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<li id="toc-Classical_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Classical philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Socratic_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Socratic_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Socratic method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Socratic_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plato" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plato"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Plato</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plato-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Medieval philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Modern philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hegelian_dialectic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hegelian_dialectic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Hegelian dialectic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hegelian_dialectic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marxist_dialectic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marxist_dialectic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Marxist dialectic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marxist_dialectic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialectical_naturalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialectical_naturalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Dialectical naturalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialectical_naturalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theological_dialectics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theological_dialectics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Theological dialectics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theological_dialectics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Formalization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formalization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Formalization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Formalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Defeasibility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defeasibility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Defeasibility</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defeasibility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialog_games" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialog_games"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Dialog games</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialog_games-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Mathematics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Dialectic</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 106 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-106" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">106 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiek" title="Dialektiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Dialektiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Dialektik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8B%B3%E1%8B%AB%E1%88%8C%E1%8A%AD%E1%89%B2%E1%8A%AD" title="ዳያሌክቲክ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ዳያሌክቲክ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جدلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جدلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectica" title="Dialectica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Dialectica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9utica" title="Dialéutica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Dialéutica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="دیالکتیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="دیالکتیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="দ্বন্দ্ববাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দ্বন্দ্ববাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi%C4%81n-ch%C3%A8ng" title="Piān-chèng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Piān-chèng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Диалектика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Дыялектыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дыялектыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8B%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Дыялектыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дыялектыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Диалектика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Dialektik" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijalektika" title="Dijalektika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Dijalektika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daelerezh" title="Daelerezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Daelerezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A8ctica" title="Dialèctica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dialèctica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilechdid" title="Dilechdid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dilechdid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Dialektik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dialektik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Διαλεκτική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διαλεκτική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9ctica" title="Dialéctica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dialéctica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiko" title="Dialektiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dialektiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="دیالکتیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دیالکتیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Dialectic" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectique" title="Dialectique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dialectique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9ctica" title="Dialéctica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dialéctica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%80%EC%A6%9D%EB%B2%95" title="변증법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="변증법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Դիալեկտիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դիալեկտիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="द्वंद्वात्मक तर्कपद्धति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="द्वंद्वात्मक तर्कपद्धति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijalektika" title="Dijalektika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dijalektika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiko" title="Dialektiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Dialektiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiko" title="Dialektiko – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Dialektiko" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dialektik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Er%C3%A6tub%C3%B3k" title="Þrætubók – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þrætubók" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialettica" title="Dialettica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dialettica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="דיאלקטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דיאלקטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="დიალექტიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დიალექტიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Диалектика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daylekteth" title="Daylekteth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Daylekteth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upembuzi" title="Upembuzi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Upembuzi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyalekt%C3%AEk" title="Diyalektîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Diyalektîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Диалектика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectica" title="Dialectica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Dialectica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiek" title="Dialektiek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Dialektiek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialetica" title="Dialetica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Dialetica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialetica" title="Dialetica – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Dialetica" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Дијалектика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Дијалектика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="വൈരുദ്ധ്യാത്മക വാദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വൈരുദ്ധ്യാത്മക വാദം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="დიალექტიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="დიალექტიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Диалектик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Диалектик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="ဒိုင်ယာလက်တစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဒိုင်ယာလက်တစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectiek" title="Dialectiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Dialectiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%81%E8%A8%BC%E6%B3%95" title="弁証法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="弁証法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Диалектика" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Dialektik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektikk" title="Dialektikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Dialektikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektikk" title="Dialektikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Dialektikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectica" title="Dialectica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Dialectica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਵਿਰੋਧਵਿਕਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਰੋਧਵਿਕਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%88%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%DA%A9" title="ڈایالیکٹک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ڈایالیکٹک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%89%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%90%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%8A%DA%A9_(%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%87)" title="ډيالېکتيک (مناظره) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ډيالېکتيک (مناظره)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9tica" title="Dialética – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Dialética" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Dialektik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektyka" title="Dialektyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Dialektyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dial%C3%A9tica" title="Dialética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dialética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic%C4%83" title="Dialectică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dialectică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Діалектіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Діалектіка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Диалектика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Диалектика" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Dialectic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جدليات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="جدليات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektika" title="Dialektika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dialektika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8E%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="دیالێکتیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دیالێکتیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Дијалектика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Дијалектика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijalektika" title="Dijalektika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dijalektika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiikka" title="Dialektiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Dialektiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektik" title="Dialektik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Dialektik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நியாயவாதம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நியாயவாதம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Диалектика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Диалектика" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B5" title="วิภาษวิธี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิภาษวิธี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diyalektik" title="Diyalektik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Diyalektik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Діалектика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Діалектика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="جدلیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جدلیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bienhcingqfap" title="Bienhcingqfap – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Bienhcingqfap" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%E1%BB%87n_ch%E1%BB%A9ng" title="Biện chứng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Biện chứng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BE%AF%E8%AD%89%E6%B3%95" title="辯證法 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="辯證法" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialektiko" title="Dialektiko – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Dialektiko" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BE%A9%E8%AF%81%E6%B3%95" title="辩证法 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="辩证法" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="דיאלעקטיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="דיאלעקטיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BE%AF%E8%AD%89%E6%B3%95" title="辯證法 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="辯證法" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialekt%C4%97ka" title="Dialektėka – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Dialektėka" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Discursive method of arriving at the truth by way of reasoned contradiction and argumentation</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For varieties of language, see <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">Dialect</a>.