houses and apartments of the courtiers, and comprises beautiful and long squares with galleries, about as large as the <a href="/wiki/Euronext_Amsterdam" title="Euronext Amsterdam">Exchange at Amsterdam</a>. The buildings are of different sizes however, resting on wooden pillars, from top to bottom lined with copper casts, on which pictures of their war exploits and battles are engraved. All of them are being very well maintained. Most of the buildings within this court are covered with palm leaves, instead of with square planks, and every roof is adorned with a small spired tower, on which cast copper birds are standing, being very artfully sculpted and lifelike with their wings spread.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Another Dutch traveler, <a href="/wiki/David_van_Nyendael" title="David van Nyendael">David van Nyendael</a>, visited Benin in 1699 and also wrote an account of the kingdom. Nyendael's description was published in 1704 as an appendix to <a href="/wiki/Willem_Bosman" title="Willem Bosman">Willem Bosman</a>'s <i>Nauwkeurige Beschryving van de Guinese Goud-, tand- en Slave-kust</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his description, Nyendael states the following about the character of the Benin people: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The inhabitants of the Benin are in general a kind and polite people, of whom one with kindness might get everything he desires. Whatever might be offered to them out of politeness, will always be doubled in return. However, they want their politeness to be returned with likewise courtesy as well, without the appearance of any disappointment or rudeness, and rightly so. To be sure, trying to take anything from them with force or violence, would be as if one tries to reach out to the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and will never be left unreckoned. When it comes to trade, they are very strict and will not suffer the slightest infringement of their customs, not even a <a href="/wiki/Iota" title="Iota">iota</a> can be changed. Though, when one is willing to accept these customs, they are very easy-going and will cooperate in every way possible to reach an agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>British trader James Pinnock who visited the kingdom writes that he saw "a large number of men all handcuffed and chained" with "their ears cut off with a razor". T. B. Auchterlonie describes the approach to the capital through an avenue of trees hung with decomposing human remains. After the "lane of horrors" came a grass common "thickly strewn with the skulls and bones of sacrificed human beings".<sup id="cite_ref-Hernon,_A._Britain's_Forgotten_Wars_p.409_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hernon,_A._Britain's_Forgotten_Wars_p.409-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historian James D. Graham, in his article "The Slave Trade, Depopulation and Human Sacrifice in Benin History" (1965) has shown that the area where the skulls and bones of human beings were concentrated, called a "Golgotha" by a few European visitors, was actually a place where the bodies of dead and executed criminals were deposited, as noted by Captain H.L. Gallwey, who visited Benin in the 1890s: "Gallwey in 1893 stated that 'the king is all powerful though he would appear to be somewhat in the hands of his big men and very much tied down by fetish customs'. He also observed that the "Golgotha" was really 'the place where all criminals' bodies were deposited.' "<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraham1965_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1965-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scientific analysis of the brass (or "bronze") used to make the famous Benin plaques and other sculptures found that, beginning in the late 15th century, the metal (previously thought to have come from the Netherlands) began to derive from the Rhineland region of Germany. At that time, the brass was exported from Germany in the form of ring-shaped ingots which were used as currency in the trans-Atlantic slave trade (bought from the Portuguese and incorporated by the people in Benin as a metal source in sculpture), and subsequently melted down in Benin to produce <a href="/wiki/Benin_Bronzes" title="Benin Bronzes">Benin Bronzes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Germany_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Germany-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oral_traditions">Oral traditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Oral traditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The original people and founders of the Benin Kingdom, the <a href="/wiki/Edo_people" title="Edo people">Edo people</a>, were initially ruled by the <a href="/wiki/List_of_the_Ogiso" title="List of the Ogiso">Ogiso</a> (Kings of the Sky) who called their land <a href="/wiki/Igodomigodo" title="Igodomigodo">Igodomigodo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first Ogiso (Ogiso Igodo), wielded much influence and gained popularity as a good ruler. He died after a long reign and was succeeded by Ere, his eldest son. In the 12th century, a great <a href="/wiki/Palace" title="Palace">palace</a> intrigue erupted and crown prince <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ekaladerhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ekaladerhan (page does not exist)">Ekaladerhan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the only son of the last Ogiso, was sentenced to death as a result of the first queen (who was barren) changing an oracle's message to the Ogiso.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In carrying out the royal order, that he be killed, the palace messengers had mercy and set the prince free at <a href="/wiki/Ughoton" title="Ughoton">Ughoton</a> near Benin. When his father the Ogiso died, the Ogiso dynasty ended. The people and royal <a href="/wiki/Kingmakers" title="Kingmakers">kingmakers</a> preferred their late king's son as the next to rule.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After residing there for some years he called a meeting of the people and renounced his office, remarking in vexation <i>Ile-Ibinu</i> in <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_language" title="Yoruba language">Yoruba language</a><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ("ile" means land, "ubinu" means anger), and thus the kingdom was called Ubinu in Ife tongue, which was mispronounced Bini in the 15th and 16th centuries by the Portuguese). This was out of frustration as he often expressed that "only a child born, trained and educated in the arts and mysteries of the land could reign over the people". He arranged for his son born to him by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://open.substack.com/pub/nextgenbronzes/p/erinmwinde-restorer-of-peace-44?utm_source=post&comments=true&utm_medium=web">Erinmwinde</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Eweka" class="mw-redirect" title="Eweka">Eweka</a>, to be made king in his place, and returned to Yorubaland thereafter. His son the new king was soon found to be deaf and mute, and so the elders appealed to Oranmiyan. He gave them charmed seeds known as "omo ayo"(The seed of the Ayo game found in Yorubaland) to play with, saying that to do so will make him talk. The little Eweka played with the seeds with his peers at Useh near egor, his mother's hometown. While playing with the seeds, he announced "Owomika"(My hand has grasped it!) in the Yoruba language, which became his royal name. Thus, he gave rise to the tradition of the subsequent Obas of Benin spending seven days and nights at Usama before proceeding to announce their royal names at Useh. Eweka thus started a dynasty that now bears his name. Oranmiyan went on to serve as the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo Empire</a>, where he ruled as the first <a href="/wiki/Alaafin" title="Alaafin">Alaafin</a> of Oyo. He then returned to Ile-Ife where he was the king of Ife until he <a href="/wiki/Shape_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Shape shift">shape shifted</a> and entered the earth with his horse. His descendants now rule in Ile Ife, Oyo and Benin to this day.