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id="toc-Rickets" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rickets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Rickets </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rickets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Osteomalacia_and_osteoporosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osteomalacia_and_osteoporosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Osteomalacia and osteoporosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osteomalacia_and_osteoporosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Cancer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cardiovascular_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cardiovascular_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Cardiovascular disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cardiovascular_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immune_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immune_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Immune system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immune_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infectious_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infectious_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.1 Infectious diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infectious_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inflammatory_bowel_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inflammatory_bowel_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.2 Inflammatory bowel disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inflammatory_bowel_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-COVID-19" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#COVID-19"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 COVID-19 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-COVID-19-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Other conditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.1 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asthma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asthma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.2 Asthma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asthma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diabetes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diabetes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.3 Diabetes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diabetes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_(ADHD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_(ADHD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.4 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_(ADHD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.5 Depression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognition_and_dementia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognition_and_dementia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.6 Cognition and dementia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognition_and_dementia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schizophrenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schizophrenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.7 Schizophrenia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schizophrenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pregnancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pregnancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.8 Pregnancy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pregnancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obesity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obesity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.9 Obesity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obesity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uterine_fibroids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uterine_fibroids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.10 Uterine fibroids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uterine_fibroids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allowed_health_claims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allowed_health_claims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Allowed health claims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allowed_health_claims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dietary_intake" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dietary_intake"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Dietary intake </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dietary_intake-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Dietary intake subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Dietary_intake-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recommended_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recommended_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Recommended levels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recommended_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 United Kingdom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.3 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Australia_and_New_Zealand" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia_and_New_Zealand"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.4 Australia and New Zealand </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia_and_New_Zealand-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_Union" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_Union"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.5 European Union </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_Union-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Natural sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_fortification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_fortification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Food fortification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_fortification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_preparation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_preparation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Food preparation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_preparation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recommended_serum_levels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recommended_serum_levels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Recommended serum levels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recommended_serum_levels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Excess" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Excess"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Excess </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Excess-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Excess subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Excess-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effect_of_excess" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_of_excess"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Effect of excess </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_of_excess-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biosynthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biosynthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Biosynthesis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biosynthesis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Biosynthesis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Biosynthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interactive_pathway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactive_pathway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Interactive pathway </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactive_pathway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photochemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photochemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Photochemistry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photochemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synthesis_in_the_skin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synthesis_in_the_skin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Synthesis in the skin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synthesis_in_the_skin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Evolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_synthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_synthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Industrial synthesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_synthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanism_of_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanism_of_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Mechanism of action </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mechanism_of_action-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mechanism of action subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mechanism_of_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Metabolic_activation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolic_activation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Metabolic activation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolic_activation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inactivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inactivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Inactivation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inactivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Difference_between_substrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difference_between_substrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Difference between substrates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difference_between_substrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intracellular_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intracellular_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Intracellular mechanisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intracellular_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Vitamin D</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 86 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-86" aria-hidden="true" > 86 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamien_D" title="Vitamien D – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vitamien D" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%AF%D9%8A" title="فيتامين دي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيتامين دي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamina_D" title="Vitamina D – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Vitamina D" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_vitamini" title="D vitamini – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="D vitamini" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF" title="ویتامین د – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ویتامین د" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BF" title="ভিটামিন ডি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভিটামিন ডি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD_D" title="Вітамін D – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вітамін D" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80" title="विटामिन डी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="विटामिन डी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitamina_D" title="Bitamina D – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Bitamina D" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_D" title="Витамин D – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Витамин D" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamina_D" title="Vitamina D – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vitamina D" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitam%C3%ADn_D" title="Vitamín D – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vitamín D" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calciferol" title="Calciferol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Calciferol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%88%DE%A8%DE%93%DE%A6%DE%89%DE%A8%DE%82%DE%B0_%DE%91%DE%A9" title="ވިޓަމިން ޑީ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ވިޓަމިން ޑީ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ދިވެހިބަސް</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-vitamiin" title="D-vitamiin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="D-vitamiin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B7_D" title="Βιταμίνη D – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Βιταμίνη D" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamina_D" title="Vitamina D – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vitamina D" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamino_D" title="Vitamino D – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vitamino D" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_bitamina" title="D bitamina – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="D bitamina" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="ویتامین دی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ویتامین دی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamine_D" title="Vitamine D – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vitamine D" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamina_D" title="Vitamina D – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Vitamina D" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B9%84%ED%83%80%EB%AF%BC_D" title="비타민 D – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="비타민 D" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6_D" title="Վիտամին D – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վիտամին D" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80" title="विटामिन डी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विटामिन डी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-v%C3%ADtam%C3%ADn" title="D-vítamín – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="D-vítamín" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamina_D" title="Vitamina D – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vitamina D" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%98%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9F_D" title="ויטמין D – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ויטמין D" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98_D" title="ვიტამინი D – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ვიტამინი D" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamini_D" title="Vitamini D – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Vitamini D" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Кальциферол – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кальциферол" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_vitam%C4%ABns" title="D vitamīns – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="D vitamīns" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitaminas_D" title="Vitaminas D – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vitaminas D" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94" title="Витамин Д – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Витамин Д" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%BF" title="ജീവകം ഡി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജീവകം ഡി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A1-%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="ड-जीवनसत्त्व – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ड-जीवनसत्त्व" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_D" title="Витамин D – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Витамин D" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%97%E1%80%AE%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC%E1%80%99%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%92%E1%80%AE" title="ဗီတာမင် ဒီ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဗီတာမင် ဒီ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamine_D" title="Vitamine D – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vitamine D" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%80" title="भिटामिन डी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भिटामिन डी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%93%E3%82%BF%E3%83%9F%E3%83%B3D" title="ビタミンD – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ビタミンD" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-vitamin" title="D-vitamin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="D-vitamin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamina_D" title="Vitamina D – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Vitamina D" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalsiferollar" title="Kalsiferollar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kalsiferollar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%80" title="ਵਿਟਾਮਿਨ ਡੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਟਾਮਿਨ ਡੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%90%D9%BC%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%86_%DA%89%D9%8A" title="وېټامين ډي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="وېټامين ډي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Witamina_D" title="Witamina D – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Witamina D" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamina_D" title="Vitamina D – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vitamina D" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_Vitamini" title="D Vitamini – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="D Vitamini" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamina_D" title="Vitamina D – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Vitamina D" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_D" title="Витамин D – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Витамин D" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamina_D" title="Vitamina D – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Vitamina D" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A7%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A_D" title="විටමින් D – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="විටමින් D" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%BD%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86_%DA%8A%D9%8A" title="وٽامن ڊي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="وٽامن ڊي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitam%C3%ADn_D" title="Vitamín D – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vitamín D" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A4%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="ڤیتامین دی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڤیتامین دی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%94" title="Витамин Д – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Витамин Д" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-vitamiini" title="D-vitamiini – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="D-vitamiini" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-vitamin" title="D-vitamin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="D-vitamin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF" title="உயிர்ச்சத்து டி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிர்ச்சத்து டி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="D витамины – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="D витамины" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%BF" title="విటమిన్ డి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="విటమిన్ డి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B5" title="วิตามินดี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิตามินดี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8_D" title="Витамини D – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Витамини D" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D_vitamini" title="D vitamini – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="D vitamini" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%98%D0%A2%D0%90%D0%9C%D0%98%D0%9D_%D0%94" title="ВИТАМИН Д – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="ВИТАМИН Д" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD_D" title="Вітамін D – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вітамін D" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%86_%DA%88%DB%8C" title="وٹامن ڈی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="وٹامن ڈی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8B%D9%89%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%89%D9%86_D" title="ۋىتامىن D – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ۋىتامىن D" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vitamin D" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E7%94%9F%E7%B4%A0D" title="维生素D – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="维生素D" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%98%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9F_D" title="וויטאמין D – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="וויטאמין D" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B6%AD%E4%BB%96%E5%91%BDD" title="維他命D – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="維他命D" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Group of fat-soluble secosteroids</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Vitamin D (disambiguation)">Vitamin D (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the family of D-"vitamins". For individual forms, see <a href="/wiki/Ergocalciferol" title="Ergocalciferol">ergocalciferol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" title="Cholecalciferol">cholecalciferol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D4" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin D4">vitamin D4</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D5" title="Vitamin D5">vitamin D5</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">calcitriol</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #ddbbee">Vitamin D</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><a href="/wiki/Drug_class" title="Drug class">Drug class</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Cholecalciferol2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cholecalciferol2.svg/280px-Cholecalciferol2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cholecalciferol2.svg/420px-Cholecalciferol2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Cholecalciferol2.svg/560px-Cholecalciferol2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="406" data-file-height="328" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" title="Cholecalciferol">Cholecalciferol</a> (D3)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Class identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">Synonyms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Calciferols</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Use</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">Rickets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osteomalacia" title="Osteomalacia">osteomalacia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_deficiency" title="Vitamin D deficiency">vitamin D deficiency</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_Therapeutic_Chemical_Classification_System" title="Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System">ATC code</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/ATC_code_A11CC" class="mw-redirect" title="ATC code A11CC">A11CC</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Biological_target" title="Biological target">Biological target</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor">vitamin D receptor</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Clinical data</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Drugs.com" title="Drugs.com">Drugs.com</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugs.com/npp/vitamin-d.html">MedFacts Natural Products</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">External links</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D014807">D014807</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Legal status</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="background: #e8e8e8; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q175621" class="extiw" title="d:Q175621">In Wikidata</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Vitamin D is a group of <a href="/wiki/Fat-soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Fat-soluble">fat-soluble</a> <a href="/wiki/Secosteroid" title="Secosteroid">secosteroids</a> responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>, along with numerous other biological functions.