</div> <p><b>Dialectic</b> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">διαλεκτική</span>, <i>dialektikḗ</i>; <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Dialektik</i>), also known as the <b>dialectical method</b>, refers originally to <a href="/wiki/Dialogue" title="Dialogue">dialogue</a> between people holding different <a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">points of view</a> about a subject but wishing to arrive at the <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a> through <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">reasoned</a> <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">argumentation</a>. Dialectic resembles <a href="/wiki/Debate" title="Debate">debate</a>, but the concept excludes <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjective</a> elements such as <a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_emotion" title="Appeal to emotion">emotional appeal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has its origins in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">ancient philosophy</a> and continued to be developed in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Middle Ages</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a> refigured "dialectic" to no longer refer to a literal dialogue. Instead, the term takes on the specialized meaning of development by way of overcoming internal <a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">contradictions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">Dialectical materialism</a>, a theory advanced by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>, adapted the Hegelian dialectic into a <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">materialist</a> theory of history. The legacy of Hegelian and Marxian dialectics has been criticized by philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a>, who considered it unscientific. </p><p>Dialectic implies a developmental process and so does not naturally fit within <a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">classical logic</a>. Nevertheless, some twentieth-century logicians have attempted to formalize it. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a variety of meanings of <i>dialectic</i> or <i>dialectics</i> within <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_philosophy">Classical philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classical philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, dialectic (<span title="Greek-language text"><span lang="el">διαλεκτική</span></span>) is a form of <a href="/wiki/Reasoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasoning">reasoning</a> based upon dialogue of arguments and counter-arguments, advocating <i><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a></i> (theses) and <i>counter-propositions</i> (<a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">antitheses</a>). The outcome of such a dialectic might be the refutation of a relevant proposition, or a synthesis, a combination of the opposing assertions, or a qualitative improvement of the dialogue.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "dialectic" owes much of its prestige to its role in the philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, in the Greek <a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a> period (5th to 4th centuries BC). <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> said that it was the pre-Socratic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a> who invented dialectic, of which the dialogues of Plato are examples of the Socratic dialectical method.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Socratic_method">Socratic method</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Socratic method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Socratic_dialogues" class="mw-redirect" title="Socratic dialogues">Socratic dialogues</a> are a particular form of dialectic known as the <a href="/wiki/Method_of_elenchus" class="mw-redirect" title="Method of elenchus">method of elenchus</a> (literally, "refutation, scrutiny"<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) whereby a series of questions clarifies a more precise statement of a vague belief, logical consequences of that statement are explored, and a contradiction is discovered. The method is largely destructive, in that false belief is exposed and only constructive in that this exposure may lead to further search for truth.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The detection of error does not amount to a proof of the antithesis. For example, a contradiction in the consequences of a definition of <i>piety</i> does not provide a correct definition. The principal aim of Socratic activity may be to improve the soul of the interlocutors, by freeing them from unrecognized errors, or indeed, by teaching them the spirit of inquiry. </p><p>In common cases, Socrates uses <a href="/wiki/Enthymemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Enthymemes">enthymemes</a> as the foundation of his argument.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For example, in the <i><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro" title="Euthyphro">Euthyphro</a></i>, Socrates asks <a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_(prophet)" title="Euthyphro (prophet)">Euthyphro</a> to provide a definition of piety. Euthyphro replies that the pious is that which is loved by the gods. But, Socrates also has Euthyphro agreeing that the gods are quarrelsome and their quarrels, like human quarrels, concern objects of love or hatred. Therefore, Socrates reasons, at least one thing exists that certain gods love but other gods hate. Again, Euthyphro agrees. Socrates concludes that if Euthyphro's definition of piety is acceptable, then there must exist at least one thing that is both pious and impious (as it is both loved and hated by the gods)—which Euthyphro admits is absurd. Thus, Euthyphro is brought to a realization by this dialectical method that his definition of piety is not sufficiently meaningful. </p><p>In another example, in Plato's <i>Gorgias</i>, dialectic occurs between Socrates, the Sophist Gorgias, and two men, Polus and Callicles. Because Socrates' ultimate goal was to reach true knowledge, he was even willing to change his own views in order to arrive at the truth. The fundamental goal of dialectic, in this instance, was to establish a precise definition of the subject (in this case, rhetoric) and with the use of argumentation and questioning, make the subject even more precise. In the <i>Gorgias</i>, Socrates reaches the truth by asking a series of questions and in return, receiving short, clear answers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plato">Plato</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Plato"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Platonism and Neoplatonism, dialectic assumed an ontological and metaphysical role in that it became the process whereby the intellect passes from sensibles to intelligibles, rising from idea to idea until it finally grasps the supreme idea, the first principle which is the origin of all. The philosopher is consequently a "dialectician".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, dialectic is a process of inquiry that does away with hypotheses up to the first principle.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It slowly embraces multiplicity in unity. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Simon_Blackburn" title="Simon Blackburn">Simon Blackburn</a> wrote that the dialectic in this sense is used to understand "the total process of enlightenment, whereby the philosopher is educated so as to achieve knowledge of the supreme good, the Form of the Good".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_philosophy">Medieval philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Medieval philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Logic, which could be considered to include dialectic, was one of the three liberal arts taught in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval universities">medieval universities</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Trivium_(education)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trivium (education)">trivium</a>; the other elements were <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Herbermann_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herbermann-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Based mainly on <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, the first medieval philosopher to work on dialectics was <a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> (480–524).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After him, many scholastic philosophers also made use of dialectics in their works, such as <a href="/wiki/Abelard" class="mw-redirect" title="Abelard">Abelard</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/William_of_Sherwood" title="William of Sherwood">William of Sherwood</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Garlandus_Compotista" title="Garlandus Compotista">Garlandus Compotista</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Walter_Burley" title="Walter Burley">Walter Burley</a>, Roger Swyneshed, <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This dialectic (a <i>quaestio disputata</i>) was formed as follows: </p> <ol><li>The question to be determined ("It is asked whether...");</li> <li>A provisory answer to the question ("And it seems that...");</li> <li>The principal arguments in favor of the provisory answer;</li> <li>An argument against the provisory answer, traditionally a single argument from authority ("On the contrary...");</li> <li>The determination of the question after weighing the evidence ("I answer that...");</li> <li>The replies to each of the initial objections. ("To the first, to the second etc., I answer that...")</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_philosophy">Modern philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modern philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of dialectics was given new life at the start of the 19th century by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, whose dialectical model of nature and of history made dialectics a fundamental aspect of reality, instead of regarding the contradictions into which dialectics leads as evidence of the limits of pure reason, as <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> had argued.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hegel was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>'s conception of synthesis, although Hegel didn't adopt Fichte's "thesis–antithesis–synthesis" language except to describe Kant's philosophy: rather, Hegel argued that such language was "a lifeless schema" imposed on various contents, whereas he saw his own dialectic as flowing out of "the inner life and self-movement" of the content itself.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-19th century, Hegelian dialectic was appropriated by <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a> and retooled in what they considered to be a nonidealistic manner. It would also become a crucial part of later representations of Marxism as a philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a>. These representations often contrasted dramatically and led to vigorous debate among different Marxist groups.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hegelian_dialectic">Hegelian dialectic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hegelian dialectic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Hegelian dialectic" redirects here. For the Prodigy album, see <a href="/wiki/Hegelian_Dialectic_(The_Book_of_Revelation)" title="Hegelian Dialectic (The Book of Revelation)">Hegelian Dialectic (The Book of Revelation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel#Dialectics,_speculation,_idealism" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel § Dialectics, speculation, idealism</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of Hegel by an unidentified artist"><img alt="Portrait of Hegel by an unidentified artist" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg/185px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg" decoding="async" width="185" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg/278px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg/370px-Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel00.jpg 2x" data-file-width="476" data-file-height="640" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-top-caption"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Forerunners</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jakob_B%C3%B6hme" title="Jakob Böhme">Böhme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Wolfgang_von_Goethe" title="Johann Wolfgang von Goethe">Goethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_H%C3%B6lderlin" title="Friedrich Hölderlin">Hölderlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schelling" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Schelling">Schelling</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Principal <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel_bibliography" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography">works</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel#The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel#Science_of_Logic" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">The Science of Logic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel#Philosophical_system" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel#Objective_spirit" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lectures_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Lectures on the Philosophy of History">Lectures on the Philosophy of History</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Right_Hegelians" title="Right Hegelians">Right Hegelians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Hegelians" title="Young Hegelians">Young Hegelians</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Related categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":0,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeBullet"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" aria-expanded="false"></a> </span> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Category:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hegelianism" title="Template:Hegelianism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hegelianism" title="Template talk:Hegelianism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hegelianism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hegelianism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Hegelian dialectic</b> describes changes in the forms of thought through their own internal contradictions into concrete forms <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_opposites" title="Unity of opposites">that overcome previous oppositions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This dialectic is sometimes presented in a threefold manner, as first stated by <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Moritz_Chalyb%C3%A4us" title="Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus">Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus</a>, as comprising three dialectical stages of development: a <i>thesis</i>, giving rise to its reaction; an <i>antithesis</i>, which contradicts or negates the thesis; and the tension between the two being resolved by means of a <i>synthesis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although, Hegel opposed these terms.