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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"> The early modern period is a <a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">historical period</a> that is part of, or (depending on the <a href="/wiki/Historian" title="Historian">historian</a>) immediately preceded, the <a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">modern period</a>, with divisions based primarily on the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">history of Europe</a> and the broader concept of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>. There is no exact date that marks the beginning or end of the period and its extent may vary depending on the area of history being studied. In general, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from around the start of the 16th century to the start of the 19th century (about 1500–1800). In a European context, it is defined as the period following the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and preceding the advent of modernity; but the dates of these boundaries are far from universally agreed. In the context of <a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">global history</a>, the early modern period is often used even in contexts where there is no equivalent "medieval" period. Various events and historical transitions have been proposed as the start of the early modern period, including the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople in 1453</a>, the start of the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, the end of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> and the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>. Its end is often marked by the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, and sometimes also the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> or <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Coup_of_18_Brumaire" title="Coup of 18 Brumaire">rise to power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Historians in recent decades have argued that, from a worldwide standpoint, the most important feature of the early modern period was its spreading <a href="/wiki/Proto-globalization" title="Proto-globalization">globalizing</a> character.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> New economies and institutions emerged, becoming more sophisticated and globally articulated over the course of the period. The early modern period also included the rise of the dominance of <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a> as an economic theory. Other notable trends of the period include the development of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">experimental science</a>, increasingly rapid <a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">technological progress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secular" class="mw-redirect" title="Secular">secularized</a> civic politics, accelerated travel due to improvements in mapping and ship design, and the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation states</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Definition">1 Definition</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Overview">2 Overview</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Asia_and_Africa">3 Asia and Africa</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#East_Asia">3.1 East Asia</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Chinese_dynasties">3.1.1 Chinese dynasties</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Japanese_shogunates">3.1.2 Japanese shogunates</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Korean_dynasty">3.1.3 Korean dynasty</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#South_Asia">3.2 South Asia</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Indian_empires">3.2.1 Indian empires</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#British_and_Dutch_colonization">3.2.2 British and Dutch colonization</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Southeast_Asia">3.3 Southeast Asia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#West_Asia_and_North_Africa">3.4 West Asia and North Africa</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Ottoman_Empire">3.4.1 Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-14"><a href="#North_Africa">3.4.2 North Africa</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-15"><a href="#Safavid_Iran">3.4.3 Safavid Iran</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16"><a href="#Uzbeks_and_Afghan_Pashtuns">3.4.4 Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Sub-Saharan_Africa">3.5 Sub-Saharan Africa</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Europe">4 Europe</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Gunpowder_and_firearms">4.1 Gunpowder and firearms</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#European_kingdoms_and_movements">4.2 European kingdoms and movements</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-21"><a href="#Notable_individuals">4.2.1 Notable individuals</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Christians_and_Christendom">4.3 Christians and Christendom</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#End_of_the_Crusades_and_Unity">4.3.1 End of the Crusades and Unity</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Inquisitions_and_Reformations">4.3.2 Inquisitions and Reformations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-25"><a href="#Tsardom_of_Russia">4.3.3 Tsardom of Russia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-26"><a href="#Mercantile_capitalism">4.3.4 Mercantile capitalism</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-27"><a href="#Trade_and_the_new_economy">4.3.4.1 Trade and the new economy</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-28"><a href="#Piracy's_Golden_Age">4.3.4.2 Piracy's Golden Age</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-29"><a href="#European_states_and_politics">4.3.5 European states and politics</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-30"><a href="#French_power">4.3.5.1 French power</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-31"><a href="#Early_English_revolutions">4.3.5.2 Early English revolutions</a></li> <li class="toclevel-4 tocsection-32"><a href="#International_balance_of_power">4.3.5.3 International balance of power</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#Americas">5 Americas</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-34"><a href="#Exploration_and_conquest_of_the_Americas">5.1 Exploration and conquest of the Americas</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-35"><a href="#Colonial_Latin_America">5.2 Colonial Latin America</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-36"><a href="#Colonial_North_America">5.3 Colonial North America</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-37"><a href="#Atlantic_World">6 Atlantic World</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-38"><a href="#Religion,_science,_philosophy,_and_education">7 Religion, science, philosophy, and education</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-39"><a href="#Protestant_Reformation">7.1 Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-40"><a href="#Counter-Reformation_and_Jesuits">7.2 Counter-Reformation and Jesuits</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-41"><a href="#Scientific_Revolution">7.3 Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-42"><a href="#Technology">7.4 Technology</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-43"><a href="#Enlightenment_and_reason">7.5 Enlightenment and reason</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-44"><a href="#Humanism">7.6 Humanism</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-45"><a href="#Death_in_the_early_modern_period">8 Death in the early modern period</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-46"><a href="#Mortality_rates">8.1 Mortality rates</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-47"><a href="#European_infant_mortality_rates">8.1.1 European infant mortality rates</a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-48"><a href="#Causes_of_infant_mortality">8.1.2 Causes of infant mortality</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-49"><a href="#Capital_punishment">8.2 Capital punishment</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-50"><a href="#See_also">9 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-51"><a href="#References">10 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-52"><a href="#Works_cited">10.1 Works cited</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-53"><a href="#External_links">11 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> The early modern period is a subdivision of the most recent of the three major periods of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">European history</a>: <a href="/wiki/Classical_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical civilization">antiquity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and the modern period. The term "early modern" was first proposed by medieval historian <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Thorndike" title="Lynn Thorndike">Lynn Thorndike</a> in his 1926 work A Short History of Civilization as a broader alternative to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. It was first picked up within the field of <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic history</a> during the 1940s and 1950s and gradually spread to other historians in the following decades and became widely known among scholars during the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg/290px-1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="231" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="12878" data-file-height="10246"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 290px;height: 231px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg/290px-1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg" data-width="290" data-height="231" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg/435px-1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg/580px-1700_map_of_the_world_by_Paolo_Petrini.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of the world, by Paolo Petrini, 1700</figcaption></figure> At the onset of the early modern period, trends in various regions of the world represented a shift away from medieval modes of organization, politically and economically. <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a> declined in Europe, and <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> saw the end of the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> and of religious unity in Western Europe under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>. The old order was destabilized by the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>, which caused a backlash that expanded the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> and sparked the disastrous <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a>, which included the especially bloody <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> and ended with the establishment of the modern international system in the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>. Along with the <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>, this period also contained the <a href="/wiki/Commercial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial Revolution">Commercial Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Piracy" title="Golden Age of Piracy">Golden Age of Piracy</a>. The globalization of the period can be seen in the medieval North Italian <a href="/wiki/City-states" class="mw-redirect" title="City-states">city-states</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">maritime republics</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>. Russia <a href="/wiki/Russian_conquest_of_Siberia" title="Russian conquest of Siberia">reached the Pacific coast</a> in 1647 and consolidated its control over the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Far_East" title="Russian Far East">Russian Far East</a> in the 19th century. The <a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a> took place as Western Europe greatly surpassed China in technology and per capita wealth.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolution</a> dawned, beginning with revolts in America and France, political changes were then pushed forward in other countries partly as a result of upheavals of the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> and their impact on thought and thinking, from concepts from nationalism to organizing armies.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The early period ended in a time of political and economic change, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanization</a> in society, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, and the first <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>; other factors included the redrawing of the map of Europe by the <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Final_Act_of_the_Congress_of_Vienna" class="extiw" title="s:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna">Final Act</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> and the peace established by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1815)" title="Treaty of Paris (1815)">Second Treaty of Paris</a>, which ended the Napoleonic Wars.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg/220px-NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1579"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 199px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg/220px-NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="199" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg/330px-NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg/440px-NanbanCarrack-Enhanced.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>A Japanese depiction of a Portuguese trading <a href="/wiki/Carrack" title="Carrack">carrack</a>. Advances in shipbuilding technology during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> would pave the way for the global European presence characteristic of the early modern period.</figcaption></figure> In the Americas, <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> peoples had built a large and varied civilization, including the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Incas" title="History of the Incas">Inca civilization</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> and its cities, and the <a href="/wiki/Muisca" title="Muisca">Muisca</a>. The European colonization of the Americas began during the early modern period, as did the establishment of European trading hubs in Asia and Africa, which contributed to the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity#Reformation_and_response_(1517%E2%80%931700)" title="History of Christianity">spread of Christianity</a> around the world. The rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Exchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbian Exchange">Columbian Exchange</a> that linked the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, greatly altered the human environment. Notably, the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> and colonization of Native Americans began during this period.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> conquered Southeastern Europe, and parts of West Asia and North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>, after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Renaissance" title="Timurid Renaissance">Timurid Renaissance</a>, powers such as the Ottoman, <a href="/wiki/Suri_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Suri Empire">Suri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safavid" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid">Safavid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> empires grew in strength (three of which are known as <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">gunpowder empires</a> for the military technology that enabled them). Particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_architecture" title="Mughal architecture">Mughal architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_painting" title="Mughal painting">art</a> reached their zenith, while the empire itself is believed to have had the world's largest economy, bigger than the entirety of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and worth 25% of global GDP.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-13">[13]</a> By the mid-18th century, India was a major <a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">proto-industrializing</a> region.<a href="#cite_note-voss-14">[14]</a> Various Chinese dynasties controlled the East Asian sphere. In Japan, the <a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Edo period</a> from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. In Korea, the early modern period is considered to have lasted from the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Joseon_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon Dynasty">Joseon Dynasty</a> to the enthronement of <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_the_Korean_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Gojong of the Korean Empire">King Gojong</a>. By the 16th century, Asian economies under the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal Bengal">Mughal Bengal</a> were stimulated by trade with the Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch, while Japan engaged in the <a href="/wiki/Nanban_trade" title="Nanban trade">Nanban trade</a> after the arrival of the first European Portuguese during the <a href="/wiki/Azuchi%E2%80%93Momoyama_period" title="Azuchi–Momoyama period">Azuchi–Momoyama period</a>. Meanwhile, in Southeast Asia, the <a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Toungoo Empire</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya</a> experienced a golden age and ruled a large extent of Mainland Southeast Asia,<a href="#cite_note-vbl-151-152-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_lords" title="Nguyễn lords">Nguyen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BB%8Bnh_lords" title="Trịnh lords">Trinh</a> lords<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> de facto ruling the south and north of present-day Vietnam respectively, whereas the <a href="/wiki/Mataram_Sultanate" title="Mataram Sultanate">Mataram Sultanate</a> was the dominant power in Maritime Southeast Asia. The early modern period experienced an influx of European traders and missionaries into the region. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Asia_and_Africa">Asia and Africa</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Asia and Africa" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_Asia">East Asia</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: East Asia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In Early Modern times, the major nations of East Asia attempted to pursue a course of <a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">isolationism</a> from the outside world but this policy was not always enforced uniformly or successfully. However, by the end of the Early Modern Period, China, Korea and Japan were mostly closed and uninterested in Europeans, even while trading relationships grew in port cities such as <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dejima" title="Dejima">Dejima</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chinese_dynasties">Chinese dynasties</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Chinese dynasties" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Around the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Han_Chinese" title="Han Chinese">ethnically Han</a> <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644), China was leading the world in mathematics as well as science. However, Europe soon caught up to China's scientific and mathematical achievements and surpassed them.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Many scholars have speculated about the reason behind China's lag in advancement. A historian named Colin Ronan claims that though there is no one specific answer, there must be a connection between China's urgency for new discoveries being weaker than Europe's and China's inability to capitalize on its early advantages. Ronan believes that China's Confucian bureaucracy and traditions led to China not having a scientific revolution, which led China to have fewer scientists to break the existing orthodoxies, like Galileo Galilei.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Despite inventing gunpowder in the 9th century, it was in Europe that the classic handheld firearms, matchlocks, were invented, with evidence of use around the 1480s. China was using the matchlocks by 1540, after the Portuguese brought their matchlocks to Japan in the early 1500s.<a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[20]</a> China during the Ming Dynasty established a bureau to maintain its calendar. The bureau was necessary because the calendars were linked to celestial phenomena and that needs regular maintenance because twelve lunar months have 344 or 355 days, so occasional leap months have to be added in order to maintain 365 days per year.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG/150px-Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 150px;height: 200px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG/150px-Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG" data-width="150" data-height="200" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG/225px-Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG/300px-Cishou_Temple_Pagoda.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pagoda_of_Cishou_Temple" title="Pagoda of Cishou Temple">Cishou Temple Pagoda</a>, built in 1576: the Chinese believed that building pagodas on certain sites according to <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">geomantic principles</a> brought about auspicious events; merchant-funding for such projects was needed by the late Ming period.</figcaption></figure> In the early Ming dynasty, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as <a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. In the 16th century the Ming dynasty flourished over maritime trade with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch Empires. The trade brought in a massive amount of silver, which China at the time needed desperately. Prior to China's global trade, its economy ran on paper money. However, in the 14th century, China's paper money system suffered a crisis, and by the mid-15th century, crashed.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The silver imports helped fill the void left by the broken paper money system, which helps explain why the value of silver in China was twice as high as the value of silver in Spain during the end of the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> China under the later Ming dynasty became isolated, prohibiting the construction of ocean going sea vessels.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Despite isolationist policies the Ming economy still suffered from an inflation due to an overabundance of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish New World</a> silver entering its economy through new European colonies such as <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Macau" title="Portuguese Macau">Macau</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Ming China was further strained by victorious but costly wars to protect <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Korea</a> from <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasions_of_Korea_(1592%E2%80%9398)" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98)">Japanese Invasion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The European trade depression of the 1620s also hurt the Chinese economy, which sunk to the point where all of China's trading partners cut ties with them: <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain" title="Philip IV of Spain">Philip IV</a> restricted shipments of exports from <a href="/wiki/Acapulco" title="Acapulco">Acapulco</a>, the Japanese cut off all trade with <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>, and the Dutch severed connections between <a href="/wiki/Goa" title="Goa">Goa</a> and Macau.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victory_banquet_1788.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Victory_banquet_1788.jpg/220px-Victory_banquet_1788.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="135" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1035" data-file-height="633"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 135px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Victory_banquet_1788.jpg/220px-Victory_banquet_1788.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="135" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Victory_banquet_1788.jpg/330px-Victory_banquet_1788.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Victory_banquet_1788.jpg/440px-Victory_banquet_1788.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Painting depicting the Qing Chinese celebrating a victory over the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tungning" title="Kingdom of Tungning">Kingdom of Tungning</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>. This work was a collaboration between Chinese and European painters.