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Aside from Benin City, the system of rule of the Oba in the empire, even through the golden age of the kingdom, was still loosely based upon the Ogiso dynasty's tradition, which was military protection in exchange for pledged allegiance and taxes paid to the royal administrative centre. The language and culture was not enforced, as the empire remained heterogeneous and localized according to each group within the kingdom, though a local enogie (or duke) was often appointed by the Oba for specific ethnic areas.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_the_Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Art of the Kingdom of Benin">Art of the Kingdom of Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_people" title="Edo people">Edo people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_language" title="Edo language">Edo language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festac_Town" title="Festac Town">Festac Town</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Flag of the Kingdom of Benin">Flag of the Kingdom of Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria" title="History of Nigeria">History of Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iyoba_of_Benin" title="Iyoba of Benin">Iyoba of Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oba_of_Benin" title="Oba of Benin">Oba of Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walls_of_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Walls of Benin">Walls of Benin</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Girshick, Paula Ben-Amos, (1995). The Art of Benin Revised Edition. British Museum Press. p. 20. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7141-2520-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7141-2520-2">0-7141-2520-2</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/z3n7mp3">"What was the Kingdom of Benin?"</a>. <i>BBC Bitesize</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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In Korka, Elena (ed.). <i>The Protection of Archaeological Heritage in Times of Economic Crisis</i>. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 341–352. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443874113" title="Special:BookSources/9781443874113"><bdi>9781443874113</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conservation+Management+of+the+Benin+Earthworks+of+Southern+Nigeria%3A+A+critical+review+of+past+and+present+action+plans&rft.btitle=The+Protection+of+Archaeological+Heritage+in+Times+of+Economic+Crisis&rft.pages=341-352&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781443874113&rft.au=Patrick+Darling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB_imBgAAQBAJ%26q%3DWalls%2Bof%2BBenin%2B%2522Patrick%2BDarling%2522%26pg%3DPA353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ogundiran-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ogundiran_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ogundiran_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgundiran2005" class="citation journal cs1">Ogundiran, Akinwumi (June 2005). "Four Millennia of Cultural History in Nigeria (ca. 2000 B.C.–A.D. 1900): Archaeological Perspectives". <i>Journal of World Prehistory</i>. <b>19</b> (2): 133–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10963-006-9003-y">10.1007/s10963-006-9003-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144422848">144422848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+Prehistory&rft.atitle=Four+Millennia+of+Cultural+History+in+Nigeria+%28ca.+2000+B.C.%E2%80%93A.D.+1900%29%3A+Archaeological+Perspectives&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=133-168&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10963-006-9003-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144422848%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ogundiran&rft.aufirst=Akinwumi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MacEachern-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MacEachern_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacEachern2005" class="citation journal cs1">MacEachern, Scott (January 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/831918">"Two thousand years of West African history"</a>. <i>African Archaeology: A Critical Introduction</i>. Academia.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+Archaeology%3A+A+Critical+Introduction&rft.atitle=Two+thousand+years+of+West+African+history&rft.date=2005-01&rft.aulast=MacEachern&rft.aufirst=Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F831918&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth1903" class="citation book cs1">Roth, H. Ling (Henry Ling) (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/greatbeninitscus00roth"><i>Great Benin; its customs, art and horrors</i></a>. Smithsonian Libraries. Halifax, Eng., F. King & Sons, ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Benin%3B+its+customs%2C+art+and+horrors&rft.pub=Halifax%2C+Eng.%2C+F.+King+%26+Sons%2C+ltd.&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=H.+Ling+%28Henry+Ling%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatbeninitscus00roth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnah1967" class="citation journal cs1">Connah, Graham (June 1967). "New Light on the Benin City Walls". <i>Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria</i>. <b>3</b> (4): 597–599. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2540">0018-2540</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41856902">41856902</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Historical+Society+of+Nigeria&rft.atitle=New+Light+on+the+Benin+City+Walls&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=597-599&rft.date=1967-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41856902%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0018-2540&rft.aulast=Connah&rft.aufirst=Graham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodgkin1960" class="citation book cs1">Hodgkin, Thomas (1960). <i>Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 93. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192154347" title="Special:BookSources/978-0192154347"><bdi>978-0192154347</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nigerian+Perspectives%3A+An+Historical+Anthology&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0192154347&rft.aulast=Hodgkin&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodgkin1960" class="citation book cs1">Hodgkin, Thomas (1960). <i>Nigerian Perspectives: An Historical Anthology</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0192154347" title="Special:BookSources/978-0192154347"><bdi>978-0192154347</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nigerian+Perspectives%3A+An+Historical+Anthology&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=978-0192154347&rft.aulast=Hodgkin&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConnah1972" class="citation journal cs1">Connah, Graham (January 1972). 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New Scientist, 11 September 1999, Issue 2203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koutonin-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Koutonin_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoutonin2016" class="citation news cs1">Koutonin, Mawuna (18 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/mar/18/story-of-cities-5-benin-city-edo-nigeria-mighty-medieval-capital-lost-without-trace">"Story of cities #5: Benin City, the mighty medieval capital now lost without trace"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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University of Hamburg. pp. 4–264.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+military+system+of+Benin+Kingdom%2C+c.+1440%E2%80%931897+%28D%29&rft.inst=University+of+Hamburg&rft.date=2001-07-23&rft.aulast=Osadolor&rft.aufirst=Osarhieme+Benson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fediss.sub.uni-hamburg.de%2Fvolltexte%2F2001%2F544%2Fpdf%2FDisse.