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By contrast, the terms <i>abstract</i>, <i>negative</i>, and <i>concrete</i> suggest a flaw or an incompleteness in any initial thesis. For Hegel, the concrete must always pass through the phase of the negative, that is, mediation. This is the essence of what is popularly called Hegelian dialectics.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To describe the activity of overcoming the negative, Hegel often used the term <a href="/wiki/Aufheben" title="Aufheben"><i>Aufhebung</i></a>, variously translated into English as "sublation" or "overcoming", to conceive of the working of the dialectic. Roughly, the term indicates preserving the true portion of an idea, thing, society, and so forth, while moving beyond its limitations. What is sublated, on the one hand, is overcome, but, on the other hand, is preserved and maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As in the Socratic dialectic, Hegel claimed to proceed by making implicit contradictions explicit: each stage of the process is the product of contradictions inherent or implicit in the preceding stage. On his view, the purpose of dialectics is "to study things in their own being and movement and thus to demonstrate the finitude of the partial categories of understanding".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For Hegel, even history can be reconstructed as a unified dialectic, the major stages of which chart a progression from self-alienation as <a href="/wiki/Master%E2%80%93slave_dialectic" class="mw-redirect" title="Master–slave dialectic">servitude</a> to self-unification and realization as the <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitutional state">constitutional state</a> of free and equal citizens. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Marxist_dialectic">Marxist dialectic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Marxist dialectic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Marxism" title="Category:Marxism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;"><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marx_Engels_icon.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels"><img alt="Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marx_Engels_icon.svg/75px-Marx_Engels_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marx_Engels_icon.svg/113px-Marx_Engels_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Marx_Engels_icon.svg/150px-Marx_Engels_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="333" data-file-height="333" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_bibliography" title="Marxist bibliography">Theoretical works</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Philosophic_Manuscripts_of_1844" title="Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844">Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Condition_of_the_Working_Class_in_England" title="The Condition of the Working Class in England">The Condition of the Working Class in England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_German_Ideology" title="The German Ideology">The German Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto" title="The Communist Manifesto">The Communist Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eighteenth_Brumaire_of_Louis_Bonaparte" title="The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte">The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grundrisse" title="Grundrisse">Grundrisse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_the_Gotha_Programme" title="Critique of the Gotha Programme">Critique of the Gotha Programme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectics_of_Nature" title="Dialectics of Nature">Dialectics of Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_the_Family,_Private_Property_and_the_State" title="The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State">The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/What_Is_to_Be_Done%3F" title="What Is to Be Done?">What Is to Be Done?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Accumulation_of_Capital" title="The Accumulation of Capital">The Accumulation of Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Notebooks" title="Philosophical Notebooks">Philosophical Notebooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_Communism" title="Terrorism and Communism">Terrorism and Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_State_and_Revolution" title="The State and Revolution">The State and Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essays_on_Marx%27s_Theory_of_Value" title="Essays on Marx's Theory of Value">Essays on Marx's Theory of Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prison_Notebooks" title="Prison Notebooks">Prison Notebooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Black_Jacobins" title="The Black Jacobins">The Black Jacobins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Practice" title="On Practice">On Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theses_on_the_Philosophy_of_History" title="Theses on the Philosophy of History">Theses on the Philosophy of History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic_of_Enlightenment" title="Dialectic of Enlightenment">Dialectic of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Critique_of_Soviet_Economics" title="A Critique of Soviet Economics">A Critique of Soviet Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Long_Revolution" title="The Long Revolution">The Long Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_Warfare_(book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla Warfare (book)">Guerrilla Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Wretched_of_the_Earth" title="The Wretched of the Earth">The Wretched of the Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_Capital" title="Reading Capital">Reading Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedagogy_of_the_Oppressed" title="Pedagogy of the Oppressed">Pedagogy of the Oppressed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_and_Ideological_State_Apparatuses" title="Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses">Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ways_of_Seeing" title="Ways of Seeing">Ways of Seeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/How_Europe_Underdeveloped_Africa" title="How Europe Underdeveloped Africa">How Europe Underdeveloped Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Justice_and_the_City" title="Social Justice and the City">Social Justice and the City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women,_Race_and_Class" title="Women, Race and Class">Women, Race and Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_the_Oppression_of_Women" title="Marxism and the Oppression of Women">Marxism and the Oppression of Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_Communities" title="Imagined Communities">Imagined Communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony_and_Socialist_Strategy" title="Hegemony and Socialist Strategy">Hegemony and Socialist Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Sublime_Object_of_Ideology" title="The Sublime Object of Ideology">The Sublime Object of Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time,_Labor_and_Social_Domination" title="Time, Labor and Social Domination">Time, Labor and Social Domination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Extremes" title="The Age of Extremes">The Age of Extremes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Capitalism" title="The Origin of Capitalism">The Origin of Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_(Hardt_and_Negri_book)" title="Empire (Hardt and Negri book)">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Victorian_Holocausts" title="Late Victorian Holocausts">Late Victorian Holocausts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Change_the_World_Without_Taking_Power" title="Change the World Without Taking Power">Change the World Without Taking Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliban_and_the_Witch" title="Caliban and the Witch">Caliban and the Witch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Three_Volumes_of_Karl_Marx%27s_Capital" title="An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital">An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_Realism" title="Capitalist Realism">Capitalist Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_in_the_Anthropocene" title="Capital in the Anthropocene">Capital in the Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towards_Socialism_or_Capitalism%3F" title="Towards Socialism or Capitalism?">Towards Socialism or Capitalism?</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolution_Betrayed" title="The Revolution Betrayed">The Revolution Betrayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_and_Revolution" title="Literature and Revolution">Literature and Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Struggle_Against_Fascism_in_Germany" title="The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany">The Struggle Against Fascism in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Their_Morals_and_Ours:_The_class_foundations_of_moral_practice" title="Their Morals and Ours: The class foundations of moral practice">Their Morals and Ours: The class foundations of moral practice</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Philosophy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_alienation" title="Marx's theory of alienation">Alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">Dialectical materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology#Marxist_interpretation" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy_of_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist philosophy of nature">Philosophy of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Philosophy in the Soviet Union">Philosophy in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_ethics" title="Marxist ethics">Marxist ethics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_(Marxism)" title="Capital (Marxism)">Capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">accumulation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_theory" title="Crisis theory">Crisis theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_(Marxism)" title="Commodity (Marxism)">Commodity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_labour_and_concrete_labour" title="Abstract labour and concrete labour">Concrete and abstract labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factors_of_production#Marxism" title="Factors of production">Factors of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendency_of_the_rate_of_profit_to_fall" title="Tendency of the rate of profit to fall">Falling profit-rate tendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">Means of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">Mode of production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">Capitalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">Socialist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productive_forces" title="Productive forces">Productive forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">Scientific socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_product" title="Surplus product">Surplus product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_necessary_labour_time" title="Socially necessary labour time">Socially necessary labour time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value-form" title="Value-form">Value-form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">Wage labour</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Sociology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_and_superstructure" title="Base and superstructure">Base and superstructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie#Marxist_theory" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_consciousness" title="Class consciousness">Class consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodity_fetishism" title="Commodity fetishism">Commodity fetishism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist_society" title="Communist society">Communist society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Marxism" title="Democracy in Marxism">Democracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship_of_the_proletariat" title="Dictatorship of the proletariat">Dictatorship of the proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_democracy" title="Soviet democracy">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_democracy" title="Radical democracy">Radical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_centralism" title="Democratic centralism">Democratic centralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour#Marxist_theory" title="Exploitation of labour">Exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_consciousness" title="False consciousness">False consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_human_nature" title="Marx's theory of human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immiseration_thesis" title="Immiseration thesis">Immiseration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_imperialism#Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_rift" title="Metabolic rift">Metabolic rift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_property" title="Private property">Private property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">Relations of production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marx%27s_theory_of_the_state" title="Marx's theory of the state">State theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">Working class</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class struggle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_determinism" title="Historical determinism">Historical determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">Proletarian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_revolution" title="World revolution">World revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_historical_trajectory" title="Theory of historical trajectory">Theory of historical trajectory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Aspects</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_aesthetics" title="Marxist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_archaeology" title="Marxist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_criminology" title="Marxist criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_cultural_analysis" title="Marxist cultural analysis">Cultural analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_ethics" title="Marxist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_film_theory" title="Marxist film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_historiography" title="Marxist historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_literary_criticism" title="Marxist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism_and_religion" title="Marxism and religion">Marxism and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Common variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.2em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/Structural_Marxism" title="Structural