</figcaption></figure> The damage to the economy was compounded by the effects on agriculture of the incipient <a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a>, natural calamities, crop failure and sudden epidemics. The ensuing breakdown of authority and people's livelihoods allowed rebel leaders, such as <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a>, to challenge Ming authority. The Ming dynasty fell around 1644 to the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_people" title="Manchu people">ethnically Manchu</a> <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, which would be the last <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">dynasty of China</a>. The Qing ruled from 1644 to 1912, with a brief, <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">abortive restoration</a> in 1917. During its reign, the Qing dynasty adopted many of the outward features of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a> in establishing its rule, but did not necessarily "assimilate", instead adopting a more universalist style of governance.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> The Manchus were formerly known as the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchens</a>. When Beijing was captured by <a href="/wiki/Li_Zicheng" title="Li Zicheng">Li Zicheng</a>'s peasant rebels in 1644, the <a href="/wiki/Chongzhen_Emperor" title="Chongzhen Emperor">Chongzhen Emperor</a>, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general <a href="/wiki/Wu_Sangui" title="Wu Sangui">Wu Sangui</a> and seized control of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Manchus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">China proper</a>. Schoppa, the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues, <blockquote>"A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japanese_shogunates">Japanese shogunates</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Japanese shogunates" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Sengoku_period" title="Sengoku period">Sengoku period</a> that began around 1467 and lasted around a century consisted of several continually "warring states". Following contact with the <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a> on <a href="/wiki/Tanegashima" title="Tanegashima">Tanegashima</a> Isle in 1543, the Japanese adopted several of the technologies and cultural practices of their visitors, whether in the military area (the <a href="/wiki/Arquebus" title="Arquebus">arquebus</a>, European-style cuirasses, European ships), religion (<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>), decorative art, language (integration to Japanese of a <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language#Vocabulary" title="Japanese language">Western vocabulary</a>) and culinary: the Portuguese introduced <a href="/wiki/Tempura" title="Tempura">tempura</a> and valuable refined sugar.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg/220px-Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="8242" data-file-height="5640"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 151px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg/220px-Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="151" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg/330px-Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg/440px-Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Great_Wave_off_Kanagawa" title="The Great Wave off Kanagawa">The Great Wave off Kanagawa</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1830 by <a href="/wiki/Hokusai" title="Hokusai">Hokusai</a>, an example of art flourishing in the Edo Period</figcaption></figure> Central government was largely reestablished by <a href="/wiki/Oda_Nobunaga" title="Oda Nobunaga">Oda Nobunaga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi" title="Toyotomi Hideyoshi">Toyotomi Hideyoshi</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Azuchi%E2%80%93Momoyama_period" title="Azuchi–Momoyama period">Azuchi–Momoyama period</a>. Although a start date of 1573 is often given, in more broad terms, the period begins with <a href="/wiki/Oda_Nobunaga" title="Oda Nobunaga">Oda Nobunaga</a>'s entry into Kyoto in 1568, when he led his army to the imperial capital in order to install <a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_Yoshiaki" title="Ashikaga Yoshiaki">Ashikaga Yoshiaki</a> as the 15th, and ultimately final, shōgun of the <a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Ashikaga shogunate</a>, and it lasts until the coming to power of <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu" title="Tokugawa Ieyasu">Tokugawa Ieyasu</a> after his victory over supporters of the Toyotomi clan at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sekigahara" title="Battle of Sekigahara">Battle of Sekigahara</a> in 1600.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Tokugawa received the title of <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgun" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōgun">shōgun</a> in 1603, establishing the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa shogunate</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Edo period</a> from 1600 to 1868 characterized early modern Japan. The Tokugawa shogunate was a <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudalist</a> regime of Japan established by <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_Ieyasu" title="Tokugawa Ieyasu">Tokugawa Ieyasu</a> and ruled by the <a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dgun" class="mw-redirect" title="Shōgun">shōguns</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_clan" title="Tokugawa clan">Tokugawa clan</a>. The period gets its name from the capital city, <a href="/wiki/Edo" title="Edo">Edo</a>, now called Tokyo. The Tokugawa shogunate ruled from <a href="/wiki/Edo_Castle" title="Edo Castle">Edo Castle</a> from 1603 until 1868, when it was abolished during the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_Restoration" title="Meiji Restoration">Meiji Restoration</a> in the late <a href="/wiki/Edo_period" title="Edo period">Edo period</a> (often called the <a href="/wiki/Late_Tokugawa_shogunate" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Tokugawa shogunate">Late Tokugawa shogunate</a>).<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Society in the Japanese "<a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Tokugawa period</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Edo_society" title="Edo society">Edo society</a>), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy" title="Hierarchy">hierarchy</a> originally established by <a href="/wiki/Toyotomi_Hideyoshi" title="Toyotomi Hideyoshi">Toyotomi Hideyoshi</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Daimy%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Daimyō">daimyōs</a> (feudal lords) were at the top, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">warrior</a>-caste of <a href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">samurai</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Farmer" title="Farmer">farmers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artisans" class="mw-redirect" title="Artisans">artisans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Merchant" title="Merchant">traders</a> ranking below. The country was strictly closed to foreigners with few exceptions with the <a href="/wiki/Sakoku" title="Sakoku">Sakoku</a> policy.<a href="#cite_note-HCAotW-33">[33]</a> Literacy among the Japanese people rose in the two centuries of isolation.<a href="#cite_note-HCAotW-33">[33]</a> In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyōs and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyōs might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a> system unleashed disruptive forces over time. <a href="/wiki/Taxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxes">Taxes</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Peasantry" class="mw-redirect" title="Peasantry">peasantry</a> were set at fixed amounts which did not account for <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a> or other changes in <a href="/wiki/Monetary" class="mw-redirect" title="Monetary">monetary</a> value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Korean_dynasty">Korean dynasty</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Korean dynasty" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In 1392, General <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">Yi Seong-gye</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a> dynasty (1392–1910) with a largely bloodless coup. Yi Seong-gye moved the capital of Korea to the location of modern-day Seoul.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> The dynasty was heavily influenced by Confucianism, which also played a large role to shaping Korea's strong cultural identity.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sejong_the_Great_of_Joseon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sejong the Great of Joseon">King Sejong the Great</a> (1418–1450), one of the only two kings in Korea's history to earn the title of great in their posthumous titles, reclaimed Korean territory to the north and created the <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Korean alphabet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> During the end of the 16th century, Korea was invaded twice by Japan, first in 1592 and again in 1597. Japan failed both times due to Admiral <a href="/wiki/Yi_Sun-sin" title="Yi Sun-sin">Yi Sun-sin</a>, Korea's revered naval genius, who led the Korean Navy using advanced metal clad ships called <a href="/wiki/Turtle_ship" title="Turtle ship">turtle ships</a>. Because the ships were armed with cannons, Admiral Yi's navy was able to demolish the Japanese invading fleets, destroying hundreds of ships in Japan's second invasion.<a href="#cite_note-:1-37">[37]</a> During the 17th century, Korea was invaded again, this time by Manchurians, who would later take over China as the Qing Dynasty. In 1637, King <a href="/wiki/Injo_of_Joseon" title="Injo of Joseon">Injo</a> was forced to surrender to the Qing forces, and was ordered to send princesses as concubines to the Qing Prince <a href="/wiki/Dorgon" title="Dorgon">Dorgon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_Asia">South Asia</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: South Asia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_empires">Indian empires</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Indian empires" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg/260px-Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="157" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="549"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 157px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg/260px-Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg" data-width="260" data-height="157" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg/390px-Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg/520px-Islamic_Gunpowder_Empires.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_Empires" class="mw-redirect" title="Gunpowder Empires">Gunpowder Empires</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> in orange</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg/170px-Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2256" data-file-height="3307"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 249px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg/170px-Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="249" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg/255px-Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg/340px-Shah_Abbas_the_Great_receiving_the_Mughal_ambassador_Khan%E2%80%99Alam_in_1618.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> ambassador Khan'Alam in 1618 negotiating with <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">Shah Abbas the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Iran</a></figcaption></figure> The rise of the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a> is usually dated from 1526, around the end of the Middle Ages. It was an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic</a> <a href="/wiki/Persianate" class="mw-redirect" title="Persianate">Persianate</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> imperial power that ruled most of the area as <a href="/wiki/Hindustan" title="Hindustan">Hindustan</a> by the late 17th and the early 18th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-sscnet.ucla.edu-41">[41]</a> The empire dominated <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-sscnet.ucla.edu-41">[41]</a> becoming the largest global economy and manufacturing power,<a href="#cite_note-Parthasarathi38-42">[42]</a> with a nominal GDP valued at a quarter of the global economy, superior than the combined GDP of Europe.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-harrison-43">[43]</a> The empire, prior to the death of the last prominent emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurangzeb" title="Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a>,<a href="#cite_note-BBC-44">[44]</a> was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting its different <a href="/wiki/Subah" title="Subah">provinces</a>. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, date to this period which was characterized by the expansion of Persian cultural influence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. The <a href="/wiki/Maratha_Confederacy" title="Maratha Confederacy">Maratha Confederacy</a>, founded in the southwest of present-day India, surpassed the Mughals as the dominant power in India from 1740 and rapidly expanded until the <a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Panipat" title="Third Battle of Panipat">Third Battle of Panipat</a> halted their expansion in 1761.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="British_and_Dutch_colonization">British and Dutch colonization</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: British and Dutch colonization" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The development of <a href="/wiki/New_Imperialism" title="New Imperialism">New Imperialism</a> saw the conquest of nearly all eastern hemisphere territories by colonial powers. The <a href="/wiki/Company_rule_in_India" title="Company rule in India">commercial colonization of India</a> commenced in 1757, after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a>, when the <a href="/wiki/Nawab_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nawab of Bengal">Nawab of Bengal</a> surrendered his dominions to the British East India Company,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Template:Harvard_citation_documentation#Wikilink_to_citation_does_not_work" title="Template:Harvard citation documentation">citation not found</a>] in 1765, when the company was granted the diwani, or the right to collect revenue, in <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bihar" title="Bihar">Bihar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> or in 1772, when the company established a capital in <a href="/wiki/Calcutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcutta">Calcutta</a>, appointed its first <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Governor-General</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warren_Hastings" title="Warren Hastings">Warren Hastings</a>, and became directly involved in governance.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey,_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg/220px-Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1870"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 171px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg/220px-Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="171" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg/330px-Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg/440px-Robert_Clive_and_Mir_Jafar_after_the_Battle_of_Plassey%2C_1757_by_Francis_Hayman.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Robert_Clive" title="Robert Clive">Robert Clive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mir_Jafar" title="Mir Jafar">Mir Jafar</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plassey" title="Battle of Plassey">Battle of Plassey</a>, 1757, by Francis Hayman</figcaption></figure> The Maratha Confederacy, following the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Maratha_Wars_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Maratha Wars (disambiguation)">Anglo-Maratha wars</a>, eventually lost to the <a href="/wiki/British_East_India_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="British East India Company">British East India Company</a> in 1818 with the <a href="/wiki/Third_Anglo-Maratha_War" title="Third Anglo-Maratha War">Third Anglo-Maratha War</a>. Rule by the Company lasted until 1858, when, after the <a href="/wiki/Indian_rebellion_of_1857" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian rebellion of 1857">Indian rebellion of 1857</a> and following the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India_Act_1858" title="Government of India Act 1858">Government of India Act 1858</a>, the <a href="/wiki/India_Office" title="India Office">British government</a> assumed the task of directly administering India in the new <a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">British Raj</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WDL-50">[50]</a> In 1819, <a href="/wiki/Stamford_Raffles" title="Stamford Raffles">Stamford Raffles</a> established <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a> as a key trading post for Britain in its rivalry with the Dutch. However, the rivalry cooled in 1824 when an <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Dutch_Treaty_of_1824" title="Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824">Anglo-Dutch treaty</a> demarcated their respective interests in Southeast Asia. From the 1850s onwards, the pace of colonization shifted to a significantly higher gear. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> At the start of the modern era, the <a href="/wiki/Spice_Route" class="mw-redirect" title="Spice Route">Spice Route</a> between India and China crossed <a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a>, an archipelagic empire based on the island of <a href="/wiki/Java_(island)" class="mw-redirect" title="Java (island)">Java</a>. It was the last of the major <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> empires of <a href="/wiki/Maritime_Southeast_Asia" title="Maritime Southeast Asia">Maritime Southeast Asia</a> and is considered one of the greatest states in Indonesian history.<a href="#cite_note-Ricklefs_19-51">[51]</a> Its influence extended to <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Malay_Peninsula" title="Malay Peninsula">Malay Peninsula</a>, <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a>, and eastern Indonesia, though the effectiveness of this influence remains debated.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Majapahit struggled to control the rising <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Malacca" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Malacca">Sultanate of Malacca</a>, which dominated Muslim Malay settlements in Phuket, Satun, Pattani, and Sumatra. The Portuguese invaded Malacca's capital in 1511, and by 1528, the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Johor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Johor">Sultanate of Johor</a> was established by a Malaccan prince to succeed Malacca.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="West_Asia_and_North_Africa">West Asia and North Africa</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: West Asia and North Africa" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_16th-century_Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of 16th-century Muslim history">Timeline of 16th-century Muslim history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_17th-century_Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of 17th-century Muslim history">Timeline of 17th-century Muslim history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_18th-century_Muslim_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of 18th-century Muslim history">Timeline of 18th-century Muslim history</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ottoman_Empire">Ottoman Empire</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ottoman Empire" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Classical_Age_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire">Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Transformation of the Ottoman Empire">Transformation of the Ottoman Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_ancien_r%C3%A9gime" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman ancien régime">Ottoman ancien régime</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ottoman_empire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ottoman_empire.svg/220px-Ottoman_empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="750"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 183px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ottoman_empire.svg/220px-Ottoman_empire.svg.png" data-width="220" data-height="183" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ottoman_empire.svg/330px-Ottoman_empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ottoman_empire.svg/440px-Ottoman_empire.svg.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Ottoman Empire 1481–1683</figcaption></figure> During the early modern era, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> enjoyed an <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth of the Ottoman Empire">expansion and consolidation</a> of power, leading to a <a href="/wiki/Pax_Ottomana" title="Pax Ottomana">Pax Ottomana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> This was perhaps the golden age of the empire. The Ottomans expanded southwest into North Africa while battling with the re-emergent <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> Shi'a <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a> to the east. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="North_Africa">North Africa</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: North Africa" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the Ottoman sphere, the Turks seized Egypt in 1517 and established the regencies of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Tunisia" title="Ottoman Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Tripolitania" title="Ottoman Tripolitania">Tripolitania</a> (between 1519 and 1551), <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> remaining an independent <a href="/wiki/Arabized_Berber" title="Arabized Berber">Arabized Berber</a> state under the <a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Sharifan dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Safavid_Iran">Safavid Iran</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Safavid Iran" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid Iran</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a> was a great Shia <a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianate empire</a> after the Islamic conquest of Persia and the establishment of Islam, marking an important point in the history of Islam in the east.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501. From their base in <a href="/wiki/Ardabil" title="Ardabil">Ardabil</a>, the Safavids established control over all of Persia and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the <a href="/wiki/Sassanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanids">Sassanids</a> to establish a unified Iranian state. Problematic for the Safavids was the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, a Sunni dynasty, fought several <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Ottoman–Persian Wars">campaigns against the Safavids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> What fueled the growth of Safavid economy was its position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north. The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>, which led from Europe to East Asia, revived in the 16th century. Leaders also supported direct sea trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands, which sought Persian carpet, silk, and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls, and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cotton from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar. Despite their demise in 1722, the Safavids left their mark by establishing and spreading Shi'a Islam in major parts of the Caucasus and West Asia.