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Sydney Smith, Warfare & diplomacy in pre-colonial West Africa, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin_Press" title="University of Wisconsin Press">University of Wisconsin Press</a>: 1989, pp. 54–62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThornton1999">Thornton (1999)</a>, p. 81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPargasRoşu2017" class="citation book cs1">Pargas, Damian Alan; Roşu, Felicia (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wdBCDwAAQBAJ&dq=the+king+of+Benin+seized+a+Portuguese+bombard&pg=PA1141"><i>Critical Readings on Global Slavery</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. p. 1141. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004346611" title="Special:BookSources/9789004346611"><bdi>9789004346611</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Readings+on+Global+Slavery&rft.pages=1141&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9789004346611&rft.aulast=Pargas&rft.aufirst=Damian+Alan&rft.au=Ro%C5%9Fu%2C+Felicia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwdBCDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dthe%2Bking%2Bof%2BBenin%2Bseized%2Ba%2BPortuguese%2Bbombard%26pg%3DPA1141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R.S. Smith, Warfare & diplomacy pp. 54–62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDapper1668" class="citation book cs1">Dapper, Olfert (1668). <i>Naukeurige Beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche Gewesten</i>. Amsterdam: <a href="/wiki/Jacob_van_Meurs" title="Jacob van Meurs">Jacob van Meurs</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gri_33125009359999/page/n676">495</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naukeurige+Beschrijvinge+der+Afrikaensche+Gewesten&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=495&rft.pub=Jacob+van+Meurs&rft.date=1668&rft.aulast=Dapper&rft.aufirst=Olfert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDapper1668" class="citation book cs1">Dapper, Olfert (1668). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gri_33125009359999/page/n679/mode/2up">"Het Kongrijk van Benijn"</a>. <i>Naukeurige Beschrijvinge der Afrikaensche Gewesten</i>. Amsterdam: Jacob van Meurs. pp. 494/495.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Het+Kongrijk+van+Benijn&rft.btitle=Naukeurige+Beschrijvinge+der+Afrikaensche+Gewesten&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pages=494%2F495&rft.pub=Jacob+van+Meurs&rft.date=1668&rft.aulast=Dapper&rft.aufirst=Olfert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgri_33125009359999%2Fpage%2Fn679%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosman1704" class="citation book cs1">Bosman, Willem (1704). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/nauwkeurigebesch00bosm_0/page/243/mode/2up">"Beschryving van Rio Formosa, Anders gesegt de Benin."</a>. <i>Nauwkeurige Beschryving van de Guinese Goud-tand-en Slave-kust</i>. Utrecht: Anthony Schouten. pp. 212–257.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beschryving+van+Rio+Formosa%2C+Anders+gesegt+de+Benin.&rft.btitle=Nauwkeurige+Beschryving+van+de+Guinese+Goud-tand-en+Slave-kust&rft.place=Utrecht&rft.pages=212-257&rft.pub=Anthony+Schouten&rft.date=1704&rft.aulast=Bosman&rft.aufirst=Willem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnauwkeurigebesch00bosm_0%2Fpage%2F243%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBosman1704" class="citation book cs1">Bosman, Willem (1704). <i>Nauwkeurige Beschryving van de Guinese Goud-tand-en Slave-kust</i>. 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These rings were used as currency in the transatlantic slave trade.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Famous+Benin+Bronzes+from+West+Africa+used+metal+sourced+in+Germany&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2F2368057-famous-benin-bronzes-from-west-africa-used-metal-sourced-in-germany%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkowronekDecorseDenkBirr2023" class="citation journal cs1">Skowronek, Tobias B.; Decorse, Christopher R.; Denk, Rolf; Birr, Stefan D.; Kingsley, Sean; Cook, Gregory D.; Benito Dominguez, Ana María; Clifford, Brandon; Barker, Andrew; Otero, José Suárez; Moreira, Vicente Caramés; Bode, Michael; Jansen, Moritz; Scholes, Daniel (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10075414">"German brass for Benin Bronzes: Geochemical analysis insights into the early Atlantic trade"</a>. <i>PLOS ONE</i>. <b>18</b> (4): e0283415. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023PLoSO..1883415S">2023PLoSO..1883415S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0283415">10.1371/journal.pone.0283415</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10075414">10075414</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37018227">37018227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+ONE&rft.atitle=German+brass+for+Benin+Bronzes%3A+Geochemical+analysis+insights+into+the+early+Atlantic+trade&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=e0283415&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10075414%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37018227&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0283415&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023PLoSO..1883415S&rft.aulast=Skowronek&rft.aufirst=Tobias+B.&rft.au=Decorse%2C+Christopher+R.&rft.au=Denk%2C+Rolf&rft.au=Birr%2C+Stefan+D.&rft.au=Kingsley%2C+Sean&rft.au=Cook%2C+Gregory+D.&rft.au=Benito+Dominguez%2C+Ana+Mar%C3%ADa&rft.au=Clifford%2C+Brandon&rft.au=Barker%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Otero%2C+Jos%C3%A9+Su%C3%A1rez&rft.au=Moreira%2C+Vicente+Caram%C3%A9s&rft.au=Bode%2C+Michael&rft.au=Jansen%2C+Moritz&rft.au=Scholes%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10075414&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlberge2023" class="citation web cs1">Alberge, Dalya (5 April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds">"Benin bronzes made from metal mined in west Germany, study finds"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230408050236/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/apr/05/benin-bronzes-made-from-brass-mined-in-west-germany-study-finds">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=motleytravels.org&rft.atitle=Benin+Empire&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.motleytravels.org%2Findex.php%2Fdestinations%2Fsouthern-nigeria%2Fbenin-empire&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/z3x4r2p">"The Kingdom of Benin - Precolonial Africa - KS3 History - homework help for year 7, 8 and 9"</a>. <i>BBC Bitesize</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+Bitesize&rft.atitle=The+Kingdom+of+Benin+-+Precolonial+Africa+-+KS3+History+-+homework+help+for+year+7%2C+8+and+9.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fbitesize%2Farticles%2Fz3x4r2p&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://languages.ufl.edu/academics/llc-languages/yoruba-studies/">"Yoruba Studies"</a>. <i>Languages, Literatures and Cultures</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Languages%2C+Literatures+and+Cultures&rft.atitle=Yoruba+Studies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flanguages.ufl.edu%2Facademics%2Fllc-languages%2Fyoruba-studies%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBronzes2023" class="citation web cs1">Bronzes, Next Gen (11 December 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nextgenbronzes.substack.com/p/erinmwinde-restorer-of-peace-44/comments">"Erinmwinde - Restorer of Peace (4/4)"</a>. <i>Next Gen Bronzes</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Next+Gen+Bronzes&rft.atitle=Erinmwinde+-+Restorer+of+Peace+%284%2F4%29&rft.date=2023-12-11&rft.aulast=Bronzes&rft.aufirst=Next+Gen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnextgenbronzes.substack.com%2Fp%2Ferinmwinde-restorer-of-peace-44%2Fcomments&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIgbafe1970" class="citation journal cs1">Igbafe, Philip A. (1970). "The fall of Benin: a reassessment". <i>Journal of African History</i>. <b>11</b> (3): 385–400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853700010215">10.1017/S0021853700010215</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/180345">180345</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154621156">154621156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=The+fall+of+Benin%3A+a+reassessment&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=385-400&rft.date=1970&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154621156%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F180345%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853700010215&rft.aulast=Igbafe&rft.aufirst=Philip+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>European traders in Benin to Major Copland Crawford. Reporting the stoppage of trade by the Benin King 1896 Apr 13, <i>Catalogue of the Correspondence and Papers of the Niger Coast Protectorate</i>, 268 3/3/3, p. 240. National Archives of Nigeria Enugu.