Marxism">Structural</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guevarism" title="Guevarism">Guevarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism" title="Maoism">Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titoism" title="Titoism">Titoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trotskyism" title="Trotskyism">Trotskyism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Gramscianism" title="Neo-Gramscianism">Neo-Gramscianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_school" title="Regulation school">Regulation school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maoism%E2%80%93Third_Worldism" title="Maoism–Third Worldism">Third-worldist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.2em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness#Summary" title="History and Class Consciousness">Hegelian</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_humanism" title="Marxist humanism">Humanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neue_Marx-Lekt%C3%BCre" title="Neue Marx-Lektüre">Neue Marx-Lektüre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Marxism" title="Open Marxism">Open</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Marxism" title="Political Marxism">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praxis_School" title="Praxis School">Praxis School</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.2em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Both</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_radical_tradition" title="Black radical tradition">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Marxism" title="Classical Marxism">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communization" title="Communization">Communization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Marxism" title="Post-Marxism">Post</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_schools_of_thought" title="Marxist schools of thought">Other variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austromarxism" title="Austromarxism">Austromarxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrist_Marxism" title="Centrist Marxism">Centrist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_communism" title="Council communism">Council communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurocommunism" title="Eurocommunism">Eurocommunism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumental_Marxism" title="Instrumental Marxism">Instrumental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism%E2%80%93Maoism" title="Marxism–Leninism–Maoism">Marxism–Leninism–Maoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkrumaism" title="Nkrumaism">Nkrumaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Marxism" title="Orthodox Marxism">Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionism_(Marxism)" title="Revisionism (Marxism)">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Situationist">Situationist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism_with_Chinese_characteristics" title="Socialism with Chinese characteristics">Socialism with Chinese characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wertkritik" class="mw-redirect" title="Wertkritik">Wertkritik</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_Marxist_theory" title="List of contributors to Marxist theory">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morris" title="William Morris">Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lafargue" title="Paul Lafargue">Lafargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaak_Illich_Rubin" title="Isaak Illich Rubin">Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Kautsky" title="Karl Kautsky">Kautsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgi_Plekhanov" title="Georgi Plekhanov">Plekhanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Connolly" title="James Connolly">Connolly</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Lenin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht" title="Karl Liebknecht">Liebknecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Kollontai" title="Alexandra Kollontai">Kollontai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Bogdanov</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Stalin</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Trotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henryk_Grossman" title="Henryk Grossman">Grossman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grigory_Zinoviev" title="Grigory Zinoviev">Zinoviev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Bloch" title="Ernst Bloch">Bloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Korsch" title="Karl Korsch">Korsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Bukharin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Serge" title="Victor Serge">Serge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirsaid_Sultan-Galiev" title="Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev">Galiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evgeny_Pashukanis" title="Evgeny Pashukanis">Pashukanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Bordiga" title="Amadeo Bordiga">Bordiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao</a></b></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyoti_Basu" title="Jyoti Basu">Basu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Carlos_Mari%C3%A1tegui" title="José Carlos Mariátegui">Mariátegui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Horkheimer" title="Max Horkheimer">Horkheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._Palme_Dutt" title="R. Palme Dutt">Dutt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertolt_Brecht" title="Bertolt Brecht">Brecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micha%C5%82_Kalecki" title="Michał Kalecki">Kalecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Cox" title="Oliver Cox">Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Lefebvre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._L._R._James" title="C. L. R. James">James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Padmore" title="George Padmore">Padmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Deutscher" title="Isaac Deutscher">Deutscher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enver_Hoxha" title="Enver Hoxha">Hoxha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Sweezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arghiri_Emmanuel" title="Arghiri Emmanuel">Emmanuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Hill_(historian)" title="Christopher Hill (historian)">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bettelheim" title="Charles Bettelheim">Bettelheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hal_Draper" title="Hal Draper">Draper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Jones" title="Claudia Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Hobsbawm" title="Eric Hobsbawm">Hobsbawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Althusser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Hinton" title="William H. Hinton">Hinton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paulo_Freire" title="Paulo Freire">Freire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Mandel" title="Ernest Mandel">Mandel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambalavaner_Sivanandan" title="Ambalavaner Sivanandan">Sivanandan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Miliband" title="Ralph Miliband">Miliband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%ADlcar_Cabral" title="Amílcar Cabral">Cabral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Kos%C3%ADk" title="Karel Kosík">Kosik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Berger" title="John Berger">Berger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidel_Castro" title="Fidel Castro">Castro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Liebman" title="Marcel Liebman">Liebman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Heller" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnes Heller">Heller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istv%C3%A1n_M%C3%A9sz%C3%A1ros_(philosopher)" title="István Mészáros (philosopher)">Mészáros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_O%27Connor_(academic)" title="James O'Connor (academic)">O'Connor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Wallerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Mies" title="Maria Mies">Mies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Tronti" title="Mario Tronti">Tronti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Nairn" title="Tom Nairn">Nairn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Parenti" title="Michael Parenti">Parenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fredric_Jameson" title="Fredric Jameson">Jameson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abimael_Guzm%C3%A1n" title="Abimael Guzmán">Gonzalo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrique_Dussel" title="Enrique Dussel">Dussel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">Harvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernesto_Laclau" title="Ernesto Laclau">Laclau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Bahro" title="Rudolf Bahro">Bahro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicos_Poulantzas" title="Nicos Poulantzas">Poulantzas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gianni_Vattimo" title="Gianni Vattimo">Vattimo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marta_Harnecker" title="Marta Harnecker">Harnecker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elmar_Altvater" title="Elmar Altvater">Altvater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perry_Anderson" title="Perry Anderson">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L%C3%B6wy" title="Michael Löwy">Löwy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Vogel" title="Lise Vogel">Vogel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jose_Maria_Sison" title="Jose Maria Sison">Sison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Easthope" title="Antony Easthope">Easthope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Ranci%C3%A8re" title="Jacques Rancière">Rancière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Berman" title="Marshall Berman">Berman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Przeworski" title="Adam Przeworski">Przeworski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._A._Cohen" title="G. A. Cohen">Cohen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ran_Therborn" title="Göran Therborn">Therborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domenico_Losurdo" title="Domenico Losurdo">Losurdo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Ture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moishe_Postone" title="Moishe Postone">Postone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himani_Bannerji" title="Himani Bannerji">Bannerji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gayatri_Chakravorty_Spivak" title="Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak">Spivak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlers:_The_Mythology_of_the_White_Proletariat" title="Settlers: The Mythology of the White Proletariat">Sakai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Meiksins_Wood" title="Ellen Meiksins Wood">Wood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvia_Federici" title="Silvia Federici">Federici</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_D._Wolff" title="Richard D. 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width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_flag_II.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/16px-Red_flag_II.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/24px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Red_flag_II.svg/32px-Red_flag_II.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="411" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Socialism" title="Portal:Socialism">Socialism portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Marxism_sidebar" title="Template:Marxism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Marxism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Marxism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Marxism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Marxism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Marxist dialectic</b> is a form of Hegelian dialectic which applies to the study of <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>. Marxist dialectic is thus a method by which one can examine social and economic behaviors. It is the foundation of the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a>, which forms the basis of historical materialism. </p><p>In the Marxist tradition, "dialectic" refers to regular and mutual relationships, interactions, and processes in nature, society, and human thought.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 257">: 257 </span></sup> </p><p>A dialectical relationship is a relationship in which two phenomena or ideas mutually impact each other, leading to development and negation.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 257">: 257 </span></sup> Development refers to the change and motion of phenomena and ideas from less advanced to more advanced or from less complete to more complete.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 257">: 257 </span></sup> Dialectical negation refers to a stage of development in which a contradiction between two previous subjects gives rise to a new subject.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 257">: 257 </span></sup> In the Marxist view, dialectical negation is never an endpoint, but instead creates new conditions for further development and negation.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_31-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 257">: 257 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a>, writing several decades after Hegel's death, proposed that Hegel's dialectic is too abstract.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Against this, Marx presented his own dialectic method, which he claimed to be "direct opposite" of Hegel's method.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marxist dialectics is exemplified in <i><a href="/wiki/Das_Kapital" title="Das Kapital">Das Kapital</a></i>. As Marx explained dialectical materialism, </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>it includes in its comprehension an affirmative recognition of the existing state of things, at the same time, also, the recognition of the negation of that state, of its inevitable breaking up; because it regards every historically developed social form as in fluid movement, and therefore takes into account its transient nature not less than its momentary existence; because it lets nothing impose upon it, and is in its essence critical and revolutionary.