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id="toc-Pre-Socratic_philosophers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Greek_philosophers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Greek_philosophers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Classical Greek philosophers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Greek_philosophers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Hellenistic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_schools_of_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_schools_of_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Hellenistic schools of thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_schools_of_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Roman_and_Christian_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Roman_and_Christian_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Early Roman and Christian philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Roman_and_Christian_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophers_during_Roman_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophers_during_Roman_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Philosophers during Roman times</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophers_during_Roman_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Iranian_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Iranian_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Ancient Iranian philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ancient_Iranian_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ancient Iranian philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Iranian_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Schools_of_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_of_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Schools of thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schools_of_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Zoroastrianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zoroastrianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Zoroastrianism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zoroastrianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-Manichaean_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Manichaean_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Pre-Manichaean thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Manichaean_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manichaeism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manichaeism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Manichaeism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manichaeism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mazdakism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mazdakism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Mazdakism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mazdakism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zurvanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zurvanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.5</span> <span>Zurvanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zurvanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_and_the_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_and_the_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Philosophy and the Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_and_the_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Jewish_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Jewish_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ancient Jewish philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Jewish_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Indian_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Indian_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Ancient Indian philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ancient_Indian_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ancient Indian philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Indian_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vedic_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vedic_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Vedic philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vedic_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sramana_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sramana_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Sramana philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sramana_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_Indian_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Indian_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Classical Indian philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Indian_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Indian_philosophers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Indian_philosophers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Ancient Indian philosophers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Indian_philosophers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1st_millennium_BCE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1st_millennium_BCE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.1</span> <span>1st millennium BCE</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1st_millennium_BCE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophers_of_Vedic_Age_(c._1500_–_c._600_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophers_of_Vedic_Age_(c._1500_–_c._600_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.2</span> <span>Philosophers of Vedic Age (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophers_of_Vedic_Age_(c._1500_–_c._600_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophers_of_Axial_Age_(600–185_BCE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophers_of_Axial_Age_(600–185_BCE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.3</span> <span>Philosophers of Axial Age (600–185 BCE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophers_of_Axial_Age_(600–185_BCE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophers_of_Golden_Age_(184_BCE_–_600_CE)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophers_of_Golden_Age_(184_BCE_–_600_CE)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4.4</span> <span>Philosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE – 600 CE)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophers_of_Golden_Age_(184_BCE_–_600_CE)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_Chinese_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_Chinese_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Ancient Chinese philosophy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ancient_Chinese_philosophy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ancient Chinese philosophy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ancient_Chinese_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Schools_of_thought_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_of_thought_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Schools of thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schools_of_thought_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hundred_Schools_of_Thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Hundred Schools of Thought</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hundred_Schools_of_Thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Imperial_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Imperial_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>Early Imperial China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Imperial_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophers_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophers_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Philosophers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophers_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label 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Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antieke_filosofie" title="Antieke filosofie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Antieke filosofie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_der_Antike" title="Philosophie der Antike – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Philosophie der Antike" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D9%82%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%A9" title="فلسفة قديمة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة قديمة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_f%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Antik fəlsəfə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Antik fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="প্রাচীন দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাচীন দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Антик фәлсәфә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Антик фәлсәфә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%96" title="Філязофія антычнасьці – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Філязофія антычнасьці" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антична философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Антична философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Antička filozofija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Antička