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a> In humans, the most significant compounds within this group are vitamin D3 (<a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" title="Cholecalciferol">cholecalciferol</a>) and vitamin D2 (<a href="/wiki/Ergocalciferol" title="Ergocalciferol">ergocalciferol</a>).<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> The primary natural source of vitamin D is the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">synthesis</a> of cholecalciferol in the <a href="/wiki/Epidermis#Layers" title="Epidermis">lower layers of the skin’s epidermis</a>, triggered by a <a href="/wiki/Photochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Photochemical">photochemical</a> reaction with <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet#Subtypes" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet B (UV-B) radiation</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> or <a href="/wiki/UV-B_lamps" title="UV-B lamps">UV-B lamps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> Cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol can also be obtained through diet and <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">supplements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a> Foods such as the flesh of fatty fish are good sources of vitamin D, though there are few other foods where it naturally appears in significant amounts.<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> In the U.S. and other countries, cow's milk and plant-based milk substitutes are fortified with vitamin D, as are many breakfast cereals.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> Mushrooms exposed to ultraviolet light also provide useful amounts of vitamin D2.<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Dietary recommendations typically assume that all of a person's vitamin D is taken by mouth, given the variability in sunlight exposure among the population and uncertainties regarding <a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_sunlight_exposure" title="Health effects of sunlight exposure">safe levels of sunlight exposure</a>, particularly due to the associated risk of <a href="/wiki/Skin_cancer" title="Skin cancer">skin cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a> Vitamin D obtained from the diet or synthesised in the skin is biologically inactive. It becomes active by two enzymatic <a href="/wiki/Hydroxylation" title="Hydroxylation">hydroxylation</a> steps, the first occurring in the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> and the second in the <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidneys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> Since most mammals can synthesise sufficient vitamin D with adequate sunlight exposure, it is technically not essential in the diet and thus not a true <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamin</a>. Instead it functions as a <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormone</a>; the activation of the vitamin D pro-hormone produces <a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">calcitriol</a>, the active form. Calcitriol then exerts its effects via the <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor">vitamin D receptor</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_receptor" title="Nuclear receptor">nuclear receptor</a> found in various tissues throughout the body.<a href="#cite_note-Norman_2008-6">[6]</a> Cholecalciferol is converted in the liver to <a href="/wiki/Calcifediol" title="Calcifediol">calcifediol</a> (also known as calcidiol or 25-hydroxycholecalciferol), while ergocalciferol is converted to ercalcidiol (25-hydroxyergocalciferol).<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> These two vitamin D metabolites, collectively referred to as 25-hydroxyvitamin D or 25(OH)D, are measured in serum to assess a person's vitamin D status.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hollis_1996-8">[8]</a> Calcifediol is further hydroxylated by the kidneys and certain immune cells to form <a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">calcitriol</a> (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol), the biologically active form of vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-pmid4323790-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid4325863-10">[10]</a> Calcitriol circulates in the blood as a hormone, playing a major role in regulating <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> concentrations, as well as promoting <a href="/wiki/Bone_health" title="Bone health">bone health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bone_remodeling" title="Bone remodeling">bone remodeling</a>. Vitamin D has a significant role in <a href="/wiki/Calcium_homeostasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium homeostasis">calcium homeostasis</a> and metabolism.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> Its discovery was due to effort to identify the dietary deficiency in children with <a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">rickets</a>, the childhood form of <a href="/wiki/Osteomalacia" title="Osteomalacia">osteomalacia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf_2004-11">[11]</a> Vitamin D supplements are commonly used to treat or to prevent osteomalacia and rickets.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> The evidence for other health benefits of vitamin D supplementation in individuals who are already vitamin D sufficient is inconsistent.<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a> The effect of vitamin D supplementation on morbidity and mortality is also unclear, with one meta-analysis finding a small decrease in mortality in elderly people.<a href="#cite_note-Bj2014-12">[12]</a> Except for the prevention of rickets and osteomalacia in high-risk groups, any benefit of vitamin D supplements to musculoskeletal or general health may be small and in some cases, may have adverse effects on health.<a href="#cite_note-reid-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Futil2014-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lancet_2018-15">[15]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable floatright" style="font-size: 90%;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name </th> <th>Chemical composition </th> <th>Structure </th></tr> <tr> <th>Vitamin D1 </th> <td>Mixture of molecular compounds of <a href="/wiki/Ergocalciferol" title="Ergocalciferol">ergocalciferol</a> with <a href="/wiki/Lumisterol" title="Lumisterol">lumisterol</a>, 1:1 </td> <td style="text-align: center;"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vitamin D2 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Ergocalciferol" title="Ergocalciferol">ergocalciferol</a> (made from <a href="/wiki/Ergosterol" title="Ergosterol">ergosterol</a>) </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/File:Ergocalciferol.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Note double bond at top center."><img alt="Note double bond at top center." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Ergocalciferol.svg/70px-Ergocalciferol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Ergocalciferol.svg/105px-Ergocalciferol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Ergocalciferol.svg/140px-Ergocalciferol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="546" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vitamin D3 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" title="Cholecalciferol">cholecalciferol</a> (made from <a href="/wiki/7-dehydrocholesterol" class="mw-redirect" title="7-dehydrocholesterol">7-dehydrocholesterol</a> in the skin). </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cholecalciferol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cholecalciferol.svg/70px-Cholecalciferol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cholecalciferol.svg/105px-Cholecalciferol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cholecalciferol.svg/140px-Cholecalciferol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="546" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vitamin D4 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/22-dihydroergocalciferol" class="mw-redirect" title="22-dihydroergocalciferol">22-dihydroergocalciferol</a> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/File:22-Dihydroergocalciferol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/22-Dihydroergocalciferol.svg/70px-22-Dihydroergocalciferol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/22-Dihydroergocalciferol.svg/105px-22-Dihydroergocalciferol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/22-Dihydroergocalciferol.svg/140px-22-Dihydroergocalciferol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="177" data-file-height="210" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vitamin D5 </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Sitocalciferol" class="mw-redirect" title="Sitocalciferol">sitocalciferol</a> (made from <a href="/wiki/7-dehydrositosterol" class="mw-redirect" title="7-dehydrositosterol">7-dehydrositosterol</a>) </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/File:Vitamin_D5_structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Vitamin_D5_structure.svg/70px-Vitamin_D5_structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Vitamin_D5_structure.svg/105px-Vitamin_D5_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Vitamin_D5_structure.svg/140px-Vitamin_D5_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="680" data-file-height="780" /></a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Several forms (<a href="/wiki/Vitamer" title="Vitamer">vitamers</a>) of vitamin D exist, with the two major forms being vitamin D2 or ergocalciferol, and vitamin D3 or cholecalciferol.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> The term 'vitamin D' refers to either D2 or D3, or both, and is known collectively as calciferol.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Vitamin D2 was chemically characterized in 1931. In 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_structure" title="Chemical structure">chemical structure</a> of vitamin D3 was defined and shown to result from the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_irradiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet irradiation">ultraviolet irradiation</a> of 7-dehydrocholesterol. Although a chemical nomenclature for vitamin D forms was recommended in 1981,<a href="#cite_note-nomen-d-17">[17]</a> alternative names remain commonly used.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> Chemically, the various forms of vitamin D are <a href="/wiki/Secosteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Secosteroids">secosteroids</a>, meaning that one of the bonds in the <a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">steroid</a> rings is broken.<a href="#cite_note-PKIN2020VitD-18">[18]</a> The structural difference between vitamin D2 and vitamin D3 lies in the <a href="/wiki/Side_chain" title="Side chain">side chain</a>: vitamin D2 has a <a href="/wiki/Double_bond" title="Double bond">double bond</a> between carbons 22 and 23, and a <a href="/wiki/Methyl_group" title="Methyl group">methyl group</a> on carbon 24.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> Numerous <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_analogues" title="Vitamin D analogues">vitamin D analogues</a> have also been synthesized.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology">Biology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Biology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcium_regulation.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Calcium_regulation.png/220px-Calcium_regulation.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Calcium_regulation.png/330px-Calcium_regulation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Calcium_regulation.png/440px-Calcium_regulation.png 2x" data-file-width="2347" data-file-height="2667" /></a><figcaption>The role of active vitamin D or calcitriol (orange) in calcium metabolism in the human body.<a href="#cite_note-BoronBoulpaep2016-19">[19]</a></figcaption></figure> The active vitamin D metabolite, calcitriol, exerts its biological effects by binding to the <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor">vitamin D receptor</a> (VDR), which is primarily located in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a> of target cells.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-PKIN2020VitD-18">[18]</a> When calcitriol binds to the VDR, it enables the receptor to act as a <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factor</a>, modulating the <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a> of <a href="/wiki/Transport_protein" title="Transport protein">transport proteins</a> involved in calcium absorption in the intestine, such as <a href="/wiki/TRPV6" title="TRPV6">TRPV6</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calbindin" title="Calbindin">calbindin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bouillon2003-20">[20]</a> The VDR is part of the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_receptor" title="Nuclear receptor">nuclear receptor</a> superfamily of <a href="/wiki/Steroid_hormone_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Steroid hormone receptors">steroid hormone receptors</a>, which are hormone-dependent regulators of gene expression. These receptors are expressed in cells across most organs. Activation of VDR in the intestine, bone, kidney, and <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">parathyroid gland</a> cells plays a crucial role in <a href="/wiki/Calcium_homeostasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium homeostasis">maintaining calcium and phosphorus levels</a> in the blood, a process that is assisted by <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" title="Parathyroid hormone">parathyroid hormone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcitonin" title="Calcitonin">calcitonin</a>, thereby supporting <a href="/wiki/Bone_health" title="Bone health">bone health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holick_2004-21">[21]</a> One of the most important functions of vitamin D is to maintain skeletal calcium balance by promoting calcium absorption in the intestines, promoting <a href="/wiki/Bone_resorption" title="Bone resorption">bone resorption</a> by increasing <a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclast</a> numbers, maintaining <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> levels necessary for bone formation, and facilitating the proper function of parathyroid hormone to sustain serum calcium levels.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_deficiency" title="Vitamin D deficiency">Vitamin D deficiency</a> can lead to decreased <a href="/wiki/Bone_mineral_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone mineral density">bone mineral density</a>, increasing the risk of <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bone_fractures" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone fractures">bone fractures</a> due to its impact on mineral metabolism.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bell-22">[22]</a> Consequently, vitamin D is also important for <a href="/wiki/Bone_remodeling" title="Bone remodeling">bone remodeling</a>, acting as a potent stimulator of bone resorption.<a href="#cite_note-Bell-22">[22]</a> The VDR also regulates <a href="/wiki/Cell_proliferation" title="Cell proliferation">cell proliferation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellular_differentiation" title="Cellular differentiation">differentiation</a>. Additionally, vitamin D influences the immune system, with VDRs being expressed in several white blood cells, including <a href="/wiki/Monocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Monocytes">monocytes</a> and activated <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T</a> and <a href="/wiki/B_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="B cells">B cells</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PDR-23">[23]</a> In vitro studies indicate that vitamin D increases the <a href="/wiki/Expression_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Expression (genetics)">expression</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine_hydroxylase" title="Tyrosine hydroxylase">tyrosine hydroxylase</a> gene in <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_medulla" title="Adrenal medulla">adrenal medullary</a> cells and affects the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Neurotrophic_factors" title="Neurotrophic factors">neurotrophic factors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide_synthase" title="Nitric oxide synthase">nitric oxide synthase</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glutathione" title="Glutathione">glutathione</a>, which may control the body's response and adaption to <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid9011759-24">[24]</a> VDR expression decreases with age.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deficiency">Deficiency</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Deficiency">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_deficiency" title="Vitamin D deficiency">Vitamin D deficiency</a></div> A diet insufficient in vitamin D, combined with inadequate sunlight exposure, can lead to vitamin D deficiency, which is defined as a blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D or 25(OH)D level below 12 ng/mL (30 nmol/liter). Vitamin D insufficiency is characterized by a blood 25(OH)D level between 12–20 ng/mL (30–50 nmol/liter).<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-holick2011-25">[25]</a> It is estimated that one billion adults worldwide are either vitamin D insufficient or deficient, including those in developed countries across Europe.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Severe vitamin D deficiency in children, although rare in the developed world, can cause a softening and weakening of growing bones, leading to a condition known as <a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">rickets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> Vitamin D deficiency is prevalent globally, particularly among the elderly, and remains common in both children and adults.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid12014847-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holick_2007-30">[30]</a> This deficiency impairs <a href="/wiki/Bone_mineralization" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone mineralization">bone mineralization</a> and causes bone damage, leading to bone-softening diseases such as rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults.<a href="#cite_note-Brown_2008-31">[31]</a> Low blood calcifediol (25-hydroxyvitamin D3) levels can result from limited sun exposure.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18234141-32">[32]</a> When vitamin D levels are deficient, the total absorption of dietary calcium can decrease from the normal range of 60–80% to 15%.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2004-21">[21]</a> Dark-skinned individuals living in temperate climates are more likely to have low vitamin D levels.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28620422-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid24267433-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22688752-35">[35]</a> This is because <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> in the skin, which hinders vitamin D synthesis, makes dark-skinned individuals less efficient at producing vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28467404-36">[36]</a> In the U.S., vitamin D deficiency is particularly common among Hispanic and African-American populations.<a href="#cite_note-holick2011-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects">Health effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Health effects">edit</a>]</div> Supplementation with vitamin D is a reliable method for preventing or treating <a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">rickets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> On the other hand, the effects of vitamin D supplementation on non-skeletal health are uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-Balk09-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> A review did not find any effect from supplementation on the rates of non-skeletal disease, other than a tentative decrease in mortality in the elderly.