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Uzbeks_and_Afghan_Pashtuns">Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Uzbeks and Afghan Pashtuns" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pashtun_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashtun people">Pashtun people</a></div> In the 16th to early 18th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> was under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a>, and the far eastern portions were ruled by the local <a href="/wiki/Pashtun_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Pashtun people">Pashtuns</a>. Between the 15th and 16th centuries, various nomadic tribes arrived from the steppes, including the <a href="/wiki/Kipchaks" title="Kipchaks">Kipchaks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naimans" title="Naimans">Naimans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kangly" title="Kangly">Kangly</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khongirad" title="Khongirad">Khongirad</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Manghud" title="Manghud">Manghuds</a>. These groups were led by <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Shaybani" title="Muhammad Shaybani">Muhammad Shaybani</a>, who was the <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a> of the Uzbeks. The lineage of the <a href="/wiki/Afghan_(name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan (name)">Afghan</a> Pashtuns stretches back to the <a href="/wiki/Hotaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotaki">Hotaki</a> dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-US_State_Dept-63">[63]</a> Following Muslim Arab and Turkic conquests, Pashtun <a href="/wiki/Ghazw" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghazw">ghazis</a> (warriors for the faith) invaded and conquered much of northern India during the <a href="/wiki/Lodhi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Lodhi dynasty">Lodhi dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suri_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Suri dynasty">Suri dynasty</a>. Pashtun forces also invaded Persia, and the opposing forces were defeated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gulnabad" title="Battle of Gulnabad">Battle of Gulnabad</a>. The Pashtuns later formed the <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sub-Saharan_Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sub-Saharan Africa" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Dahomey" title="Dahomey">Dahomey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aro_Confederacy" title="Aro Confederacy">Aro Confederacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asante_Empire" title="Asante Empire">Asante Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Africa_(1652%E2%80%931815)" title="History of South Africa (1652–1815)">History of South Africa (1652–1815)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai Empire</a> took control of the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">trans-Saharan trade</a> at the beginning of the modern era. It seized <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a> in 1468 and <a href="/wiki/Djenn%C3%A9" title="Djenné">Jenne</a> in 1473, building the regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. The empire eventually made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought Muslim scholars to <a href="/wiki/Gao" title="Gao">Gao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-multiple-64">[64]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Europe">Europe</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Modern Europe">Early Modern Europe</a></div>Many major events caused <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> to change around the start of the 16th century, starting with the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, the fall of <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Spain">Muslim Spain</a> and the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> in 1492, and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> in 1517. In <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> the modern period is often dated to the start of the <a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Tudor period</a> with the victory of <a href="/wiki/Henry_VII_of_England" title="Henry VII of England">Henry VII</a> over <a href="/wiki/Richard_III_of_England" title="Richard III of England">Richard III</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bosworth" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Bosworth">Battle of Bosworth</a> in 1485.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Early modern European history is usually seen to span from the start of the 15th century, through the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> in the 17th and 18th centuries, until the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century. The early modern period is taken to end with the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire">Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna" title="Congress of Vienna">Congress of Vienna</a>. At the end of the early modern period, the <a href="/wiki/Second_British_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Second British Empire">British</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> empires had emerged as world powers from the multipolar contest of <a href="/wiki/Colonial_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial empires">colonial empires</a>, while the three great <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asian</a> empires of the early modern period, <a href="/wiki/Stagnation_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire#Decline" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_China#Reigns_of_the_Yongzheng_and_Qianlong_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing China">Qing China</a>, all entered a period of stagnation or decline. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gunpowder_and_firearms">Gunpowder and firearms</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Gunpowder and firearms" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">Military Revolution</a></div> When gunpowder was introduced to Europe, it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare. Though it was invented in China, gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use; European countries took advantage of this and were the first to create the classic firearms.<a href="#cite_note-:0-20">[20]</a> The advances made in gunpowder and firearms was directly tied to the decline in the use of plate armor because of the inability of the armor to protect one from bullets. The musket was able to penetrate all forms of armor available at the time, making armor obsolete, and as a consequence the heavy musket as well. Although there is relatively little to no difference in design between <a href="/wiki/Arquebus" title="Arquebus">arquebus</a> and musket except in size and strength, it was the term musket which remained in use up into the 1800s.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_kingdoms_and_movements">European kingdoms and movements</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: European kingdoms and movements" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the early modern period, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> was a union of territories in Central Europe under a <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> the first of which was <a href="/wiki/Otto_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto I">Otto I</a>. The last was <a href="/wiki/Francis_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor">Francis II</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">abdicated</a> and dissolved the Empire in 1806 during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders. The <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> was a cultural movement that began in the 14th century,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> beginning in Italy in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a> and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era, but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical</a> sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Notable_individuals">Notable individuals</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notable individuals" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Press_-Bettman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Press_-Bettman.jpg/220px-Press_-Bettman.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="673" data-file-height="453"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 148px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Press_-Bettman.jpg/220px-Press_-Bettman.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="148" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Press_-Bettman.jpg/330px-Press_-Bettman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Press_-Bettman.jpg/440px-Press_-Bettman.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Gutenberg reviewing a press proof (a colored engraving created probably in the 19th century)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> is credited as the first European to use <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a>, around 1439, and as the global inventor of the mechanical <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> formulated a comprehensive <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> (1543), which displaced the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> from the center of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> His book, <a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a> (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) began modern <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> and sparked the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>. Another notable individual was <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>, an Italian political philosopher, considered a founder of modern <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>. Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise, <a href="/wiki/The_Prince" title="The Prince">The Prince</a>, a work of <a href="/wiki/Political_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Political realism">realist</a> <a href="/wiki/Political_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Political theory">political theory</a>. The Swiss <a href="/wiki/Paracelsus" title="Paracelsus">Paracelsus</a> (1493–1541) is associated with a medical revolution<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> while the Anglo-Irish <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> was one of the founders of modern chemistry.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> In visual arts, notable representatives included the "three giants of the High Renaissance", namely <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>,<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_D%C3%BCrer" title="Albrecht Dürer">Albrecht Dürer</a> (often considered the greatest artist of Northern Renaissance),<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Titian" title="Titian">Titian</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Venetian_painting" title="Venetian painting">Venetian school</a>,<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Paul_Rubens" title="Peter Paul Rubens">Peter Paul Rubens</a> of the Flemish Baroque traditions.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> Famous composers included <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Du_Fay" title="Guillaume Du Fay">Guillaume Du Fay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Isaac" title="Heinrich Isaac">Heinrich Isaac</a>, <a href="/wiki/Josquin_des_Prez" title="Josquin des Prez">Josquin des Prez</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pierluigi_da_Palestrina" title="Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina">Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claudio_Monteverdi" title="Claudio Monteverdi">Claudio Monteverdi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully" title="Jean-Baptiste Lully">Jean-Baptiste Lully</a>.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Among the notable royalty of the time was <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bold" title="Charles the Bold">Charles the Bold</a> (1433–1477), the last <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois" title="House of Valois">Valois</a> <a href="/wiki/Duke_of_Burgundy" title="Duke of Burgundy">Duke of Burgundy</a>, known as Charles the Bold (or Rash) to his enemies,<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> His early death was a pivotal moment in European history.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Charles has often been regarded as the last representative of the feudal spirit,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> although in administrative affairs, he introduced remarkable modernizing innovations.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Upon his death, Charles left an unmarried nineteen-year-old daughter, <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy" title="Mary of Burgundy">Mary of Burgundy</a>, as his heir. Her marriage would have enormous implications for the political balance of Europe. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor</a> secured the match for his son, the future <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, with the aid of Mary's stepmother, Margaret. In 1477, the territory of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> was annexed by France. In the same year, Mary married Maximilian, <a href="/wiki/Archduke_of_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Archduke of Austria">Archduke of Austria</a>. A conflict between the Burgundian side (Maximilian brought with himself almost no resources from the Empire<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>) and France ensued, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Senlis" title="Treaty of Senlis">Treaty of Senlis</a> (1493) which gave the majority of Burgundian inheritance to the Habsburg (Mary already died in 1482).<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The rise of the Habsburg dynasty was a prime factor in the spreading of the Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson201378-85">[85]</a> In Central Europe, King <a href="/wiki/Matthias_Corvinus" title="Matthias Corvinus">Matthias Corvinus</a> (1443–1490), a notable nation builder, conqueror (Hungary in his time was the most powerful in Central Europe<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a>) and patron, was the first who introduced the Renaissance outside of Italy.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In military area, he introduced the <a href="/wiki/Black_Army_of_Hungary" title="Black Army of Hungary">Black Army</a>, one of the first standing armies in Europe and a remarkably modern force.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Some noblemen from the generation that lived during this period have been attributed the moniker "the last knight", with the most notable being the above-mentioned Maximilian I (1459–1519),<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Terrail,_seigneur_de_Bayard" title="Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard">Chevalier de Bayard</a> (1476–1524),<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Franz_von_Sickingen" title="Franz von Sickingen">Franz von Sickingen</a> (1481–1523)<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> and <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6tz_von_Berlichingen" title="Götz von Berlichingen">Götz von Berlichingen</a> (1480–1562).<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Maximilian (although Claude Michaud opines that he could claim "last knight" status by virtue of being the last medieval epic poet<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a>) was actually a chief modernizing force of the time (whose reform initiatives led to Europe-wide revolutions in the areas of warfare<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kersken-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> and communications,<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor#Legacy" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">among others</a>), who broke the back of the knight class (causing many to become robber barons)<a href="#cite_note-Kersken-97">[97]</a> and had personal conflicts with the three other men on the matter of the knight's status.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kersken-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christians_and_Christendom">Christians and Christendom</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Christians and Christendom" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="281" data-mwtitle="Johann_Sebastian_Bach_-_Mass_in_B_minor_-_Agnus_Dei.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Johann_Sebastian_Bach_-_Mass_in_B_minor_-_Agnus_Dei.ogg"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Johann_Sebastian_Bach_-_Mass_in_B_minor_-_Agnus_Dei.ogg" type='audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"' data-width="0" data-height="0"></source><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a3/Johann_Sebastian_Bach_-_Mass_in_B_minor_-_Agnus_Dei.ogg/Johann_Sebastian_Bach_-_Mass_in_B_minor_-_Agnus_Dei.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0"></source></audio><figcaption>Johann Sebastian Bach – Mass in B minor – Agnus Dei, From 1724</figcaption></figure> Christianity was challenged at the beginning of the modern period with the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453 and later by various movements to reform the church (including Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinist), followed by the <a href="/wiki/Counter_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter Reformation">Counter Reformation</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="End_of_the_Crusades_and_Unity">End of the Crusades and Unity</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: End of the Crusades and Unity" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Hussite_Crusades" class="mw-redirect" title="Hussite Crusades">Hussite Crusades</a> (1419–1434) involved military actions against the followers of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, concluding with the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Grotniki" title="Battle of Grotniki">Battle of Grotniki</a>. These wars were notable for being among the first European conflicts where hand-held gunpowder weapons, like <a href="/wiki/Muskets" class="mw-redirect" title="Muskets">muskets</a>, played a decisive role. The Taborite faction of Hussite warriors, primarily infantry, decisively defeated larger armies with heavily armored knights, contributing to the infantry revolution. However, the Hussite Crusades were ultimately inconclusive.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg/220px-Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="15800" data-file-height="9413"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 131px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg/220px-Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="131" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg/330px-Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg/440px-Anonym_Entsatz_Wien_1683.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Battle of Vienna</a>, 12 September 1683</figcaption></figure> The final crusade, the Crusade of 1456, was organized to counter the advancing <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and lift the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Belgrade_(1456)" title="Siege of Belgrade (1456)">Siege of Belgrade (1456)</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/John_Hunyadi" title="John Hunyadi">John Hunyadi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_da_Capistrano" class="mw-redirect" title="Giovanni da Capistrano">Giovanni da Capistrano</a>. The siege culminated in a counterattack that forced Sultan Mehmet II to retreat, with the victory being credited with deciding the fate of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The noon bell, ordered by Pope Callixtus III, commemorates this victory across the Christian world to this day. Nearly a century later, the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> (1555) ended the concept of a united Christian church. The principle of <a href="/wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">cuius regio, eius religio</a> allowed rulers to determine their state's religion. This framework was solidified by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Westphalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Westphalia">Treaty of Westphalia</a> (1648), which ended the <a href="/wiki/European_Wars_of_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="European Wars of Religion">European Wars of Religion</a> and the notion of a singular Christian hegemony. The treaty also marked the birth of the modern concept of national sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inquisitions_and_Reformations">Inquisitions and Reformations</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Inquisitions and Reformations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> in the modern era refers to several institutions within the Catholic Church tasked with prosecuting <a href="/wiki/Heretics" class="mw-redirect" title="Heretics">heretics</a> and others who violated <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a>. The first significant manifestation was the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish Inquisition</a> (1478–1834).<a href="#cite_note-fordhaminquisition-105">[105]</a> The Inquisition prosecuted crimes such as <a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">sorcery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blasphemy" title="Blasphemy">blasphemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaizing">Judaizing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">censorship</a> of printed literature. Its jurisdiction was limited to baptized Catholics, while non-Christians were typically tried by secular courts.<a href="#cite_note-fordhaminquisition-105">[105]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg/180px-Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="216" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="852" data-file-height="1024"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 216px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg/180px-Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg" data-width="180" data-height="216" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg/270px-Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg/360px-Ferdinand_Pauwels_-_Luther_hammers_his_95_theses_to_the_door.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> hammers his <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">95 theses</a> to the door, by <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Pauwels" title="Ferdinand Pauwels">Ferdinand Pauwels</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> and rise of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a> in the early 16th century brought changes to <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a>. The Augustinian friar <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> challenged the Church with his <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a>, marking the start of the Reformation. Luther's movement, supported by the <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Electorate of Saxony</a>, developed at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wittenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wittenberg">University of Wittenberg</a>, where he became a professor.<a href="#cite_note-Simon-120-121-106">[106]</a> Luther's 95 Theses criticized practices like the sale of <a href="/wiki/Indulgences" class="mw-redirect" title="Indulgences">indulgences</a> and sparked debates, leading to the rise of rival <a href="/wiki/Protestant_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant denominations">Protestant denominations</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed tradition</a>. In England, the movement became known as the <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a>, resulting in the formation of <a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-fordhaminquisition-105">[105]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a> (1521) declared Luther a heretic, but Emperor <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> was preoccupied with external threats and allowed German princes to decide whether to enforce the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Worms" class="mw-redirect" title="Edict of Worms">Edict of Worms</a>. The religious conflict escalated, leading to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_League" title="Schmalkaldic League">Schmalkaldic League</a> to defend Protestant interests. This culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Augsburg" title="Peace of Augsburg">Peace of Augsburg</a> (1555), which established the principle of <a href="/wiki/Cuius_regio,_eius_religio" title="Cuius regio, eius religio">cuius regio, eius religio</a>—allowing rulers to determine the religion of their territories.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Two main Inquisitions remained active in the modern era: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese Inquisition</a> (1536–1821), similar to the Spanish Inquisition.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a> (1542–circa 1860), covering most of the Italian peninsula and certain other areas.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a></li></ul> The <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> began in 1545 with the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> in response to the Protestant Reformation. Its goal was to reform internal Church practices while reaffirming the Church's authority as the true <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Christ" title="Church of Christ">Church of Christ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tsardom_of_Russia">Tsardom of Russia</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Tsardom of Russia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a></div> In development of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Rome">Third Rome</a> ideas, the Grand Duke <a href="/wiki/Ivan_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivan IV">Ivan IV</a> (the "Awesome"<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> or "the Terrible") was officially crowned the first <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a>") of Russia in 1547. The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws (<a href="/wiki/Sudebnik_of_1550" title="Sudebnik of 1550">Sudebnik of 1550</a>), established the first Russian feudal representative body (<a href="/wiki/Zemsky_Sobor" title="Zemsky Sobor">Zemsky Sobor</a>) and introduced local self-management into the rural regions.