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">Class struggle</a> is the primary contradiction to be resolved by Marxist dialectics because of its central role in the social and political lives of a society. Nonetheless, Marx and Marxists developed the concept of class struggle to comprehend the dialectical contradictions between mental and manual labor and between town and country. Hence, philosophic contradiction is central to the development of dialectics: the progress from quantity to quality, the acceleration of gradual social change; the negation of the initial development of the <i>status quo</i>; the negation of that negation; and the high-level recurrence of features of the original <i>status quo</i>. </p><p>Friedrich Engels further proposed that nature itself is dialectical, and that this is "a very simple process, which is taking place everywhere and every day".<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His dialectical "law of the transformation of quantity into quality and vice versa"<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> corresponds, according to <a href="/wiki/Christian_Fuchs_(sociologist)" title="Christian Fuchs (sociologist)">Christian Fuchs</a>, to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> and anticipated the concept of <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergence</a> "a hundred years ahead of his time".<sup id="cite_ref-Wan_2013_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wan_2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, the primary feature of Marx's "dialectical materialism" (Lenin's term) is its application of materialist philosophy to history and social sciences. Lenin's main contribution to the philosophy of dialectical materialism is his theory of reflection, which presents human consciousness as a dynamic reflection of the objective material world that fully shapes its contents and structure. </p><p>Later, Stalin's works on the subject established a rigid and formalistic division of <a href="/wiki/Marxist%E2%80%93Leninist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist–Leninist">Marxist–Leninist</a> theory into dialectical materialism and historical materialism. While the first was supposed to be the key method and theory of the philosophy of nature, the second was the Soviet version of the philosophy of history. </p><p>Soviet <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a> pioneer <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a> viewed Hegelian and materialist dialectic as progressive, albeit inexact and diffuse, attempts at achieving what he called <a href="/wiki/Tektology" title="Tektology">tektology</a>, or a universal science of organization.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dialectical_naturalism">Dialectical naturalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Dialectical naturalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_naturalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical naturalism">Dialectical naturalism</a> is a term coined by American philosopher <a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Murray Bookchin</a> to describe the philosophical underpinnings of the political program of <a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (theory)">social ecology</a>. Dialectical naturalism explores the complex interrelationship between social problems, and the direct consequences they have on the ecological impact of human society. Bookchin offered dialectical naturalism as a contrast to what he saw as the "empyrean, basically antinaturalistic dialectical idealism" of Hegel, and "the wooden, often scientistic dialectical materialism of orthodox Marxists".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theological_dialectics">Theological dialectics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Theological dialectics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Neo-orthodoxy" title="Neo-orthodoxy">Neo-orthodoxy</a>, in Europe also known as theology of crisis and dialectical theology,<sup id="cite_ref-BR1_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BR1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BR2_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BR2-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an approach to <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> in <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> that was developed in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> (1914–1918). It is characterized as a reaction against doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th-century</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">liberal theology</a> and a more positive reevaluation of the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Reformation</a>, much of which had been in decline (especially in western Europe) since the late <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th century</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-MW_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is primarily associated with two <a href="/wiki/Swiss_people" title="Swiss people">Swiss</a> professors and pastors, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Karl Barth</a><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (1886–1968) and <a href="/wiki/Emil_Brunner" title="Emil Brunner">Emil Brunner</a> (1899–1966),<sup id="cite_ref-BR1_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BR1-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BR2_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BR2-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though Barth himself expressed his unease in the use of the term.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In dialectical theology the difference and opposition between God and human beings is stressed in such a way that all human attempts at overcoming this opposition through moral, religious or philosophical idealism must be characterized as 'sin'. In the death of Christ humanity is negated and overcome, but this judgment also points forwards to the resurrection in which humanity is reestablished in Christ. For Barth this meant that only through God's 'no' to everything human can his 'yes' be perceived. Applied to traditional themes of Protestant theology, such as <a href="/wiki/Double_predestination" class="mw-redirect" title="Double predestination">double predestination</a>, this means that election and reprobation cannot be viewed as a quantitative limitation of God's action. Rather it must be seen as its "qualitative definition".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Christ bore the rejection as well as the election of God for all humanity, every person is subject to both aspects of God's double predestination. </p><p>Dialectic prominently figured in <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lonergan" title="Bernard Lonergan">Bernard Lonergan</a>'s philosophy, in his books <i>Insight</i> and <i>Method in Theology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Michael_Shute" title="Michael Shute">Michael Shute</a> wrote about Lonergan's use of dialectic in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Origins_of_Lonergan%27s_Notion_of_the_Dialectic_of_History" title="The Origins of Lonergan's Notion of the Dialectic of History">The Origins of Lonergan's Notion of the Dialectic of History</a></i>. For Lonergan, dialectic is both individual and operative in community. Simply described, it is a dynamic process that results in something new: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For the sake of greater precision, let us say that a dialectic is a concrete unfolding of linked but opposed principles of change. Thus there will be a dialectic if (1) there is an aggregate of events of a determinate character, (2) the events may be traced to either or both of two principles, (3) the principles are opposed yet bound together, and (4) they are modified by the changes that successively result from them.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Dialectic is one of the eight functional specialties Lonergan envisaged for theology to bring this discipline into the modern world. Lonergan believed that the lack of an agreed method among scholars had inhibited substantive agreement from being reached and progress from being made compared to the natural sciences. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Rahner" title="Karl Rahner">Karl Rahner</a>, S.J., however, criticized Lonergan's theological method in a short article entitled "Some Critical Thoughts on 'Functional Specialties in Theology'" where he stated: "Lonergan's theological methodology seems to me to be <i>so generic that it really fits every science</i>, and hence is not the methodology of theology as such, but only a very general methodology of science."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Critics_of_dialectical_materialism" title="Category:Critics of dialectical materialism">Category:Critics of dialectical materialism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> viewed dialectic as a method that imposes artificial boundaries and suppresses the richness and diversity of reality. He rejected the notion that truth can be fully grasped through dialectical reasoning and offered a critique of dialectic, challenging its traditional framework and emphasizing the limitations of its approach to understanding reality.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He expressed skepticism towards its methodology and implications in his work <i><a href="/wiki/Twilight_of_the_Idols" title="Twilight of the Idols">Twilight of the Idols</a></i>: "I mistrust all systematizers and I avoid them. The will to a system is a lack of integrity".<sup id="cite_ref-NietzscheTwilight_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NietzscheTwilight-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 42">: 42 </span></sup> In the same book, Nietzsche criticized Socrates' dialectics because he believed it prioritized reason over instinct, resulting in the suppression of individual passions and the imposition of an artificial morality.<sup id="cite_ref-NietzscheTwilight_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NietzscheTwilight-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 47">: 47 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> attacked the dialectic repeatedly. In 1937, he wrote and delivered a paper entitled "What Is Dialectic?" in which he criticized the dialectics of Hegel, Marx, and Engels for their willingness "to put up with contradictions".<sup id="cite_ref-Popper_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that accepting contradiction as a valid form of logic would lead to the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_explosion" title="Principle of explosion">principle of explosion</a> and thus <a href="/wiki/Trivialism" title="Trivialism">trivialism</a>. Popper concluded the essay with these words: "The whole development of dialectic should be a warning against the dangers inherent in philosophical system-building. It should remind us that <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> should not be made a basis for any sort of scientific system and that philosophers should be much more modest in their claims. One task which they can fulfill quite usefully is the study of the critical <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">methods of science</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Popper_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Popper-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seventy years later, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a> responded that "Popper's critique touches only a hyperbolic version of dialectic", and he quipped: "Ironically, there is something decidedly dialectical about Popper's critique of dialectics."<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the same time as Popper's critique was published, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Hook" title="Sidney Hook">Sidney Hook</a> discussed the "sense and nonsense in dialectic" and rejected two conceptions of dialectic as unscientific but accepted one conception as a "convenient organizing category".<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The philosopher of science and physicist <a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a> repeatedly criticized Hegelian and Marxian dialectics, calling them "fuzzy and remote from science"<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a "disastrous legacy".<sup id="cite_ref-Bunge_2012_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge_2012-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He concluded: "The so-called laws of dialectics, such as formulated by Engels (1940, 1954) and Lenin (1947, 1981), are false insofar as they are intelligible."<sup id="cite_ref-Bunge_2012_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bunge_2012-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Poe_Yu-ze_Wan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poe Yu-ze Wan (page does not exist)">Poe Yu-ze Wan</a>, reviewing Bunge's criticisms of dialectics, found Bunge's arguments to be important and sensible, but he thought that dialectics could still serve some <a href="/wiki/Heuristic" title="Heuristic">heuristic</a> purposes for scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-Wan_2013_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wan_2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wan pointed out that scientists such as the American Marxist biologists <a href="/wiki/Richard_Levins" title="Richard Levins">Richard Levins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a> (authors of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Dialectical_Biologist" title="The Dialectical Biologist">The Dialectical Biologist</a></i>) and the German-American evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a>, not a Marxist himself, have found agreement between dialectical principles and their own scientific outlooks, although Wan opined that Engels's "laws" of dialectics "in fact 'explain' nothing".<sup id="cite_ref-Wan_2013_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wan_2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even some Marxists are critical of the term "dialectics". For instance, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Heinrich" title="Michael Heinrich">Michael Heinrich</a> wrote, "More often than not, the grandiose rhetoric about dialectics is reducible to the simple fact that everything is dependent upon everything else and is in a state of interaction and that it's all rather complicated—which is true in most cases, but doesn't really say anything."<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formalization">Formalization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Formalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable relarticle mainarticle selfreference noprint">This section is <a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">transcluded</a> from <a href="/wiki/Logic_and_dialectic#History" title="Logic and dialectic">Logic and dialectic#History</a>. <span class="plainlinks" style="font-style: normal; font-size:85%;">(<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logic_and_dialectic&action=edit#History">edit</a> | <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logic_and_dialectic&action=history#History">history</a>)</span></div> <p>Since the late 20th century, European and American <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logicians</a> have attempted to provide mathematical foundations for dialectic through formalisation,<sup id="cite_ref-Eemeren_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 201–372">: 201–372 </span></sup> although logic has been related to dialectic since ancient times.