filozofija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_antiga" title="Filosofia antiga – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia antiga" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starov%C4%9Bk%C3%A1_filozofie" title="Starověká filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Starověká filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_der_Antike" title="Philosophie der Antike – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Philosophie der Antike" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiikfilosoofia" title="Antiikfilosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Antiikfilosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa_antigua" title="Filosofía antigua – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía antigua" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antzinaroko_filosofia" title="Antzinaroko filosofia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antzinaroko filosofia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فلسفه دوران باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه دوران باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_antique" title="Philosophie antique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie antique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%8C%80%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="고대철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고대철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Դասական փիլիսոփայություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դասական փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Antička filozofija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Antička filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat_kuno" title="Filsafat kuno – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat kuno" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornaldarheimspeki" title="Fornaldarheimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornaldarheimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_antica" title="Filosofia antica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia antica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Антикалық философия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Антикалық философия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefeya_Yewnan" title="Felsefeya Yewnan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Felsefeya Yewnan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia_antiqua" title="Philosophia antiqua – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia antiqua" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Античка филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Античка филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antieke_filosofie" title="Antieke filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Antieke filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E4%BB%A3%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="古代哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="古代哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikkens_filosofi" title="Antikkens filosofi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Antikkens filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="قدیم فلسفہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="قدیم فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%B1%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%DB%90_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="لرغونې فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="لرغونې فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_staro%C5%BCytna" title="Filozofia starożytna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia starożytna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia_antiga" title="Filosofia antiga – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia antiga" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia_antic%C4%83" title="Filozofia antică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filozofia antică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Античная философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Античная философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusuf%C3%ACa_antica" title="Filusufìa antica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Filusufìa antica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="Ancient philosophy" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ancient philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starovek%C3%A1_filozofia" title="Staroveká filozofia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Staroveká filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Античка филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Античка филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti%C4%8Dka_filozofija" title="Antička filozofija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Antička filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiikin_filosofia" title="Antiikin filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Antiikin filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikens_filosofi" title="Antikens filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Antikens filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93" title="ปรัชญาโบราณ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัชญาโบราณ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antik_%C3%87a%C4%9F_felsefesi" title="Antik Çağ felsefesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antik Çağ felsefesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Антична філософія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Антична філософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%85_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="قدیم فلسفہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="قدیم فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophy in the ancient world</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Philosophy_(journal)" title="Ancient Philosophy (journal)">Ancient Philosophy (journal)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Categories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophical_schools_and_traditions" title="Category:Philosophical schools and traditions">Philosophies</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_by_period" title="Category:Philosophy by period">By period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Ancient Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Indigenous American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Religious_philosophy" title="Religious philosophy">By religion</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Category:Branches_of_philosophy" title="Category:Branches of philosophy">Branches</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Meta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aestheticians" title="List of aestheticians">Aesthetic philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_logicians" title="List of logicians">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">Philosophers of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociopolitical_thinkers" title="Index of sociopolitical thinkers">Social and political philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Template talk:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This page lists some links to <b>ancient philosophy</b>, namely <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_thought" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical thought">philosophical thought</a> extending as far as early <a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">post-classical history</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 CE</span>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genuine philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Jaspers" title="Karl Jaspers">Karl Jaspers</a> termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century BCE and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a> in human thought. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, the spread of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> marked the ending of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> and ushered in the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophy</a>, whereas in the Middle East, the <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">spread of Islam</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Arab Empire</a> marked the end of <a href="#Ancient_Iranian_philosophy">Old Iranian philosophy</a> and ushered in the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">early Islamic philosophy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Greek_and_Roman_philosophy">Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman philosophy">Roman philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Presocratic_graph.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Presocratic_graph.svg/250px-Presocratic_graph.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Presocratic_graph.svg/375px-Presocratic_graph.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Presocratic_graph.svg/500px-Presocratic_graph.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2177" data-file-height="1133" /></a><figcaption>Graphical relationship among the various pre-Socratic <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosophers</a> and thinkers; red arrows indicate a relationship of opposition.