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> During his long reign, Ivan IV nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates (parts of disintegrated <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a>): <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kazan" title="Khanate of Kazan">Kazan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrakhan_Khanate" title="Astrakhan Khanate">Astrakhan</a> along the Volga River, and <a href="/wiki/Sibirean_Khanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibirean Khanate">Sibirean Khanate</a> in South Western Siberia. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a <a href="/wiki/Multiethnic" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiethnic">multiethnic</a>, multiconfessional and <a href="/wiki/Transcontinental_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcontinental state">transcontinental state</a>. Russia experienced territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of <a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a>. Cossacks were warriors organized into military communities, resembling <a href="/wiki/Pirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pirate">pirates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pioneers_of_the_New_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Pioneers of the New World">pioneers of the New World</a>. The native land of the Cossacks is defined by a line of Russian/Ruthenian town-fortresses located on the border with the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">steppe</a> and stretching from the middle Volga to Ryazan and Tula, then breaking abruptly to the south and extending to the Dnieper via Pereyaslavl. This area was settled by a population of free people practicing various trades and crafts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mercantile_capitalism">Mercantile capitalism</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Mercantile capitalism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">Mercantilism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Merchant_capitalism" title="Merchant capitalism">Merchant capitalism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Trade_and_the_new_economy">Trade and the new economy</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Trade and the new economy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> In the <a href="/wiki/Old_World" title="Old World">Old World</a>, the most desired trading goods were gold, silver, and <a href="/wiki/Spice" title="Spice">spices</a>. Western Europeans used the <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>, new <a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">sailing ship</a> technologies, new maps, and advances in astronomy to seek a viable <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade route</a> to Asia for valuable spices that Mediterranean powers could not contest. <table align="center" class="toccolours"> <tbody><tr><td></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Piracy's_Golden_Age">Piracy's Golden Age</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Piracy's Golden Age" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Piracy" title="Golden Age of Piracy">Golden Age of Piracy</a></div> The Golden Age of Piracy is a designation given to one or more outbursts of <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a> in the early modern period, spanning from the mid-17th century to the mid-18th century. The <a href="/wiki/Buccaneer" title="Buccaneer">buccaneering</a> period covers approximately the late 17th century. This period was characterized by Anglo-French seamen based in Jamaica and Tortuga attacking Spanish colonies and shipping in the Caribbean and eastern Pacific.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pirate_Round" title="Pirate Round">Pirate Round</a> was a route followed by certain Anglo-American pirates in the early 18th century, involving voyages from Bermuda and the Americas to attack Muslim and East India Company ships in the Indian Ocean and Red Sea.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> The post-War of the Spanish Succession period saw many unemployed sailors and privateers turning to piracy in the Caribbean, the American eastern seaboard, West Africa, and the Indian Ocean.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_states_and_politics">European states and politics</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: European states and politics" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europe_map_1648.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Europe_map_1648.PNG/260px-Europe_map_1648.PNG" decoding="async" width="260" height="188" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1894" data-file-height="1367"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 188px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Europe_map_1648.PNG/260px-Europe_map_1648.PNG" data-width="260" data-height="188" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Europe_map_1648.PNG/390px-Europe_map_1648.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Europe_map_1648.PNG/520px-Europe_map_1648.PNG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Europe after the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> in 1648</figcaption></figure> The 15th to 18th century period is marked by the first European colonies, the rise of strong centralized governments, and the beginnings of recognizable European nation states that are the direct antecedents of today's states. Although the Renaissance included revolutions in many <a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">intellectual</a> pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for European artistic developments and the contributions of such <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymaths</a> as <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, who inspired the term "<a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">Renaissance man</a>".<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The Peace of Westphalia resulted from the first modern <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomatic</a> congress. Until 1806, the regulations became part of the constitutional laws of the Holy Roman Empire. The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_the_Pyrenees" title="Treaty of the Pyrenees">Treaty of the Pyrenees</a>, signed in 1659, ended the <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a> between France and Spain and is often considered part of the overall accord. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="French_power">French power</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: French power" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Men who featured prominently in the political and military life of France during this period include <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin" title="Cardinal Mazarin">Mazarin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Colbert" title="Jean-Baptiste Colbert">Jean-Baptiste Colbert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri_de_la_Tour_d%27Auvergne,_Vicomte_de_Turenne" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Vicomte de Turenne">Turenne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vauban" class="mw-redirect" title="Vauban">Vauban</a>. French culture likewise flourished during this era, producing a number of figures of great renown, including <a href="/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re" title="Molière">Molière</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Racine" title="Jean Racine">Racine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Boileau-Despr%C3%A9aux" title="Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux">Boileau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_La_Fontaine" title="Jean de La Fontaine">La Fontaine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lully" title="Jean-Baptiste Lully">Lully</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Le_Brun" title="Charles Le Brun">Le Brun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyacinthe_Rigaud" title="Hyacinthe Rigaud">Rigaud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Le_Vau" title="Louis Le Vau">Louis Le Vau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jules_Hardouin_Mansart" class="mw-redirect" title="Jules Hardouin Mansart">Jules Hardouin Mansart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Claude_Perrault" title="Claude Perrault">Claude Perrault</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Le_N%C3%B4tre" title="André Le Nôtre">Le Nôtre</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Early_English_revolutions">Early English revolutions</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Early English revolutions" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Before the Age of Revolution, the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first and second civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent. The <a href="/wiki/English_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="English Restoration">English Restoration</a>, or simply put as the Restoration, began in 1660 when the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were all restored under Charles II after the Commonwealth of England that followed the English Civil War. The <a href="/wiki/Glorious_Revolution" title="Glorious Revolution">Glorious Revolution</a> of 1688 establishes modern <a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary democracy">parliamentary democracy</a> in England. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="International_balance_of_power">International balance of power</h5> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: International balance of power" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Utrecht" title="Peace of Utrecht">Peace of Utrecht</a> established after a series of individual <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaties</a> signed in the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch</a> city of <a href="/wiki/Utrecht_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Utrecht (city)">Utrecht</a> concluded between various European states helped end the War of the Spanish Succession. The representatives who met were Louis XIV of France and <a href="/wiki/Philip_V_of_Spain" title="Philip V of Spain">Philip V of Spain</a> on the one hand, and representatives of Queen <a href="/wiki/Anne,_Queen_of_Great_Britain" title="Anne, Queen of Great Britain">Anne</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Great Britain</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">United Provinces</a> on the other. The treaty enregistered the defeat of French ambitions expressed in the wars of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a> and preserved the European system based on the <a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power in international relations">balance of power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Utrecht">Treaty of Utrecht</a> marked the change from <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Empire">Dutch</a> to <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> naval supremacy. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Americas">Americas</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Americas" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">History of colonialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colonisation2.gif" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Colonisation2.gif/610px-Colonisation2.gif" decoding="async" width="610" height="267" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1849" data-file-height="810"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 610px;height: 267px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Colonisation2.gif/610px-Colonisation2.gif" data-width="610" data-height="267" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Colonisation2.gif/915px-Colonisation2.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Colonisation2.gif/1220px-Colonisation2.gif 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>World Colonization of 1492 (Early Modern World), 1550, 1660, 1754 (Age of Enlightenment), 1822 (Industrial revolution), 1885 (European Hegemony), 1914 (World War I era), 1938 (World War II era), 1959 (Cold War era) and 1974, 2008 (Recent history)</figcaption></figure> The term colonialism is normally used with reference to discontiguous overseas empires rather than contiguous land-based empires, European or otherwise. European colonisation during the 15th to 19th centuries resulted in the spread of Christianity to <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>, the Americas, Australia and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploration_and_conquest_of_the_Americas">Exploration and conquest of the Americas</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Exploration and conquest of the Americas" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Portuguese colonization of the Americas">Portuguese colonization of the Americas</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_Latin_America">Colonial Latin America</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Colonial Latin America" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish empire">Spanish empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Colonial Brazil</a></div> Initially, Portuguese settlements (Brazil) in the coastal northeast were of lesser importance in the larger Portuguese overseas empire, where lucrative commerce and small settlements devoted to trade were established in coastal Africa, India and China. With sparse indigenous populations that could not be coerced to work and no known deposits of precious metals, Portugal sought a high-value, low-bulk export product and found it in <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>. Black African slave labour from Portugal's West African possessions was imported to do the grueling agricultural work. As the wealth of the Ibero-America increased, some Western European powers (Dutch, French, British, Danish) sought to duplicate the model in areas that the Iberians had not settled in numbers. They seized some Caribbean islands from the Spanish and transferred the model of sugar production on plantations with slave labour and settled in northern areas of North America in what are now the Eastern Seaboard of the United States and Canada.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_North_America">Colonial North America</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Colonial North America" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial history of the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Canada_(1763%E2%80%931867)" title="History of Canada (1763–1867)">History of Canada (1763–1867)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/220px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1970"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/220px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/330px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/440px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull" title="John Trumbull">John Trumbull</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Trumbull)" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)">Declaration of Independence</a>, showing the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></figcaption></figure> North America outside the zone of Spanish settlement was a contested area in the 17th century. Spain had founded small settlements in Florida and Georgia, but nowhere near the size of those in <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> or the Caribbean islands. France, The Netherlands, and Great Britain held colonies in North America and the West Indies from the 17th century, 100 years after the Spanish and Portuguese established permanent colonies. The British colonies in North America were founded between 1607 (Virginia) and 1733 (Georgia). The Dutch explored the east coast of North America and began founding settlements in what they called <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a> (now <a href="/wiki/New_York_State" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State">New York State</a>.). France colonized what is now <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canada" title="Eastern Canada">Eastern Canada</a>, founding <a href="/wiki/Quebec_City" title="Quebec City">Quebec City</a> in 1608. France's loss in the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> resulted in the transfer of <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> to Great Britain. The <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>, in lower British North America, rebelled against British rule through 1765-1783, due to various factors such as belief in natural rights, the enforcement of new taxes levied by a Parliament which they could not vote for representatives in, and opposition to monarchy. The British colonies in Canada remained loyal to the crown, and a provisional government formed by the Thirteen Colonies proclaimed their independence on 4 July 1776, and subsequently became the original 13 United States of America. With the 1783 Treaty of Paris ending the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, Britain recognised the former Thirteen Colonies' independence.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="Atlantic_World">Atlantic World</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Atlantic World" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_history" title="Atlantic history">Atlantic history</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg/260px-Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="144" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="13708" data-file-height="7590"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 260px;height: 144px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg/260px-Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg" data-width="260" data-height="144" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg/390px-Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg/520px-Waldseemuller_map_2.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Waldseem%C3%BCller_map" title="Waldseemüller map">Waldseemüller map</a> with joint sheets, 1507</figcaption></figure> A key development in early modern history is the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_World" title="Atlantic World">Atlantic World</a> as a category. The term generally encompasses Western Europe, West Africa, and the Americas. It seeks to illustrate both local and regional developments, as well as the connections between these geographical regions through trade, migration, and cultural exchange.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="Religion,_science,_philosophy,_and_education">Religion, science, philosophy, and education</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Religion, science, philosophy, and education" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protestant_Reformation">Protestant Reformation</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Protestant Reformation" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></div> The early modern period was initiated by the Reformation and the collapse of the unity of the medieval <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Western Church</a>. The theology of <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> in particular has been argued as instrumental to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>. Max Weber has written a highly influential book on this called <a href="/wiki/The_Protestant_Ethic_and_the_Spirit_of_Capitalism" title="The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism">The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counter-Reformation_and_Jesuits">Counter-Reformation and Jesuits</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Counter-Reformation and Jesuits" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div> The Counter-Reformation was a period of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a> revival in response to the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> during the mid-16th to mid-17th centuries. The Counter-Reformation was a comprehensive effort, involving ecclesiastical reforms as well as political and spiritual movements. Such reforms included the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Seminaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminaries">seminaries</a> for the proper training of priests, the reform of religious life by returning orders to their spiritual foundations, and new spiritual movements focusing on the devotional life and a personal relationship with <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_mystics" title="Spanish mystics">Spanish mystics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_school_of_spirituality" title="French school of spirituality">French school of spirituality</a>. It also involved political activities that included the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> New religious orders were a fundamental part of this trend. Orders such as the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin" title="Order of Friars Minor Capuchin">Capuchins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ursulines" title="Ursulines">Ursulines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theatines" title="Theatines">Theatines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discalced_Carmelites" title="Discalced Carmelites">Discalced Carmelites</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Barnabites" title="Barnabites">Barnabites</a>, and especially the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> strengthened rural parishes, improved popular piety, helped to curb corruption within the church, and set examples that would be a strong impetus for Catholic renewal.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_Revolution">Scientific Revolution</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Scientific Revolution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science in the Age of Enlightenment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png/200px-PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="268" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1141" data-file-height="1529"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 268px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png/200px-PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png" data-width="200" data-height="268" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png/300px-PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png/400px-PeuerbachSuperioribus2.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Model for the Three Superior Planets and Venus from <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_Peuerbach" title="Georg von Peuerbach">Georg von Peuerbach</a>, Theoricae novae planetarum</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a> in scientific discovery, technological innovation, and economic development began in the early modern period as the pace of change in Western countries increased significantly compared to the rest of the world. During the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> of the 16th and 17th centuries, <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a> replaced older methods of studying nature, which had relied on ancient texts by writers like Aristotle. By the time of the Revolution, these methods resulted in an accumulation of knowledge that overturned ideas inherited from Ancient Greece and Islamic scholars. Major changes during the Scientific Revolution and the 18th century included: <ul><li>The ancient <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> of the solar system (the other planets circle the Earth) was replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentrism</a> (the planets circle the Sun). This shift, known as the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a>, is marked by the 1543 publication of <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a>. Copernicus' work, influenced by earlier scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_al-Din_al-Urdi" title="Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi">Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi</a>, sparked a significant paradigm shift. The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> resisted this theory, and the <a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a> famously imprisoned <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> for promoting it.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a></li> <li>Using precise astronomical observations by <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a>, demonstrating that planets move in ellipses rather than perfect circles.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> The idea that the stars were fixed on celestial spheres was replaced by the idea that stars are distant suns. <a href="/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy" title="Astrology and astronomy">Astrology and astronomy</a> began to separate into different disciplines, with only <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> using scientific methods. <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescope</a> technology improved tremendously as did the <a href="/wiki/History_of_optics" title="History of optics">study of optics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics#Natural_motion" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotle's laws of motion</a> were replaced by <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">Newton's law of universal gravitation</a>. The 1687 publication of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a> is often used to mark the end of the Scientific Revolution, as it established the fundamental laws of physics that would dominate scientific thinking for centuries.