</li> <li>Sir Ralph Moore to Foreign Office. Reporting on the abortive Expedition into Benin. 1895 Sept.12 <i>Catalogue of the Correspondence and Papers of the Niger Coast Protectorate</i>, 268 3/3/3, p. 240. <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_of_Nigeria" title="National Archives of Nigeria">National Archives of Nigeria</a> Enugu</li> <li>J.R. Phillips to Foreign Office. Advising the deposition of the Benin King. 17 Nov 1896. Despatches to Foreign Office from Consul-General, <i>Catalogue of the Correspondence and Papers of the Niger Coast Protectorate</i>, 268 3/3/3, p. 240. National Archives of Nigeria Enugu.</li> <li>Akenzua, Edun (2000). "The Case of Benin". Appendices to the Minutes of Evidence, Appendix 21, House of Commons, The United Kingdom Parliament, March 2000.</li> <li>Ben-Amos, Paula (1999). Art, Innovation, and Politics in Eighteenth-Century Benin. Indiana University Press, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-33503-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-33503-5">0-253-33503-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirshickThornton2001" class="citation journal cs1">Girshick, Paula Ben-Amos; Thornton, John (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3647167">"Civil War in the Kingdom of Benin, 1689-1721: Continuity or Political Change?"</a>. <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>42</b> (3): 353–376. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853701007915">10.1017/S0021853701007915</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2022%2F3613">2022/3613</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3647167">3647167</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145691565">145691565</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Civil+War+in+the+Kingdom+of+Benin%2C+1689-1721%3A+Continuity+or+Political+Change%3F&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=353-376&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2022%2F3613&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145691565%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3647167%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853701007915&rft.aulast=Girshick&rft.aufirst=Paula+Ben-Amos&rft.au=Thornton%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3647167&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham1965" class="citation journal cs1">Graham, James D. (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200226100841/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bd85/d5ced5503a4557c4f768db3e8563a6459663.pdf">"The slave trade, depopulation and human sacrifice in Benin history: the general approach"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Cahiers d'Études africaines</i>. <b>5</b> (18): 317–334. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fcea.1965.3035">10.3406/cea.1965.3035</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4390897">4390897</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143678155">143678155</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bd85/d5ced5503a4557c4f768db3e8563a6459663.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cahiers+d%27%C3%89tudes+africaines&rft.atitle=The+slave+trade%2C+depopulation+and+human+sacrifice+in+Benin+history%3A+the+general+approach&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=317-334&rft.date=1965&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143678155%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4390897%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fcea.1965.3035&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=James+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpdfs.semanticscholar.org%2Fbd85%2Fd5ced5503a4557c4f768db3e8563a6459663.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrayer2013" class="citation book cs1">Strayer, Robert W. (2013). <i>Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Bedford/St.Martin's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312583460" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312583460"><bdi>978-0312583460</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ways+of+the+World%3A+A+Brief+Global+History+with+Sources&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.Martin%27s&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0312583460&rft.aulast=Strayer&rft.aufirst=Robert+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyder1969" class="citation book cs1">Ryder, Alan Frederick Charles (1969). <i>Benin and the Europeans, (1485–1897)</i>. London: Longmans. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/959073935">959073935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benin+and+the+Europeans%2C+%281485%E2%80%931897%29&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longmans&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F959073935&rft.aulast=Ryder&rft.aufirst=Alan+Frederick+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_(historian)" title="John Thornton (historian)">Thornton, John Kelly</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MdI8DYItvg8C&dq=the+king+of+Benin+seized+a+Portuguese+bombard&pg=PA81"><i>Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychology_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology Press">Psychology Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781857283921" title="Special:BookSources/9781857283921"><bdi>9781857283921</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Atlantic+Africa%2C+1500-1800&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781857283921&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John+Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMdI8DYItvg8C%26dq%3Dthe%2Bking%2Bof%2BBenin%2Bseized%2Ba%2BPortuguese%2Bbombard%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUsuanleleEdo2007" class="citation book cs1">Usuanlele, Uyilawa; Edo, Victor Osaro (2007). "Migrating out of reach: fugitive Benin communities in colonial Nigeria, 1897-1934". In Kolapo, Femi James; Akurang-Parry, Kwabena (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmJE_KMeLEC"><i>African agency and European colonialism: latitudes of negotiation and containment: essays in honor of A.S. Kanya-Forstner</i></a>. University Press of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3846-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7618-3846-3"><bdi>978-0-7618-3846-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Migrating+out+of+reach%3A+fugitive+Benin+communities+in+colonial+Nigeria%2C+1897-1934&rft.btitle=African+agency+and+European+colonialism%3A+latitudes+of+negotiation+and+containment%3A+essays+in+honor+of+A.S.+Kanya-Forstner&rft.pub=University+Press+of+America&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7618-3846-3&rft.aulast=Usuanlele&rft.aufirst=Uyilawa&rft.au=Edo%2C+Victor+Osaro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpNmJE_KMeLEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBondarenko2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Bondarenko" title="Dmitri Bondarenko">Bondarenko, Dmitri M.