<sup id="cite_ref-Eemeren_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 51–140">: 51–140 </span></sup> There have been pre-formal and partially-formal treatises on argument and dialectic, from authors such as <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a> (<i>The Uses of Argument</i>, 1958),<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eemeren_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 203–256">: 203–256 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a> (<i>Dialectics: A Controversy-Oriented Approach to the Theory of Knowledge</i>, 1977),<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eemeren_56-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 330–336">: 330–336 </span></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Frans_H._van_Eemeren" title="Frans H. van Eemeren">Frans H. van Eemeren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rob_Grootendorst" title="Rob Grootendorst">Rob Grootendorst</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pragma-dialectics" title="Pragma-dialectics">pragma-dialectics</a>, 1980s).<sup id="cite_ref-Eemeren_56-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 517–614">: 517–614 </span></sup> One can include works of the communities of <a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">paraconsistent logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eemeren_56-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 373–424">: 373–424 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeasibility">Defeasibility</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Defeasibility"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable relarticle mainarticle selfreference noprint">This section is <a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">transcluded</a> from <a href="/wiki/Logic_and_dialectic#Defeasibility" title="Logic and dialectic">Logic and dialectic#Defeasibility</a>. <span class="plainlinks" style="font-style: normal; font-size:85%;">(<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logic_and_dialectic&action=edit#Defeasibility">edit</a> | <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logic_and_dialectic&action=history#Defeasibility">history</a>)</span></div> <p>Building on theories of <a href="/wiki/Defeasible_reasoning" title="Defeasible reasoning">defeasible reasoning</a> (see <a href="/wiki/John_L._Pollock" title="John L. Pollock">John L. Pollock</a>), systems have been built that define well-formedness of arguments, rules governing the process of introducing arguments based on fixed assumptions, and rules for shifting burden.<sup id="cite_ref-Eemeren_56-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 615–675">: 615–675 </span></sup> Many of these logics appear in the special area of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_and_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial intelligence and law">artificial intelligence and law</a>, though the computer scientists' interest in formalizing dialectic originates in a desire to build <a href="/wiki/Decision_support" class="mw-redirect" title="Decision support">decision support</a> and computer-supported collaborative work systems.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dialog_games">Dialog games</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Dialog games"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable relarticle mainarticle selfreference noprint">This section is <a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">transcluded</a> from <a href="/wiki/Logic_and_dialectic#Dialog_games" title="Logic and dialectic">Logic and dialectic#Dialog games</a>. <span class="plainlinks" style="font-style: normal; font-size:85%;">(<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logic_and_dialectic&action=edit#Dialog_games">edit</a> | <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Logic_and_dialectic&action=history#Dialog_games">history</a>)</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Game_semantics" title="Game semantics">Game semantics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dialogical_logic" title="Dialogical logic">Dialogical logic</a></div> <p>Dialectic itself can be formalised as moves in a game, where an advocate for the truth of a proposition and an opponent argue.<sup id="cite_ref-Eemeren_56-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 301–372">: 301–372 </span></sup> Such games can provide a <a href="/wiki/Semantics_of_logic" title="Semantics of logic">semantics of logic</a>, one that is very general in applicability.<sup id="cite_ref-Eemeren_56-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 314">: 314 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mathematics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mathematician <a href="/wiki/William_Lawvere" title="William Lawvere">William Lawvere</a> interpreted dialectics in the setting of <a href="/wiki/Categorical_logic" title="Categorical logic">categorical logic</a> in terms of <a href="/wiki/Adjoint_functors" title="Adjoint functors">adjunctions</a> between <a href="/wiki/Reflective_subcategory" title="Reflective subcategory">idempotent monads</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This perspective may be useful in the context of <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science" title="Theoretical computer science">theoretical computer science</a> where the duality between <a href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semantics_(computer_science)" title="Semantics (computer science)">semantics</a> can be interpreted as a dialectic in this sense. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Curry-Howard_equivalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Curry-Howard equivalence">Curry-Howard equivalence</a> is such an adjunction or more generally the duality between <a href="/wiki/Closed_monoidal_category" title="Closed monoidal category">closed monoidal categories</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Internal_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal logic">internal logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 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text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/De_Dialectica_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="De Dialectica (disambiguation)">De Dialectica</a></i></span> – Various works on dialectics and logical reasoning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_behavior_therapy" title="Dialectical behavior therapy">Dialectical behavior therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_research" title="Dialectical research">Dialectical research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialogic" title="Dialogic">Dialogic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublethink" title="Doublethink">Doublethink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_dilemma" title="False dilemma">False dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_dialectics" title="Relational dialectics">Relational dialectics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarka_sastra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarka sastra">Tarka sastra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_opposites" title="Unity of opposites">Unity of opposites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_dialectic" title="Universal dialectic">Universal dialectic</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Gorgias_(dialogue)" title="Gorgias (dialogue)">Gorgias</a></i>, 449B: "Socrates: Would you be willing then, Gorgias, to continue the discussion as we are now doing [Dialectic], by way of question and answer, and to put off to another occasion the (emotional) speeches (rhetoric) that (the sophist) Polus began?"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAyerO'Grady1992" class="citation book cs1">Ayer, A. J.; O'Grady, J. (1992). <i>A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations</i>. Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Publishers">Blackwell Publishers</a>. p. 484.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Philosophical+Quotations&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=484&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Ayer&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rft.au=O%27Grady%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcTaggart1964" class="citation book cs1">McTaggart, J. M. E. (1964). <i>A commentary on Hegel's logic</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Russell_%26_Russell" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell & Russell">Russell & Russell</a>. p. 11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+commentary+on+Hegel%27s+logic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Russell+%26+Russell&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=McTaggart&rft.aufirst=J.+M.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a>, IX 25ff and VIII 57 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diogenes_Laertius/Lives_of_the_Eminent_Philosophers/7/Zeno*.html">[1]</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/elenchus">"Elenchus - Wiktionary"</a>. 8 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Elenchus+-+Wiktionary&rft.date=2021-02-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Felenchus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWyss2014" class="citation web cs1">Wyss, Peter (October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://open.conted.ox.ac.uk/sites/open.conted.ox.ac.uk/files/resources/Create%20Document/PLA_HO3_0.pdf">"Socratic Method: Aporeia, Elenchus and Dialectics (Plato: Four Dialogues, Handout 3)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>open.conted.ox.ac.uk</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a>, Department for Continuing Education.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=open.conted.ox.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Socratic+Method%3A+Aporeia%2C+Elenchus+and+Dialectics+%28Plato%3A+Four+Dialogues%2C+Handout+3%29&rft.date=2014-10&rft.aulast=Wyss&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopen.conted.ox.ac.uk%2Fsites%2Fopen.conted.ox.ac.uk%2Ffiles%2Fresources%2FCreate%2520Document%2FPLA_HO3_0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReale1990" class="citation book cs1">Reale, Giovanni (1990). <i>History of Ancient Philosophy</i>. Vol. 2. Translated by Catan, John R. Albany: <a href="/wiki/State_University_of_New_York" title="State University of New York">State University of New York</a>. p. 150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Ancient+Philosophy&rft.place=Albany&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Reale&rft.aufirst=Giovanni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Republic</i>, VII, 533 c-d</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackburn1996" class="citation book cs1">Blackburn, Simon (1996). <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Blackburn&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Abelson, P. (1965). The seven liberal arts; a study in mediæval culture. New York: Russell & Russell. Page 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hyman, A., & Walsh, J. J. (1983). Philosophy in the Middle Ages: the Christian, Islamic, and Jewish traditions. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. Page 164.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adler, Mortimer Jerome (2000). "Dialectic". Routledge. Page 4. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-22550-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-22550-7">0-415-22550-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herbermann-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Herbermann_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herbermann, C. G. (1913). The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, and history of the Catholic church. New York: The Encyclopedia press, inc. Page 760–764.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromtopictotalel0000vanc/page/44">From topic to tale: logic and narrativity in the Middle Ages</a>, by Eugene Vance, p.43-45</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01036b.htm">"Catholic Encyclopedia: Peter Abelard"</a>. Newadvent.org. 1 March 1907<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 November</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia%3A+Peter+Abelard&rft.pub=Newadvent.org&rft.date=1907-03-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F01036b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKretzmann1966" class="citation book cs1">Kretzmann, Norman (January 1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f3uMdwDVvL8C&q=dialectical&pg=PA70"><i>William of Sherwood's Introduction to logic</i></a>. U of Minnesota Press. pp. 69–102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780816603954" title="Special:BookSources/9780816603954"><bdi>9780816603954</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=William+of+Sherwood%27s+Introduction+to+logic&rft.pages=69-102&rft.pub=U+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1966-01&rft.isbn=9780816603954&rft.aulast=Kretzmann&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df3uMdwDVvL8C%26q%3Ddialectical%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDronke1992" class="citation book cs1">Dronke, Peter (9 July 1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7mcPcSuUa8EC&dq=Garlandus+Compotista+and+Dialectic+in+the+Eleventh+and+Twelfth+Centuries&pg=RA1-PA198"><i>A History of Twelfth-Century Western Philosophy</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521429078" title="Special:BookSources/9780521429078"><bdi>9780521429078</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Twelfth-Century+Western+Philosophy&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992-07-09&rft.isbn=9780521429078&rft.aulast=Dronke&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7mcPcSuUa8EC%26dq%3DGarlandus%2BCompotista%2Band%2BDialectic%2Bin%2Bthe%2BEleventh%2Band%2BTwelfth%2BCenturies%26pg%3DRA1-PA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelany1990" class="citation book cs1">Delany, Sheila (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UnW7AAAAIAAJ&dq=William+of+Ockham+dialectical+materialism&pg=PA11"><i>Medieval literary politics: shapes of ideology</i></a>. Manchester University Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780719030451" title="Special:BookSources/9780719030451"><bdi>9780719030451</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+literary+politics%3A+shapes+of+ideology&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780719030451&rft.aulast=Delany&rft.aufirst=Sheila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUnW7AAAAIAAJ%26dq%3DWilliam%2Bof%2BOckham%2Bdialectical%2Bmaterialism%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14663b.htm">"Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Thomas Aquinas"</a>. 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New York: Ronald Press Co. p. 108.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+religion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=108&rft.pub=Ronald+Press+Co.