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></li> <li>Advances in anatomy were marked by the publication of <a href="/wiki/De_Humani_Corporis_Fabrica_Libri_Septem" title="De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem">De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem</a> (1543) by <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>, which revolutionized the understanding of human anatomy and corrected errors in the works of <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In 1628, <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a>'s <a href="/wiki/De_Motu_Cordis" class="mw-redirect" title="De Motu Cordis">De Motu Cordis</a> advanced knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a></li> <li>Both the 8th century Islamic experimenter <a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a> and the 17th century scientist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> have been described as founders of modern <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>. Both worked as <a href="/wiki/Alchemists" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemists">alchemists</a> before the fields were clearly separated. Boyle argued for <a href="/wiki/Corpuscularianism" title="Corpuscularianism">corpuscularianism</a> in the 1661 book <a href="/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist" title="The Sceptical Chymist">The Sceptical Chymist</a> and discovered <a href="/wiki/Boyle%27s_law" title="Boyle's law">Boyle's law</a> of gases. The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">chemical revolution</a> followed with the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">conservation of mass</a>, which led to the rejection of <a href="/wiki/Phlogiston_theory" title="Phlogiston theory">phlogiston theory</a> and the identification of chemical elements.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></li> <li>Modern scientific <a href="/wiki/Dentistry" title="Dentistry">dentistry</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Fauchard" title="Pierre Fauchard">Pierre Fauchard</a>, who is credited with pioneering dental techniques in his 1728 work Le Chirurgien Dentiste.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine" title="Smallpox vaccine">smallpox vaccine</a> was invented in the 1770s and popularized by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> in the 1790s, though it was unclear at the time how it worked.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></li> <li>The ancient theory of <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneous generation</a> remained dominant throughout the early modern period, but the <a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">history of evolutionary thought</a> includes some who questioned the strictest form of this dogma. The idea of partial <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a> was famously promoted by <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon</a>. <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> was not fully articulated and accepted until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a></li> <li>The invention of the <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> led to the development of <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a>, with early observations of microorganisms by <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> in the 1670s.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> published the first modern <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a> (1735), introducing the classification of organisms into hierarchical categories and replacing Aristotle's ideas.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></li> <li>Early modern <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> was established with the work of <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Steno" title="Nicolas Steno">Nicolas Steno</a>, who proposed the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">law of superposition</a> in 1669, and the systematic study of fossils and rock types began to question the biblical age of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a></li> <li>Early developments in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_electromagnetism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of electromagnetism">history of electromagnetism</a> included research into the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>, the development of the <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_generator" title="Electrostatic generator">electrostatic generator</a>, and the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law" title="Coulomb's law">Coulomb's law</a> in 1784, which described the force between electric charges.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a></li></ul> In the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical linguistics</a> began in the late 18th century, with <a href="/wiki/William_Jones_(philologist)" title="William Jones (philologist)">William Jones</a> identifying the common origin of what are now called <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></li> <li>The fields of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">paleoanthropology</a> emerged in the 18th century, but much of early modern anthropology is now considered <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s work, such as his seminal book The Wealth of Nations, has been interpreted as the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Technology">Technology</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Technology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance technology</a></div> Inventions of the early modern period included the <a href="/wiki/Floating_dock_(impounded)" title="Floating dock (impounded)">floating dock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lifting_tower" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifting tower">lifting tower</a>, <a href="/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspaper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grenade_musket" class="mw-redirect" title="Grenade musket">grenade musket</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">lightning rod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bifocals" title="Bifocals">bifocals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Franklin_stove" title="Franklin stove">Franklin stove</a>. Early attempts at building a practical <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraph</a> were hindered because <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a> was the only source available. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enlightenment_and_reason">Enlightenment and reason</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Enlightenment and reason" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/17th_century_in_philosophy" title="17th century in philosophy">17th century in philosophy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Atheism_during_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment">Atheism during the Age of Enlightenment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Philosophical skepticism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/180px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="281" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1266" data-file-height="1973"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 180px;height: 281px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/180px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="180" data-height="281" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/270px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg/360px-Encyclopedie_frontispice_full.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>"If there is something you know, communicate it. If there is something you don't know, search for it." An engraving from the 1772 edition of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a>; <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a> (center) is surrounded by light and unveiled by the figures to the right, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> is also called the Age of Reason because it marked a departure from the medieval tradition of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>, which was rooted in Christian dogma, and from <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance philosophy</a>'s occultist approaches. Instead, reason became the central source of knowledge, initiating the era of <a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">modern philosophy</a>, especially in <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> This period in Europe was characterized by system-builders—philosophers who established unified theories of <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, and sometimes even <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Physical_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical sciences">physical sciences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Early 17th-century philosophy is often referred to as the Age of Rationalism, succeeding Renaissance philosophy and preceding the Enlightenment. Some consider it the earliest part of the Enlightenment, stretching over two centuries. This era includes the works of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (1643–1727), such as <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> (1687), and the development of Descartes' famous proposition <a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a> (1637).<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> The first major advancements in modern science included Newton's theory of <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, which, along with the contributions of <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bayle" title="Pierre Bayle">Pierre Bayle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, and others, fueled the Enlightenment.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The 18th century saw the rise of <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a> in Europe, notably following the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> classified his predecessors into two philosophical schools: <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> The former was represented by figures such as <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a> established the colony of <a href="/wiki/Providence_Plantations" class="mw-redirect" title="Providence Plantations">Providence Plantations</a> in New England on the principle of <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">separation of church and state</a> after being exiled by the <a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a>.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> French <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salon</a> culture played a key role in spreading Enlightenment ideas, culminating in the influential <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a> (1751–72), edited by <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a> with contributions from thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Quarrel_of_the_Ancients_and_the_Moderns" title="Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns">Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns</a> stirred debate within the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="French Academy">French Academy</a>, elevating contemporary knowledge over classical Greek and Roman wisdom. Enlightenment thought also significantly influenced German philosophy, fostered by <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> emerging as a leading figure. These developments also had profound impacts on the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Enlightenment" title="Russian Enlightenment">Russian Enlightenment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Enlightenment in Spain</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment in Poland">Enlightenment in Poland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> The Enlightenment flourished until around 1790–1800, after which the emphasis on reason gave way to <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romanticism</a> and the growing influence of <a href="/wiki/Counter-Enlightenment" title="Counter-Enlightenment">Counter-Enlightenment</a> movements.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humanism">Humanism</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Humanism" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></div>With the adoption of large-scale printing after 1500, Italian <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a> spread northward to France, Germany, Holland and England, where it became associated with the Reformation. Developing during the Enlightenment era, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a> as an intellectual movement spread across Europe. The basic training of the humanist was to speak well and write (typically, in the form of a letter). The term umanista comes from the latter part of the 15th century. The people were associated with the <a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">studia humanitatis</a>, a novel curriculum that was competing with the <a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">quadrivium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastic logic">scholastic logic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> In France, pre-eminent Humanist <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Bud%C3%A9" title="Guillaume Budé">Guillaume Budé</a> (1467–1540) applied the <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philological</a> methods of Italian Humanism to the study of antique coinage and to legal history, composing a detailed commentary on <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Justinian's Code</a>. Although a royal absolutist (and not a republican like the early Italian umanisti), Budé was active in civic life, serving as a diplomat for <a href="/wiki/Francis_I_of_France" title="Francis I of France">Francis I</a> and helping to found the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège des Lecteurs Royaux</a> (later the Collège de France). Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_de_Navarre" title="Marguerite de Navarre">Marguerite de Navarre</a>, the sister of Francis I, herself a poet, novelist and religious mystic,<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including <a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Marot" title="Clément Marot">Clément Marot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Ronsard" title="Pierre de Ronsard">Pierre de Ronsard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rabelais" title="François Rabelais">François Rabelais</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Death_in_the_early_modern_period">Death in the early modern period</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Death in the early modern period" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mortality_rates">Mortality rates</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Mortality rates" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> During the early modern period, thorough and accurate global data on mortality rates is limited for a number of reasons including disparities in medical practices and views on the dead. However, there still remains data from European countries that still holds valuable information on the mortality rates of infants during this era. In his book Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900, Tommy Bengtsson provides adequate information pertaining to the data of infant mortality rates in European countries as well as provide necessary contextual influences on these mortality rates.<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_infant_mortality_rates">European infant mortality rates</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: European infant mortality rates" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Infant mortality was a global concern during the early modern period as many newborns would not survive into childhood. Bengsston provides comparative data on infant mortality averages in a variety of European towns, cities, regions and countries starting from the mid-1600s to the 1800s.<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> These statistics are measured for infant deaths within the first month of every 1,000 births in a given area.<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> For instance, the average infant mortality rate in what is now Germany was 108 infant deaths for every 1,000 births; in <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>, there were 140–190 infant deaths reported for every 1,000 births.<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> In France, <a href="/wiki/Beauvaisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Beauvaisis">Beauvaisis</a> reported 140–160 infants dying per every 1,000 babies born.<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> In what is now Italy, <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> averaged 134 infant deaths per 1,000 births.<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, 80–110 infants died per every 1,000 babies born. In Sweden, 70–95 infants died per 1,000 births in <a href="/wiki/Link%C3%B6ping" title="Linköping">Linköping</a>, 48 infants died per 1,000 births in <a href="/wiki/Sundsvall" title="Sundsvall">Sundsvall</a>, and 41 infants died per 1,000 births in <a href="/wiki/Vastanfors" class="mw-redirect" title="Vastanfors">Vastanfors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Causes_of_infant_mortality">Causes of infant mortality</h4> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Causes of infant mortality" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Bengsston writes that climate conditions were the most important factor in determining infant mortality rates: "For the period from birth to the fifth birthday, [climate] is clearly the most important determinant of death".<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> Winters proved to be harsh on families and their newborns, especially if the other seasons of the year were warmer. This seasonal drop in temperature was a lot for an infant's body to adapt to. For instance, Italy is home to a very warm climate in the summer, and the temperature drops immensely in the winter.<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> This lends context to Bengsston writing that "the [Italian] winter peak was the cruelest: during the first 10 days of life, a newborn was four times more likely to die than in the summer".<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> According to Bengsston, this trend existed amongst cities in different parts of Italy and in various parts of Europe even though cities operated under different economic and agricultural conditions.<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> This leads Bengsston to his conclusion on what may have caused mortality rates in infants to spike during winter: "The strong protective effect of summer for neonatal deaths leads us to suppose that in many cases, these might be due to the insufficient heating systems of the houses or to the exposure of the newborn to cold during the <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptism</a> ceremony. This last hypothesis could explain why the effect was so strong in Italy".<a href="#cite_note-:4-153">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Capital_punishment">Capital punishment</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Capital punishment" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment#Modern_era" title="Capital punishment">Capital punishment § Modern era</a></div> During the early modern period, many societies' views on death changed greatly. With the implementation of new torture techniques, and increased public executions, people began to give more value to their life, and their body after death. Along with the views on death, methods of execution also changed. New devices to torture and execute criminals were invented.<a href="#cite_note-:2-154">[154]</a> The number of criminals executed by <a href="/wiki/Gibbeting" title="Gibbeting">gibbeting</a> increased,<a href="#cite_note-:3-155">[155]</a> as did the total rate of executions during the early modern period.<a href="#cite_note-:3-155">[155]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_in_the_early_modern_world" title="Cuisine in the early modern world">Cuisine in the early modern world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_revolution" title="Price revolution">Price revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-globalization" title="Proto-globalization">Proto-globalization</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Bayly" title="Christopher Bayly">Christopher Alan Bayly</a>, The birth of the modern world, 1780–1914: global connections and comparisons (2004). P. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFde_Vries2009" class="citation journal cs1">de Vries, Jan (14 September 2009). "The limits of globalization in the early modern world". The Economic History Review. 63 (3): 710–733. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.186.2862">10.1.1.186.2862</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2009.00497.x">10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40929823">40929823</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219969360">219969360</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1635517">1635517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+limits+of+globalization+in+the+early+modern+world&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=710-733&rft.date=2009-09-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40929823%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2009.00497.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.186.2862%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1635517%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219969360%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=de+Vries&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Vries2009" class="citation journal cs1">de Vries, Jan (14 September 2009). "The limits of globalization in the early modern world". The Economic History Review. 63 (3): 710–733. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.186.2862">10.1.1.186.2862</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2009.00497.x">10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00497.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40929823">40929823</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219969360">219969360</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1635517">1635517</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economic+History+Review&rft.atitle=The+limits+of+globalization+in+the+early+modern+world&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=710-733&rft.date=2009-09-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40929823%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.2009.00497.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.186.2862%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1635517%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219969360%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=de+Vries&rft.aufirst=Jan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiesner-Hanks2021" class="citation book cs1">Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. 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Greenwood Publishing Group, 1995. p. 119. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160811013749/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=Jskyi00bspcC&dq=Vietnam+from+Hong+Bang+to+Tu+Duc&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=Zc-6W_VeyZ&sig=mUH2SUb0jMwEoQFmX_EB6XP_5KU#PPR10,M1">Archived</a> 11 August 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1956" class="citation journal cs1">Needham, Joseph (1956). "Mathematics and Science in China and the West". 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A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology. University of California Press. pp. 26–36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92884-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-92884-8"><bdi>978-0-520-92884-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200812213657/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA29">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2020. 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Columbia University Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-50037-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-50037-1"><bdi>978-0-231-50037-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801034736/https://books.google.com/books?id=iAhSGNGnhFMC&pg=PR15">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020. 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Strasbourg: Council of Europe. p. 350. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-28715-744-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-28715-744-7"><bdi>978-9-28715-744-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culinary+Cultures+of+Europe%3A+Identity%2C+Diversity+and+Dialogue&rft.place=Strasbourg&rft.pages=350&rft.pub=Council+of+Europe&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-9-28715-744-7&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Darra&rft.au=Merkle%2C+Kathrin&rft.au=Mennell%2C+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan (First edition, 1983), section "Azuchi-Momoyama History (1568–1600)" by George Elison, in the entry for "history of Japan".