</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sociostudies.org/journal/articles/140520/">"A homoarchic alternative to the homoarchic state: Benin Kingdom of the 13th–19th centuries"</a>. <i>Social Evolution & History</i>. <b>4</b> (2): 18–88.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Evolution+%26+History&rft.atitle=A+homoarchic+alternative+to+the+homoarchic+state%3A+Benin+Kingdom+of+the+13th%E2%80%9319th+centuries&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=18-88&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Bondarenko&rft.aufirst=Dmitri+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sociostudies.org%2Fjournal%2Farticles%2F140520%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBondarenko2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bondarenko, Dmitri M. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sociostudies.org/journal/articles/363729/">"The Benin Kingdom (13th – 19th centuries) as a megacommunity"</a>. <i>Social Evolution & History</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 46–76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Evolution+%26+History&rft.atitle=The+Benin+Kingdom+%2813th+%E2%80%93+19th+centuries%29+as+a+megacommunity&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=46-76&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Bondarenko&rft.aufirst=Dmitri+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sociostudies.org%2Fjournal%2Farticles%2F363729%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgharevba1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jacob_U._Egharevba" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob U. Egharevba">Egharevba, Jacob U.</a> (1968). <i>Short History of Benin</i>. Ibadan: Ibadan Up. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1037105916">1037105916</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Short+History+of+Benin&rft.place=Ibadan&rft.pub=Ibadan+Up&rft.date=1968&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1037105916&rft.aulast=Egharevba&rft.aufirst=Jacob+U.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenhofer1995" class="citation journal cs1">Eisenhofer, Stefan (1995). "The origins of the Benin kingship in the works of Jacob Egharevba". <i>History in Africa</i>. <b>22</b>: 141–163. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3171912">10.2307/3171912</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3171912">3171912</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161445279">161445279</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+in+Africa&rft.atitle=The+origins+of+the+Benin+kingship+in+the+works+of+Jacob+Egharevba&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=141-163&rft.date=1995&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161445279%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3171912%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3171912&rft.aulast=Eisenhofer&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEisenhofer1997" class="citation journal cs1">Eisenhofer, Stefan (1997). "The Benin kinglist/s: some questions of chronology". <i>History in Africa</i>. <b>24</b>: 139–156. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3172022">10.2307/3172022</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3172022">3172022</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162291387">162291387</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+in+Africa&rft.atitle=The+Benin+kinglist%2Fs%3A+some+questions+of+chronology&rft.volume=24&rft.pages=139-156&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162291387%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3172022%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3172022&rft.aulast=Eisenhofer&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEzra1992" class="citation book cs1">Ezra, Kate (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/royalartofbeninp0000ezra"><i>Royal Art of Benin: the Perls Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art</i></a></span>. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870996320" title="Special:BookSources/9780870996320"><bdi>9780870996320</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Royal+Art+of+Benin%3A+the+Perls+Collection+in+the+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780870996320&rft.aulast=Ezra&rft.aufirst=Kate&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froyalartofbeninp0000ezra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIgbafe1979" class="citation book cs1">Igbafe, Philip Aigbona (1979). <i>Benin Under British Administration: The Impact of Colonial Rule on an African Kingdom, 1897-1938</i>. London: Longman. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/473877102">473877102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Benin+Under+British+Administration%3A+The+Impact+of+Colonial+Rule+on+an+African+Kingdom%2C+1897-1938&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F473877102&rft.aulast=Igbafe&rft.aufirst=Philip+Aigbona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jones, Adam (1998): <i>Olfert Dapper's Description of Benin (1668)</i>. Madison: University of Madison.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalisot-Beauvois1800" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Palisot_de_Beauvois" title="Palisot de Beauvois">Palisot-Beauvois, A.</a> (1800). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JHxlAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA141">"Notice sur le peuple de Bénin"</a>. <i>Décade Philosophique</i> (in French). 2e Trimestre (12): 141–151.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=D%C3%A9cade+Philosophique&rft.atitle=Notice+sur+le+peuple+de+B%C3%A9nin&rft.volume=2e+Trimestre&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=141-151&rft.date=1800&rft.aulast=Palisot-Beauvois&rft.aufirst=A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJHxlAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoeseBondarenko2003" class="citation book cs1">Roese, P.M.; Bondarenko, D. M. (2003). <i>A Popular History of Benin. The Rise and Fall of a Mighty Forest Kingdom</i>. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780820460796" title="Special:BookSources/9780820460796"><bdi>9780820460796</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Popular+History+of+Benin.+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+a+Mighty+Forest+Kingdom&rft.place=Frankfurt+am+Main&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780820460796&rft.aulast=Roese&rft.aufirst=P.M.&rft.au=Bondarenko%2C+D.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Benin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Spahr, Thorsten (2006): <i>Benin um 1700. Kommentierte deutsche Neu-Übersetzung eines Briefes von David van Nyendael an Willem Bosman über das Königreich Benin nebst einer Synopsis des im Holländischen zuerst 1704 verlegten Originals und der zeitgenössischen Übersetzungen ins Englische (1705) sowie ins Deutsche (1708)</i>. Mammendorf: Pro-Literatur-Verlag.</li> <li>Spahr, Thorsten (2006): <i>Benin Bibliography.</i> Mammendorf: Pro-Literatur-Verlag.