<a href="#cite_note-Aut2013-39">[39]</a> Vitamin D supplements do not alter the outcomes for <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">myocardial infarction</a>, stroke or <a href="/wiki/Cerebrovascular_disease" title="Cerebrovascular disease">cerebrovascular disease</a>, cancer, <a href="/wiki/Bone_fractures" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone fractures">bone fractures</a> or knee <a href="/wiki/Osteoarthritis" title="Osteoarthritis">osteoarthritis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Futil2014-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hussain_2017-40">[40]</a> A US <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">Institute of Medicine</a> (IOM) report states: "Outcomes related to cancer, <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypertension" title="Hypertension">hypertension</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a> and metabolic syndrome, falls and physical performance, immune functioning and <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune disorder">autoimmune disorders</a>, infections, neuropsychological functioning, and <a href="/wiki/Preeclampsia" class="mw-redirect" title="Preeclampsia">preeclampsia</a> could not be linked reliably with intake of either calcium or vitamin D, and were often conflicting."<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a>: 5  Some researchers claim the IOM was too definitive in its recommendations and made a mathematical mistake when calculating the blood level of vitamin D associated with bone health.<a href="#cite_note-Maxmen2011-42">[42]</a> Members of the IOM panel maintain that they used a "standard procedure for dietary recommendations" and that the report is solidly based on the data.<a href="#cite_note-Maxmen2011-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mortality,_all-causes">Mortality, all-causes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mortality, all-causes">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D3 supplementation has been tentatively found to lead to a reduced risk of death in the elderly,<a href="#cite_note-Bj2014-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Aut2013-39">[39]</a> but the effect has not been deemed pronounced, or certain enough, to make taking supplements recommendable.<a href="#cite_note-Futil2014-14">[14]</a> Other forms (vitamin D2, alfacalcidol, and calcitriol) do not appear to have any beneficial effects with regard to the risk of death.<a href="#cite_note-Bj2014-12">[12]</a> High blood levels appear to be associated with a lower risk of death, but it is unclear if supplementation can result in this benefit.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Both an excess and a deficiency in vitamin D appear to cause abnormal functioning and premature aging.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> The relationship between serum calcifediol concentrations and all-cause mortality is "U-shaped": mortality is elevated at high and low calcifediol levels, relative to moderate levels.<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a> Harm from vitamin D appears to occur at a lower vitamin D level in the dark skinned Canadian and United States populations which have been studied than in the light skinned Canadian and United States populations which have been studied. Whether this is so with dark skinned populations in other parts of the world is unknown.<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a>: 435  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bone_health">Bone health</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Bone health">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rickets">Rickets</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Rickets">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rickets" title="Rickets">Rickets</a></div> Rickets, a childhood disease, is characterized by impeded growth and soft, weak, deformed <a href="/wiki/Long_bones" class="mw-redirect" title="Long bones">long bones</a> that bend and bow under their weight as children start to walk. Maternal vitamin D deficiency can cause fetal bone defects from before birth and impairment of bone quality after birth.<a href="#cite_note-Elidrissy2016-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-PatersonAyoub2016-47">[47]</a> Rickets typically appear between 3 and 18 months of age.<a href="#cite_note-Wagner2008-48">[48]</a> This condition can be caused by vitamin D, calcium or phosphorus deficiency.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17943890-49">[49]</a> Vitamin D deficiency remains the main cause of rickets among young infants in most countries because breast milk is low in vitamin D, and darker skin, social customs and climatic conditions can contribute to inadequate sun exposure.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] A post-weaning Western omnivore diet characterized by high intakes of meat, fish, eggs and vitamin D fortified milk is protective, whereas low intakes of those foods and high cereal/grain intake contributes to risk.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2004-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pettifor_2004-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dupuis2002-52">[52]</a> For young children with rickets, supplementation with vitamin D plus calcium was superior to the vitamin alone for bone healing.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Osteomalacia_and_osteoporosis">Osteomalacia and osteoporosis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Osteomalacia and osteoporosis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Osteomalacia" title="Osteomalacia">Osteomalacia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">Osteoporosis</a></div> Characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Osteomalacia" title="Osteomalacia">osteomalacia</a> are softening of the bones, leading to bending of the spine, bone fragility, and increased risk for fractures.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> Osteomalacia is usually present when 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels are less than about 10 ng/mL.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2006-54">[54]</a> Osteomalacia progress to <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a>, a condition of reduced <a href="/wiki/Bone_mineral_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone mineral density">bone mineral density</a> with increased bone fragility and risk of bone fractures. Osteoporosis can be a long-term effect of calcium and/or vitamin D insufficiency, the latter contributing by reducing calcium absorption.<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a> In the absence of confirmed vitamin D deficiency there is no evidence that vitamin D supplementation without concomitant calcium slows or stops the progression of osteomalacia to osteoporosis.<a href="#cite_note-reid-13">[13]</a> For older people with osteoporosis, taking vitamin D with calcium may help prevent hip fractures, but it also slightly increases the risk of stomach and kidney problems.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22762317-56">[56]</a> The reduced rick for fractures is not seen in healthier, community-dwelling elderly.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Low serum vitamin D levels have been associated with <a href="/wiki/Falling_(accident)" title="Falling (accident)">falls</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Bone07-59">[59]</a> but taking extra vitamin D does not appear to reduce that risk.<a href="#cite_note-pmid24768505-60">[60]</a> Athletes who are vitamin D deficient are at an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Stress_fracture" title="Stress fracture">stress fractures</a> and/or major breaks, particularly those engaging in contact sports. Incremental decreases in risk are observed with rising serum 25(OH)D concentrations plateauing at 50 ng/mL with no additional benefits seen in levels beyond this point.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer">Cancer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cancer">edit</a>]</div> Potential associations have been found between low vitamin D levels and the risk of developing several types of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-pmid38672780-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zhao-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hernandez-Alonso-64">[64]</a> Meta-analyses of <a href="/wiki/Observational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Observational studies">observational studies</a> have found reduced risk of cancer incidence related to vitamin D intake and 25(OH)D levels, particularly for <a href="/wiki/Colorectal_cancer" title="Colorectal cancer">colorectal cancer</a>, although the strength of the associations was classified as weak.<a href="#cite_note-Hernandez-Alonso-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid33553987-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor">Vitamin D receptor</a> and <a href="/wiki/SNAI2" title="SNAI2">SNAI2</a> are found to be involved in the <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">metastastic</a> process of <a href="/wiki/Osteosarcoma" title="Osteosarcoma">osteosarcoma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">randomized controlled trials</a> have not confirmed that vitamin D supplements reduce the risk of cancer incidence, the relative risk of cancer deaths was lower by up to 16% in several meta-analyses.<a href="#cite_note-Keum-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid33553987-65">[65]</a> Low levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D, a routinely used marker for vitamin D, have been suggested as a contributing factor in increasing the risk the development and progression of various types of cancer, including <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanoma</a>. Vitamin D requires activation by <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_P450" title="Cytochrome P450">cytochrome P450</a> (CYP) enzymes to become active and bind to the VDR. Specifically, <a href="/wiki/CYP27A1" title="CYP27A1">CYP27A1</a>, <a href="/wiki/CYP27B1" class="mw-redirect" title="CYP27B1">CYP27B1</a>, and <a href="/wiki/CYP2R1" title="CYP2R1">CYP2R1</a> are involved in the activation of vitamin D, while <a href="/wiki/CYP24A1" title="CYP24A1">CYP24A1</a> and <a href="/wiki/CYP3A4" title="CYP3A4">CYP3A4</a> are responsible for the degradation of the active vitamin D. CYP24A1, the primary catabolic enzyme of calcitriol, is overexpressed in melanoma tissues and cells. This overexpression could lead to lower levels of active vitamin D in tissues, potentially promoting the development and progression of melanoma. Several drug classes and natural health products can modulate vitamin D-related CYP enzymes, potentially causing lower levels of vitamin D and its active metabolites in tissues, suggesting that maintaining adequate vitamin D levels, that is, avoiding vitamin D deficiency, either through dietary supplements or by modulating CYP metabolism, could be beneficial in decreasing the risk of melanoma development.<a href="#cite_note-pmid38672780-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiovascular_disease">Cardiovascular disease</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Cardiovascular disease">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D supplementation is not associated with a reduced risk of stroke, <a href="/wiki/Cerebrovascular_disease" title="Cerebrovascular disease">cerebrovascular disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myocardial_infarction" title="Myocardial infarction">myocardial infarction</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ischemic_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ischemic heart disease">ischemic heart disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Futil2014-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Supplementation does not lower <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a> in the general population.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immune_system">Immune system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Immune system">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Infectious_diseases">Infectious diseases</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Infectious diseases">edit</a>]</div> In general, vitamin D functions to activate the <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate</a> and dampen the <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immune systems</a> with antibacterial, antiviral and anti-inflammatory effects.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21419266-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bishop2020-74">[74]</a> Low serum levels of vitamin D appear to be a risk factor for <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> However, supplementation trials showed no benefit.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Vitamin D supplementation at low doses may slightly decrease the overall risk of acute <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection" title="Respiratory tract infection">respiratory tract infections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SACN2020-78">[78]</a> The benefits were found in children and adolescents, and were not confirmed with higher doses.<a href="#cite_note-SACN2020-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inflammatory_bowel_disease">Inflammatory bowel disease</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Inflammatory bowel disease">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D deficiency has been linked to the severity of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).<a href="#cite_note-IBD2015-79">[79]</a> However, whether vitamin D deficiency causes IBD or is a consequence of the disease is not clear.<a href="#cite_note-Wallace_2023-80">[80]</a> Supplementation leads to improvements in scores for clinical inflammatory bowel disease activity and biochemical markers and<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wallace_2023-80">[80]</a> less frequent relapse of symptoms in IBD.<a href="#cite_note-Wallace_2023-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="COVID-19">COVID-19</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: COVID-19">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_drug_repurposing_research#Vitamin_D" title="COVID-19 drug repurposing research">COVID-19 drug repurposing research § Vitamin D</a>, and <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_misinformation#Vitamin_D" title="COVID-19 misinformation">COVID-19 misinformation § Vitamin D</a></div> As of September 2022<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit">[update]</a> the US <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> state there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against using vitamin D supplementation to prevent or treat COVID-19.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2020-D-C19-82">[82]</a> The UK <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Excellence" title="National Institute for Health and Care Excellence">National Institute for Health and Care Excellence</a> (NICE) does not recommend to offer a vitamin D supplement to people solely to prevent or treat COVID-19.<a href="#cite_note-NICE2020-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-NICE_evidence-84">[84]</a> Both organizations included recommendations to continue the previous established recommendations on vitamin D supplementation for other reasons, such as bone and muscle health, as applicable. Both organizations noted that more people may require supplementation due to lower amounts of sun exposure during the pandemic.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2020-D-C19-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-NICE2020-83">[83]</a> Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency have been associated with adverse outcomes in COVID-19.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid33751020-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid33775818-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid33774074-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid34384300-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid34894254-90">[90]</a> A review of supplement trials indicated a lower <a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_unit" title="Intensive care unit">intensive care unit</a> (ICU) admission rate compared to those without supplementation, but without a change in mortality,<a href="#cite_note-pmid33486522-91">[91]</a> but another review considered the evidence for treatment of COVID-19 to be very uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34029377-92">[92]</a> Another meta-analysis stated that the use of high doses of vitamin D in people with COVID-19 is not based on solid evidence although calcifediol supplementation may have a protective effect on ICU admissions.<a href="#cite_note-pmid33774074-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_conditions">Other conditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other conditions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease">Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D supplementation substantially reduced the rate of moderate or severe exacerbations of <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a> (COPD).<a href="#cite_note-pmid30630893-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asthma">Asthma</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Asthma">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D supplementation does not help prevent asthma attacks or alleviate symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diabetes">Diabetes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Diabetes">edit</a>]</div> A meta-analysis reported that vitamin D supplementation significantly reduced the risk of <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a> for non-obese people with <a href="/wiki/Prediabetes" title="Prediabetes">prediabetes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Another meta-analysis reported that vitamin D supplementation significantly improved glycemic control [homeostatic model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR)], hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C), and fasting blood glucose (FBG) in individuals with type 2 diabetes.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> In prospective studies, high versus low level of vitamin D was respectively associated with significant decrease in risk of type 2 diabetes, combined type 2 diabetes and prediabetes, and prediabetes.<a href="#cite_note-Mohammadi-97">[97]</a> A 2011 <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)" title="Cochrane (organisation)">Cochrane</a> <a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">systematic review</a> examined one study that showed vitamin D together with insulin maintained levels of fasting <a href="/wiki/C-peptide" title="C-peptide">C-peptide</a> after 12 months better than <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> alone. However, it is important to highlight that the studies available to be included in this review presented considerable flaws in quality and design.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Attention_deficit_hyperactivity_disorder_(ADHD)">Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)">edit</a>]</div> A meta-analysis of observational studies showed that children with <a href="/wiki/ADHD" class="mw-redirect" title="ADHD">ADHD</a> have lower vitamin D levels, and that there was a small association between low vitamin D levels at the time of birth and later development of ADHD.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Several small, randomized controlled trials of vitamin D supplementation indicated improved ADHD symptoms such as impulsivity and hyperactivity.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Depression">Depression</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Depression">edit</a>]</div> Clinical trials of vitamin D supplementation for depressive symptoms have generally been of low quality and show no overall effect, although subgroup analysis showed supplementation for participants with clinically significant depressive symptoms or <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depressive disorder</a> had a moderate effect.<a href="#cite_note-Shaffer-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cognition_and_dementia">Cognition and dementia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cognition and dementia">edit</a>]</div> A systematic review of clinical studies found an association between low vitamin D levels with <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_impairment" title="Cognitive impairment">cognitive impairment</a> and a higher risk of developing <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>. However, lower vitamin D concentrations are also associated with poor nutrition and spending less time outdoors. Therefore, alternative explanations for the increase in cognitive impairment exist and hence a direct causal relationship between vitamin D levels and <a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">cognition</a> could not be established.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23008220-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Schizophrenia">edit</a>]</div> People diagnosed with schizophrenia tend to have lower serum vitamin D concentration compared to those without the condition. This may be a consequence of the disease rather than a cause, due, for example, to low dietary vitamin D and less time spent exposed to sunlight.<a href="#cite_note-Cui2021-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Results from supplementation trials have been inconclusive.<a href="#cite_note-Cui2021-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Pregnancy">edit</a>]</div> Low levels of vitamin D in pregnancy are associated with <a href="/wiki/Gestational_diabetes" title="Gestational diabetes">gestational diabetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-eclampsia" title="Pre-eclampsia">pre-eclampsia</a>, and small (for gestational age) infants.<a href="#cite_note-Agh2013-105">[105]</a> Although taking vitamin D supplements during pregnancy raises blood levels of vitamin D in the mother at term,<a href="#cite_note-palacios-106">[106]</a> the full extent of benefits for the mother or baby is unclear.<a href="#cite_note-Agh2013-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-palacios-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-Palacios_2024-108">[108]</a> Pregnant women often do not take the recommended amount of vitamin D,<a href="#cite_note-Wagner_2012-109">[109]</a> however, the benefits and risk of vitamin D supplementation during pregnancy have not been well studied.