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/250px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/375px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/500px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3820" data-file-height="2964" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>'s <a href="/wiki/School_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Athens">School of Athens</a>, depicting an array of ancient Greek philosophers engaged in discussion.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophers">Philosophers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Philosophers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-Socratic_philosophers">Pre-Socratic philosophers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pre-Socratic philosophers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesian School">Milesian School</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a> (624 – c 546 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> (610 – 546 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus" title="Anaximenes of Miletus">Anaximenes of Miletus</a> (c. 585 – c. 525 BCE)</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreans" class="mw-redirect" title="Pythagoreans">Pythagoreans</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> (582 – 496 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a> (470 – 380 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Alcmaeon_of_Croton" title="Alcmaeon of Croton">Alcmaeon of Croton</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a> (428 – 347 BCE)</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclitus" title="Heraclitus">Heraclitus</a> (535 – 475 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatic_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Eleatic School">Eleatic School</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Xenophanes" title="Xenophanes">Xenophanes</a> (570 – 470 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a> (510 – 440 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a> (490 – 430 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melissus_of_Samos" title="Melissus of Samos">Melissus of Samos</a> (c. 470 BCE – ?)</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluralist School">Pluralists</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Empedocles" title="Empedocles">Empedocles</a> (490 – 430 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a> (500 – 428 BCE)</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomists" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomists">Atomists</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> (first half of 5th century BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> (460 – 370 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Chios" title="Metrodorus of Chios">Metrodorus of Chios</a> (4th century BCE)</dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pherecydes_of_Syros" title="Pherecydes of Syros">Pherecydes of Syros</a> (6th century BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophists">Sophists</a></li></ul> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Protagoras" title="Protagoras">Protagoras</a> (490 – 420 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gorgias" title="Gorgias">Gorgias</a> (487 – 376 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Antiphon_(person)" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiphon (person)">Antiphon</a> (480 – 411 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Prodicus" title="Prodicus">Prodicus</a> (465/450 – after 399 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a> (middle of the 5th century BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thrasymachus" title="Thrasymachus">Thrasymachus</a> (459 – 400 BCE)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Callicles" title="Callicles">Callicles</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Critias" title="Critias">Critias</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lycophron" title="Lycophron">Lycophron</a></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Apollonia" title="Diogenes of Apollonia">Diogenes of Apollonia</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 460 BCE</span> – ?)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Classical_Greek_philosophers">Classical Greek philosophers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classical Greek philosophers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (469 – 399 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid_of_Megara" title="Euclid of Megara">Euclid of Megara</a> (450 – 380 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisthenes" title="Antisthenes">Antisthenes</a> (445 – 360 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristippus" title="Aristippus">Aristippus</a> (435 – 356 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (428 – 347 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speusippus" title="Speusippus">Speusippus</a> (407 – 339 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_of_Sinope" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes of Sinope">Diogenes of Sinope</a> (400 – 325 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a> (396 – 314 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384 – 322 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilpo" title="Stilpo">Stilpo</a> (380 – 300 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> (370 – 288 BCE)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hellenistic_philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Hellenistic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a> (365 – 275 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> (341 – 270 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Lampsacus_(the_younger)" title="Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)">Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger)</a> (331 – 278 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Citium" title="Zeno of Citium">Zeno of Citium</a> (333 – 263 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleanthes" title="Cleanthes">Cleanthes</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 330</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 230 BCE</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Timon (philosopher)">Timon</a> (320 – 230 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a> (316 – 232 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menippus" title="Menippus">Menippus</a> (3rd century BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 287</span> – 212 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a> (280 – 207 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a> (214 – 129 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitomachus_(philosopher)" title="Clitomachus (philosopher)">Clitomachus</a> (187 – 109 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_of_Stratonicea" title="Metrodorus of Stratonicea">Metrodorus of Stratonicea</a> (late 2nd century BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a> (160 – 80 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a> (135 – 51 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiochus_of_Ascalon" title="Antiochus of Ascalon">Antiochus of Ascalon</a> (130 – 68 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a> (1st century BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Sceptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Agrippa the Sceptic">Agrippa</a> (1st century CE)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_schools_of_thought">Hellenistic schools of thought</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Hellenistic schools of thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrenaicism">Cyrenaicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">Eclecticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Platonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Platonism">Neo-Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripatetic School">Peripatetic School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophism">Sophism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Roman_and_Christian_philosophy">Early Roman and Christian philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Early Roman and Christian philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism_and_Christianity" title="Neoplatonism and Christianity">Neoplatonism in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophers_during_Roman_times">Philosophers during Roman times</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Philosophers during Roman times"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plotinos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Plotinos.jpg/150px-Plotinos.