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uq.net.au/~zzhsoszy/states/nigeria/edo.html">Edo at Genealogical Gleanings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/4chapter7.shtml">The Story of Africa: Ife and Benin — BBC World Service</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090917223644/http://deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=964084686&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=964084686.pdf">THE MILITARY SYSTEM OF BENIN KINGDOM, c. 1440–1897</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nigeria_topics" title="Template:Nigeria topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nigeria_topics" title="Template talk:Nigeria topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nigeria_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nigeria topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nigeria_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Nigeria-related_articles" title="Index of Nigeria-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria" title="History of Nigeria">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="KingdomsEmpires" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><div class="hlist"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>Kingdoms</li><li>Empires</li></ul></div> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aro_Confederacy" title="Aro Confederacy">Aro</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bornu_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bornu Empire">Kanem-Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Nri" title="Kingdom of Nri">Nri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hausa_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Hausa kingdoms">Hausa kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kano" title="Kingdom of Kano">Kano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daura_Emirate" title="Daura Emirate">Daura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Katsina" title="History of Katsina">Katsina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazzau" title="Zazzau">Zazzau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobir" title="Gobir">Gobir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadejia" title="Hadejia">Biram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rano" title="Rano">Rano</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebbi_Emirate" title="Kebbi Emirate">Kebbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwararafa" title="Kwararafa">Kwararafa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Nigerian_history" title="Timeline of Nigerian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Early history of Nigeria">Early history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria_before_1500" title="History of Nigeria before 1500">before 1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nigeria_(1500%E2%80%931800)" title="History of Nigeria (1500–1800)">1500-1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Nigeria" title="Colonial Nigeria">Colonial Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Northern Nigeria Protectorate">Northern Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Nigeria_Protectorate" title="Southern Nigeria Protectorate">Southern Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Nigerian_Republic" title="First Nigerian Republic">First Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship_in_Nigeria" title="Military dictatorship in Nigeria">Military dictatorship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War" title="Nigerian Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Nigerian_Republic" title="Second Nigerian Republic">Second Republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Nigerian_Republic" title="Third Nigerian Republic">Third Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Nigerian_Republic" title="Fourth Nigerian Republic">Fourth Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Nigeria" title="Geography of Nigeria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamawa_Plateau" title="Adamawa Plateau">Adamawa Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Nigeria" title="Template:Borders of Nigeria">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_Nigeria" title="List of populated places in Nigeria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Nigeria" title="Climate change in Nigeria">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecoregions_in_Nigeria" title="List of ecoregions in Nigeria">Ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta" title="Environmental issues in the Niger Delta">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islands_of_Nigeria" title="Category:Islands of Nigeria">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos_Plateau" title="Jos Plateau">Jos Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Nigeria" title="Category:Mountains of Nigeria">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Nigeria" title="List of national parks of Nigeria">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Rivers_of_Nigeria" title="Category:Rivers of Nigeria">Rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Niger_River" title="Niger River">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_Benue" class="mw-redirect" title="River Benue">Benue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Nigeria" title="Wildlife of Nigeria">Wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Wildlife conservation in Nigeria">Wildlife conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Nigeria" title="Politics of Nigeria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Nigeria" title="Subdivisions of Nigeria">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_villages_in_Nigeria" title="Lists of villages in Nigeria">Villages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Nigeria" title="Cabinet of Nigeria">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Nigeria" title="Constitution of Nigeria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Nigeria" title="Elections in Nigeria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Ministries_of_Nigeria" title="Federal Ministries of Nigeria">Federal Executive Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Nigeria" title="Foreign relations of Nigeria">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Nigeria" title="Human rights in Nigeria">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Nigeria">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Nigeria" title="Human trafficking in Nigeria">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Law_enforcement_in_Nigeria" title="Category:Law enforcement in Nigeria">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Armed_Forces" title="Nigerian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Assembly_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="National Assembly of Nigeria">National Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Senate">Senate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Nigeria" title="List of political parties in Nigeria">Political parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Democratic_Party_(Nigeria)" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Democratic Party (Nigeria)">PDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_Progressives_Congress" title="All Progressives Congress">APC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Nigeria" title="President of Nigeria">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vice-President_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Vice-President of Nigeria">Vice-President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Nigeria" title="Supreme Court of Nigeria">Supreme Court</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Nigeria" title="Economy of Nigeria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Nigeria" title="Agriculture in Nigeria">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_Drain_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain Drain in Nigeria">Brain Drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Nigeria" title="Central Bank of Nigeria">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Nigeria" title="Corruption in Nigeria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Nigeria" title="Economic history of Nigeria">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Nigeria" title="Energy in Nigeria">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Nigeria" title="Mining industry of Nigeria">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_naira" title="Nigerian naira">Naira <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Petroleum in Nigeria">Petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Stock_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Stock Exchange">Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Nigeria" title="Telecommunications in Nigeria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Nigeria" title="Tourism in Nigeria">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Nigeria" title="Transport in