<a href="#cite_note-Palacios_2024-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Obesity">Obesity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Obesity">edit</a>]</div> Obesity increases the risk of having low serum vitamin D. Supplementation does not lead to weight loss, but weight loss increases serum vitamin D. The theory is that fatty tissue sequesters vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Uterine_fibroids">Uterine fibroids</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Uterine fibroids">edit</a>]</div> There is evidence that pathogenesis of <a href="/wiki/Uterine_fibroid" title="Uterine fibroid">uterine fibroids</a> is associated with low serum vitamin D and that supplementation reduces size of fibroids.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Allowed_health_claims">Allowed health claims</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Allowed health claims">edit</a>]</div> Governmental regulatory agencies stipulate for the food and dietary supplement industries certain health claims as allowable as statements on packaging. Europe: <a href="/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a> (EFSA) <ul><li>normal function of the immune system<a href="#cite_note-EFSA1-113">[113]</a></li> <li>normal inflammatory response<a href="#cite_note-EFSA1-113">[113]</a></li> <li>normal muscle function<a href="#cite_note-EFSA1-113">[113]</a></li> <li>reduced risk of falling in people over age 60<a href="#cite_note-EFSA2-114">[114]</a></li></ul> US: <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) <ul><li>"Adequate calcium and vitamin D, as part of a well balanced diet, along with physical activity, may reduce the risk of osteoporosis."<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a></li></ul> Canada: <a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a> <ul><li>"Adequate calcium and regular exercise may help to achieve strong bones in children and adolescents and may reduce the risk of osteoporosis in older adults. An adequate intake of vitamin D is also necessary."<a href="#cite_note-health_Canada-116">[116]</a></li></ul> Japan: Foods with Nutrient Function Claims (FNFC) <ul><li>"Vitamin D is a nutrient which promotes the absorption of calcium in the gut intestine and aids in the development of bone."<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></li></ul> Australia-New Zealand.<a href="#cite_note-AusNZ-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dietary_intake">Dietary intake</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Dietary intake">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; font-size: 80%; text-align: center; margin-left: 1em"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="3" style="background: blue; color: white; font-size: 110%; text-align: center;">United Kingdom </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col" width="150px">Age group </th> <th scope="col" width="100px">Intake (μg/day) </th> <th scope="col" width="100px">Maximum intake (μg/day)<a href="#cite_note-NHSVD-119">[119]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Breast-fed infants 0–12 months</td> <td>8.5 – 10</td> <td>25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Formula-fed infants (<500 mL/d)</td> <td>10</td> <td>25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Children 1 – 10 years</td> <td>10</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Children >10 and adults</td> <td>10</td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background: blue; color: white; font-size: 110%; text-align: center;">United States </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Age group </th> <th scope="col">RDA (IU/day) </th> <th scope="col">(μg/day)<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Infants 0–6 months</td> <td>400*</td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Infants 6–12 months</td> <td>400*</td> <td>10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1–70 years</td> <td>600</td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adults > 70 years</td> <td>800</td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pregnant/Lactating</td> <td>600</td> <td>15 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Age group </th> <th scope="col">Tolerable upper intake level (IU/day) </th> <th scope="col">(μg/day) </th></tr> <tr> <td>Infants 0–6 months</td> <td>1,000</td> <td>25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Infants 6–12 months</td> <td>1,500</td> <td>37.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1–3 years</td> <td>2,500</td> <td>62.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4–8 years</td> <td>3,000</td> <td>75 </td></tr> <tr> <td>9+ years</td> <td>4,000</td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pregnant/lactating</td> <td>4,000</td> <td>100<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background: blue; color: white; font-size: 110%; text-align: center;">Canada </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Age group </th> <th scope="col">RDA (IU)<a href="#cite_note-HCanada-120">[120]</a> </th> <th scope="col">Tolerable upper intake (IU)<a href="#cite_note-HCanada-120">[120]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Infants 0–6 months</td> <td>400*</td> <td>1,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Infants 7–12 months</td> <td>400*</td> <td>1,500 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Children 1–3 years</td> <td>600</td> <td>2,500 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Children 4–8 years</td> <td>600</td> <td>3,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Children and adults 9–70 years</td> <td>600</td> <td>4,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adults > 70 years</td> <td>800</td> <td>4,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pregnancy & lactation</td> <td>600</td> <td>4,000 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background: blue; color: white; font-size: 110%; text-align: center;">Australia and New Zealand </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Age group </th> <th scope="col">Adequate Intake (μg)<a href="#cite_note-AusNZ-118">[118]</a> </th> <th scope="col">Upper Level of Intake (μg)<a href="#cite_note-AusNZ-118">[118]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Infants 0–12 months</td> <td>5*</td> <td>25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Children 1–18 years</td> <td>5*</td> <td>80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adults 19–50 years</td> <td>5*</td> <td>80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adults 51–70 years</td> <td>10*</td> <td>80 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adults > 70 years</td> <td>15*</td> <td>80 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background: blue; color: white; font-size: 110%; text-align: center;">European Food Safety Authority </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Age group </th> <th scope="col">Adequate Intake (μg)<a href="#cite_note-EFSA-vitD-121">[121]</a> </th> <th scope="col">Tolerable upper limit (μg)<a href="#cite_note-EFSA-2012-122">[122]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Infants 0–12 months</td> <td>10</td> <td>25 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Children 1–10 years</td> <td>15</td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Children 11–17 years</td> <td>15</td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Adults</td> <td>15</td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pregnancy & Lactation</td> <td>15</td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="text-align: center;">* Adequate intake, no RDA/RDI yet established </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recommended_levels">Recommended levels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Recommended levels">edit</a>]</div> Various government institutions have proposed different recommendations for the amount of <a href="/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intake" title="Reference Daily Intake">daily intake</a> of vitamin D. These vary according to precise definition, age, pregnancy or lactation, and the extent assumptions are made regarding skin synthesis of vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-AusNZ-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-NHSVD-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-HCanada-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-EFSA-vitD-121">[121]</a> Conversion: 1 μg (microgram) = 40 <a href="/wiki/International_unit" title="International unit">IU</a> (international unit).<a href="#cite_note-NHSVD-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: United Kingdom">edit</a>]</div> The UK <a href="/wiki/National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a> (NHS) recommends that people at risk of vitamin D deficiency, breast-fed babies, formula-fed babies taking less than 500 ml/day, and children aged 6 months to 4 years, should take daily vitamin D supplements throughout the year to ensure sufficient intake.<a href="#cite_note-NHSVD-119">[119]</a> This includes people with limited skin synthesis of vitamin D, who are not often outdoors, are frail, housebound, living in a care home, or usually wearing clothes that cover up most of the skin, or with dark skin, such as having an African, African-Caribbean or south Asian background. Other people may be able to make adequate vitamin D from sunlight exposure from April to September. The NHS and <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_England" title="Public Health England">Public Health England</a> recommend that everyone, including those who are pregnant and breastfeeding, consider taking a daily supplement containing 10 μg (400 IU) of vitamin D during autumn and winter because of inadequate sunlight for vitamin D synthesis.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Dietary_reference_intake" class="mw-redirect" title="Dietary reference intake">dietary reference intake</a> for vitamin D issued in 2010 by the Institute of Medicine (IoM) (renamed <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Medicine" title="National Academy of Medicine">National Academy of Medicine</a> in 2015), superseded previous recommendations which were expressed in terms of adequate intake. The recommendations were formed assuming the individual has no skin synthesis of vitamin D because of inadequate sun exposure. The reference intake for vitamin D refers to total intake from food, beverages and supplements, and assumes that calcium requirements are being met.<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a>: 5  The <a href="/wiki/Tolerable_upper_intake_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolerable upper intake level">tolerable upper intake level</a> (UL)<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> is defined as "the highest average daily intake of a nutrient that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects for nearly all persons in the general population."<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a>: 403  Although ULs are believed to be safe, information on the long-term effects is incomplete and these levels of intake are not recommended for long-term consumption.<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a>: 403 : 433  For US food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For vitamin D labeling purposes, 100% of the daily value was 400 IU (10 μg), but in May 2016, it was revised to 800 IU (20 μg) to bring it into agreement with the recommended dietary allowance (RDA).<a href="#cite_note-FedReg-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at <a href="/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intake" title="Reference Daily Intake">Reference Daily Intake</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a> published recommended dietary intakes (DRIs) and tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamin D based on the jointly commissioned and funded Institute of Medicine 2010 report.<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-HCanada-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia_and_New_Zealand">Australia and New Zealand</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Australia and New Zealand">edit</a>]</div> Australia and New Zealand published nutrient reference values including guidelines for dietary vitamin D intake in 2006.<a href="#cite_note-AusNZ-118">[118]</a> About a third of Australians have vitamin D deficiency.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_Union">European Union</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: European Union">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a> (EFSA) in 2016<a href="#cite_note-EFSA-vitD-121">[121]</a> reviewed the current evidence, finding the relationship between serum 25(OH)D concentration and musculoskeletal health outcomes is widely variable. They considered that average requirements and population reference intakes values for vitamin D cannot be derived, and that a serum 25(OH)D concentration of 50 nmol/L was a suitable target value. For all people over the age of 1, including women who are pregnant or lactating, they set an adequate intake of 15 μg/day (600 IU).<a href="#cite_note-EFSA-vitD-121">[121]</a> The EFSA reviewed safe levels of intake in 2012,<a href="#cite_note-EFSA-2012-122">[122]</a> setting the tolerable upper limit for adults at 100 μg/day (4000 IU), a similar conclusion as the IOM. The <a href="/wiki/Swedish_National_Food_Agency" title="Swedish National Food Agency">Swedish National Food Agency</a> recommends a daily intake of 10 μg (400 IU) of vitamin D3 for children and adults up to 75 years, and 20 μg (800 IU) for adults 75 and older.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Non-government organisations in Europe have made their own recommendations. The German Society for Nutrition recommends 20 μg.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> The European Menopause and Andropause Society recommends postmenopausal women consume 15 μg (600 IU) until age 70, and 20 μg (800 IU) from age 71. This dose should be increased to 100 μg (4,000 IU) in some patients with very low vitamin D status or in case of co-morbid conditions.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22100145-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> In general, vitamin D3 is found in <a href="/wiki/Animal_source_foods" title="Animal source foods">animal source foods</a>, particularly fish, meat, <a href="/wiki/Offal" title="Offal">offal</a>, egg and dairy.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> It is commonly <a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">added</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Food_fortification" title="Food fortification">fortification</a> in manufactured foods.<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a> Vitamin D2 is found in fungi and is produced by ultraviolet irradiation of <a href="/wiki/Ergosterol" title="Ergosterol">ergosterol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-keegan-133">[133]</a> The vitamin D2 content in mushrooms increases with exposure to ultraviolet light,<a href="#cite_note-usda-mush-light-134">[134]</a> and is stimulated by industrial ultraviolet lamps for fortification.<a href="#cite_note-keegan-133">[133]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of Agriculture">United States Department of Agriculture</a> reports D2 and D3 content combined in one value. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Natural_sources">Natural sources</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Natural sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ergocalciferol#Biosynthesis" title="Ergocalciferol">Ergocalciferol § Biosynthesis</a></div> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%; text-align: center; margin-left: 1em"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="4" style="background: blue; color: white; font-size: 110%; text-align: center;">Animal sources </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col">Source<a href="#cite_note-USDA-135">[135]</a> </th> <th scope="col">IU/g </th></tr> <tr> <td>Cooked <a href="/wiki/Egg_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (food)">egg</a> yolk </td> <td>0.7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Beef liver, cooked, braised </td> <td>0.5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Fish liver oils, such as <a href="/wiki/Cod_liver_oil" title="Cod liver oil">cod liver oil</a> </td> <td>100 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col" colspan="3" style="background: blue; color: white; font-size: 110%; text-align: center;">Fatty fish species </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">Salmon</a>, pink, cooked, dry heat </td> <td>5.2 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mackerel" title="Mackerel">Mackerel</a>, Pacific and jack, mixed species, cooked, dry heat </td> <td>4.6 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">Tuna</a>, canned in oil </td> <td>2.7 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Canned_sardines" class="mw-redirect" title="Canned sardines">Sardines, canned in oil</a>, drained </td> <td>1.9 </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%; text-align: center; margin-left: 1em"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="4" style="background: blue; color: white; font-size: 110%; text-align: center;">Fungal sources </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="col" colspan="2">Source </th> <th scope="col"> μg/g </th> <th scope="col">IU/g </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="col" colspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Agaricus_bisporus" title="Agaricus bisporus">Agaricus bisporus</a> (common mushroom): D2 + D3 </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="2">Portobello </th> <td>Raw </td> <td>0.003 </td> <td>0.1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Exposed to ultraviolet light </td> <td>0.11 </td> <td>4.46 </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" rowspan="2">Crimini </th> <td>Raw </td> <td>0.001 </td> <td>0.03 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Exposed to ultraviolet light </td> <td>0.32 </td> <td>12.8 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Food_fortification">Food fortification</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Food fortification">edit</a>]</div> Manufactured foods fortified with vitamin D include some fruit juices and fruit juice drinks, <a href="/wiki/Meal_replacement" title="Meal replacement">meal replacement</a> <a href="/wiki/Energy_bar" title="Energy bar">energy bars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soy_protein" title="Soy protein">soy protein</a>-based beverages, certain cheese and cheese products, flour products, <a href="/wiki/Infant_formula" title="Infant formula">infant formulas</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Breakfast_cereal" title="Breakfast cereal">breakfast cereals</a>, and milk.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-spiro-137">[137]</a> In 2016 in the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) amended food additive regulations for milk fortification,<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> stating that vitamin D3 levels not exceed 42 IU vitamin D per 100 g (400 IU per US <a href="/wiki/Quart" title="Quart">quart</a>) of dairy milk, 84 IU of vitamin D2 per 100 g (800 IU per quart) of <a href="/wiki/Plant_milk" title="Plant milk">plant milks</a>, and 89 IU per 100 g (800 IU per quart) in plant-based <a href="/wiki/Yogurt" title="Yogurt">yogurts</a> or in soy beverage products.<a href="#cite_note-fda16-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Plant milks are defined as beverages made from soy, almond, rice, among other plant sources intended as alternatives to dairy milk.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> While some studies have found that vitamin D3 raises 25(OH)D blood levels faster and remains active in the body longer,<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> others contend that vitamin D2 sources are equally bioavailable and effective as D3 for raising and sustaining 25(OH)D.<a href="#cite_note-keegan-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-borel-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food_preparation">Food preparation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Food preparation">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D content in typical foods is reduced variably by cooking. Boiled, fried and baked foods retained 69–89% of original vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recommended_serum_levels">Recommended serum levels</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Recommended serum levels">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Reference_ranges_for_blood_tests#Vitamins" title="Reference ranges for blood tests">Reference ranges for blood tests § Vitamins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_D#Ethnic_differences" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervitaminosis D">Hypervitaminosis D § Ethnic differences</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vitamin_D_serum_levels_in_adults_world_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Vitamin_D_serum_levels_in_adults_world_map.svg/300px-Vitamin_D_serum_levels_in_adults_world_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Vitamin_D_serum_levels_in_adults_world_map.svg/450px-Vitamin_D_serum_levels_in_adults_world_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Vitamin_D_serum_levels_in_adults_world_map.svg/600px-Vitamin_D_serum_levels_in_adults_world_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1314" /></a><figcaption>Global vitamin D serum levels among adults (nmol/L).<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  > 75</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  50-74</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  25-49</div></figcaption></figure> Recommendations on recommended 25(OH)D serum levels vary across authorities, and vary based on factors like age.<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a> US labs generally report 25(OH)D levels in ng/mL.<a href="#cite_note-HHarvard2016-150">[150]</a> Other countries often use nmol/L.<a href="#cite_note-HHarvard2016-150">[150]</a> One ng/mL is approximately equal to 2.5 nmol/L.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> A 2014 review concluded that the most advantageous serum levels for 25(OH)D for all outcomes appeared to be close to 30 ng/mL (75 nmol/L).<a href="#cite_note-pmid25207384-152">[152]</a> The optimal vitamin D levels are still controversial and another review concluded that ranges from 30 to 40 ng/mL (75 to 100 nmol/L) were to be recommended for athletes.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26288575-153">[153]</a> Part of the controversy is because numerous studies have found differences in serum levels of 25(OH)D between ethnic groups; studies point to genetic as well as environmental reasons behind these variations.