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Plotinos.jpg/225px-Plotinos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Plotinos.jpg/300px-Plotinos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="569" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>Plotinus</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> (106 – 43 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a> (94 – 55 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> (4 BCE – 65 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musonius_Rufus" class="mw-redirect" title="Musonius Rufus">Musonius Rufus</a> (30 – 100 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> (45 – 120 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epictetus" title="Epictetus">Epictetus</a> (55 – 135 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favorinus" title="Favorinus">Favorinus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 80</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 160 CE</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (121 – 180 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> (150 – 215 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcinous_(philosopher)" title="Alcinous (philosopher)">Alcinous (philosopher)</a> (2nd century CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a> (3rd century CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_of_Aphrodisias" title="Alexander of Aphrodisias">Alexander of Aphrodisias</a> (3rd century CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Saccas" title="Ammonius Saccas">Ammonius Saccas</a> (3rd century CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> (205 – 270 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a> (232 – 304 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a> (242 – 327 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a> (317 – 388 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose" title="Ambrose">Ambrose</a> (340 – 397 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (354 – 430 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a> (411 – 485 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascius" title="Damascius">Damascius</a> (462 – 540 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boethius</a> (472 – 524 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a> (490 – 560 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> (490 – 570 CE)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Iranian_philosophy">Ancient Iranian philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ancient Iranian philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Zoroaster_Ptolmey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Sanzio_01_Zoroaster_Ptolmey.jpg/250px-Sanzio_01_Zoroaster_Ptolmey.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Sanzio_01_Zoroaster_Ptolmey.jpg/375px-Sanzio_01_Zoroaster_Ptolmey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Sanzio_01_Zoroaster_Ptolmey.jpg/500px-Sanzio_01_Zoroaster_Ptolmey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1115" data-file-height="651" /></a><figcaption>Zarathustra as depicted in <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a> beside Raphael who appears as the ancient painter <a href="/wiki/Apelles_of_Kos" class="mw-redirect" title="Apelles of Kos">Apelles of Kos</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian philosophy</a></div> <p>See also: <i><a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">Dualism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind)">Dualism (philosophy of mind)</a></i> </p><p>While there are ancient relations between the Indian <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> and the Iranian <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a>, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe. The first charter of <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a> as understood in the <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrus cylinder">Cyrus cylinder</a> is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by <a href="/wiki/Zarathustra" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarathustra">Zarathustra</a> and developed in <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a> schools of thought of the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Era</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian history">Iranian history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schools_of_thought">Schools of thought</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Schools of thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ideas and tenets of Zoroastrian schools of Early Persian philosophy are part of many works written in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a> and of the extant scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion in <a href="/wiki/Avestan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Avestan language">Avestan language</a>. Among these are treatises such as the <a href="/wiki/Shikand-gumanic_Vichar" class="mw-redirect" title="Shikand-gumanic Vichar">Shikand-gumanic Vichar</a> by Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan, selections of <a href="/wiki/Denkard" title="Denkard">Denkard</a>, Wizidagīhā-ī Zātspram ("Selections of Zātspram") as well as older passages of the book Avesta, the <a href="/wiki/Gathas" class="mw-redirect" title="Gathas">Gathas</a> which are attributed to Zarathustra himself and regarded as his "direct teachings".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Zoroastrianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zarathustra" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarathustra">Zarathustra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostanes" title="Ostanes">Ostanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikand-gumanic_Vichar" class="mw-redirect" title="Shikand-gumanic Vichar">Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denkard#Date_and_authorship" title="Denkard">Adurfarnbag Farroxzadan</a><sup id="cite_ref-Tafozzoli_&_Khromov_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tafozzoli_&_Khromov-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denkard#Date_and_authorship" title="Denkard">Adurbad Emedan</a><sup id="cite_ref-Tafozzoli_&_Khromov_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tafozzoli_&_Khromov-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gathas" class="mw-redirect" title="Gathas">Gathas</a></i></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Anacharsis" title="Anacharsis">Anacharsis</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-Manichaean_thought">Pre-Manichaean thought</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pre-Manichaean thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bardesanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Bardesanes">Bardesanes</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Manichaeism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mani_(prophet)" title="Mani (prophet)">Mani</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 216</span> – 276 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mar_Ammo" title="Mar Ammo">Ammo</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mazdakism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Origins" title="Mazdak">Mazdak the Elder</a><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdak</a> (died c. 524 or 528 CE)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Zurvanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism#Aesthetic_Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Aesthetic Zurvanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism#Materialist_Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Materialist Zurvanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism#Fatalistic_Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Fatalistic Zurvanism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_and_the_Empire">Philosophy and the Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Philosophy and the Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Political philosophy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_Tansar" title="Letter of Tansar">Tansar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Gundishapur" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Gundishapur">University of Gundishapur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burzoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Burzoe">Borzouye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bakhtshooa Gondishapuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khosrau_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau I">Emperor Khosrau's</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrau_I#Philosopher_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Khosrau I">philosophical discourses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Persian" title="Paul the Persian">Paul the Persian</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahlavi literature">Pahlavi literature</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Jewish_philosophy">Ancient Jewish philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Ancient Jewish philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish philosophy</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qohelet" class="mw-redirect" title="Qohelet">Qohelet</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 450-180 BCE</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Aristeas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-Aristeas">Pseudo-Aristeas</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 2nd century BCE</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Sira" title="Ben Sira">Ben Sira</a> (fl. 180–175 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_of_Alexandria" title="Aristobulus of Alexandria">Aristobulus of Alexandria</a> (181–124 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo of Alexandria">Philo of Alexandria</a> (30 BCE – 45 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_of_Solomon" class="mw-redirect" title="Wisdom of Solomon">Wisdom of