Nigeria">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Nigeria" title="Category:Society of Nigeria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Nigeria" title="Abortion in Nigeria">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Nigeria" title="Censorship in Nigeria">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse_in_Nigeria#Baby_factories" title="Child sexual abuse in Nigeria">Baby factories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Nigeria" title="Capital punishment in Nigeria">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour_in_Nigeria" title="Child labour in Nigeria">Child labour</a> (<a href="/wiki/Girl_child_labour_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Girl child labour in Nigeria">Girl child labour</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Child marriage in Nigeria">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse_in_Nigeria" title="Child sexual abuse in Nigeria">Child sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Nigeria" title="Corruption in Nigeria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Nigeria" title="Crime in Nigeria">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Nigeria" title="Demographics of Nigeria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence_in_Nigeria" title="Domestic violence in Nigeria">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Nigeria" title="Education in Nigeria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Nigeria" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Nigeria">Ethnic groups</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_the_Actualization_of_the_Sovereign_State_of_Biafra" title="Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra">MASSOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People" title="Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People">MOSOP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oodua_Peoples_Congress" title="Oodua Peoples Congress">Oodua Peoples Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation_in_Nigeria" title="Female genital mutilation in Nigeria">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_Nigeria" title="Gender inequality in Nigeria">Gender inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Nigeria" title="Health in Nigeria">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Nigeria" title="Languages of Nigeria">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy_in_Nigeria" title="Polygamy in Nigeria">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Nigeria" title="Poverty in Nigeria">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Nigeria" title="Prostitution in Nigeria">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_protests_in_Nigeria" title="List of protests in Nigeria">Protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of Nigeria">Refugees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Nigeria" title="Social class in Nigeria">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals_and_Nigeria" title="Sustainable Development Goals and Nigeria">Sustainable Development Goals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Nigeria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Nigeria">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Nigeria" title="Women in Nigeria">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_Nigeria" title="Youth in Nigeria">Youth</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Conflicts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><div class="hlist"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conflicts_in_Nigeria" title="Category:Conflicts in Nigeria">Conflicts</a></li></ul></div> </div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communal_violence" title="Communal violence">Communal conflicts in Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Herder%E2%80%93farmer_conflicts_in_Nigeria" title="Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria">Herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamist_insurgency_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamist insurgency in Nigeria">Islamist insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta" title="Conflict in the Niger Delta">Niger Delta conflicts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2016_Niger_Delta_conflict" title="2016 Niger Delta conflict">2016 conflict</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Nigeria" title="Culture of Nigeria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigeria,_We_Hail_Thee" title="Nigeria, We Hail Thee">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Nigeria" title="Cinema of Nigeria">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Nigeria" title="Coat of arms of Nigeria">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_cuisine" title="Nigerian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Nigeria" title="Flag of Nigeria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nigerians" title="List of Nigerians">List of Nigerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_literature" title="Nigerian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Nigeria">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Nigeria" title="Music of Nigeria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Nigeria" title="Public holidays in Nigeria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Religion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sharia_in_Nigeria" title="Sharia in Nigeria">Sharia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Nigeria" title="Smoking in Nigeria">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_gaming_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Video gaming in Nigeria">Video gaming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Nigeria" title="Outline of Nigeria">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Nigeria-related_articles" title="Index of Nigeria-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Nigeria" title="Category:Nigeria">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nigeria" title="Portal:Nigeria">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nigerian_traditional_states" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nigerian_traditional_states" title="Template:Nigerian traditional states"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nigerian_traditional_states" title="Template talk:Nigerian traditional states"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nigerian_traditional_states" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nigerian traditional states"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nigerian_traditional_states" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nigerian_traditional_states" title="List of Nigerian traditional states">Nigerian traditional states</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Emirates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamawa_Emirate" title="Adamawa Emirate">Adamawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agaie_Emirate" title="Agaie Emirate">Agaie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bade_Emirate" title="Bade Emirate">Bade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bauchi_Emirate" title="Bauchi Emirate">Bauchi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bida_Emirate" title="Bida Emirate">Bida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biu_Emirate" title="Biu Emirate">Biu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borgu_Emirate" title="Borgu Emirate">Borgu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borno_Emirate" title="Borno Emirate">Borno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damaturu_Emirate" title="Damaturu Emirate">Damaturu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daura_Emirate" title="Daura Emirate">Daura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dikwa_Emirate" title="Dikwa Emirate">Dikwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fika_Emirate" title="Fika Emirate">Fika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gombe_Emirate" title="Gombe Emirate">Gombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gumel_Emirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Gumel