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Supplementation to achieve these standard levels could cause harmful vascular <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22688752-35">[35]</a> A 2012 <a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">meta-analysis</a> showed that the risk of <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular diseases">cardiovascular diseases</a> increases when blood levels of vitamin D are lowest in a range of 8 to 24 ng/mL (20 to 60 nmol/L), although results among the studies analyzed were inconsistent.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23149428-155">[155]</a> In 2011 an <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">IOM</a> committee concluded a serum 25(OH)D level of 20 ng/mL (50 nmol/L) is needed for bone and overall health. The dietary reference intakes for vitamin D are chosen with a margin of safety and 'overshoot' the targeted serum value to ensure the specified levels of intake achieve the desired serum 25(OH)D levels in almost all persons. No contributions to serum 25(OH)D level are assumed from sun exposure and the recommendations are fully applicable to people with <a href="/wiki/Dark_skin" title="Dark skin">dark skin</a> or negligible exposure to sunlight. The Institute found serum 25(OH)D concentrations above 30 ng/mL (75 nmol/L) are "not consistently associated with increased benefit". Serum 25(OH)D levels above 50 ng/mL (125 nmol/L) may be cause for concern. However, some people with serum 25(OH)D between 30 and 50 ng/mL (75 nmol/L-125 nmol/L) will also have inadequate vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-41">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Excess">Excess</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Excess">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervitaminosis D">hypervitaminosis D</a></div> Vitamin D toxicity is rare.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2007-30">[30]</a> It is caused by supplementing with high doses of vitamin D rather than sunlight. The threshold for vitamin D toxicity has not been established; however, according to some research: <ul><li>100 μg/day (4<a href="/wiki/SI_units#SI_prefixes" class="mw-redirect" title="SI units">k</a> <a href="/wiki/International_unit" title="International unit">IU</a>), have been shown to not cause toxic levels. ages 9–71<a href="#cite_note-RossetalAJCE2011-156">[156]</a></li> <li>240 μg/day (10k IU), over 5 months have been shown not to cause toxicity.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2007-30">[30]</a></li> <li>1250 μg/day (50k IU) over several months can increase serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels to 150 ng/mL.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2007-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Merck-157">[157]</a></li></ul> Those with certain medical conditions, such as primary <a href="/wiki/Hyperparathyroidism" title="Hyperparathyroidism">hyperparathyroidism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Vieth-158">[158]</a> are far more sensitive to vitamin D and develop <a href="/wiki/Hypercalcemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypercalcemia">hypercalcemia</a> in response to any increase in vitamin D nutrition, while maternal hypercalcemia during pregnancy may increase fetal sensitivity to effects of vitamin D and lead to a syndrome of intellectual disability and facial deformities.<a href="#cite_note-Vieth-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Idiopathic infantile hypercalcemia is caused by a mutation of the <a href="/wiki/CYP24A1" title="CYP24A1">CYP24A1</a> gene, leading to a reduction in the degradation of vitamin D. Infants who have such a mutation have an increased sensitivity to vitamin D and in case of additional intake a risk of <a href="/wiki/Hypercalcaemia" title="Hypercalcaemia">hypercalcaemia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31188746-160">[160]</a> The disorder can continue into adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27588937-161">[161]</a> A review published in 2015 noted that adverse effects have been reported only at 25(OH)D serum concentrations above 200 nmol/L.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26288575-153">[153]</a> Published cases of toxicity involving hypercalcemia in which the vitamin D dose and the 25-hydroxy-vitamin D levels are known all involve an intake of ≥40,000 IU (1,000 μg) per day.<a href="#cite_note-Vieth-158">[158]</a> Those who are pregnant or breastfeeding should consult a doctor before taking a vitamin D supplement. The FDA advised manufacturers of liquid vitamin D supplements that droppers accompanying these products should be clearly and accurately marked for 400 <a href="/wiki/International_unit" title="International unit">international units</a> (1 IU is the biological equivalent of 25 ng cholecalciferol/ergocalciferol). In addition, for products intended for infants, the FDA recommends the dropper hold no more than 400 IU.<a href="#cite_note-url_FDA_Caution_Vitamin_D_for_Infants-162">[162]</a> For infants (birth to 12 months), the tolerable upper limit (maximum amount that can be tolerated without harm) is set at 25 μg/day (1,000 IU). One thousand micrograms per day in infants has produced toxicity within one month.<a href="#cite_note-Merck-157">[157]</a> After being commissioned by the Canadian and American governments, the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">Institute of Medicine</a> (IOM) as of 30 November 2010<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit">[update]</a>, has increased the tolerable upper limit (UL) to 2,500 IU per day for ages 1–3 years, 3,000 IU per day for ages 4–8 years and 4,000 IU per day for ages 9–71+ years (including pregnant or lactating women).<a href="#cite_note-RossetalAJCE2011-156">[156]</a> Calcitriol itself is auto-regulated in a <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback</a> cycle, and is also affected by <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" title="Parathyroid hormone">parathyroid hormone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fibroblast_growth_factor_23" title="Fibroblast growth factor 23">fibroblast growth factor 23</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a>, calcium, and phosphate.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> A study published in 2017 assessed the prevalence of high daily intake levels of supplemental vitamin D among adults ages 20+ in the United States, based on publicly available <a href="/wiki/NHANES" class="mw-redirect" title="NHANES">NHANES</a> data from 1999 through 2014. Its data shows the following: <ul><li>Over 18% of the population exceeds the <a href="/wiki/NIH" class="mw-redirect" title="NIH">NIH</a> daily recommended allowance (<a href="/wiki/Recommended_Daily_Allowance" class="mw-redirect" title="Recommended Daily Allowance">RDA</a>) of 600–800 IU,<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a> by taking over 1000 IU, which suggests intentional supplement intake.<a href="#cite_note-Rooney_2017-164">[164]</a></li> <li>Over 3% of the population exceeds the NIH daily tolerable upper intake level (<a href="/wiki/Tolerable_upper_intake_level" class="mw-redirect" title="Tolerable upper intake level">UL</a>) of 4000 IU,<a href="#cite_note-ods-2">[2]</a> above which level the risk of toxic effects increases.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rooney_2017-164">[164]</a></li> <li>The percentage of the population taking over 1000 IU/day, as well as the percentage taking over 4000 IU/day, have both increased since 1999, according to trend analysis.<a href="#cite_note-Rooney_2017-164">[164]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_of_excess">Effect of excess</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Effect of excess">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D overdose causes hypercalcemia, which is a strong indication of vitamin D toxicity – this can be noted with an increase in urination and thirst. If hypercalcemia is not treated, it results in excess deposits of calcium in soft tissues and organs such as the kidneys, liver, and heart, resulting in pain and organ damage.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2007-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown_2008-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Insel_2006-166">[166]</a> The main symptoms of vitamin D overdose are hypercalcemia including <a href="/wiki/Anorexia_(symptom)" title="Anorexia (symptom)">anorexia</a>, nausea, and vomiting. These may be followed by <a href="/wiki/Polyuria" title="Polyuria">polyuria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polydipsia" title="Polydipsia">polydipsia</a>, weakness, insomnia, nervousness, <a href="/wiki/Pruritus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pruritus">pruritus</a> and ultimately kidney failure. Furthermore, <a href="/wiki/Proteinuria" title="Proteinuria">proteinuria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urinary_casts" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary casts">urinary casts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azotemia" title="Azotemia">azotemia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metastatic_calcification" title="Metastatic calcification">metastatic calcification</a> (especially in the kidneys) may develop.<a href="#cite_note-Merck-157">[157]</a> Other symptoms of vitamin D toxicity include intellectual disability in young children, abnormal bone growth and formation, diarrhea, irritability, weight loss, and severe depression.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2007-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Insel_2006-166">[166]</a> Vitamin D toxicity is treated by discontinuing vitamin D supplementation and restricting calcium intake. Kidney damage may be irreversible. Exposure to sunlight for extended periods of time does not normally cause vitamin D toxicity. The concentrations of vitamin D precursors produced in the skin reach an <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium" title="Chemical equilibrium">equilibrium</a>, and any further vitamin D produced is degraded.<a href="#cite_note-Vieth-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Biosynthesis">edit</a>]</div> Synthesis of vitamin D in nature is dependent on the presence of UV radiation and subsequent activation in the liver and in the kidneys. Many animals synthesize vitamin D3 from <a href="/wiki/7-dehydrocholesterol" class="mw-redirect" title="7-dehydrocholesterol">7-dehydrocholesterol</a>, and many fungi synthesize vitamin D2 from <a href="/wiki/Ergosterol" title="Ergosterol">ergosterol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-keegan-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid1297827-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interactive_pathway">Interactive pathway</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Interactive pathway">edit</a>]</div> Click on icon in lower right corner to open. <div style="overflow:auto;text-align: left"> Click on genes, proteins and metabolites below to link to respective articles. <a href="#cite_note-WikiPathways-168">[§ 1]</a> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 377px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="width: 375px; height: 350px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -335.917704536249px; left: -96.8837858324146px; width: {{{bSize}}}px"><div class="noresize">[[File:<div class="noresize thumb tnone" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:1118px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:1116px; position:absolute;"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right noresize" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D#Interactive_pathway_map" title="Go to pathway article"><img alt="VitaminDSynthesis_WP1531" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/VitaminDSynthesis_WP1531.png" decoding="async" width="1116" height="1069" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="1069" usemap="#ImageMap_80523bcf44d6d157" /></a><map name="ImageMap_80523bcf44d6d157"><area href="/wiki/7-Dehydrocholesterol" shape="rect" coords="238,109,314,137" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Previtamin_D3" shape="rect" coords="233,227,318,252" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" shape="rect" coords="228,307,321,332" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcifediol" shape="rect" coords="243,471,306,501" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/CYP2R1" shape="rect" coords="246,377,305,400" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcifediol" shape="rect" coords="593,471,655,501" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/24,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol" shape="rect" coords="1001,465,1087,505" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcitriol" shape="rect" coords="586,751,662,778" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/25-Hydroxyvitamin_D3_1-alpha-hydroxylase" shape="rect" coords="581,680,664,707" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" shape="rect" coords="704,582,822,607" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/CYP24A1" shape="rect" coords="857,474,933,499" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Vitamin_D-binding_protein" shape="rect" coords="656,814,797,843" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcium_in_biology" shape="rect" coords="762,709,789,729" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Phosphate" shape="rect" coords="789,709,816,729" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcitriol_receptor" shape="rect" coords="594,894,654,923" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Vitamin_D-binding_protein" shape="rect" coords="370,330,514,357" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/CYP27A1" shape="rect" coords="246,400,305,422" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Retinoid_X_receptor_alpha" shape="rect" coords="676,911,732,934" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Retinoid_X_receptor_beta" shape="rect" coords="676,934,732,957" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Cholesterol" shape="rect" coords="235,29,315,49" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/7-Dehydrocholesterol_reductase" shape="rect" coords="245,72,307,92" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; color:white; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_0x0" style="position:absolute; left:0px; top:0px; line-height:110%;">[[<div style="display:block; width:76px; height:0px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; left:237.79492833517088px; top:121.919335370502px; background:transparent; border-top:3px blue solid"></div>]]</div> <div id="annotation_0x0" style="position:absolute; left:0px; top:0px; line-height:110%;">[[<div style="display:block; width:85px; height:0px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; left:233.0px; top:237px; 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overflow:hidden; position:relative; left:243.10253583241456px; top:458.813537869581px; background:transparent; border:4px black solid"></div>]]</div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right noresize" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D#Interactive_pathway_map" title="Go to pathway article"><img alt="VitaminDSynthesis_WP1531" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/VitaminDSynthesis_WP1531.png" decoding="async" width="1116" height="1069" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="1069" usemap="#ImageMap_80523bcf44d6d157" /></a><map name="ImageMap_80523bcf44d6d157"><area href="/wiki/7-Dehydrocholesterol" shape="rect" coords="238,109,314,137" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Previtamin_D3" shape="rect" coords="233,227,318,252" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" shape="rect" coords="228,307,321,332" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcifediol" shape="rect" coords="243,471,306,501" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/CYP2R1" shape="rect" coords="246,377,305,400" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcifediol" shape="rect" coords="593,471,655,501" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/24,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol" shape="rect" coords="1001,465,1087,505" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcitriol" shape="rect" coords="586,751,662,778" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/25-Hydroxyvitamin_D3_1-alpha-hydroxylase" shape="rect" coords="581,680,664,707" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" shape="rect" coords="704,582,822,607" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/CYP24A1" shape="rect" coords="857,474,933,499" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Vitamin_D-binding_protein" shape="rect" coords="656,814,797,843" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcium_in_biology" shape="rect" coords="762,709,789,729" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Phosphate" shape="rect" coords="789,709,816,729" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Calcitriol_receptor" shape="rect" coords="594,894,654,923" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Vitamin_D-binding_protein" shape="rect" coords="370,330,514,357" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/CYP27A1" shape="rect" coords="246,400,305,422" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Retinoid_X_receptor_alpha" shape="rect" coords="676,911,732,934" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Retinoid_X_receptor_beta" shape="rect" coords="676,934,732,957" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /><area href="/wiki/Cholesterol" shape="rect" coords="235,29,315,49" alt="Go to article" title="Go to article" /><area href="/wiki/7-Dehydrocholesterol_reductase" shape="rect" coords="245,72,307,92" alt="go to article" title="go to article" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"></div> </div></div>|alt=Vitamin D Synthesis Pathway (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wikipathways.org/index.php/Pathway:WP1531">view</a> / <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wikipathways.org/index.php?title=Pathway:WP1531&action=edit">edit</a>)]]</div></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:VitaminDSynthesis_WP1531.png" title="File:VitaminDSynthesis WP1531.png"> </a></div>Vitamin D Synthesis Pathway (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wikipathways.org/index.php/Pathway:WP1531">view</a> / <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wikipathways.org/index.php?title=Pathway:WP1531&action=edit">edit</a>) </div> </div> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-WikiPathways-168"><a href="#cite_ref-WikiPathways_168-0">^</a> The interactive pathway map can be edited at WikiPathways: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wikipathways.org/index.php/Pathway:WP1531">"VitaminDSynthesis_WP1531"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=VitaminDSynthesis_WP1531&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wikipathways.org%2Findex.php%2FPathway%3AWP1531&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photochemistry">Photochemistry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Photochemistry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vitamin_D_biosynthesis_in_fungi_and_animals.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Vitamin_D_biosynthesis_in_fungi_and_animals.svg/300px-Vitamin_D_biosynthesis_in_fungi_and_animals.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Vitamin_D_biosynthesis_in_fungi_and_animals.svg/450px-Vitamin_D_biosynthesis_in_fungi_and_animals.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Vitamin_D_biosynthesis_in_fungi_and_animals.svg/600px-Vitamin_D_biosynthesis_in_fungi_and_animals.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="316" /></a><figcaption>The photochemistry of vitamin D biosynthesis in animal and fungi</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcitriol-Biosynthese_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Calcitriol-Biosynthese_2.svg/300px-Calcitriol-Biosynthese_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Calcitriol-Biosynthese_2.svg/450px-Calcitriol-Biosynthese_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Calcitriol-Biosynthese_2.svg/600px-Calcitriol-Biosynthese_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Thermal isomerization of <a href="/wiki/Previtamin_D3" title="Previtamin D3">previtamin D3</a> to vitamin D3</figcaption></figure> The transformation that converts 7-dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D3 occurs in two steps.<a href="#cite_note-pmid3030826-169">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid24466410-170">[169]</a> First, 7-dehydrocholesterol is <a href="/wiki/Photolysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Photolysis">photolyzed</a> by ultraviolet light in a 6-electron <a href="/wiki/Conrotatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conrotatory">conrotatory</a> ring-opening <a href="/wiki/Electrocyclic_reaction" title="Electrocyclic reaction">electrocyclic reaction</a>; the product is <a href="/wiki/Previtamin_D3" title="Previtamin D3">previtamin D3</a>. Second, previtamin D3 spontaneously <a href="/wiki/Isomer" title="Isomer">isomerizes</a> to vitamin D3 (<a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" title="Cholecalciferol">cholecalciferol</a>) in an <a href="/wiki/Antarafacial" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarafacial">antarafacial</a> <a href="/wiki/Sigmatropic_shift#.5B1,7.5D_Shifts" class="mw-redirect" title="Sigmatropic shift">sigmatropic [1,7] hydride shift</a>. At room temperature, the transformation of previtamin D3 to vitamin D3 in an organic solvent takes about 12 days to complete. The conversion of previtamin D3 to vitamin D3 in the skin is about 10 times faster than in an organic solvent.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2004-171">[170]</a> The conversion from ergosterol to vitamin D2 follows a similar procedure, forming previtamin D2 by photolysis, which isomerizes to vitamin D2 (<a href="/wiki/Ergocalciferol" title="Ergocalciferol">ergocalciferol</a>).<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a> The transformation of previtamin D2 to vitamin D2 in methanol has a rate comparable to that of previtamin D3. The process is faster in white button mushrooms.<a href="#cite_note-keegan-133">[133]</a>: fig. 3  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthesis_in_the_skin">Synthesis in the skin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Synthesis in the skin">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skinlayers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Skinlayers.png/220px-Skinlayers.