&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKantGuyerWood2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant, I.</a>; Guyer, P.; Wood, A. W. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7bRychF0y0EC"><i>Critique of pure reason</i></a>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 495. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780758339010" title="Special:BookSources/9780758339010"><bdi>9780758339010</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+pure+reason&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=495&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780758339010&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=I.&rft.au=Guyer%2C+P.&rft.au=Wood%2C+A.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7bRychF0y0EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaybee2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Maybee, Julie E. (Winter 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/hegel-dialectics/#WhyDoesHegeUseDial">"Hegel's Dialectics § 3. Why does Hegel use dialectics?"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hegel%27s+Dialectics+%C2%A7+3.+Why+does+Hegel+use+dialectics%3F&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Maybee&rft.aufirst=Julie+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2020%2Fentries%2Fhegel-dialectics%2F%23WhyDoesHegeUseDial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Henri_Lefebvre" title="Henri Lefebvre">Henri Lefebvre</a>'s "humanist" dialectical materialism (<i>Dialectical Materialism</i> [1940]) was composed to directly challenge <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>'s own dogmatic text on dialectical materialism.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich</a> (2010). <i>Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in Basic Outline: Part 1, Science of Logic</i>. Cambridge Hegel Translations. Cambridge, UK; New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 34–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521829144" title="Special:BookSources/9780521829144"><bdi>9780521829144</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/651153726">651153726</a>. <q>the necessity of the connectedness and the immanent emergence of distinctions must be found in the treatment of the fact itself, for it falls within the concept's own progressive determination. What propels the concept onward is the already mentioned negative which it possesses in itself; it is this that constitutes the truly dialectical factor. [...] It is in this dialectic as understood here, and hence in grasping opposites in their unity, or the positive in the negative, that the speculative consists.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Philosophical+Sciences+in+Basic+Outline%3A+Part+1%2C+Science+of+Logic&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&rft.series=Cambridge+Hegel+Translations&rft.pages=34-35&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F651153726&rft.isbn=9780521829144&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><i>Historische Entwicklung der spekulativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel</i> [<i>Historical development of speculative philosophy from Kant to Hegel</i>] (in German) (Fourth ed.). Dresden-Leipzig. 1848 [1837]. p. 367.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historische+Entwicklung+der+spekulativen+Philosophie+von+Kant+bis+Hegel&rft.place=Dresden-Leipzig&rft.pages=367&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.date=1848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Accessible Hegel</i> by Michael Allen Fox. Prometheus Books. 2005. p. 43. Also see Hegel's preface to the <i><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_of_Spirit" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenology of Spirit">Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>, trans. A. V. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), secs. 50, 51, pp. 29, 30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdorno2008" class="citation book cs1">Adorno, Theodor (2008). <i>Lectures on Negative Dialectics: Fragments of a Lecture Course 1965/1966</i>. <a href="/wiki/Polity_(publisher)" title="Polity (publisher)">Polity</a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0745635101" title="Special:BookSources/978-0745635101"><bdi>978-0745635101</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+Negative+Dialectics%3A+Fragments+of+a+Lecture+Course+1965%2F1966&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Polity&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0745635101&rft.aulast=Adorno&rft.aufirst=Theodor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaybee2020" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Maybee, Julie E. (Winter 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/hegel-dialectics/">"Hegel's Dialectics"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> (Winter 2020 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-02-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hegel%27s+Dialectics&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2020&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Maybee&rft.aufirst=Julie+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fwin2020%2Fentries%2Fhegel-dialectics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHegel1812" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich</a> (1812). <i>Hegel's Science of Logic</i>. 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London: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. Note to §81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Logic&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+Philosophical+Sciences&rft.place=London&rft.pages=Note+to+%C2%A781&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1874&rft.aulast=Hegel&rft.aufirst=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_31-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_31-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinistry_of_Education_and_Training_(Vietnam)2023" class="citation book cs1">Ministry of Education and Training (Vietnam) (2023). <i>Curriculum of the Basic Principles of Marxism-Leninism</i>. 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Dialectics. Negation of the Negation</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEngels1883" class="citation web cs1">Engels, Friedrich (1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/don/ch02.htm">"Dialectics of Nature, chapter 3"</a>. <i>www.marxists.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-08-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.marxists.org&rft.atitle=Dialectics+of+Nature%2C+chapter+3&rft.date=1883&rft.aulast=Engels&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.marxists.org%2Farchive%2Fmarx%2Fworks%2F1883%2Fdon%2Fch02.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wan_2013-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wan_2013_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wan_2013_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wan_2013_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWan2013" class="citation journal cs1">Wan, Poe Yu-ze (December 2013). "Dialectics, complexity, and the systemic approach: toward a critical reconciliation". <i>Philosophy of the Social Sciences</i>. <b>43</b> (4): 411–452 (412, 416, 419, 424, 428). <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.989.6440">10.1.1.989.6440</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0048393112441974">10.1177/0048393112441974</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144820093">144820093</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+the+Social+Sciences&rft.atitle=Dialectics%2C+complexity%2C+and+the+systemic+approach%3A+toward+a+critical+reconciliation&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=411-452+%28412%2C+416%2C+419%2C+424%2C+428%29&rft.date=2013-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.989.6440%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144820093%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0048393112441974&rft.aulast=Wan&rft.aufirst=Poe+Yu-ze&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBogdanov1996" class="citation book cs1">Bogdanov, Alexander A. (1996). <i>Bogdanov's Tektology. Book 1</i>. Hull, UK: Centre for Systems Studies Press. pp. x, 62ff. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0859588769" title="Special:BookSources/0859588769"><bdi>0859588769</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36991138">36991138</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bogdanov%27s+Tektology.+Book+1.&rft.place=Hull%2C+UK&rft.pages=x%2C+62ff.&rft.pub=Centre+for+Systems+Studies+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36991138&rft.isbn=0859588769&rft.aulast=Bogdanov&rft.aufirst=Alexander+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiehl1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Janet_Biehl" title="Janet Biehl">Biehl, Janet</a>, ed. (1997). <i>The Murray Bookchin reader</i>. London; Washington, DC: Cassell. p. 209. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0304338737" title="Special:BookSources/0304338737"><bdi>0304338737</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36477047">36477047</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Murray+Bookchin+reader&rft.place=London%3B+Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=209&rft.pub=Cassell&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36477047&rft.isbn=0304338737&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BR1-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BR1_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BR1_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://original.britannica.com/eb/topic-409012/neoorthodoxy">"Original Britinnica online"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Original+Britinnica+online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foriginal.britannica.com%2Feb%2Ftopic-409012%2Fneoorthodoxy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BR2-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BR2_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BR2_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409012/neoorthodoxy#tab=active~checked%2Citems~checked&title=neoorthodoxy%20--%20Britannica%20Online%20Encyclopedia">"Britannica Encyclopedia (online)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Britannica+Encyclopedia+%28online%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F409012%2Fneoorthodoxy%23tab%3Dactive~checked%252Citems~checked%26title%3Dneoorthodoxy%2520--%2520Britannica%2520Online%2520Encyclopedia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MW-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MW_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/neo-orthodox">"Merriam-Webster Dictionary(online)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster+Dictionary%28online%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fneo-orthodox&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050510080135/http://bartleby.com/61/91/N0059100.html">"American Heritage Dictionary (online)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/61/91/N0059100.html">the original</a> on 2005-05-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Heritage+Dictionary+%28online%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bartleby.com%2F61%2F91%2FN0059100.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Church Dogmatics III/3, xii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl Barth, The Epistle to the Romans (1933), p. 346</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard J.F. Lonergan, <i>Insight: A Study of Human Understanding</i>, Collected Works vol. 3, ed. Frederick E. Crowe and Robert M. Doran (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1992, pp.217-218).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcShane,_S.J.1972" class="citation book cs1">McShane, S.J., Philip (1972). <i>Foundations of Theology</i>. Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 194.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Theology&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+Indiana&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Press&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=McShane%2C+S.J.&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche2001" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UPVwzQEACAAJ"><i>The Gay Science</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521636452" title="Special:BookSources/9780521636452"><bdi>9780521636452</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gay+Science&rft.pages=117&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780521636452&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUPVwzQEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NietzscheTwilight-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NietzscheTwilight_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NietzscheTwilight_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNietzsche1997" class="citation book cs1">Nietzsche, Friedrich (1997). <i>Twilight of the Idols or How to Philosophize with a Hammer</i>. Hackett. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0872203549" title="Special:BookSources/978-0872203549"><bdi>978-0872203549</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twilight+of+the+Idols+or+How+to+Philosophize+with+a+Hammer&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0872203549&rft.aulast=Nietzsche&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Popper-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Popper_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Popper_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline;"><ul style="display:inline;"><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;display:inline; margin:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper1940" class="citation journal cs1">Popper, Karl R. (October 1940). "What is dialectic?". <i><a href="/wiki/Mind_(journal)" title="Mind (journal)">Mind</a></i>. <b>49</b> (196): 403–426 (407, 426). <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2250841">2250841</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mind&rft.atitle=What+is+dialectic%3F&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=196&rft.pages=403-426+%28407%2C+426%29&rft.date=1940-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2250841%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></li><li style="margin-bottom:.5em; display:block;;margin-top:.5em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPopper1962" class="citation book cs1">Popper, Karl R. (1962). "What is dialectic?". <i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a>: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge</i> (1st ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. pp. 312–335 (316, 335). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0710065078" title="Special:BookSources/0710065078"><bdi>0710065078</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/316022">316022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+is+dialectic%3F&rft.btitle=Conjectures+and+Refutations%3A+The+Growth+of+Scientific+Knowledge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=312-335+%28316%2C+335%29&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F316022&rft.isbn=0710065078&rft.aulast=Popper&rft.aufirst=Karl+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher2007" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, Nicholas (2007). <i>Dialectics: A Classical Approach to Inquiry</i>. Frankfurt; New Brunswick: Ontos Verlag. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110321289">10.1515/9783110321289</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783938793763" title="Special:BookSources/9783938793763"><bdi>9783938793763</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/185032382">185032382</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dialectics%3A+A+Classical+Approach+to+Inquiry&rft.place=Frankfurt%3B+New+Brunswick&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Ontos+Verlag&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F185032382&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110321289&rft.isbn=9783938793763&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHook1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Hook" title="Sidney Hook">Hook, Sidney</a> (1940). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reasonsocialmyth00hook/page/262">"Sense and nonsense in dialectic"</a>. <i>Reason, Social Myths and Democracy</i>. New York: The John Day Co. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/reasonsocialmyth00hook/page/262">262–264</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/265987">265987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sense+and+nonsense+in+dialectic&rft.btitle=Reason%2C+Social+Myths+and+Democracy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=262-264&rft.pub=The+John+Day+Co.&rft.date=1940&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F265987&rft.aulast=Hook&rft.aufirst=Sidney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freasonsocialmyth00hook%2Fpage%2F262&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Bunge, Mario Augusto</a> (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificmateri0000bung/page/41">"A critique of dialectics"</a>. <i>Scientific materialism</i>. Episteme. Vol. 9. Dordrecht; Boston: <a href="/wiki/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kluwer Academic Publishers">Kluwer Academic Publishers</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificmateri0000bung/page/41">41–63</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-009-8517-9_4">10.1007/978-94-009-8517-9_4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9027713049" title="Special:BookSources/978-9027713049"><bdi>978-9027713049</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7596139">7596139</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+critique+of+dialectics&rft.btitle=Scientific+materialism&rft.place=Dordrecht%3B+Boston&rft.series=Episteme&rft.pages=41-63&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7596139&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-009-8517-9_4&rft.isbn=978-9027713049&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario+Augusto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificmateri0000bung%2Fpage%2F41&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bunge_2012-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bunge_2012_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bunge_2012_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunge2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Bunge, Mario Augusto</a> (2012). <i>Evaluating philosophies</i>. Boston studies in the philosophy of science. Vol. 295. New York: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. pp. 84–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-4408-0">10.1007/978-94-007-4408-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789400744073" title="Special:BookSources/9789400744073"><bdi>9789400744073</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/806947226">806947226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evaluating+philosophies&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Boston+studies+in+the+philosophy+of+science&rft.pages=84-85&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F806947226&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-007-4408-0&rft.isbn=9789400744073&rft.aulast=Bunge&rft.aufirst=Mario+Augusto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeinrich2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Heinrich" title="Michael Heinrich">Heinrich, Michael</a> (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoth0000hein/page/36">"Dialectics—A Marxist 'Rosetta Stone'?"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Three_Volumes_of_Karl_Marx%27s_Capital" title="An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital">An Introduction to the Three Volumes of Karl Marx's Capital</a></i>. Translated by Alexander Locascio. New York: <a href="/wiki/Monthly_Review_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Monthly Review Press">Monthly Review Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontoth0000hein/page/36">36–37</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781583672884" title="Special:BookSources/9781583672884"><bdi>9781583672884</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/768793094">768793094</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dialectics%E2%80%94A+Marxist+%27Rosetta+Stone%27%3F&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Three+Volumes+of+Karl+Marx%27s+Capital&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=36-37&rft.pub=Monthly+Review+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F768793094&rft.isbn=9781583672884&rft.aulast=Heinrich&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontoth0000hein%2Fpage%2F36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eemeren-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eemeren_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eemeren_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eemeren_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eemeren_56-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eemeren_56-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eemeren_56-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eemeren_56-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eemeren_56-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eemeren_56-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frans_H._van_Eemeren" title="Frans H. van Eemeren">Eemeren, Frans H. van</a>; Garssen, Bart; Krabbe, Erik C. W.; Snoeck Henkemans, A. Francisca; Verheij, Bart; Wagemans, Jean H. M. (2014). <i>Handbook of argumentation theory</i>. New York: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-9473-5">10.1007/978-90-481-9473-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789048194728" title="Special:BookSources/9789048194728"><bdi>9789048194728</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/871004444">871004444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+argumentation+theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F871004444&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-90-481-9473-5&rft.isbn=9789048194728&rft.aulast=Eemeren&rft.aufirst=Frans+H.+van&rft.au=Garssen%2C+Bart&rft.au=Krabbe%2C+Erik+C.+W.&rft.au=Snoeck+Henkemans%2C+A.+Francisca&rft.au=Verheij%2C+Bart&rft.au=Wagemans%2C+Jean+H.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToulmin2003" class="citation book cs1">Toulmin, Stephen (2003) [1958]. <i>The uses of argument</i> (Updated ed.). Cambridge, UK; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511840005">10.1017/CBO9780511840005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521827485" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521827485"><bdi>978-0521827485</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51607421">51607421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+uses+of+argument&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK%3B+New+York&rft.edition=Updated&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51607421&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511840005&rft.isbn=978-0521827485&rft.aulast=Toulmin&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHitchcockVerheij2006" class="citation book cs1">Hitchcock, David; Verheij, Bart, eds. (2006). <i>Arguing on the Toulmin model: new essays in argument analysis and evaluation</i>. Argumentation library. Vol. 10. Dordrecht: Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4938-5">10.1007/978-1-4020-4938-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1402049378" title="Special:BookSources/978-1402049378"><bdi>978-1402049378</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/82229075">82229075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arguing+on+the+Toulmin+model%3A+new+essays+in+argument+analysis+and+evaluation&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=Argumentation+library&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F82229075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4938-5&rft.isbn=978-1402049378&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHetherington2006" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hetherington" title="Stephen Hetherington">Hetherington, Stephen</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/25075-philosophical-dialectics-an-essay-on-metaphilosophy/">"Nicholas Rescher: Philosophical Dialectics"</a>. <i>Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews</i> (2006.07.16).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Notre+Dame+Philosophical+Reviews&rft.atitle=Nicholas+Rescher%3A+Philosophical+Dialectics&rft.issue=2006.07.16&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Hetherington&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fndpr.nd.edu%2Fnews%2F25075-philosophical-dialectics-an-essay-on-metaphilosophy%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacquette2009" class="citation book cs1">Jacquette, Dale, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T65moyMMioYC"><i>Reason, Method, and Value: A Reader on the Philosophy of Nicholas Rescher</i></a>. Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110329056">10.1515/9783110329056</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110329056" title="Special:BookSources/9783110329056"><bdi>9783110329056</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reason%2C+Method%2C+and+Value%3A+A+Reader+on+the+Philosophy+of+Nicholas+Rescher&rft.place=Frankfurt&rft.pub=Ontos+Verlag&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110329056&rft.isbn=9783110329056&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT65moyMMioYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For surveys of work in this area see, for example: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChesñevarMaguitmanLoui2000" class="citation journal cs1">Chesñevar, Carlos Iván; Maguitman, Ana Gabriela; Loui, Ronald Prescott (December 2000). "Logical models of argument". <i>ACM Computing Surveys</i>. <b>32</b> (4): 337–383. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.702.8325">10.1.1.702.8325</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F371578.371581">10.1145/371578.371581</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+Computing+Surveys&rft.atitle=Logical+models+of+argument&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=337-383&rft.date=2000-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.702.8325%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F371578.371581&rft.aulast=Ches%C3%B1evar&rft.aufirst=Carlos+Iv%C3%A1n&rft.au=Maguitman%2C+Ana+Gabriela&rft.au=Loui%2C+Ronald+Prescott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span> And: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrakkenVreeswijk2005" class="citation book cs1">Prakken, Henry; Vreeswijk, Gerard (2005). "Logics for defeasible argumentation". In Gabbay, Dov M.; Guenthner, Franz (eds.). <i>Handbook of philosophical logic</i>. Vol. 4 (2nd ed.). Dordrecht; Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 219–318. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.295.2649">10.1.1.295.2649</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-0456-4_3">10.1007/978-94-017-0456-4_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789048158775" title="Special:BookSources/9789048158775"><bdi>9789048158775</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Logics+for+defeasible+argumentation&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+philosophical+logic&rft.place=Dordrecht%3B+Boston&rft.pages=219-318&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.295.2649%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-94-017-0456-4_3&rft.isbn=9789048158775&rft.aulast=Prakken&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft.au=Vreeswijk%2C+Gerard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLawvere1996" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Lawvere" title="William Lawvere">Lawvere, F. William</a> (1996). "Unity and identity of opposites in calculus and physics". <i>Applied Categorical Structures</i>. <b>4</b> (2–3): 167–174. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00122250">10.1007/BF00122250</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34109341">34109341</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Categorical+Structures&rft.atitle=Unity+and+identity+of+opposites+in+calculus+and+physics&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=167-174&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00122250&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A34109341%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lawvere&rft.aufirst=F.+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEilenbergKelly1966" class="citation journal cs1">Eilenberg, Samuel; Kelly, G. Max (1966). "Closed Categories". <i>Proceedings of the Conference on Categorical Algebra</i>: 421–562. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-99902-4_22">10.1007/978-3-642-99902-4_22</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-99904-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-99904-8"><bdi>978-3-642-99904-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251105095">251105095</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Conference+on+Categorical+Algebra&rft.atitle=Closed+Categories&rft.pages=421-562&rft.date=1966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251105095%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-99902-4_22&rft.isbn=978-3-642-99904-8&rft.aulast=Eilenberg&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft.au=Kelly%2C+G.+Max&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Dialectic" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Dialectic">Dialectic</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dialectic"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Dialectic">"Dialectic" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 156.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dialectic&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=156&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADialectic" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mctaggart/hegel/contents.htm">Studies in the Hegelian Dialectic</a> by <a href="/wiki/J._M._E._McTaggart" title="J. M. E. McTaggart">J. M. E. 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realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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