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenshall2014" class="citation book cs1">Henshall, Kenneth (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tmYYAgAAQBAJ">Historical Dictionary of Japan to 1945</a>. 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(1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892">The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520048041" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520048041"><bdi>978-0520048041</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429100458/https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892">Archived</a> from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Enterprise%3A+The+Manchu+Reconstruction+of+Imperial+Order+in+Seventeenth-century+China&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0520048041&rft.aulast=Wakeman&rft.aufirst=Frederic+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8nXLwSG2O8AC%26pg%3DPA892&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFL._CanfieldJonathan_Haas2002" class="citation book cs1">L. Canfield, Robert; Jonathan Haas (2002). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5"><bdi>978-0-521-52291-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turko-Persia+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52291-5&rft.aulast=L.+Canfield&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Jonathan+Haas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sscnet.ucla.edu-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sscnet.ucla.edu_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-sscnet.ucla.edu_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180621203057/http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html">"Manas: History and Politics, Mughals"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html">the original</a> on 21 June 2018. Retrieved 8 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Manas%3A+History+and+Politics%2C+Mughals&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sscnet.ucla.edu%2Fsouthasia%2FHistory%2FMughals%2Fmughals.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Parthasarathi38-42"><a href="#cite_ref-Parthasarathi38_42-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParthasarathi2011" class="citation book cs1">Parthasarathi, Prasannan (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38">Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850</a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 39–45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49889-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-49889-0"><bdi>978-1-139-49889-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191121101302/https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+Europe+Grew+Rich+and+Asia+Did+Not%3A+Global+Economic+Divergence%2C+1600%E2%80%931850&rft.pages=39-45&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-139-49889-0&rft.aulast=Parthasarathi&rft.aufirst=Prasannan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1_YEcvo-jqcC%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrison-43"><a href="#cite_ref-harrison_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawrence_E._Harrison,_Peter_L._Berger2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Harrison_(academic)" title="Lawrence Harrison (academic)">Lawrence E. Harrison</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter L. Berger</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RB0oAQAAIAAJ">Developing cultures: case studies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415952798" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415952798"><bdi>978-0415952798</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200612234406/https://books.google.com/books?id=RB0oAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2020. Retrieved 26 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Developing+cultures%3A+case+studies&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0415952798&rft.au=Lawrence+E.+Harrison%2C+Peter+L.+Berger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRB0oAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-44"><a href="#cite_ref-BBC_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/mughalempire_1.shtml">"Mughal Empire (1500s, 1600s)"</a>. bbc.co.uk. London: BBC. Section 5: Aurangzeb. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101110065723/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/mughalempire_1.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 10 November 2010. Retrieved 18 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=bbc.co.uk&rft.atitle=Mughal+Empire+%281500s%2C+1600s%29&rft.pages=Section+5%3A+Aurangzeb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fislam%2Fhistory%2Fmughalempire_1.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWadley2015" class="citation book cs1">Wadley, Susan S. (2015). South Asia in the World: An Introduction. London: Routledge. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-31745-959-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-31745-959-0"><bdi>978-1-31745-959-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=South+Asia+in+the+World%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=London&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-31745-959-0&rft.aulast=Wadley&rft.aufirst=Susan+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoseJalal2003">Bose & Jalal 2003</a>, p. 76 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1994" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Judith Margaret (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ">Modern India: the origins of an Asian democracy</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873112-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-873112-2"><bdi>978-0-19-873112-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200815113830/https://books.google.com/books?id=Eq7tAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+India%3A+the+origins+of+an+Asian+democracy&rft.pages=46&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-19-873112-2&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Judith+Margaret&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEq7tAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeers2006" class="citation book cs1">Peers, Douglas M. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ">India under colonial rule: 1700–1885</a>. Pearson Education. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-31738-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-31738-3"><bdi>978-0-582-31738-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200815000750/https://books.google.com/books?id=6iNuAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India+under+colonial+rule%3A+1700%E2%80%931885&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-582-31738-3&rft.aulast=Peers&rft.aufirst=Douglas+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6iNuAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetcalfMetcalf2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_D._Metcalf" title="Barbara D. Metcalf">Metcalf, Barbara Daly</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thomas_R._Metcalf" title="Thomas R. Metcalf">Metcalf, Thomas R.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C">A concise history of modern India</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86362-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-86362-9"><bdi>978-0-521-86362-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225220847/https://books.google.com/books?id=iuESgYNYPl0C">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 28 January 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+concise+history+of+modern+India&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-86362-9&rft.aulast=Metcalf&rft.aufirst=Barbara+Daly&rft.au=Metcalf%2C+Thomas+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiuESgYNYPl0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WDL-50"><a href="#cite_ref-WDL_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wdl.org/en/item/393/">"Official, India"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Digital_Library" title="World Digital Library">World Digital Library</a>. 1890–1923. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191219213715/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/393/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Digital+Library&rft.atitle=Official%2C+India&rft.date=1890%2F1923&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wdl.org%2Fen%2Fitem%2F393%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ricklefs_19-51"><a href="#cite_ref-Ricklefs_19_51-0">^</a> M.C. Ricklefs, A History of Modern Indonesia Since <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1300, 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991. page 19 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPigeaud1963" class="citation book cs1">Pigeaud, Theodore G. Th. (1963). "Alphabetical Index of Subjects Treated in Volumes II–V". Java in the 14th Century. Springer Netherlands. pp. 29–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-011-8778-7_3">10.1007/978-94-011-8778-7_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-011-8778-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-011-8778-7"><bdi>978-94-011-8778-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Alphabetical+Index+of+Subjects+Treated+in+Volumes+II%E2%80%93V&rft.btitle=Java+in+the+14th+Century&rft.pages=29-46&rft.pub=Springer+Netherlands&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-011-8778-7_3&rft.isbn=978-94-011-8778-7&rft.aulast=Pigeaud&rft.aufirst=Theodore+G.+Th.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFResink1968" class="citation book cs1">Resink, Gertrudes Johan (1968). Indonesia's History Between the Myths: Essays in Legal History and Historical Theory. Van Hoeve. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-200-7468-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-200-7468-0"><bdi>978-90-200-7468-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indonesia%27s+History+Between+the+Myths%3A+Essays+in+Legal+History+and+Historical+Theory&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Van+Hoeve&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-90-200-7468-0&rft.aulast=Resink&rft.aufirst=Gertrudes+Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid1993" class="citation book cs1">Reid, Anthony (1993). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce, 1450–1680: Volume Two, Expansion and Crisis. Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southeast+Asia+in+the+Age+of+Commerce%2C+1450%E2%80%931680%3A+Volume+Two%2C+Expansion+and+Crisis&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bS4yAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA4">The Holy Land, 1517-1713</a>. Brill. 2012. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23624-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-23624-0"><bdi>978-90-04-23624-0</bdi></a>. <q>From <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim</a>'s conquest until the early eighteenth century, which marked the beginning of British and French domination of the Mediterranean Sea routes, the region witnessed what Rhoads Murphey [an Ottoman Studies professor] has described as the pax Ottomanica.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holy+Land%2C+1517-1713&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-90-04-23624-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbS4yAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirály,_Béla_K.1975" class="citation book cs1">Király, Béla K., ed. (1975). "The Ottoman aspects of Pax Ottomanica". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3tsoAAAAYAAJ">Tolerance and movements of religious dissent in Eastern Europe</a>. East European Quarterly. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-914710-06-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-914710-06-6"><bdi>978-0-914710-06-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ottoman+aspects+of+Pax+Ottomanica&rft.btitle=Tolerance+and+movements+of+religious+dissent+in+Eastern+Europe&rft.pub=East+European+Quarterly&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-914710-06-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3tsoAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuzaffar_Husain_SyedSyed_Saud_AkhtarB_D_Usmani2011" class="citation book cs1">Muzaffar Husain Syed; Syed Saud Akhtar; B D Usmani (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eACqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA150">Concise History of Islam</a>. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. p. 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-82573-47-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-82573-47-0"><bdi>978-93-82573-47-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concise+History+of+Islam&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=Vij+Books+India+Pvt+Ltd&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-93-82573-47-0&rft.au=Muzaffar+Husain+Syed&rft.au=Syed+Saud+Akhtar&rft.au=B+D+Usmani&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeACqCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbu_Rehab2014" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-script">Abu Rehab, Mohammad (9 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/abga/9/1/article-p150_15.xml"><bdi lang="ar">دراسة في مضمون النقوش الكتابية علي عمائر الأشراف السعديين بالمغرب الأقصي(915-1069هــ/1510-1658م)</bdi></a> [A Study on the Content of the Inscriptions on the Buildings of the Sharifian Saadi Dynasty of Morocco (During the Period between AH 915–1069/151069/1510–1658 CE)]. Abgadiyat. 9 (1): 150–194. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22138609-90000027">10.1163/22138609-90000027</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2213-8609">2213-8609</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Abgadiyat&rft.atitle=%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A9+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D9%85%D8%B6%D9%85%D9%88%D9%86+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B4+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A+%D8%B9%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B4%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86+%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A8+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%82%D8%B5%D9%8A%28915-1069%D9%87%D9%80%D9%80%2F1510-1658%D9%85%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=150-194&rft.date=2014-05-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22138609-90000027&rft.issn=2213-8609&rft.aulast=Abu+Rehab&rft.aufirst=Mohammad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fabga%2F9%2F1%2Farticle-p150_15.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Stanford Jay Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. 1977, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Andrew J. Newman, Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, IB Tauris (30 March 2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKia2017" class="citation book cs1">Kia, Mehrdad (2017). The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610693899" title="Special:BookSources/978-1610693899"><bdi>978-1610693899</bdi></a>. <q>In October 1638 Ottoman forces returned to Mesopotamia, stormed Baghdad, and captured the city in December despite sustaining heavy casualties. These included the grand vizier, who "was killed leading the assault" (Sykes: 2:211). The Safavids were forced to sue for peace. On May 17, 1639 the Ottoman Empire and Iran signed a treaty (...)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Empire%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1610693899&rft.aulast=Kia&rft.aufirst=Mehrdad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Bairoch1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bairoch" title="Paul Bairoch">Paul Bairoch</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171012060209/https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch">Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. p. 107. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch">the original</a> on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics+and+World+History%3A+Myths+and+Paradoxes&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Paul+Bairoch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F193124153%2FEconomics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-US_State_Dept-63"><a href="#cite_ref-US_State_Dept_63-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bgnotes/sa/afghanistan9407.html">Afghanistan: History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171113054241/http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/bgnotes/sa/afghanistan9407.html">Archived</a> 13 November 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, U.S. Department of State (retrieved 10 October 2006). </li> <li id="cite_note-multiple-64"><a href="#cite_ref-multiple_64-0">^</a> Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge 1988 </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Helen Miller, Aubrey Newman. Early modern British history, 1485–1760: a select bibliography, <a href="/wiki/Historical_Association" title="Historical Association">Historical Association</a>, 1970 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/rul/rr_gateway/research_guides/history/texts_by_period.shtml#emp">Early Modern Period (1485–1800)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120306004416/http://www.libraries.rutgers.edu/rul/rr_gateway/research_guides/history/texts_by_period.shtml#emp">Archived</a> 6 March 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Sites Organized by Period, <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University" title="Rutgers University">Rutgers University</a> Libraries </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChase2003" class="citation book cs1">Chase, Kenneth (2003). Firearms: A Global History to 1700. Cambridge University Press. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82274-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82274-9"><bdi>978-0-521-82274-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Firearms%3A+A+Global+History+to+1700&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82274-9&rft.aulast=Chase&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=renaissance&searchmode=none">"Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170629033330/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=renaissance&searchmode=none">Archived</a> from the original on 29 June 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Drenaissance%26searchmode%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> A Greek mathematician, <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a>, had already discussed heliocentric hypotheses as early as the third century BCE. However, there is little evidence that he ever developed his ideas beyond a very basic outline <a href="#Reference-Dreyer-1953">(Dreyer, 1953</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#page/134/mode/2up">pp. 135–148</a>; <a href="#Reference-Linton-2004">Linton, 2004, p. 39)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWexler2017" class="citation book cs1">Wexler, Philip (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ttB1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">Toxicology in the Middle Ages and Renaissance</a>. Academic Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-809559-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-809559-1"><bdi>978-0-12-809559-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072345/https://books.google.com/books?id=ttB1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toxicology+in+the+Middle+Ages+and+Renaissance&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-12-809559-1&rft.aulast=Wexler&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DttB1DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevere2001" class="citation book cs1">Levere, Trevor H. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tnos3wua2cIC&pg=PA14">Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball</a>. JHU Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6610-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6610-4"><bdi>978-0-8018-6610-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072357/https://books.google.com/books?id=tnos3wua2cIC&pg=PA14">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transforming+Matter%3A+A+History+of+Chemistry+from+Alchemy+to+the+Buckyball&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6610-4&rft.aulast=Levere&rft.aufirst=Trevor+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dtnos3wua2cIC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorrain2008" class="citation book cs1">Corrain, Lucia (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pupv8gNWvIC&pg=PA28">The Art of the Renaissance</a>. The Oliver Press, Inc. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934545-04-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-934545-04-1"><bdi>978-1-934545-04-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072353/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pupv8gNWvIC&pg=PA28">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+the+Renaissance&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=The+Oliver+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-934545-04-1&rft.aulast=Corrain&rft.aufirst=Lucia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6Pupv8gNWvIC%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStricklandBoswell2007" class="citation book cs1">Strickland, Carol; Boswell, John (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=n39T-zRGI90C&pg=PA42">The Annotated Mona Lisa: A Crash Course in Art History from Prehistoric to Post-Modern</a>. Andrews McMeel Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7407-6872-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7407-6872-9"><bdi>978-0-7407-6872-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072356/https://books.google.com/books?id=n39T-zRGI90C&pg=PA42">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Annotated+Mona+Lisa%3A+A+Crash+Course+in+Art+History+from+Prehistoric+to+Post-Modern&rft.pub=Andrews+McMeel+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7407-6872-9&rft.aulast=Strickland&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft.au=Boswell%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dn39T-zRGI90C%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCelinscakHutt2021" class="citation book cs1">Celinscak, Mark; Hutt, Curtis (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OQZAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61">Artistic Representations of Suffering: Rights, Resistance, and Remembrance</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-5292-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5381-5292-8"><bdi>978-1-5381-5292-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072354/https://books.google.com/books?id=OQZAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artistic+Representations+of+Suffering%3A+Rights%2C+Resistance%2C+and+Remembrance&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-5381-5292-8&rft.aulast=Celinscak&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Hutt%2C+Curtis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOQZAEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA61&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlMancaMcShane2016" class="citation book cs1">Carl, Klaus H.; Manca, Joseph; McShane, Megan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qlFBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA412">30 Millennia of Painting</a>. Parkstone International. p. 412. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68325-359-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-68325-359-4"><bdi>978-1-68325-359-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215080417/https://books.google.com/books?id=qlFBDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA412">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=30+Millennia+of+Painting&rft.pages=412&rft.pub=Parkstone+International&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-68325-359-4&rft.aulast=Carl&rft.aufirst=Klaus+H.&rft.au=Manca%2C+Joseph&rft.au=McShane%2C+Megan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqlFBDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA412&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSporre1990" class="citation book cs1">Sporre, Dennis J. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2T7KARr7XgC">The Creative Impulse: An Introduction to the Arts</a>. Prentice-Hall. p. 283. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-189754-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-189754-0"><bdi>978-0-13-189754-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220216194238/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2T7KARr7XgC">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creative+Impulse%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Arts&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-13-189754-0&rft.aulast=Sporre&rft.aufirst=Dennis+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2T7KARr7XgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2014" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Barrie (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zoa3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA438">The Hutchinson Concise Dictionary of Music</a>. Routledge. p. 478. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-95018-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-95018-7"><bdi>978-1-135-95018-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220216194238/https://books.google.com/books?id=zoa3AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA438">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hutchinson+Concise+Dictionary+of+Music&rft.pages=478&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-135-95018-7&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Barrie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzoa3AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA438&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> The title was derived from his savage behavior against his enemies, and particularly from a war with France in late 1471: frustrated by the refusal of the French to engage in open battle, and angered by French attacks on his unprotected borders in Hainault and Flanders, Charles marched his army back from the Ile-de-France to Burgundian territory, burning over two thousand towns, villages and castles on his way—Taylor, Aline S. Isabel of Burgundy. Lanham, Md: Madison Books, c2001, pp. 212–213 </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWingfield2009" class="citation book cs1">Wingfield, George (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AR1TpY1wcCMC&pg=PA31">Belgium</a>. Infobase Publishing. p. 31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0486-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0486-7"><bdi>978-1-4381-0486-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215075041/https://books.google.com/books?id=AR1TpY1wcCMC&pg=PA31">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Belgium&rft.pages=31&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-0486-7&rft.aulast=Wingfield&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAR1TpY1wcCMC%26pg%3DPA31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMead2014" class="citation book cs1">Mead, Walter Russell (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn7oAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT90">God and Gold: Britain, America and the Making of the Modern World</a>. Atlantic Books. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78239-600-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78239-600-0"><bdi>978-1-78239-600-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072400/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sn7oAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT90">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=God+and+Gold%3A+Britain%2C+America+and+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Atlantic+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78239-600-0&rft.aulast=Mead&rft.aufirst=Walter+Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSn7oAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartellieri2013" class="citation book cs1">Cartellieri, Otto (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vQxUAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80">The Court of Burgundy</a>. Routledge. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-20406-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-20406-7"><bdi>978-1-136-20406-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072353/https://books.google.com/books?id=vQxUAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Court+of+Burgundy&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-20406-7&rft.aulast=Cartellieri&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvQxUAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA80&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVaughanParavicini2002" class="citation book cs1">Vaughan, Richard; Paravicini, Werner (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GsKuCHXRuPMC&pg=PA97">Charles the Bold: The Last Valois Duke of Burgundy</a>. Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-918-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-918-8"><bdi>978-0-85115-918-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072359/https://books.google.com/books?id=GsKuCHXRuPMC&pg=PA97">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charles+the+Bold%3A+The+Last+Valois+Duke+of+Burgundy&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-85115-918-8&rft.aulast=Vaughan&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Paravicini%2C+Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGsKuCHXRuPMC%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerengerSimpson2014" class="citation book cs1">Berenger, Jean; Simpson, C. A. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rWQSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124">A History of the Habsburg Empire 1273–1700</a>. Routledge. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89570-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89570-1"><bdi>978-1-317-89570-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220301025504/https://books.google.com/books?id=rWQSBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124">Archived</a> from the original on 1 March 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Habsburg+Empire+1273%E2%80%931700&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-317-89570-1&rft.aulast=Berenger&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft.au=Simpson%2C+C.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrWQSBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunnGrummittCools2007" class="citation book cs1">Gunn, Steven; Grummitt, David; Cools, Hans (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KQtREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">War, State, and Society in England and the Netherlands 1477–1559</a>. OUP Oxford. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152588-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152588-9"><bdi>978-0-19-152588-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072359/https://books.google.com/books?id=KQtREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+State%2C+and+Society+in+England+and+the+Netherlands+1477%E2%80%931559&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-152588-9&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Grummitt%2C+David&rft.au=Cools%2C+Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKQtREAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson201378-85"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson201378_85-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnson2013">Johnson 2013</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRingWatsonSchellinger2013" class="citation book cs1">Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yfPYAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA126">Northern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places</a>. Routledge. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-63944-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-63944-9"><bdi>978-1-136-63944-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072356/https://books.google.com/books?id=yfPYAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA126">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Northern+Europe%3A+International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-63944-9&rft.aulast=Ring&rft.aufirst=Trudy&rft.au=Watson%2C+Noelle&rft.au=Schellinger%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyfPYAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVagnoni2020" class="citation book cs1">Vagnoni, Mirko (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J-oOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19">Royal Divine Coronation Iconography in the Medieval Euro-Mediterranean Area</a>. MDPI. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-03943-751-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-03943-751-1"><bdi>978-3-03943-751-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072357/https://books.google.com/books?id=J-oOEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA19">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Royal+Divine+Coronation+Iconography+in+the+Medieval+Euro-Mediterranean+Area&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=MDPI&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-03943-751-1&rft.aulast=Vagnoni&rft.aufirst=Mirko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ-oOEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2013" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Paul (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wUmqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT78">The Renaissance</a>. Orion. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78022-716-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78022-716-0"><bdi>978-1-78022-716-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072349/https://books.google.com/books?id=wUmqAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT78">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Renaissance&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Orion&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-78022-716-0&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwUmqAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrison2007" class="citation book cs1">Morrison, Elspeth (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9qLW7atYX8sC&pg=PA245">The Dorothy Dunnett Companion: Volume II</a>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 245. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42844-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-42844-8"><bdi>978-0-307-42844-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072354/https://books.google.com/books?id=9qLW7atYX8sC&pg=PA245">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dorothy+Dunnett+Companion%3A+Volume+II&rft.pages=245&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-42844-8&rft.aulast=Morrison&rft.aufirst=Elspeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9qLW7atYX8sC%26pg%3DPA245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBulliet2016" class="citation book cs1">Bulliet, Richard W. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x341CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159">The Wheel: Inventions and Reinventions</a>. Columbia University Press. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54061-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-54061-2"><bdi>978-0-231-54061-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072352/https://books.google.com/books?id=x341CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA159">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wheel%3A+Inventions+and+Reinventions&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-231-54061-2&rft.aulast=Bulliet&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx341CwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTerjanian2019" class="citation book cs1">Terjanian, Pierre, ed. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X-anDwAAQBAJ">The Last Knight: The Art, Armor, and Ambition of Maximilian I</a>. Metropolitan Museum of Art. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-674-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58839-674-7"><bdi>978-1-58839-674-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072358/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-anDwAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Knight%3A+The+Art%2C+Armor%2C+and+Ambition+of+Maximilian+I&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-58839-674-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX-anDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalBayard2007" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Gal, Stéphane; Bayard, Amis de (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mtlnAAAAMAAJ">Bayard: histoires croisées du chevalier</a> (in French). Presses universitaires de Grenoble. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7061-1420-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7061-1420-5"><bdi>978-2-7061-1420-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200201092719/https://books.google.com/books?id=MTlnAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bayard%3A+histoires+crois%C3%A9es+du+chevalier&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Presses+universitaires+de+Grenoble&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-2-7061-1420-5&rft.aulast=Gal&rft.aufirst=St%C3%A9phane&rft.au=Bayard%2C+Amis+de&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmtlnAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArbeitsgemeinschaft_Kreis_Kaiserslautern,_Historischer_Verein_der_Pfalz1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreis Kaiserslautern, Historischer Verein der Pfalz (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LDdFAAAAMAAJ">Jahrbuch zur Geschichte von Stadt und Landkreis Kaiserslautern</a> (in German). Arbeitsgemeinschaft Kreis Kaiserslautern, Historischer Verein der Pfalz. p. 197. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072350/https://books.google.com/books?id=LDdFAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jahrbuch+zur+Geschichte+von+Stadt+und+Landkreis+Kaiserslautern&rft.pages=197&rft.pub=Arbeitsgemeinschaft+Kreis+Kaiserslautern%2C+Historischer+Verein+der+Pfalz&rft.date=1984&rft.au=Arbeitsgemeinschaft+Kreis+Kaiserslautern%2C+Historischer+Verein+der+Pfalz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLDdFAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurian-Ress1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Durian-Ress, Saskia (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S15IAQAAIAAJ">Badische Burgen aus romantischer Sicht: Auswahl aus den Beständen des Augustinermuseums</a> (in German). Rombach. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7930-0678-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7930-0678-7"><bdi>978-3-7930-0678-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072346/https://books.google.com/books?id=S15IAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Badische+Burgen+aus+romantischer+Sicht%3A+Auswahl+aus+den+Best%C3%A4nden+des+Augustinermuseums&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Rombach&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-3-7930-0678-7&rft.aulast=Durian-Ress&rft.aufirst=Saskia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS15IAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichaud1996" class="citation journal cs1">Michaud, Claude (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0048-8003_1996_num_43_2_1824_t1_0371_0000_1">"Hispania- Austria. Die Katholischen Könige, Maximilian I. und die Anfänge der Casa de Austria in Spanien/Los Reyes Catolicos, Maximiliano I. y los inicios de la Casa de Austria en España"</a>. Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine. 43 (2): 371–373. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220216194238/https://www.persee.fr/doc/rhmc_0048-8003_1996_num_43_2_1824_t1_0371_0000_1">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+d%27Histoire+Moderne+%26+Contemporaine&rft.atitle=Hispania-+Austria.+Die+Katholischen+K%C3%B6nige%2C+Maximilian+I.+und+die+Anf%C3%A4nge+der+Casa+de+Austria+in+Spanien%2FLos+Reyes+Catolicos%2C+Maximiliano+I.+y+los+inicios+de+la+Casa+de+Austria+en+Espa%C3%B1a&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=371-373&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Michaud&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Frhmc_0048-8003_1996_num_43_2_1824_t1_0371_0000_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrunner2012" class="citation journal cs1">Brunner, Jean-Claude (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578016">"Historical Introduction"</a>. Medieval Warfare. 2 (3, "The revival of infantry tactics in the Late Middle Ages (2012)"): 6–9. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578016">48578016</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210924090025/https://www.jstor.org/stable/48578016">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medieval+Warfare&rft.atitle=Historical+Introduction&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=3%2C+%22The+revival+of+infantry+tactics+in+the+Late+Middle+Ages+%282012%29%22&rft.pages=6-9&rft.date=2012&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48578016%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Brunner&rft.aufirst=Jean-Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48578016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kersken-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kersken_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kersken_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kersken_97-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKersken2014" class="citation episode cs1">Kersken, Uwe (2014). "Die letzten ihrer Art". Die Welt der Ritter. Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen(zdf).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Die+Welt+der+Ritter&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Kersken&rft.aufirst=Uwe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxelrod2013" class="citation book cs1">Axelrod, Alan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lX9ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124">Mercenaries: A Guide to Private Armies and Private Military Companies</a>. CQ Press. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1483364674" title="Special:BookSources/978-1483364674"><bdi>978-1483364674</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210926204224/https://books.google.com/books?id=lX9ZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124">Archived</a> from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mercenaries%3A+A+Guide+to+Private+Armies+and+Private+Military+Companies&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=CQ+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1483364674&rft.aulast=Axelrod&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlX9ZDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetzig2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Metzig, Gregor (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MiyXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">Kommunikation und Konfrontation: Diplomatie und Gesandtschaftswesen Kaiser Maximilians I. (1486–1519)</a> (in German). Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 98, 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-045673-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-045673-8"><bdi>978-3-11-045673-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220228153214/https://books.google.com/books?id=MiyXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kommunikation+und+Konfrontation%3A+Diplomatie+und+Gesandtschaftswesen+Kaiser+Maximilians+I.+%281486%E2%80%931519%29&rft.pages=98%2C+99&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter+GmbH+%26+Co+KG&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-11-045673-8&rft.aulast=Metzig&rft.aufirst=Gregor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMiyXDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurnbull2018" class="citation book cs1">Turnbull, Stephen (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=adhgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP175">The Art of Renaissance Warfare: From The Fall of Constantinople to the Thirty Years War</a>. Casemate Publishers. p. 175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5267-1377-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5267-1377-3"><bdi>978-1-5267-1377-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220127080044/https://books.google.com/books?id=adhgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP175">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 27 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Renaissance+Warfare%3A+From+The+Fall+of+Constantinople+to+the+Thirty+Years+War&rft.pages=175&rft.pub=Casemate+Publishers&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-5267-1377-3&rft.aulast=Turnbull&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DadhgDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNinness2020" class="citation book cs1">Ninness, Richard J. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T4wEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT91">German Imperial Knights: Noble Misfits between Princely Authority and the Crown, 1479–1648</a>. Routledge. pp. 65, 91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-28504-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-28504-8"><bdi>978-1-000-28504-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220215072352/https://books.google.com/books?id=T4wEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT91">Archived</a> from the original on 15 February 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Imperial+Knights%3A+Noble+Misfits+between+Princely+Authority+and+the+Crown%2C+1479%E2%80%931648&rft.pages=65%2C+91&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-000-28504-8&rft.aulast=Ninness&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT4wEEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT91&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward_Kaminsky2004" class="citation book cs1">Howard Kaminsky (2004). The Hussite Revolution, 1419–1436. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226424903" title="Special:BookSources/9780226424903"><bdi>9780226424903</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hussite+Revolution%2C+1419%E2%80%931436&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780226424903&rft.au=Howard+Kaminsky&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090413030956/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/belgrade.html">"Pope Calixtus III on the victory at Belgrade"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/belgrade.html">the original</a> on 13 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pope+Calixtus+III+on+the+victory+at+Belgrade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucalgary.ca%2Fapplied_history%2Ftutor%2Fendmiddle%2Fbluedot%2Fbelgrade.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_H._Wilson2011" class="citation book cs1">Peter H. Wilson (2011). The Thirty Years War: Europe's Tragedy. Belknap Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674062315" title="Special:BookSources/9780674062315"><bdi>9780674062315</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Thirty+Years+War%3A+Europe%27s+Tragedy&rft.pub=Belknap+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Peter+H.+Wilson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: Check <code class="cs1-code">|isbn=</code> value: checksum (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#bad_isbn" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-fordhaminquisition-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fordhaminquisition_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fordhaminquisition_105-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fordhaminquisition_105-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/inquisition1.html">"Medieval Sourcebook: Inquisition – Introduction"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182705/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/inquisition1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 8 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Medieval+Sourcebook%3A+Inquisition+%E2%80%93+Introduction&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Fsource%2Finquisition1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Simon-120-121-106"><a href="#cite_ref-Simon-120-121_106-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon1966" class="citation book cs1">Simon, Edith (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingprogressth0000unse/page/120">Great Ages of Man: The Reformation</a>. Time-Life Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/makingprogressth0000unse/page/120">120–121</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-662-27820-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-662-27820-7"><bdi>978-0-662-27820-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Ages+of+Man%3A+The+Reformation&rft.pages=120-121&rft.pub=Time-Life+Books&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-0-662-27820-7&rft.aulast=Simon&rft.aufirst=Edith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmakingprogressth0000unse%2Fpage%2F120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1996" class="citation book cs1">Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198201717" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198201717"><bdi>978-0198201717</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe%3A+A+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0198201717&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> Hansen, Joseph. Witchcraft in Europe, 400-1700: A Documentary History. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayer2013" class="citation book cs1">Mayer, Thomas (2013). The Roman Inquisition: A Papal Bureaucracy and Its Laws in the Age of Galileo. University of Pennsylvania Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Inquisition%3A+A+Papal+Bureaucracy+and+Its+Laws+in+the+Age+of+Galileo&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Mayer&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola. Fordham University Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0823212750. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Frank D. McConnell. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rqhZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22ivan+the+awesome%22">Storytelling and Mythmaking: Images from Film and Literature.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200521233257/https://books.google.com/books?id=rqhZAAAAMAAJ&q=%22ivan+the+awesome%22">Archived</a> 21 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1979. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-502572-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-502572-5">0-19-502572-5</a>; Quote from p. 78: "But Ivan IV, Ivan the Terrible, or as the Russian has it, Ivan Groznyi, "Ivan the Magnificent" or "Ivan the Awesome", is precisely a man who has become a legend" </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolovyov,_S.2001" class="citation book cs1">Solovyov, S. (2001). History of Russia from the Earliest Times. Vol. 6. AST. pp. 562–604. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5-17-002142-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-5-17-002142-0"><bdi>978-5-17-002142-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Russia+from+the+Earliest+Times&rft.pages=562-604&rft.pub=AST&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-5-17-002142-0&rft.au=Solovyov%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkrynnikov,_R.1981" class="citation book cs1">Skrynnikov, R. (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ivanterrible0000skry/page/219">Ivan the Terrible</a>. 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ISBN 9781846032400. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Rediker, Marcus. Villains of All Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age. Beacon Press, 2004. ISBN 9780807050255. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Leeson, Peter T. The Invisible Hook: The Hidden Economics of Pirates. Princeton University Press, 2009. ISBN 9780691137477. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> BBC Science & Nature, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/leonardo/">Leonardo da Vinci</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191205132502/http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/leonardo/">Archived</a> 5 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Retrieved on 12 May 2007) </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> BBC History, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/michelangelo.shtml">Michelangelo</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191225210110/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/michelangelo.shtml">Archived</a> 25 December 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Retrieved on 12 May 2007) </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer1962" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Robert Roswell (1962). A History of the Modern World. Knopf. p. 234. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1000384424">1000384424</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1000384424&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=Robert+Roswell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">James Lockhart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stuart_B._Schwartz" title="Stuart B. Schwartz">Stuart B. Schwartz</a>, Early Latin America. New York: Cambridge University Press 1983.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/treaty-of-paris">"Treaty of Paris (1783)"</a>. 16 April 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Paris+%281783%29&rft.date=2021-04-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fmilestone-documents%2Ftreaty-of-paris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Armitage, David. The Ideological Origins of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 9780521789783. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Olin, John C. The Catholic Reformation: Savonarola to Ignatius Loyola: Reform in the Church, 1495-1540. Fordham University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-8232-1275-0. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Ditchfield, Simon. "The Catholic Reformation." Renaissance Studies, vol. 15, no. 3, 2001, pp. 390-409. DOI:10.1111/1477-4658.00088. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMachamer1998" class="citation book cs1">Machamer, Peter (1998). The Cambridge Companion to Galileo. Cambridge University Press. p. 393.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Galileo&rft.pages=393&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Machamer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2011" class="citation book cs1">Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. 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University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Electricity+in+the+17th+and+18th+Centuries%3A+A+Study+of+Early+Modern+Physics&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobins1997" class="citation book cs1">Robins, Robert H. (1997). A Short History of Linguistics. Longman. pp. 160–163.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Linguistics&rft.pages=160-163&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Robins&rft.aufirst=Robert+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbroner1999" class="citation book cs1">Heilbroner, Robert (1999). The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers. Simon & Schuster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Worldly+Philosophers%3A+The+Lives%2C+Times+and+Ideas+of+the+Great+Economic+Thinkers&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Heilbroner&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Israel, Jonathan I. Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650–1750. Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0198206088. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Outram, Dorinda. The Enlightenment. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 978-0521546812. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> Gaukroger, Stephen. Descartes: An Intellectual Biography. Oxford University Press, 1995. ISBN 978-0198239949. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> Jacob, Margaret C. The Scientific Revolution: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2010. ISBN 978-0312539481. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/k/kantmeta.htm#H1">"Kant, Immanuel: Metaphysics – Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130627205028/http://www.iep.utm.edu/kantmeta/#H1">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved 4 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kant%2C+Immanuel%3A+Metaphysics+%E2%80%93+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fk%2Fkantmeta.htm%23H1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Gardner, Sebastian. Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 978-0415119099. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> Barry, John M. Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul. Viking, 2012. ISBN 978-0670023059. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Proust, Jacques. Diderot et l'Encyclopédie. A. Colin, 1962. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Porter, Roy. The Enlightenment. Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 978-0333964500. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Berlin, Isaiah. Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas. Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0691090269. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Oskar_Kristeller" title="Paul Oskar Kristeller">Paul Oskar Kristeller</a>, Humanism, pp. 113–114, in Charles B. Schmitt, <a href="/wiki/Quentin_Skinner" title="Quentin Skinner">Quentin Skinner</a> (editors), The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy (1990). </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> She was the author of <a href="/wiki/Miroir_de_l%27%C3%A2me_p%C3%A9cheresse" title="Miroir de l'âme pécheresse">Miroir de l'âme pécheresse</a> (The Mirror of a Sinful Soul), published after her death, among other devotional poetry. See also "Marguerite de Navarre: Religious Reformist" in Jonathan A. Reid, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brill.nl/print.aspx?partid=210&pid=18212">King's sister—queen of dissent: Marguerite of Navarre (1492–1549) and her evangelical network</a> [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a>‍] (Studies in medieval and Reformation traditions, 1573–4188; v. 139). Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009. (2 v.: (xxii, 795 p.) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17760-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17760-4">978-90-04-17760-4</a> (v. 1), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004177611" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004177611">978-9004177611</a> (v. 2) </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_153-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBengsston2004" class="citation book cs1">Bengsston, Tommy (2004). "12: Infant and Child Mortality". Life Under Pressure: Mortality and Living Standards in Europe and Asia, 1700–1900. The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262025515" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262025515"><bdi>978-0262025515</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=12%3A+Infant+and+Child+Mortality&rft.btitle=Life+Under+Pressure%3A+Mortality+and+Living+Standards+in+Europe+and+Asia%2C+1700%E2%80%931900&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0262025515&rft.aulast=Bengsston&rft.aufirst=Tommy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-154"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaqueur2015" class="citation book cs1">Laqueur, Thomas (2015). The Work of the Dead: A Cultural History of Mortal Remains. Princeton University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691157788" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691157788"><bdi>978-0691157788</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Work+of+the+Dead%3A+A+Cultural+History+of+Mortal+Remains&rft.pub=Princeton+University&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0691157788&rft.aulast=Laqueur&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_155-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWard2015" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Richard (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95831/1/Ward2015_Chapter_Introduction.pdf">Introduction to A Global History of Execution and the Criminal Corpse</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9781137577931">10.1057/9781137577931</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1137577931" title="Special:BookSources/978-1137577931"><bdi>978-1137577931</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27559562">27559562</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201028005638/http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/95831/1/Ward2015_Chapter_Introduction.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 3 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+A+Global+History+of+Execution+and+the+Criminal+Corpse&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27559562&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1057%2F9781137577931&rft.isbn=978-1137577931&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.whiterose.ac.uk%2F95831%2F1%2FWard2015_Chapter_Introduction.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>) </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Works cited" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoseJalal2003" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sugata_Bose" title="Sugata Bose">Bose, Sugata</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ayesha_Jalal" title="Ayesha Jalal">Jalal, Ayesha</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernsouthasiah00bose">Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy</a> (2nd ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-30787-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-30787-2"><bdi>0-415-30787-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+South+Asia%3A+History%2C+Culture%2C+Political+Economy&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-415-30787-2&rft.aulast=Bose&rft.aufirst=Sugata&rft.au=Jalal%2C+Ayesha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodernsouthasiah00bose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEarly+modern+period" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pgc.asp?page=mod/modsbook.html">Internet Modern History Sourcebook</a>, fordham.edu</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmhint.html">Discussion of the medieval/modern transition</a> from the introduction to the pioneering <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Modern_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Modern History">Cambridge Modern History</a> (1902–1912)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rensoc.org.uk/">Society for Renaissance Studies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110925084220/http://emc.eserver.org/">Early Modern Culture</a> (archived 25 September 2011)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://earlymodernweb.org/">Early Modern Resources</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Postclassical_Era" class="mw-redirect" title="Postclassical Era">Postclassical Era</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/History_by_period" class="mw-redirect" title="History by period">History by period</a> about 1500–1800 CE </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">modern period</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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<div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=Early_modern_period&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 12 November 2024, at 19:52 </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%82%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AB%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%83%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="الحقبة الحديثة المبكرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحقبة الحديثة المبكرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Moderna" title="Edat Moderna – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Edat Moderna" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed%C3%A1_Moderna" title="Edá Moderna – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Edá Moderna" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81ra_Ko%27%C3%A3gagua" title="Ára Ko'ãgagua – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ára Ko'ãgagua" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97" title="প্রারম্ভিক আধুনিক যুগ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রারম্ভিক আধুনিক যুগ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B_%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Ранні Новы час – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ранні Новы час" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friae_Neizeid" title="Friae Neizeid – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Friae Neizeid" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amzerio%C3%B9_modern" title="Amzerioù modern – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Amzerioù modern" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_moderna" title="Edat moderna – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Edat moderna" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ran%C3%BD_novov%C4%9Bk" title="Raný novověk – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Raný novověk" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfnod_Modern_Cynnar" title="Cyfnod Modern Cynnar – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfnod Modern Cynnar" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidlig_moderne_tid" title="Tidlig moderne tid – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tidlig moderne tid" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%BChe_Neuzeit" title="Frühe Neuzeit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Frühe Neuzeit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varauusaeg" title="Varauusaeg – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Varauusaeg" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%8E%CE%B9%CE%BC%CE%B7_%CE%BD%CE%B5%CF%8C%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B7_%CF%80%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Πρώιμη νεότερη περίοδος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρώιμη νεότερη περίοδος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_Moderna" title="Edad Moderna – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Edad Moderna" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frua_moderna_epoko" title="Frua moderna epoko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Frua moderna epoko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aro_Modernoa" title="Aro Modernoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Aro Modernoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%87" title="عصر جدید اولیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عصر جدید اولیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89poque_moderne" title="Époque moderne – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Époque moderne" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_Moderna" title="Idade Moderna – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Idade Moderna" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%BC%EC%84%B8" title="근세 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="근세" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern-epoko" title="Modern-epoko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Modern-epoko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periode_modern_awal" title="Periode modern awal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Periode modern awal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etate_Moderne" title="Etate Moderne – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Etate Moderne" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_moderna" title="Età moderna – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Età moderna" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%93%D7%A9%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%AA" title="העת החדשה המוקדמת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="העת החדשה המוקדמת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C9%A9waat%CA%8A_k%C9%A9fat%CA%8A_(P%C3%A9riode_moderne)" title="Alɩwaatʊ kɩfatʊ (Période moderne) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Alɩwaatʊ kɩfatʊ (Période moderne)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oos_Arnowydh_A-Varr" title="Oos Arnowydh A-Varr – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Oos Arnowydh A-Varr" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destp%C3%AAka_Dema_N%C3%BBjen" title="Destpêka Dema Nûjen – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Destpêka Dema Nûjen" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_moderna" title="Storia moderna – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Storia moderna" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaunie_laiki" title="Jaunie laiki – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jaunie laiki" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neiz%C3%A4it" title="Neizäit – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Neizäit" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naujieji_am%C5%BEiai" title="Naujieji amžiai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Naujieji amžiai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A6_Mod%C3%A8rna" title="Etæ Modèrna – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Etæ Modèrna" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vreugmodernen_Tied" title="Vreugmodernen Tied – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Vreugmodernen Tied" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eda_moderna" title="Eda moderna – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Eda moderna" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C3%A0_Mod%C3%A8rna" title="Età Modèrna – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Età Modèrna" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korai_%C3%BAjkor" title="Korai újkor – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Korai újkor" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Ран нов век – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ран нов век" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andro_Vaovao" title="Andro Vaovao – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Andro Vaovao" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vroegmoderne_tijd" title="Vroegmoderne tijd – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vroegmoderne tijd" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%B8%96" title="近世 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="近世" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidlig_moderne_tid" title="Tidlig moderne tid – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tidlig moderne tid" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidleg_nytid" title="Tidleg nytid – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tidleg nytid" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edat_Mod%C3%A8rna" title="Edat Modèrna – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Edat Modèrna" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edad_Moderno" title="Edad Moderno – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Edad Moderno" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85%DA%93%DB%8D_%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87" title="لومړۍ معاصره دوره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لومړۍ معاصره دوره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histo%C3%A8re_mod%C3%A9rne" title="Histoère modérne – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Histoère modérne" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowo%C5%BCytno%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Nowożytność – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nowożytność" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idade_Moderna" title="Idade Moderna – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Idade Moderna" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoca_modern%C4%83_timpurie" title="Epoca modernă timpurie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Epoca modernă timpurie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temp_modern_tempriv" title="Temp modern tempriv – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Temp modern tempriv" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B5_%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F" title="Раннее Новое время – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Раннее Новое время" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edade_moderna" title="Edade moderna – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Edade moderna" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eermod%C3%A4rne_Tied" title="Eermodärne Tied – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Eermodärne Tied" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periudha_e_hershme_moderne" title="Periudha e hershme moderne – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Periudha e hershme moderne" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Early modern period" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_novi_vek" title="Rani novi vek – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Rani novi vek" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rani_novi_vijek" title="Rani novi vijek – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Rani novi vijek" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varhaismoderni" title="Varhaismoderni – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Varhaismoderni" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidigmoderna_tiden" title="Tidigmoderna tiden – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Tidigmoderna tiden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makabagong_kasaysayan" title="Makabagong kasaysayan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Makabagong kasaysayan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D2%A3%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8B%D1%82" title="Яңа вакыт – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Яңа вакыт" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeni_%C3%87a%C4%9F" title="Yeni Çağ – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yeni Çağ" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%B4" title="Ранній новий період – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ранній новий період" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%9Di_k%E1%BB%B3_c%E1%BA%ADn_%C4%91%E1%BA%A1i" title="Thời kỳ cận đại – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thời kỳ cận đại" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nieuwn_tyd" title="Nieuwn tyd – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Nieuwn tyd" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%B8%96" title="近世 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="近世" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A2_%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%99%D7%98" title="נייע צייט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="נייע צייט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BF%91%E4%BB%A3%E5%8F%B2" title="近代史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="近代史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%97%A9%E6%9C%9F%E7%8E%B0%E4%BB%A3" title="早期现代 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="早期现代" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 12 November 2024, at 19:52 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a 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Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2004-12-17T22:35:19Z","dateModified":"2024-11-12T19:52:46Z","headline":"the era from ca. 1500 to ca. 1800"}</script><script>(window.NORLQ=window.NORLQ||[]).push(function(){var ns,i,p,img;ns=document.getElementsByTagName('noscript');for(i=0;i<ns.length;i++){p=ns[i].nextSibling;if(p&&p.className&&p.className.indexOf('lazy-image-placeholder')>-1){img=document.createElement('img');img.setAttribute('src',p.getAttribute('data-src'));img.setAttribute('width',p.getAttribute('data-width'));img.setAttribute('height',p.getAttribute('data-height'));img.setAttribute('alt',p.getAttribute('data-alt'));p.parentNode.replaceChild(img,p);}}});</script> </body> </html>