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Skinlayers.png/330px-Skinlayers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Skinlayers.png 2x" data-file-width="332" data-file-height="329" /></a><figcaption>In the epidermal strata of the skin, vitamin D production is greatest in the stratum basale (colored red in the illustration) and stratum spinosum (colored light brown).</figcaption></figure> Vitamin D3 is produced photochemically from <a href="/wiki/7-Dehydrocholesterol" title="7-Dehydrocholesterol">7-dehydrocholesterol</a> in the skin of most vertebrate animals, including humans.<a href="#cite_note-pmid12514284-173">[172]</a> The precursor of vitamin D3, 7-dehydrocholesterol is produced in relatively large quantities. 7-Dehydrocholesterol reacts with <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light#Subtypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">UVB light</a> at <a href="/wiki/Wavelengths" class="mw-redirect" title="Wavelengths">wavelengths</a> of 290–315 nm.<a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> These wavelengths are present in sunlight, as well as in the light emitted by the UV lamps in <a href="/wiki/Tanning_bed" class="mw-redirect" title="Tanning bed">tanning beds</a> (which produce ultraviolet primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light#Subtypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">UVA</a> spectrum, but typically produce 4% to 10% of the total UV emissions as UVB, some tanning beds can use only separate UVB light bulbs specifically for vitamin D production). Exposure to light through windows is insufficient because glass almost completely blocks UVB light.<a href="#cite_note-Holick2020-175">[174]</a> Adequate amounts of vitamin D can be produced with moderate sun exposure to the face, arms and legs (for those with the least melanin), averaging 5–30 minutes twice per week, or approximately 25% of the time for minimal sunburn. The darker the skin on the <a href="/wiki/Fitzpatrick_scale" title="Fitzpatrick scale">Fitzpatrick scale</a> and the weaker the sunlight, the more minutes of exposure are needed. It also depends on parts of body exposed, all three factors affect minimal erythema dose (MED).<a href="#cite_note-176">[175]</a> Vitamin D overdose from UV exposure is impossible: the skin reaches an equilibrium where the vitamin D degrades as fast as it is created.<a href="#cite_note-Holick_2007-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[176]</a> The skin consists of two primary layers: the inner layer called the <a href="/wiki/Dermis" title="Dermis">dermis</a>, and the outer, thinner <a href="/wiki/Epidermis" title="Epidermis">epidermis</a>. Vitamin D is produced in the <a href="/wiki/Keratinocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratinocytes">keratinocytes</a> of two innermost strata of the epidermis, the stratum basale and stratum spinosum, which also are able to produce calcitriol and express the VDR.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle2010-178">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution">Evolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Evolution">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D can be synthesized only by a photochemical process. Its production from <a href="/wiki/Sterol" title="Sterol">sterols</a> would have started very early in the evolution of life around the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of photosynthesis">origin of photosynthesis</a>, possibly helping to prevent DNA damage by absorbing UVB, making vitamin D an inactive end product. The familiar vitamin D endocrine machinery containing <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor">vitamin D receptor</a> (VDR), various <a href="/wiki/CYP450" class="mw-redirect" title="CYP450">CYP450</a> enzymes for activation and inactivation, and a vitamin D binding protein (DBP) is found in <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> only. Primitive marine vertebrates are thought to absorb calcium from the ocean into their skeletons and eat plankton rich in vitamin D, although the function in those without a calcified cartilage is unclear.<a href="#cite_note-pmid24466411-179">[178]</a> Phytoplankton in the ocean (such as <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophore" title="Coccolithophore">coccolithophore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Emiliania_huxleyi" class="mw-redirect" title="Emiliania huxleyi">Emiliania huxleyi</a>) have been photosynthesizing vitamin D for more than 500 million years. Land vertebrates required another source of vitamin D other than plants for their calcified skeletons. They had to either ingest it or be exposed to sunlight to photosynthesize it in their skin.<a href="#cite_note-pmid1297827-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-Holick_2004-171">[170]</a> Land vertebrates have been photosynthesizing vitamin D for more than 350 million years.<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-452-29688-9-180">[179]</a> In birds and fur-bearing mammals, fur or feathers block UV rays from reaching the skin. Instead, vitamin D is created from oily secretions of the skin deposited onto the feathers or fur, and is obtained orally during grooming.<a href="#cite_note-AgarwalStout2011-181">[180]</a> However, some animals, such as the <a href="/wiki/Naked_mole-rat" title="Naked mole-rat">naked mole-rat</a>, are naturally cholecalciferol-deficient, as serum 25-OH vitamin D levels are undetectable.<a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a> Dogs and cats are practically incapable of vitamin D synthesis due to high activity of <a href="/wiki/7-dehydrocholesterol_reductase" class="mw-redirect" title="7-dehydrocholesterol reductase">7-dehydrocholesterol reductase</a>, but get vitamin D from prey animals.<a href="#cite_note-183">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_synthesis">Industrial synthesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Industrial synthesis">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) is produced industrially by exposing <a href="/wiki/7-dehydrocholesterol" class="mw-redirect" title="7-dehydrocholesterol">7-dehydrocholesterol</a> to UVB and UVC light, followed by purification.<a href="#cite_note-Holick05-184">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-keegan-133">[133]</a> The 7-dehydrocholesterol is a natural substance in fish organs, especially the liver,<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> in wool grease (<a href="/wiki/Lanolin" title="Lanolin">lanolin</a>) from sheep and in some plants,<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> and lichen (<a href="/wiki/Cladonia_rangiferina" title="Cladonia rangiferina">Cladonia rangiferina</a>).<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Björn_Wang_2000_pp._26–32-188">[187]</a> Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) is produced in a similar way using ergosterol from yeast or mushrooms as a starting material.<a href="#cite_note-Holick05-184">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-keegan-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mechanism_of_action">Mechanism of action</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Mechanism of action">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metabolic_activation">Metabolic activation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Metabolic activation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cholecalciferol_to_calcidiol_CH3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Cholecalciferol_to_calcidiol_CH3.svg/300px-Cholecalciferol_to_calcidiol_CH3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Cholecalciferol_to_calcidiol_CH3.svg/450px-Cholecalciferol_to_calcidiol_CH3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Cholecalciferol_to_calcidiol_CH3.svg/600px-Cholecalciferol_to_calcidiol_CH3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="196" /></a><figcaption>Liver hydroxylation of <a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" title="Cholecalciferol">cholecalciferol</a> to <a href="/wiki/Calcifediol" title="Calcifediol">calcifediol</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcidiol_to_calcitriol_CH3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Calcidiol_to_calcitriol_CH3.svg/300px-Calcidiol_to_calcitriol_CH3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Calcidiol_to_calcitriol_CH3.svg/450px-Calcidiol_to_calcitriol_CH3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Calcidiol_to_calcitriol_CH3.svg/600px-Calcidiol_to_calcitriol_CH3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="198" /></a><figcaption>Kidney hydroxylation of calcifediol to <a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">calcitriol</a> </figcaption></figure> Vitamin D is carried via the blood to the liver, where it is converted into the <a href="/wiki/Prohormone" title="Prohormone">prohormone</a> <a href="/wiki/Calcifediol" title="Calcifediol">calcifediol</a>. Circulating calcifediol may then be converted into <a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">calcitriol</a> – the biologically active form of vitamin D – in the kidneys.<a href="#cite_note-Adams&Hewison2010-189">[188]</a> Whether synthesized in the skin or ingested, vitamin D is <a href="/wiki/Hydroxylated" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxylated">hydroxylated</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> at position 25 (upper right of the molecule) to form 25-hydroxycholecalciferol (calcifediol or 25(OH)D).<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> This reaction is catalyzed by the <a href="/wiki/Microsomal" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsomal">microsomal</a> enzyme <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_25-hydroxylase" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin D 25-hydroxylase">vitamin D 25-hydroxylase</a>, the product of the CYP2R1 human gene, and expressed by <a href="/wiki/Hepatocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hepatocytes">hepatocytes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> Once made, the product is released into the <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma</a>, where it is bound to an α-globulin carrier protein named the <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D-binding_protein" title="Vitamin D-binding protein">vitamin D-binding protein</a>.<a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a> Calcifediol is transported to the proximal tubules of the kidneys, where it is hydroxylated at the 1-α position (lower right of the molecule) to form calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, 1,25(OH)2D).<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> The conversion of calcifediol to calcitriol is catalyzed by the enzyme <a href="/wiki/25-hydroxyvitamin_D3_1-alpha-hydroxylase" class="mw-redirect" title="25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase">25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1-alpha-hydroxylase</a>, which is the product of the CYP27B1 human gene.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> The activity of CYP27B1 is increased by <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" title="Parathyroid hormone">parathyroid hormone</a>, and also by low calcium or phosphate.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> Following the final converting step in the kidney, calcitriol is released into the circulation. By binding to vitamin D-binding protein, calcitriol is transported throughout the body, including to the intestine, kidneys, and bones.<a href="#cite_note-PKIN2020VitD-18">[18]</a> Calcitriol is the most potent natural <a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">ligand</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor">vitamin D receptor</a>, which mediates most of the physiological actions of vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Adams&Hewison2010-189">[188]</a> In addition to the kidneys, calcitriol is also synthesized by certain other cells, including <a href="/wiki/Monocyte" title="Monocyte">monocyte</a>-<a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>. When synthesized by monocyte-macrophages, calcitriol acts locally as a <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokine</a>, modulating body defenses against microbial invaders by stimulating the <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate immune system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Adams&Hewison2010-189">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inactivation">Inactivation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Inactivation">edit</a>]</div> The activity of calcifediol and calcitriol can be reduced by hydroxylation at position 24 by <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D3_24-hydroxylase" title="Vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase">vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase</a>, forming secalciferol and calcitetrol, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Difference_between_substrates">Difference between substrates</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Difference between substrates">edit</a>]</div> Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) share a similar mechanism of action as outlined above.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> Metabolites produced by vitamin D2 are named with an er- or ergo- prefix to differentiate them from the D3-based counterparts (sometimes with a chole- prefix).<a href="#cite_note-nomen-d-17">[17]</a> <ul><li>Metabolites produced from vitamin D2 tend to bind less well to the vitamin D-binding protein.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a></li> <li>Vitamin D3 can alternatively be hydroxylated to calcifediol by <a href="/wiki/Sterol_27-hydroxylase" class="mw-redirect" title="Sterol 27-hydroxylase">sterol 27-hydroxylase</a> (CYP27A1), but vitamin D2 cannot.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a></li> <li>Ergocalciferol can be directly hydroxylated at position 24 by <a href="/wiki/CYP27A1" title="CYP27A1">CYP27A1</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> This hydroxylation also leads to a greater degree of inactivation: the activity of calcitriol decreases to 60% of original after 24-hydroxylation,<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a> whereas ercalcitriol undergoes a 10-fold decrease in activity on conversion to ercalcitetrol.<a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a></li></ul> It is disputed whether these differences lead to a measurable drop in efficacy (see <a href="#Food_fortification">§ Food fortification</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intracellular_mechanisms">Intracellular mechanisms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Intracellular mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor">Vitamin D receptor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">Calcitriol</a></div> Calcitriol enters the target cell and binds to the vitamin D receptor in the cytoplasm. This activated receptor enters the nucleus and binds to <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_response_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin D response element">vitamin D response elements</a> (VDRE) which are specific DNA sequences on genes.<a href="#cite_note-lpi-1">[1]</a> Transcription of these genes is stimulated and produces greater levels of the proteins which mediate the effects of vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-Bikle-3">[3]</a> Some reactions of the cell to calcitriol appear to be too fast for the classical VDRE transcription pathway, leading to the discovery of various non-genomic actions of vitamin D. The membrane-bound <a href="/wiki/PDIA3" title="PDIA3">PDIA3</a> likely serves as an alternate receptor in this pathway.<a href="#cite_note-dor-194">[193]</a> The classical VDR may still play a role.<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin#History" title="Vitamin">Vitamin § History</a></div> Vitamin D was discovered in 1922.<a href="#cite_note-pmid35245207-196">[195]</a> In 1914, American researchers <a href="/wiki/Elmer_McCollum" title="Elmer McCollum">Elmer McCollum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_Davis" title="Marguerite Davis">Marguerite Davis</a> had discovered a substance in <a href="/wiki/Cod_liver_oil" title="Cod liver oil">cod liver oil</a> which later was named "<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">vitamin A</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Wolf_2004-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mellanby" title="Edward Mellanby">Edward Mellanby</a>, a British researcher, observed that dogs that were fed cod liver oil did not develop rickets, and (wrongly) concluded that vitamin A or a closely associated factor could prevent the disease. In 1922, McCollum tested modified cod liver oil in which the vitamin A had been destroyed. The modified oil cured the sick dogs, so McCollum concluded the factor in cod liver oil which cured rickets was distinct from vitamin A. He called it vitamin D because he believed it was the fourth vitamin to be named.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf_2004-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a> In 1925, it was established that when 7-dehydrocholesterol is irradiated with light, a form of a <a href="/wiki/Fat-soluble" class="mw-redirect" title="Fat-soluble">fat-soluble</a> substance is produced, now known as vitamin D3.<a href="#cite_note-Wolf_2004-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Windaus" title="Adolf Windaus">Adolf Windaus</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen" title="University of Göttingen">University of Göttingen</a> in Germany, received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> in 1928 for his work on the constitution of sterols and their connection with vitamins.<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Fabian_Hess" title="Alfred Fabian Hess">Alfred Fabian Hess</a>, his research associate, stated: "Light equals vitamin D."<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> In 1932, Otto Rosenheim and Harold King published a paper putting forward structures for sterols and bile acids,<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> and soon thereafter collaborated with <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Callow" title="Kenneth Callow">Kenneth Callow</a> and others on isolation and characterization of vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a> Windaus further clarified the chemical structure of vitamin D.<a href="#cite_note-Hirsch2011-203">[202]</a> In 1969, a specific binding protein for vitamin D called the <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor">vitamin D receptor</a> was identified.<a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a> Shortly thereafter, the conversion of vitamin D to calcifediol and then to calcitriol, the biologically active form, was confirmed.<a href="#cite_note-pmid4323790-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid4325863-10">[10]</a> The photosynthesis of vitamin D3 in skin via previtamin D3 and its subsequent metabolism was described in 1980. The fact that vitamin D can be synthesized in the skin through exposure to UV light means that technically it is not a vitamin, but rather can be considered a hormone.<a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-lpi-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lpi_1-20">u</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/vitamins/vitamin-D">"Vitamin D"</a>. 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Diabetes & Endocrinology (Meta-analysis). 2 (4): 307–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2213-8587%2813%2970212-2">10.1016/S2213-8587(13)70212-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24703049">24703049</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet.+Diabetes+%26+Endocrinology&rft.atitle=The+effect+of+vitamin+D+supplementation+on+skeletal%2C+vascular%2C+or+cancer+outcomes%3A+a+trial+sequential+meta-analysis&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=307-20&rft.date=2014-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS2213-8587%2813%2970212-2&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24703049&rft.aulast=Bolland&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=Grey%2C+A&rft.au=Gamble%2C+GD&rft.au=Reid%2C+IR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lancet_2018-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Lancet_2018_15-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/808633">"The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology: Vitamin D supplementation in adults does not prevent fractures, falls or improve bone mineral density"</a>. EurekAlert!. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220324065454/https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/808633">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2022. <q>The authors conclude that there is therefore little reason to use vitamin D supplements to maintain or improve musculoskeletal health, except for the prevention of rare conditions such as rickets and osteomalacia in high risk groups, which can be caused by vitamin D deficiency after long lack of exposure to sunshine.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=EurekAlert%21&rft.atitle=The+Lancet+Diabetes+%26+Endocrinology%3A+Vitamin+D+supplementation+in+adults+does+not+prevent+fractures%2C+falls+or+improve+bone+mineral+density&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fnews-releases%2F808633&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlayed_AlbarriSameer_AlnuaimiAbdelghani2022" class="citation journal cs1">Alayed Albarri EM, Sameer Alnuaimi A, Abdelghani D (4 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9372493">"Effectiveness of vitamin D2 compared with vitamin D3 replacement therapy in a primary healthcare setting: a retrospective cohort study"</a>. Qatar Medical Journal. 2022 (3): 29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5339%2Fqmj.2022.35">10.5339/qmj.2022.35</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9372493">9372493</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35974883">35974883</a>. <q>Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin consisting of vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Qatar+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Effectiveness+of+vitamin+D2+compared+with+vitamin+D3+replacement+therapy+in+a+primary+healthcare+setting%3A+a+retrospective+cohort+study&rft.volume=2022&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=29&rft.date=2022-08-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9372493%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35974883&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5339%2Fqmj.2022.35&rft.aulast=Alayed+Albarri&rft.aufirst=EM&rft.au=Sameer+Alnuaimi%2C+A&rft.au=Abdelghani%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9372493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nomen-d-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nomen-d_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nomen-d_17-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1432-1033.1982.tb06581.x">"IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Nomenclature of vitamin D. 