Solomon</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1st century BCE - 1st century CE</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/4_Maccabees" title="4 Maccabees">4 Maccabees</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1st century CE</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi_Akiva" title="Rabbi Akiva">Rabbi Akiva</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 40</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 137 CE</span>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Indian_philosophy">Ancient Indian philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Ancient Indian philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a></div> <p>The <b>ancient Indian philosophy</b> is a fusion of two ancient traditions: the Vedic tradition and the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">śramaṇa</a> tradition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vedic_philosophy">Vedic philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Vedic philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indian philosophy begins with the <i><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></i> wherein questions pertaining to laws of nature, the origin of the universe, and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic" class="mw-redirect" title="Rigvedic">Rigvedic</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Hymn_of_Creation" class="mw-redirect" title="Hymn of Creation">Hymn of Creation</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Nasadiya_Sukta" title="Nasadiya Sukta">Nasadiya Sukta</a>) the poet asks: </p> <dl><dd>"Whence all creation had its origin,</dd> <dd>he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not,</dd> <dd>he, who surveys it all from highest heaven,</dd> <dd>he knows—or maybe even he does not know."</dd></dl> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being (<i>Purusha</i>). This leads to the inquiry into <i>the one being</i> that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed <i>rta</i> and causal law by <i>karma</i>. Nature (<i>prakriti</i>) is taken to have three qualities (<i><a href="/wiki/Sattva" title="Sattva">sattva</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rajas" title="Rajas">rajas</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Tamas_(philosophy)" title="Tamas (philosophy)">tamas</a></i>). </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sramana_philosophy">Sramana philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sramana philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sramana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sramana">Sramana</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> are a continuation of the Sramana school of thought. The Sramanas cultivated a pessimistic worldview of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated renunciation and austerities. They laid stress on philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Jnana, Samsara and Moksa. <a href="/wiki/C%C4%81rv%C4%81ka" class="mw-redirect" title="Cārvāka">Cārvāka</a> (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) (atheist) philosophy, also known as Lokāyata, it is a system of Hindu philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. It is named after its founder, Cārvāka, author of the Bārhaspatya-sūtras. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Indian_philosophy">Classical Indian philosophy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Classical Indian philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. Some of the questions asked were: </p> <ul><li>What is the ontological nature of consciousness?</li> <li>How is cognition itself experienced?</li> <li>Is mind (<i>chit</i>) intentional or not?</li> <li>Does cognition have its own structure?</li></ul> <p>The six schools of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a> are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81ja_yoga" title="Rāja yoga">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimamsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimamsa">Mimamsa</a> (Purva Mimamsa)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> (Uttara Mimamsa)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Indian_philosophers">Ancient Indian philosophers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ancient Indian philosophers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_philosophers#Indian_philosophers" title="Timeline of Eastern philosophers">Timeline of Eastern philosophers § Indian philosophers</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1st_millennium_BCE">1st millennium BCE</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: 1st millennium BCE"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parashara" title="Parashara">Parashara</a> – writer of <i><a href="/wiki/Vishnu_Purana" title="Vishnu Purana">Viṣṇu Purāṇa</a></i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophers_of_Vedic_Age_(c._1500_–_c._600_BCE)"><span id="Philosophers_of_Vedic_Age_.28c._1500_.E2.80.93_c._600_BCE.29"></span>Philosophers of Vedic Age (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Philosophers of Vedic Age (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Rishi Narayana – seer of the Purusha Sukta of the <a href="/wiki/Rig_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saptarishi" class="mw-redirect" title="Saptarishi">Seven Rishis</a> – Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">Other Vedic Rishis</a> – Gritsamada, Sandilya, Kanva etc.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rishabha_(hindu_sage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rishabha (hindu sage)">Rishaba</a> – <a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">Rishi</a> mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Rig_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Rig Veda">Rig Veda</a> and later in several Puranas, and believed by Jains to be the first official religious <a href="/wiki/Guru" title="Guru">guru</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, as accredited by later followers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yajnavalkya" title="Yajnavalkya">Yajnavalkya</a> – one of the <a href="/wiki/Vedic" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic">Vedic</a> sages, greatly influenced <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhistic</a> thought.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lopamudra" title="Lopamudra">Lopamudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gargi_Vachaknavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gargi Vachaknavi">Gargi Vachaknavi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreyi" title="Maitreyi">Maitreyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parshvanatha" title="Parshvanatha">Parshvanatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosha" title="Ghosha">Ghosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiras" title="Angiras">Angiras</a> – one of the seers of the <a href="/wiki/Atharva_Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Atharva Veda">Atharva Veda</a> and author of <a href="/wiki/Mundaka_Upanishad" title="Mundaka Upanishad">Mundaka Upanishad</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uddalaka_Aruni" class="mw-redirect" title="Uddalaka Aruni">Uddalaka Aruni</a> – an Upanishadic sage who authored major portions of <a href="/wiki/Ch%C4%81ndogya_Upani%E1%B9%A3ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Chāndogya Upaniṣad">Chāndogya Upaniṣad</a>.</li> <li>Ashvapati – a King in the <a href="/wiki/Mahajanapada" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahajanapada">Later Vedic age</a> who authored Vaishvanara Vidya of <a href="/wiki/Ch%C4%81ndogya_Upani%E1%B9%A3ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Chāndogya Upaniṣad">Chāndogya Upaniṣad</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashtavakra" title="Ashtavakra">Ashtavakra</a> – an Upanishadic Sage mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, who authored <a href="/wiki/Ashtavakra_Gita" title="Ashtavakra Gita">Ashtavakra Gita</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophers_of_Axial_Age_(600–185_BCE)"><span id="Philosophers_of_Axial_Age_.28600.E2.80.93185_BCE.29"></span>Philosophers of Axial Age (600–185 BCE)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Philosophers of Axial Age (600–185 BCE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Gotama (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 BCE</span>), logician, author of <a href="/wiki/Nyaya_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Nyaya Sutra">Nyaya Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanada_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanada (philosopher)">Kanada</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 600 BCE</span>), founded the philosophical school of <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a>, gave theory of <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (599–527 BCE) – heavily influenced <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, the 24th <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankara</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purana_Kassapa" title="Purana Kassapa">Purana Kassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajita_Kesakambali" title="Ajita Kesakambali">Ajita Kesakambali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payasi" title="Payasi">Payasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makkhali_Gosala" title="Makkhali Gosala"><i>Makkhali Gośāla</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjaya_Belatthiputta" title="Sanjaya Belatthiputta"><i>Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dandamis" title="Dandamis">Dandamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakulisha" title="Lakulisha">Lakulisha</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg/150px-Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg/225px-Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg/300px-Sermon_in_the_Deer_Park_depicted_at_Wat_Chedi_Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="475" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Buddha.