Emirate">Gumel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilorin_Emirate" title="Ilorin Emirate">Ilorin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebbi_Emirate" title="Kebbi Emirate">Kebbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kontagora_Emirate" title="Kontagora Emirate">Kontagora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapai_Emirate" title="Lapai Emirate">Lapai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muri,_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muri, Nigeria">Muri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potiskum_Emirate" title="Potiskum Emirate">Potiskum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suleja_Emirate" title="Suleja Emirate">Suleja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yauri_Emirate" title="Yauri Emirate">Yauri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazzau" title="Zazzau">Zazzau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pategi_Emirate" title="Pategi Emirate">Patigi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Kingdoms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akure_Kingdom" title="Akure Kingdom">Akure</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bonny" title="Kingdom of Bonny">Bonny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobir" title="Gobir">Gobir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igala_Kingdom" title="Igala Kingdom">Igala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijebu_Kingdom" title="Ijebu Kingdom">Ijebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwo_Kingdom" title="Iwo Kingdom">Iwo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalabari_Kingdom" title="Kalabari Kingdom">Kalabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbwada" title="Kumbwada">Kumbwada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nembe_Kingdom" title="Nembe Kingdom">Nembe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okpe" title="Okpe">Okpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ondo_Kingdom" title="Ondo Kingdom">Ondo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opobo" title="Opobo">Opobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Warri" title="Kingdom of Warri">Warri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hausa_Kingdom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hausa Kingdom (page does not exist)">Hausa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bassa_Nge_Kingdom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bassa Nge Kingdom (page does not exist)">Bassa Nge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akwa_Akpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Akwa Akpa">Akwa Akpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egba_Alake" class="mw-redirect" title="Egba Alake">Egba Alake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idoani_Confederacy" title="Idoani Confederacy">Idoani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isedo" title="Isedo">Isedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oke_Ila" title="Oke Ila">Oke Ila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wukari_Federation" title="Wukari Federation">Wukari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Archaeological_sites_in_Nigeria" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Archaeological_sites_in_Nigeria" title="Template:Archaeological sites in Nigeria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Archaeological_sites_in_Nigeria" title="Template talk:Archaeological sites in Nigeria"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Archaeological_sites_in_Nigeria" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Archaeological sites in Nigeria"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Archaeological_sites_in_Nigeria" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Archaeological sites in Nigeria</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Archaeology_of_Afikpo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Archaeology of Afikpo (page does not exist)">Afikpo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daima" title="Daima">Daima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ife" class="mw-redirect" title="Ife">Ife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itaakpa" class="mw-redirect" title="Itaakpa">Itaakpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iwo_Eleru" class="mw-redirect" title="Iwo Eleru">Iwo Eleru</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kursakata&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kursakata (page does not exist)">Kursakata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwiambana" title="Kwiambana">Kwiambana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mejiro_rock_shelter&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mejiro rock shelter (page does not exist)">Mejiro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opi_(archaeological_site)" title="Opi (archaeological site)">Opi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rop_rock_shelter" title="Rop rock shelter">Rop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugwuele" title="Ugwuele">Ugwuele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lejja" title="Lejja">Lejja</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nok_culture" title="Nok culture">Nok culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kagara,_Niger" class="mw-redirect" title="Kagara, Niger">Kagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katsina-Ala" title="Katsina-Ala">Katsina-Ala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawu" title="Kawu">Kawu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nok" title="Nok">Nok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samun_Dukiya" title="Samun Dukiya">Samun Dukiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taruga" title="Taruga">Taruga</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benin_Moat" title="Benin Moat">Benin Moat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durbi_Takusheyi" title="Durbi Takusheyi">Durbi Takusheyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Igbo-Ukwu" title="Archaeology of Igbo-Ukwu">Igbo-Ukwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ile-Ife" class="mw-redirect" title="Ile-Ife">Ife </a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kagogi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kagogi (page does not exist)">Kagogi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngazargamu" title="Ngazargamu">Ngazargamu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Old_Oyo" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeology of Old Oyo">Old Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sungbo%27s_Eredo" title="Sungbo's Eredo">Sungbo's Eredo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yau,_Nigeria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yau, Nigeria (page does not exist)">Yau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171203#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4069261-9">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="beninská říše"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge484444&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Kingdom_of_Benin&params=6_20_N_5_37_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">6°20′N</span> <span class="longitude">5°37′E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">6.333°N 5.617°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">6.333; 5.617</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&oldid=1259293542">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Benin&oldid=1259293542</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Category:Kingdom of Benin">Kingdom of Benin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Archaeological_sites_in_Nigeria" title="Category:Archaeological sites in Nigeria">Archaeological sites in Nigeria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Prehistoric_Africa" title="Category:Prehistoric Africa">Prehistoric Africa</a></li><li><a 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