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The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 79 (3): 362–71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajcn%2F79.3.362">10.1093/ajcn/79.3.362</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14985208">14985208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Clinical+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Vitamin+D%3A+importance+in+the+prevention+of+cancers%2C+type+1+diabetes%2C+heart+disease%2C+and+osteoporosis&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=362-71&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajcn%2F79.3.362&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14985208&rft.aulast=Holick&rft.aufirst=MF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fajcn%252F79.3.362&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEyleyWilliams1975" class="citation journal cs1">Eyley SC, Williams DH (1975). "Photolytic production of vitamin D. The preparative value of a photo-sensitiser". Journal of the Chemical Society, Chemical Communications (20): 858a. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FC3975000858A">10.1039/C3975000858A</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Chemical+Society%2C+Chemical+Communications&rft.atitle=Photolytic+production+of+vitamin+D.+The+preparative+value+of+a+photo-sensitiser&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=858a&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2FC3975000858A&rft.aulast=Eyley&rft.aufirst=SC&rft.au=Williams%2C+DH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid12514284-173"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid12514284_173-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrisseyAngeJacobsenSlifka2003" class="citation journal cs1">Crissey SD, Ange KD, Jacobsen KL, Slifka KA, Bowen PE, Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis M, et al. (January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F133.1.160">"Serum concentrations of lipids, vitamin d metabolites, retinol, retinyl esters, tocopherols and selected carotenoids in twelve captive wild felid species at four zoos"</a>. The Journal of Nutrition. 133 (1): 160–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F133.1.160">10.1093/jn/133.1.160</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12514284">12514284</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Serum+concentrations+of+lipids%2C+vitamin+d+metabolites%2C+retinol%2C+retinyl+esters%2C+tocopherols+and+selected+carotenoids+in+twelve+captive+wild+felid+species+at+four+zoos&rft.volume=133&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=160-6&rft.date=2003-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjn%2F133.1.160&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12514284&rft.aulast=Crissey&rft.aufirst=SD&rft.au=Ange%2C+KD&rft.au=Jacobsen%2C+KL&rft.au=Slifka%2C+KA&rft.au=Bowen%2C+PE&rft.au=Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis%2C+M&rft.au=Langman%2C+CB&rft.au=Sadler%2C+W&rft.au=Kahn%2C+S&rft.au=Ward%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjn%252F133.1.160&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolick2018" class="citation book cs1">Holick MF (2018). 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London, UK: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-809965-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-809965-0"><bdi>978-0-12-809965-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+4%3A+Photobiology+of+Vitamin+D&rft.btitle=Vitamin+D%3A+Volume+1%3A+Biochemistry%2C+Physiology+and+Diagnostics&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-12-809965-0&rft.aulast=Holick&rft.aufirst=MF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holick2020-175"><a href="#cite_ref-Holick2020_175-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolick2020" class="citation book cs1">Holick MF (2020). 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"Vitamin D: the underappreciated D-lightful hormone that is important for skeletal and cellular health". Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity. 9 (1): 87–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00060793-200202000-00011">10.1097/00060793-200202000-00011</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:87725403">87725403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Endocrinology%2C+Diabetes+and+Obesity&rft.atitle=Vitamin+D%3A+the+underappreciated+D-lightful+hormone+that+is+important+for+skeletal+and+cellular+health&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=87-98&rft.date=2002-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F00060793-200202000-00011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A87725403%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Holick&rft.aufirst=MF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bikle2010-178"><a href="#cite_ref-Bikle2010_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBikle2010" class="citation journal cs1">Bikle DD (March 2010). "Vitamin D and the skin". Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism. 28 (2): 117–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00774-009-0153-8">10.1007/s00774-009-0153-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20107849">20107849</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6072459">6072459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Bone+and+Mineral+Metabolism&rft.atitle=Vitamin+D+and+the+skin&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=117-30&rft.date=2010-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6072459%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20107849&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00774-009-0153-8&rft.aulast=Bikle&rft.aufirst=DD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid24466411-179"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid24466411_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouillonSuda2014" class="citation journal cs1">Bouillon R, Suda T (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3899559">"Vitamin D: calcium and bone homeostasis during evolution"</a>. BoneKEy Reports. 3: 480. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fbonekey.2013.214">10.1038/bonekey.2013.214</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3899559">3899559</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24466411">24466411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BoneKEy+Reports&rft.atitle=Vitamin+D%3A+calcium+and+bone+homeostasis+during+evolution&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=480&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3899559%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24466411&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fbonekey.2013.214&rft.aulast=Bouillon&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Suda%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3899559&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-452-29688-9-180"><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-452-29688-9_180-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolick2010" class="citation book cs1">Holick MF (1 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=P4xbcP19H0AC">The Vitamin D Solution: A 3-Step Strategy to Cure Our Most Common Health Problems</a>. Penguin Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-22293-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-22293-5"><bdi>978-1-101-22293-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230319220621/https://books.google.com/books?id=P4xbcP19H0AC">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vitamin+D+Solution%3A+A+3-Step+Strategy+to+Cure+Our+Most+Common+Health+Problems&rft.pub=Penguin+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2010-04-01&rft.isbn=978-1-101-22293-5&rft.aulast=Holick&rft.aufirst=MF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DP4xbcP19H0AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AgarwalStout2011-181"><a href="#cite_ref-AgarwalStout2011_181-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgarwalStout2011" class="citation book cs1">Agarwal SC, Stout SD (28 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_JV3BQAAQBAJ">Bone Loss and Osteoporosis: An Anthropological Perspective</a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8891-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-8891-1"><bdi>978-1-4419-8891-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060129105712/http://www.direct-ms.org/pdf/VitDVieth/Vieth%20Anthropology%20vit%20D.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 29 January 2006. <q>The high 25(OH)D concentrations, and relatively high vitamin D requirements of apes and monkeys are understandable in light of their biology—their body surface area relative to mass is generally greater than for humans, and they are inveterate groomers, consuming by mouth the vitamin D generated from the oils secreted by skin into fur. Although much of the vitamin D produced within human skin is absorbed directly, birds and furbearing animals acquire most of their vitamin D orally, as they groom themselves (Bicknell and Prescott, 1946; Carpenter and Zhao, 1999). Vitamin D is generated from the oily secretions of skin into fur. The oral consumption of UV-exposed dermal excretion is the way many animals acquire the "nutrient," vitamin D. Although Fraser (1983) has argued that dermal absorption of vitamin D may be more natural, what we know from animals indicates that oral consumption is equally physiological. Since vitamin D can be extracted from UV-exposed human sweat and skin secretions (Bicknell and Prescott, 1946), it is also reasonable to think that early humans obtained some of their vitamin D by mouth as well, by licking the skin.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bone+Loss+and+Osteoporosis%3A+An+Anthropological+Perspective&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2011-06-28&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-8891-1&rft.aulast=Agarwal&rft.aufirst=SC&rft.au=Stout%2C+SD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_JV3BQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYahavBuffenstein1993" class="citation journal cs1">Yahav S, Buffenstein R (January 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1079%2FBJN19930025">"Cholecalciferol supplementation alters gut function and improves digestibility in an underground inhabitant, the naked mole rat (Heterocephalus glaber), when fed on a carrot diet"</a>. The British Journal of Nutrition. 69 (1): 233–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1079%2FBJN19930025">10.1079/BJN19930025</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8384476">8384476</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+of+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Cholecalciferol+supplementation+alters+gut+function+and+improves+digestibility+in+an+underground+inhabitant%2C+the+naked+mole+rat+%28Heterocephalus+glaber%29%2C+when+fed+on+a+carrot+diet&rft.volume=69&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=233-41&rft.date=1993-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1079%2FBJN19930025&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8384476&rft.aulast=Yahav&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Buffenstein%2C+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1079%252FBJN19930025&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZafalonRisoliaPedrinelliVendramini2020" class="citation journal cs1">Zafalon RV, Risolia LW, Pedrinelli V, Vendramini TH, Rodrigues RB, Amaral AR, et al. (January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjpn.13259">"Vitamin D metabolism in dogs and cats and its relation to diseases not associated with bone metabolism"</a>. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition. 104 (1): 322–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjpn.13259">10.1111/jpn.13259</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31803981">31803981</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Animal+Physiology+and+Animal+Nutrition&rft.atitle=Vitamin+D+metabolism+in+dogs+and+cats+and+its+relation+to+diseases+not+associated+with+bone+metabolism&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=322-42&rft.date=2020-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fjpn.13259&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31803981&rft.aulast=Zafalon&rft.aufirst=RV&rft.au=Risolia%2C+LW&rft.au=Pedrinelli%2C+V&rft.au=Vendramini%2C+TH&rft.au=Rodrigues%2C+RB&rft.au=Amaral%2C+AR&rft.au=Kogika%2C+MM&rft.au=Brunetto%2C+MA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252Fjpn.13259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Holick05-184">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Holick05_184-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Holick05_184-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolick2005" class="citation journal cs1">Holick MF (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jn.nutrition.org/content/135/11/2739S.full.pdf">"The vitamin D epidemic and its health consequences"</a> (PDF). The Journal of Nutrition. 135 (11): 2739S–2748S. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjn%2F135.11.2739S">10.1093/jn/135.11.2739S</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16251641">16251641</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171118043538/http://jn.nutrition.org/content/135/11/2739S.full.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 18 November 2017. Retrieved 24 November 2011. <q>[Vitamin D3] is produced commercially by extracting 7-dehydrocholesterol from wool fat, followed by UVB irradiation and purification [...] [Vitamin D2] is commercially made by irradiating and then purifying the ergosterol extracted from yeast</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Nutrition&rft.atitle=The+vitamin+D+epidemic+and+its+health+consequences&rft.volume=135&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=2739S-2748S&rft.date=2005-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjn%2F135.11.2739S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16251641&rft.aulast=Holick&rft.aufirst=MF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjn.nutrition.org%2Fcontent%2F135%2F11%2F2739S.full.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakeuchiOkanoSayamotoSawamura1986" class="citation journal cs1">Takeuchi A, Okano T, Sayamoto M, Sawamura S, Kobayashi T, Motosugi M, et al. (February 1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jnsv1973/32/1/32_1_13/_pdf">"Tissue distribution of 7-dehydrocholesterol, vitamin D3 and 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 in several species of fishes"</a>. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology. 32 (1): 13–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3177%2Fjnsv.32.13">10.3177/jnsv.32.13</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3012050">3012050</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181101013656/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jnsv1973/32/1/32_1_13/_pdf">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2018. Retrieved 20 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Nutritional+Science+and+Vitaminology&rft.atitle=Tissue+distribution+of+7-dehydrocholesterol%2C+vitamin+D3+and+25-hydroxyvitamin+D3+in+several+species+of+fishes&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-22&rft.date=1986-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3177%2Fjnsv.32.13&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3012050&rft.aulast=Takeuchi&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Okano%2C+T&rft.au=Sayamoto%2C+M&rft.au=Sawamura%2C+S&rft.au=Kobayashi%2C+T&rft.au=Motosugi%2C+M&rft.au=Yamakawa%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstage.jst.go.jp%2Farticle%2Fjnsv1973%2F32%2F1%2F32_1_13%2F_pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJäpeltJakobsen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Jäpelt RB, Jakobsen J (May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3651966">"Vitamin D in plants: a review of occurrence, analysis, and biosynthesis"</a>. Frontiers in Plant Science. 4: 136. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpls.2013.00136">10.3389/fpls.2013.00136</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3651966">3651966</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23717318">23717318</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Plant+Science&rft.atitle=Vitamin+D+in+plants%3A+a+review+of+occurrence%2C+analysis%2C+and+biosynthesis&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=136&rft.date=2013-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3651966%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23717318&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpls.2013.00136&rft.aulast=J%C3%A4pelt&rft.aufirst=RB&rft.au=Jakobsen%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3651966&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGöring2018" class="citation journal cs1">Göring H (November 2018). "Vitamin D in Nature: A Product of Synthesis and/or Degradation of Cell Membrane Components". Biochemistry. Biokhimiia. 83 (11): 1350–1357. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1134%2FS0006297918110056">10.1134/S0006297918110056</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30482146">30482146</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53437216">53437216</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemistry.+Biokhimiia&rft.atitle=Vitamin+D+in+Nature%3A+A+Product+of+Synthesis+and%2For+Degradation+of+Cell+Membrane+Components&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=1350-1357&rft.date=2018-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53437216%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30482146&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1134%2FS0006297918110056&rft.aulast=G%C3%B6ring&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Björn_Wang_2000_pp._26–32-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Björn_Wang_2000_pp._26–32_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBjörnWang2000" class="citation journal cs1">Björn LO, Wang T (January 2000). 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International Journal of Circumpolar Health. 59 (1): 26–32. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10850004">10850004</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Circumpolar+Health&rft.atitle=Vitamin+D+in+an+ecological+context&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26-32&rft.date=2000-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10850004&rft.aulast=Bj%C3%B6rn&rft.aufirst=LO&rft.au=Wang%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Adams&Hewison2010-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Adams&Hewison2010_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams&Hewison2010_189-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Adams&Hewison2010_189-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdamsHewison2010" class="citation journal cs1">Adams JS, Hewison M (February 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2840860">"Update in vitamin D"</a>. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 95 (2): 471–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1210%2Fjc.2009-1773">10.1210/jc.2009-1773</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2840860">2840860</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20133466">20133466</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Clinical+Endocrinology+and+Metabolism&rft.atitle=Update+in+vitamin+D&rft.volume=95&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=471-8&rft.date=2010-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2840860%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20133466&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1210%2Fjc.2009-1773&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=JS&rft.au=Hewison%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2840860&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChengLevineBellMangelsdorf2004" class="citation journal cs1">Cheng JB, Levine MA, Bell NH, Mangelsdorf DJ, Russell DW (May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0402490101">"Genetic evidence that the human CYP2R1 enzyme is a key vitamin D 25-hydroxylase"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 101 (20): 7711–5. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PNAS..101.7711C">2004PNAS..101.7711C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0402490101">10.1073/pnas.0402490101</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC419671">419671</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15128933">15128933</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Genetic+evidence+that+the+human+CYP2R1+enzyme+is+a+key+vitamin+D+25-hydroxylase&rft.volume=101&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=7711-5&rft.date=2004-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC419671%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15128933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0402490101&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004PNAS..101.7711C&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=JB&rft.au=Levine%2C+MA&rft.au=Bell%2C+NH&rft.au=Mangelsdorf%2C+DJ&rft.au=Russell%2C+DW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1073%252Fpnas.0402490101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaingCooke2004" class="citation book cs1">Laing CJ, Cooke NE (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5c66r0KrPUMC">"Section I: Ch. 8: Vitamin D Binding Protein"</a>. 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In Feldman DJ, Pike JW, Adams JS (eds.). Vitamin D. Academic Press. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-387035-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-387035-3"><bdi>978-0-12-387035-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230319220640/https://books.google.com/books?id=w7hMAFmsM84C">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2023. 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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 62 (1): 155–62. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969PNAS...62..155H">1969PNAS...62..155H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.62.1.155">10.1073/pnas.62.1.155</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC285968">285968</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5253652">5253652</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Chromosomal+receptor+for+a+vitamin+D+metabolite&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=155-62&rft.date=1969-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC285968%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5253652&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.62.1.155&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969PNAS...62..155H&rft.aulast=Haussler&rft.aufirst=MR&rft.au=Norman%2C+AW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1073%252Fpnas.62.1.155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolickMacLaughlinClarkHolick1980" class="citation journal cs1">Holick MF, MacLaughlin JA, Clark MB, Holick SA, Potts JT, Anderson RR, et al. (October 1980). "Photosynthesis of previtamin D3 in human skin and the physiologic consequences". Science. 210 (4466): 203–5. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980Sci...210..203H">1980Sci...210..203H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.6251551">10.1126/science.6251551</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1685024">1685024</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6251551">6251551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Photosynthesis+of+previtamin+D3+in+human+skin+and+the+physiologic+consequences&rft.volume=210&rft.issue=4466&rft.pages=203-5&rft.date=1980-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.6251551&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6251551&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1685024%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980Sci...210..203H&rft.aulast=Holick&rft.aufirst=MF&rft.au=MacLaughlin%2C+JA&rft.au=Clark%2C+MB&rft.au=Holick%2C+SA&rft.au=Potts%2C+JT&rft.au=Anderson%2C+RR&rft.au=Blank%2C+IH&rft.au=Parrish%2C+JA&rft.au=Elias%2C+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVitamin+D" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vitamin_D&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style 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style="width:1%">Fat soluble</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">A</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%91-Carotene" title="Α-Carotene">α-Carotene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%92-Carotene" title="Β-Carotene">β-Carotene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinol" title="Retinol">Retinol</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tretinoin" title="Tretinoin">Tretinoin</a>#</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">D</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>D2 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ergosterol" title="Ergosterol">Ergosterol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergocalciferol" title="Ergocalciferol">Ergocalciferol</a>#</li></ul></li> <li>D3 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/7-Dehydrocholesterol" title="7-Dehydrocholesterol">7-Dehydrocholesterol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Previtamin_D3" title="Previtamin D3">Previtamin D3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" title="Cholecalciferol">Cholecalciferol</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcifediol" title="Calcifediol">25-hydroxycholecalciferol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcitroic_acid" title="Calcitroic acid">Calcitroic acid</a></li></ul></li> <li>D4 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/22-Dihydroergocalciferol" title="22-Dihydroergocalciferol">Dihydroergocalciferol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D5" title="Vitamin D5">D5</a></li> <li>D analogues <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alfacalcidol" title="Alfacalcidol">Alfacalcidol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrotachysterol" title="Dihydrotachysterol">Dihydrotachysterol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcipotriol" title="Calcipotriol">Calcipotriol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacalcitol" title="Tacalcitol">Tacalcitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paricalcitol" title="Paricalcitol">Paricalcitol</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E" title="Vitamin E">E</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tocopherol" title="Tocopherol">Tocopherol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%91-Tocopherol" title="Α-Tocopherol">Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%92-Tocopherol" title="Β-Tocopherol">Beta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%93-Tocopherol" title="Γ-Tocopherol">Gamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%94-Tocopherol" title="Δ-Tocopherol">Delta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocotrienol" title="Tocotrienol">Tocotrienol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CE%91-Tocotrienol" title="Α-Tocotrienol">Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%92-Tocotrienol" title="Β-Tocotrienol">Beta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CE%93-Tocotrienol" title="Γ-Tocotrienol">Gamma</a></li> <li>Delta</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocofersolan" title="Tocofersolan">Tocofersolan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K" title="Vitamin K">K</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1,4-Naphthoquinone" title="1,4-Naphthoquinone">Naphthoquinone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomenadione" title="Phytomenadione">Phylloquinone (K1)</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K2" title="Vitamin K2">Menaquinones (K2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menadione" title="Menadione">Menadione (K3)</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K4" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin K4">Various (K4)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4-Amino-2-methyl-1-naphthol" title="4-Amino-2-methyl-1-naphthol">4-Amino-2-methyl-1-naphthol (K5)</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-Methylnaphthalene-1,4-diamine" title="2-Methylnaphthalene-1,4-diamine">2-Methylnaphthalene-1,4-diamine (K6)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4-Amino-3-methyl-1-naphthol" title="4-Amino-3-methyl-1-naphthol">4-Amino-3-methyl-1-naphthol (K7)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water soluble</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/B_vitamins" title="B vitamins">B</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>B1 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thiamine" title="Thiamine">Thiamine</a>#</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B1_analogues" title="Vitamin B1 analogues">B1 analogues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acefurtiamine" title="Acefurtiamine">Acefurtiamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allithiamine" title="Allithiamine">Allithiamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benfotiamine" title="Benfotiamine">Benfotiamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fursultiamine" title="Fursultiamine">Fursultiamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octotiamine" title="Octotiamine">Octotiamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosultiamine" title="Prosultiamine">Prosultiamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulbutiamine" title="Sulbutiamine">Sulbutiamine</a></li></ul></li> <li>B2 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Riboflavin" title="Riboflavin">Riboflavin</a>#</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B3" title="Vitamin B3">B3</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Niacin" title="Niacin">Niacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide" title="Nicotinamide">Niacinamide</a>#</li></ul></li> <li>B5 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantothenic_acid" title="Pantothenic acid">Pantothenic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panthenol" title="Panthenol">Dexpanthenol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantethine" title="Pantethine">Pantethine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B6" title="Vitamin B6">B6</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyridoxine" title="Pyridoxine">Pyridoxine</a>#, <a href="/wiki/Pyridoxal_phosphate" title="Pyridoxal phosphate">Pyridoxal phosphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyridoxamine" title="Pyridoxamine">Pyridoxamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyritinol" title="Pyritinol">Pyritinol</a></li></ul></li> <li>B7 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biotin" title="Biotin">Biotin</a></li></ul></li> <li>B9 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folate" title="Folate">Folic acid</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrofolic_acid" title="Dihydrofolic acid">Dihydrofolic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folinic_acid" title="Folinic acid">Folinic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levomefolic_acid" title="Levomefolic acid">Levomefolic acid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B12" title="Vitamin B12">B12</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adenosylcobalamin" title="Adenosylcobalamin">Adenosylcobalamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanocobalamin" title="Cyanocobalamin">Cyanocobalamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroxocobalamin" title="Hydroxocobalamin">Hydroxocobalamin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methylcobalamin" title="Methylcobalamin">Methylcobalamin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">C</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">Ascorbic acid</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydroascorbic_acid" title="Dehydroascorbic acid">Dehydroascorbic acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multivitamin" title="Multivitamin">Multivitamins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>#<a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li>‡<a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li>§Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hormones" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hormones" title="Template:Hormones"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hormones" title="Template talk:Hormones"><abbr title="Discuss this 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0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Gonadotropin-releasing hormone">GnRH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone">TRH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">CRH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone%E2%80%93releasing_hormone" title="Growth hormone–releasing hormone">GHRH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin (GHIH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanin_concentrating_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Melanin concentrating hormone">MCH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Posterior pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">Anterior pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone">FSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone" title="Luteinizing hormone">LH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid-stimulating_hormone" title="Thyroid-stimulating hormone">TSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">Prolactin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proopiomelanocortin" title="Proopiomelanocortin">POMC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-like_intermediate_peptide" title="Corticotropin-like intermediate peptide">CLIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenocorticotropic_hormone" title="Adrenocorticotropic hormone">ACTH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanocyte-stimulating_hormone" title="Melanocyte-stimulating hormone">MSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endorphins" title="Endorphins">Endorphins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipotropin" title="Lipotropin">Lipotropin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">GH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">Adrenal axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland#Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal cortex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aldosterone" title="Aldosterone">Aldosterone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">Cortisol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cortisone" title="Cortisone">Cortisone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone">DHEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehydroepiandrosterone_sulfate" title="Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate">DHEA-S</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androstenedione" title="Androstenedione">Androstenedione</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland#Adrenal_medulla" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal medulla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adrenaline" title="Adrenaline">Adrenaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">Norepinephrine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_hormones" title="Thyroid hormones">Thyroid hormones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triiodothyronine" title="Triiodothyronine">T3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroxine" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroxine">T4</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcitonin" title="Calcitonin">Calcitonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93thyroid_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis">Thyroid axis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" title="Parathyroid hormone">PTH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93gonadal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis">Gonadal axis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">Testosterone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C3%BCllerian_hormone" title="Anti-Müllerian hormone">AMH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activin_and_inhibin" title="Activin and inhibin">Inhibin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estradiol" title="Estradiol">Estradiol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activin_and_inhibin" title="Activin and inhibin">Activin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activin_and_inhibin" title="Activin and inhibin">Inhibin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relaxin" title="Relaxin">Relaxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin_surge-attenuating_factor" title="Gonadotropin surge-attenuating factor">GnSAF</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_chorionic_gonadotropin" title="Human chorionic gonadotropin">hCG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_placental_lactogen" title="Human placental lactogen">HPL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">Estrogen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon">Glucagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">Insulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amylin" title="Amylin">Amylin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_polypeptide" title="Pancreatic polypeptide">Pancreatic polypeptide</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">Melatonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N,N-Dimethyltryptamine" title="N,N-Dimethyltryptamine">N,N-Dimethyltryptamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine" class="mw-redirect" title="5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine">5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thymosin" title="Thymosin">Thymosins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thymosin_%CE%B11" title="Thymosin α1">Thymosin α1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_thymosin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta thymosin">Beta thymosins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymopoietin" title="Thymopoietin">Thymopoietin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymulin" title="Thymulin">Thymulin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gastrin" title="Gastrin">Gastrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghrelin" title="Ghrelin">Ghrelin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Duodenum" title="Duodenum">Duodenum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin" title="Cholecystokinin">CCK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastric_inhibitory_polypeptide" title="Gastric inhibitory polypeptide">GIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretin" title="Secretin">Secretin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motilin" title="Motilin">Motilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasoactive_intestinal_peptide" title="Vasoactive intestinal peptide">VIP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ileum" title="Ileum">Ileum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enteroglucagon" title="Enteroglucagon">Enteroglucagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peptide_YY" title="Peptide YY">Peptide YY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide-1" title="Glucagon-like peptide-1">GLP-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a>/other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor" title="Insulin-like growth factor">Insulin-like growth factor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor_1" title="Insulin-like growth factor 1">IGF-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulin-like_growth_factor_2" title="Insulin-like growth factor 2">IGF-2</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">Adipose tissue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">Leptin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adiponectin" title="Adiponectin">Adiponectin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistin" title="Resistin">Resistin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeleton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteocalcin" title="Osteocalcin">Osteocalcin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renin" title="Renin">Renin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythropoietin" title="Erythropoietin">EPO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">Calcitriol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">Prostaglandin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natriuretic_peptide" title="Natriuretic peptide">Natriuretic peptide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrial_natriuretic_peptide" title="Atrial natriuretic peptide">ANP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_natriuretic_peptide_32" title="Brain natriuretic peptide 32">BNP</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Vitamin_D_receptor_modulators" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Vitamin_D_receptor_modulators" title="Template:Vitamin D receptor modulators"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Vitamin_D_receptor_modulators" title="Template talk:Vitamin D receptor modulators"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Vitamin_D_receptor_modulators" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Vitamin D receptor modulators"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Vitamin_D_receptor_modulators" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor">Vitamin D receptor</a> <a href="/wiki/Receptor_modulator" title="Receptor modulator">modulators</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_receptor" title="Vitamin D receptor"><abbr title="Vitamin D receptor">VDR</abbr></a><span class="sr-only" style="border: 0; clip: rect(0, 0, 0, 0); clip-path: polygon(0px 0px, 0px 0px, 0px 0px); height: 1px; margin: -1px; overflow: hidden; padding: 0; position: absolute; width: 1px; white-space: nowrap;">Tooltip Vitamin D receptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Agonists: <a href="/wiki/7-Dehydrocholesterol" title="7-Dehydrocholesterol">7-Dehydrocholesterol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=25-Hydroxyergocalciferol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="25-Hydroxyergocalciferol (page does not exist)">25-Hydroxyergocalciferol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfacalcidol" title="Alfacalcidol">Alfacalcidol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcifediol" title="Calcifediol">Calcifediol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calciferol" class="mw-redirect" title="Calciferol">Calciferol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcipotriol" title="Calcipotriol">Calcipotriol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcitriol" title="Calcitriol">Calcitriol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" title="Cholecalciferol">Cholecalciferol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D3" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin D3">vitamin D3</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrotachysterol" title="Dihydrotachysterol">Dihydrotachysterol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doxercalciferol" title="Doxercalciferol">Doxercalciferol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=EB-1089&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="EB-1089 (page does not exist)">EB-1089</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldecalcitol" title="Eldecalcitol">Eldecalcitol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ercalcidiol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ercalcidiol (page does not exist)">Ercalcidiol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ercalcitriol&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ercalcitriol (page does not exist)">Ercalcitriol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergocalciferol" title="Ergocalciferol">Ergocalciferol</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D2" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin D2">vitamin D2</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithocholic_acid" title="Lithocholic acid">Lithocholic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxacalcitol" title="Maxacalcitol">Maxacalcitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paricalcitol" title="Paricalcitol">Paricalcitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacalcitol" title="Tacalcitol">Tacalcitol</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Antagonists: <a href="/w/index.php?title=ZK159222&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ZK159222 (page does not exist)">ZK159222</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TEI-9647&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TEI-9647 (page does not exist)">TEI-9647</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt>See also</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:Receptor_modulators" title="Template:Receptor modulators">Receptor/signaling modulators</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 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