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pakudha_Kaccayana" title="Pakudha Kaccayana">Pakudha Kaccayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> (520–460 BCE), grammarian, author of <a href="/wiki/Ashtadhyayi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashtadhyayi">Ashtadhyayi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapila" title="Kapila">Kapila</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BCE</span>), proponent of the <a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a> system of philosophy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badarayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Badarayana">Badarayana</a> (lived between 500 BCE and 400 BCE) – Author of <a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sutras" title="Brahma Sutras">Brahma Sutras</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaimini" title="Jaimini">Jaimini</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 400 BCE</span>), author of <a href="/wiki/Purva_Mimamsa_Sutras" title="Purva Mimamsa Sutras">Purva Mimamsa Sutras</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingala" title="Pingala">Pingala</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BCE</span>), author of the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chandas_shastra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chandas shastra (page does not exist)">Chandas shastra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 480</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 400 BCE</span>), founder of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> school of thought</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Śāriputra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chanakya</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 350</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 275 BCE</span>), author of <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthashastra</a>, professor (<a href="/wiki/Acharya" title="Acharya">acharya</a>) of political science at the <a href="/wiki/Takshashila_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Takshashila University">Takshashila University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pata%C3%B1jali" class="mw-redirect" title="Patañjali">Patañjali</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 200 BCE</span>), developed the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Raja_Yoga" class="mw-redirect" title="Raja Yoga">Raja Yoga</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Yoga Sutra">Yoga Sutras</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shvetashvatara_Upanishad" title="Shvetashvatara Upanishad">Shvetashvatara</a> – Author of earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philosophers_of_Golden_Age_(184_BCE_–_600_CE)"><span id="Philosophers_of_Golden_Age_.28184_BCE_.E2.80.93_600_CE.29"></span>Philosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE – 600 CE)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Philosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE – 600 CE)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a>, believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet before <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81lid%C4%81sa" class="mw-redirect" title="Kālidāsa">Kālidāsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%81tsy%C4%81yana" title="Vātsyāyana">Vatsyana</a>, known for "<a href="/wiki/Kama_Sutra" title="Kama Sutra">Kama Sutra</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Jain_monk)" title="Samantabhadra (Jain monk)">Samantabhadra</a>, a proponent of the Jaina doctrine of Anekantavada</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isvarakrsna" class="mw-redirect" title="Isvarakrsna">Isvarakrsna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryadeva" title="Aryadeva">Aryadeva</a>, a student of Nagarjuna and contributed significantly to the Madhyamaka</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haribhadra" class="mw-redirect" title="Haribhadra">Haribhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pujyapada" title="Pujyapada">Pujyapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamandaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamandaka">Kamandaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisesika_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaisesika Sutra">Maticandra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prashastapada" title="Prashastapada">Prashastapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81viveka" title="Bhāviveka">Bhāviveka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmapala_of_Nalanda" title="Dharmapala of Nalanda">Dharmapala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udyotakara" title="Udyotakara">Udyotakara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaudapada" title="Gaudapada">Gaudapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhasena" title="Siddhasena">Siddhasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th century CE</span>), wrote the <a href="/wiki/Kural_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Kural text">Kural text</a>, a Tamil-language treatise on <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500</span>), one of the founders of Buddhist school of <a href="/wiki/Indian_logic" title="Indian logic">Indian logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300</span>), exponent of the <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhartrihari" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhartrihari">Bhartrihari</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 450</span>–510 CE), early figure in Indic linguistic theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 440</span>–528 CE), founder of the <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhasena_Div%C4%81kara" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhasena Divākara">Siddhasena Divākara</a> (5th century CE), Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as Nyāyāvatāra (on logic) and Sanmatisūtra (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300 CE</span>), one of the main founders of the Indian <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogacara</a> school</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kundakunda" title="Kundakunda">Kundakunda</a> (2nd century CE), exponent of Jain mysticism and <a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Nayavāda" title="Anekantavada">Jain nayas</a> dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter, author of <a href="/wiki/Pa%C3%B1c%C4%81stik%C4%81yas%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Pañcāstikāyasāra">Pañcāstikāyasāra</a> (Essence of the Five Existents), the <a href="/wiki/Pravacanas%C4%81ra" class="mw-redirect" title="Pravacanasāra">Pravacanasāra</a> (Essence of the Scripture) and the <a href="/wiki/Samayas%C4%81ra" title="Samayasāra">Samayasāra</a> (Essence of the Doctrine)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 150</span> – 250 CE), the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> (Middle Path) school of <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāyāna Buddhism">Mahāyāna Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Um%C4%81sv%C4%81ti" class="mw-redirect" title="Umāsvāti">Umāsvāti</a> or Umasvami (2nd century CE), author of first Jain work in Sanskrit, <a href="/wiki/Tattv%C4%81rthas%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattvārthasūtra">Tattvārthasūtra</a>, expounding the <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a> in a most systematized form acceptable to all sects of Jainism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> – philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a> school of philosophy</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Chinese_philosophy">Ancient Chinese philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Ancient Chinese philosophy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a></div> <p>Chinese philosophy is the dominant philosophical thought in China and other countries within the <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">East Asian cultural sphere</a> that <a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_Chinese_literary_culture" title="Adoption of Chinese literary culture">share a common language</a>, including Japan, <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schools_of_thought_2">Schools of thought</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Schools of thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hundred_Schools_of_Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Hundred Schools of Thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a></div> <p>The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophers and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BCE,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an era of significant cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_period" title="Spring and Autumn period">Spring and Autumn period</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Warring States">Warring States</a> period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a> because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifestyle (sociology)">lifestyles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_consciousness" title="Social consciousness">social consciousness</a> up to the present day in East Asian countries. The <a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">intellectual</a> society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of <a href="/wiki/Forms_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Forms of government">government</a>, <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">diplomacy</a>. This period ended with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin dynasty</a> and the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_books_and_burying_of_scholars" title="Burning of books and burying of scholars">purge</a> of dissent. The <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a> lists ten major schools, they are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, which teaches that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavors, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. The main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of <i><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">ren</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Yi_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi (Confucianism)">yi</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a>. Often compared with <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavelli</a>, and foundational for the traditional Chinese bureaucratic empire, the Legalists examined administrative methods, emphasizing a realistic consolidation of the wealth and power of autocrat and state.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> (also called Daoism), a philosophy which emphasizes the <a href="/wiki/Three_Jewels_of_the_Tao" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Jewels of the Tao">Three Jewels of the Tao</a>: <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">moderation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">humility</a>, while Taoist thought generally focuses on <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Longevity" title="Longevity">longevity</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> (action through inaction). Harmony with the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a>, or the source thereof (Tao), is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, which advocated the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that "everyone is equal before heaven" and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>; he believed that human cognition ought to be based on one's perceptions – one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction. Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant.</li> <li>Naturalism, the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">School of Naturalists</a> or the Yin-yang school, which synthesized the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Five_elements_(Chinese_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five elements (Chinese philosophy)">Five Elements</a>; <a href="/wiki/Zou_Yan" title="Zou Yan">Zou Yan</a> is considered the founder of this school.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Agrarianism, or the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Agrarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Agrarianism">School of Agrarianism</a>, which advocated peasant <a href="/wiki/Utopian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopian">utopian</a> communalism and <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-wp_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wp-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Agrarians believed that Chinese society should be modeled around that of the early sage king <a href="/wiki/Shen_Nong" class="mw-redirect" title="Shen Nong">Shen Nong</a>, a folk hero which was portrayed in Chinese literature as "working in the fields, along with everyone else, and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be reached."<sup id="cite_ref-wp_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wp-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a> or the School of Names, which focused on <a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">definition</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>. It is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient Greek <a href="/wiki/Sophists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophists">sophists</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dialectician" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectician">dialecticians</a>. The most notable Logician was <a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Longzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Gongsun Longzi">Gongsun Longzi</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a> or School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances], which focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, stressed political and diplomatic tactics, debate, and lobbying skills. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters, and tacticians.</li> <li>The Miscellaneous School, which integrated teachings from different schools; for instance, <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Buwei" title="Lü Buwei">Lü Buwei</a> found scholars from different schools to write a book called <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshi_Chunqiu" title="Lüshi Chunqiu">Lüshi Chunqiu</a> cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws.</li> <li>The School of "Minor-talks" was not a unique school of thought but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts discussed by and originated from ordinary people on the street.</li> <li>Another group is the School of the Military that studied strategy and the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">philosophy of war</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sunzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunzi">Sunzi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Bin" title="Sun Bin">Sun Bin</a> were influential leaders. However, this school was not one of the "Ten Schools" defined by Hanshu.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_Imperial_China">Early Imperial China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Early Imperial China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The founder of the Qin dynasty, who implemented Legalism as the official philosophy, <a href="/wiki/To_burn_the_classics_and_to_bury_the_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="To burn the classics and to bury the scholars">quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools</a>. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction of Buddhism. </p><p>Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han dynasty, whose greatest thinker was <a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a>, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace. In contrast, there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient language (from this comes the denomination <i>Old Text</i>) that were so much more reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal. </p><p>The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the <i><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a></i> (mysterious learning), also called <i>Neo-Taoism</i>. The most influential philosophers of this movement were <a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xiang_Xiu" title="Xiang Xiu">Xiang Xiu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a>. The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese, <i>ming</i> and <i>wuming</i>). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove" title="Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove">Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove</a>, was the concept of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feng_liu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Feng liu (page does not exist)">feng liu</a></i> (lit. wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a> dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement. In the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect, and there was even a theory about <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>, founder of Taoism, who went to India and taught his philosophy to <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Buddhism">Mahayana Buddhism</a> was far more successful in China than its rival <a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a>, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers were <a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Daosheng" title="Daosheng">Daosheng</a>. But probably the most influential and original of these schools was the <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a> sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as the <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> sect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophers_2">Philosophers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Philosophers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (5th–4th century BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a> (4th century BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Daoling" title="Zhang Daoling">Zhang Daoling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jue" title="Zhang Jue">Zhang Jue</a> (died 184 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a> (283 – 343 CE)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Zi" class="mw-redirect" title="Xun Zi">Xun Zi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 312</span> – 230 BCE)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li>Mi Su Yu</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li>Song Xing</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xi" title="Deng Xi">Deng Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hui_Shi" title="Hui Shi">Hui Shi</a> (380–305 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Long" title="Gongsun Long">Gongsun Long</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 325</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 250 BCE</span>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Agrarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Agrarianism">Agrarianism</a> <ul><li>Xu Xing</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Naturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zou_Yan" title="Zou Yan">Zou Yan</a> (305 – 240 BCE)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotaoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neotaoism">Neotaoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang_Xiu" title="Xiang Xiu">Xiang Xiu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guiguzi" title="Guiguzi">Guiguzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Qin" title="Su Qin">Su Qin</a> (380 – 284 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yi_(Warring_States_period)" title="Zhang Yi (Warring States period)">Zhang Yi</a> (bef. 329 – 309 BCE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yue_Yi" title="Yue Yi">Yue Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Yiji" title="Li Yiji">Li Yiji</a> (268 – 204 BCE)</li></ul></li> <li>Military strategy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunzi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunzi">Sunzi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 500 BCE</span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Bin" title="Sun Bin">Sun Bin</a> (died 316 BCE)</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ancient_philosophy_articles" title="Index of ancient philosophy articles">Index of ancient philosophy articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom_literature" title="Wisdom literature">Wisdom literature</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip G. Kreyenbroek: "Morals and Society in Zoroastrian Philosophy" in "Persian Philosophy". Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy: Brian Carr and Indira Mahalingam. Routledge, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mary Boyce: "The Origins of Zoroastrian Philosophy" in "Persian Philosophy". Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy: Brian Carr and Indira Mahalingam. Routledge, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia. From Zoroaster to 'Umar Khayyam. S. H. Nasr & M. Aminrazavi. I. B. Tauris Publishers, London & New York, 2008. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845115418" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845115418">978-1845115418</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zurvan. A Zoroastrian Dilemma. Robert Charles Zaehner. Biblo and Tannen, 1972. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8196-0280-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8196-0280-9">0-8196-0280-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tafozzoli_&_Khromov-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tafozzoli_&_Khromov_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tafozzoli_&_Khromov_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sasanian Iran - intellectual life. A. Tafazzoli and A. L. Khromov in: History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The Crossroads of Civilization. B. A. Litvinsky, Zhang Guand-Da, R. Shabani Samghabadi. Unesco, 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9231032119" title="Special:BookSources/9231032119">9231032119</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mansour Shaki. <i>Falsafa. Philosophy in the pre-Islamic period</i>. Encyclopædia Iranica. Volume IX. 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-933273-35-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-933273-35-5">0-933273-35-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prods Oktor Skjaervo. <i>Bardesanes</i>. Encyclopædia Iranica. Volume III. Fasc. 7–8. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7100-9121-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7100-9121-4">0-7100-9121-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David A. Scott. <i>Manichaean Views of Buddhism</i> in: History of Religions. Vol. 25, No. 2, Nov. 1985. University of Chicago Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yarshater, Ehsan. 1983. The Cambridge history of Iran, volume 2. pp. 995–997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankLeaman2005" class="citation book cs1">Frank, Daniel; Leaman, Oliver (20 October 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2e_O1CbFwA8C"><i>History of Jewish Philosophy</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-89435-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-89435-2"><bdi>978-1-134-89435-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Jewish+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005-10-20&rft.isbn=978-1-134-89435-2&rft.aulast=Frank&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.au=Leaman%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2e_O1CbFwA8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The significance of Purusha Sukta in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/invoc/in_pur.html">Daily Invocations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091003074642/http://swami-krishnananda.org/invoc/in_pur.html">Archived</a> 3 October 2009 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Swami Krishnananda</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. 285 <i>Indian sociology through Ghurye, a dictionary</i> By S. Devadas Pillai</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/112694/Chinese-philosophy#ref171469">"Chinese philosophy"</a>, Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed 4/6/2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLo,_Ping-cheung1999" class="citation cs2">Lo, Ping-cheung (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716110845/http://arts.hkbu.edu.hk/~pclo/e5.pdf">"Confucian Ethic of Death with Dignity and Its Contemporary Relevance"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>The Annual of the Society of Christian Ethics. Society of Christian Ethics (U.s.)</i>, <b>19</b>, Society of Christian Ethics: 313–333, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fasce19991916">10.5840/asce19991916</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11913447">11913447</a>, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arts.hkbu.edu.hk/~pclo/e5.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 16 July 2011</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Annual+of+the+Society+of+Christian+Ethics.+Society+of+Christian+Ethics+%28U.s.%29&rft.atitle=Confucian+Ethic+of+Death+with+Dignity+and+Its+Contemporary+Relevance&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=313-333&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fasce19991916&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11913447&rft.au=Lo%2C+Ping-cheung&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farts.hkbu.edu.hk%2F~pclo%2Fe5.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/607826/Zou-Yan">"Zou Yan"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 March</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zou+Yan&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F607826%2FZou-Yan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wp-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wp_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wp_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeutschRonald_Bontekoei1999" class="citation book cs1">Deutsch, Eliot; Ronald Bontekoei (1999). <i>A companion to world philosophies</i>. Wiley Blackwell. p. 183.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+world+philosophies&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Wiley+Blackwell&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Deutsch&rft.aufirst=Eliot&rft.au=Ronald+Bontekoei&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAncient+philosophy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Luchte, James, <i>Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn</i>, in series <i>Bloomsbury Studies in Ancient Philosophy</i>, Bloomsbury Publishing, London, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0567353313" title="Special:BookSources/978-0567353313">978-0567353313</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/taxonomy/2306">Ancient philosophy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto 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