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vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Responsiveness_to_ovarian_steroids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Responsiveness to ovarian steroids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Responsiveness_to_ovarian_steroids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Function-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Function subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hormone_release" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hormone_release"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Hormone release</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hormone_release-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stimulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stimulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Stimulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stimulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Olfactory_stimuli" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Olfactory_stimuli"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Olfactory stimuli</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Olfactory_stimuli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blood-borne_stimuli" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood-borne_stimuli"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Blood-borne stimuli</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood-borne_stimuli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steroids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steroids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Steroids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steroids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neural" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neural"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Neural</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neural-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_of_food_intake" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_of_food_intake"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Control of food intake</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_of_food_intake-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fear_processing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fear_processing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Fear processing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fear_processing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learning_arbitrator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learning_arbitrator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Learning arbitrator</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learning_arbitrator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Hypothalamus</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 81 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-81" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">81 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="تحت المهاد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تحت المهاد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AA%27%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9B" title="হাইপ'থেলামাছ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="হাইপ'থেলামাছ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipot%C3%A1lamu" title="Hipotálamu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Hipotálamu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%DB%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3" title="هیپوتالاموس – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="هیپوتالاموس" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B7_(%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95)" title="অবকক্ষ (আন্তরমস্তিষ্ক) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অবকক্ষ (আন্তরমস্তিষ্ক)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Гіпаталамус – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гіпаталамус" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%87%D0%B0" title="Падзрочча – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Падзрочча" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Хипоталамус – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хипоталамус" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipot%C3%A0lem" title="Hipotàlem – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Hipotàlem" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalmws" title="Hypothalmws – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hypothalmws" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%80%DE%A6%DE%87%DE%A8%DE%95%DE%AF%DE%8C%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%A6%DE%89%DE%A6%DE%90%DE%B0" title="ހައިޕޯތަލަމަސް – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ހައިޕޯތަލަމަސް" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCpotalamus" title="Hüpotalamus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Hüpotalamus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B8%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Υποθάλαμος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υποθάλαμος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipot%C3%A1lamo" title="Hipotálamo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hipotálamo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamo" title="Hipotalamo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Hipotalamo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamo" title="Hipotalamo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hipotalamo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%DB%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3" title="هیپوتالاموس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هیپوتالاموس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipeatalamas" title="Hipeatalamas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Hipeatalamas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipot%C3%A1lamo" title="Hipotálamo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Hipotálamo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EC%83%81%ED%95%98%EB%B6%80" title="시상하부 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시상하부" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%B8%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD" title="Հիպոթալամուս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հիպոթալամուս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95" title="अधश्चेतक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अधश्चेतक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undirst%C3%BAka" title="Undirstúka – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Undirstúka" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipotalamo" title="Ipotalamo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ipotalamo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1" title="היפותלמוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היפותלמוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%B0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="ჰიპოთალამუსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჰიპოთალამუსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%AA%DA%BE%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3" title="ہایپوتھیلمس – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="ہایپوتھیلمس" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Гипоталамус – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Гипоталамус" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipotalamis" title="Ipotalamis – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ipotalamis" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%AEpotalamus" title="Hîpotalamus – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Hîpotalamus" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Гипоталамус – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Гипоталамус" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotal%C4%81ms" title="Hipotalāms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Hipotalāms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagumburis" title="Pagumburis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pagumburis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamusz" title="Hipotalamusz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Hipotalamusz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Хипоталамус – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хипоталамус" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%96%E5%BA%8A%E4%B8%8B%E9%83%A8" title="視床下部 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="視床下部" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotalamus" title="Hypotalamus – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Hypotalamus" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ipotalam" title="Ipotalam – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ipotalam" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gipotalamus_gipotalamik_soha" title="Gipotalamus gipotalamik soha – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Gipotalamus gipotalamik soha" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A5%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਹਿਪੋਥੈਲੇਮਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਹਿਪੋਥੈਲੇਮਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podwzg%C3%B3rze" title="Podwzgórze – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Podwzgórze" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipot%C3%A1lamo" title="Hipotálamo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Hipotálamo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Гипоталамус – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гипоталамус" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Гипоталамус – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Гипоталамус" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamusi" title="Hipotalamusi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hipotalamusi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podl%C3%B4%C5%BEko" title="Podlôžko – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Podlôžko" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%98%DB%8E%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%A9" title="ژێرلانک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ژێرلانک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Хипоталамус – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хипоталамус" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotalamus" title="Hypotalamus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hypotalamus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotalamus" title="Hypotalamus – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hypotalamus" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%90%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81" title="ஐப்போத்தலாமசு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஐப்போத்தலாமசு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AE%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%AA" title="ไฮโปทาลามัส – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไฮโปทาลามัส" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipotalamus" title="Hipotalamus – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hipotalamus" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Гіпоталамус – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Гіпоталамус" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%86%DA%AD%DA%86%DB%95_%D9%85%DB%90%DA%AD%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89%DA%AD_%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%89" title="دۆڭچە مېڭىنىڭ ئاستى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="دۆڭچە مېڭىنىڭ ئاستى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B9ng_d%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bi_%C4%91%E1%BB%93i" title="Vùng dưới đồi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vùng dưới đồi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Hypothalamus" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B%E4%B8%98%E8%84%91" title="下丘脑 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="下丘脑" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B%E4%B8%98%E8%85%A6" title="下丘腦 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="下丘腦" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%8B%E4%B8%98%E8%84%91" title="下丘脑 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="下丘脑" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q164386#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav 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below the thalamus</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Subthalamus" title="Subthalamus">Subthalamus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hypophthalmus" title="Hypophthalmus">Hypophthalmus</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:lemonchiffon">Hypothalamus</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Hypothalamus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/Hypothalamus.jpg" decoding="async" width="236" height="248" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="236" data-file-height="248" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Location of the human hypothalamus</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:1806_The_Hypothalamus-Pituitary_Complex.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/1806_The_Hypothalamus-Pituitary_Complex.jpg/250px-1806_The_Hypothalamus-Pituitary_Complex.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/1806_The_Hypothalamus-Pituitary_Complex.jpg/375px-1806_The_Hypothalamus-Pituitary_Complex.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/1806_The_Hypothalamus-Pituitary_Complex.jpg/500px-1806_The_Hypothalamus-Pituitary_Complex.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1077" data-file-height="626" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Location of the hypothalamus (<i>cyan</i>) in relation to the pituitary and to the rest of the brain</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><i>hypothalamus</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D007031">D007031</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NeuroLex" title="NeuroLex">NeuroLex</a> ID</th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uri.neuinfo.org/nif/nifstd/birnlex_734">birnlex_734</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/14.1.08.401%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A14.1.08.401</a><br /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/14.1.08.901%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A14.1.08.901</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=5714">5714</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma62008">62008</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_neuroanatomy" title="Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy">Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q164386" class="extiw" title="d:Q164386">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hypothalamus" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:hypothalamus"> hypothalamus</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <p>The <b>hypothalamus</b> (<abbr title="plural form">pl.</abbr>: <b>hypothalami</b>; from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BD%91%CF%80%CF%8C#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:ὑπό">ὑπό</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>hupó</i></span>)</i> 'under' and <i> </i><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B8%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:θάλαμος">θάλαμος</a></span><i> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>thálamos</i></span>)</i> 'chamber') is a small part of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> that contains a number of <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Nucleus (neuroanatomy)">nuclei</a> with a variety of functions. One of the most important functions is to link the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>. The hypothalamus is located below the <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a> and is part of the <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It forms the <a href="/wiki/Basal_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Basal (anatomy)">basal</a> part of the <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a>. All vertebrate brains contain a hypothalamus.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans, it is about the size of an <a href="/wiki/Almond#Nut" title="Almond">almond</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The hypothalamus has the function of regulating certain <a href="/wiki/Metabolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic">metabolic</a> <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a> and other activities of the <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a>. It <a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">synthesizes</a> and secretes certain <a href="/wiki/Neurohormone" title="Neurohormone">neurohormones</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Releasing_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Releasing hormone">releasing hormones</a> or hypothalamic hormones, and these in turn stimulate or inhibit the secretion of <a href="/wiki/Hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormones">hormones</a> from the pituitary gland. The hypothalamus controls <a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">body temperature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hunger_(physiology)" title="Hunger (physiology)">hunger</a>, important aspects of parenting and <a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal attachment behaviours</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thirst" title="Thirst">thirst</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fatigue" title="Fatigue">fatigue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">sleep</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythms</a>, and is important in certain social behaviors, such as sexual and aggressive behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-motta2009_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-motta2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hypothalamus is divided into four regions (preoptic, supraoptic, tuberal, mammillary) in a parasagittal plane, indicating location anterior-posterior; and three zones (periventricular, intermediate, lateral) in the coronal plane, indicating location medial-lateral.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hypothalamic nuclei are located within these specific regions and zones.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh2011_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh2011-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is found in all vertebrate nervous systems. In mammals, <a href="/wiki/Magnocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Magnocellular neurosecretory cell">magnocellular neurosecretory cells</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraventricular nucleus">paraventricular nucleus</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Supraoptic_nucleus" title="Supraoptic nucleus">supraoptic nucleus</a> of the hypothalamus produce <a href="/wiki/Neurohypophysial_hormone" title="Neurohypophysial hormone">neurohypophysial hormones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sukhov_1993_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sukhov_1993-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These hormones are released into the blood in the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">posterior pituitary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much smaller <a href="/wiki/Parvocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Parvocellular neurosecretory cell">parvocellular neurosecretory cells</a>, neurons of the paraventricular nucleus, release <a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">corticotropin-releasing hormone</a> and other hormones into the <a href="/wiki/Hypophyseal_portal_system" title="Hypophyseal portal system">hypophyseal portal system</a>, where these hormones diffuse to the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclei">Nuclei</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Nuclei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hypothalamic nuclei include the following:<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>List of nuclei, their functions, and the neurotransmitters, neuropeptides, or hormones that they utilize </caption> <tbody><tr> <td><b>Region</b> </td> <td><b>Area</b> </td> <td><b>Nucleus</b> </td> <td><b>Function</b><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="8">Anterior (supraoptic) </td> <td rowspan="2">Preoptic</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Preoptic_area" title="Preoptic area">Preoptic nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">Thermoregulation</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ventrolateral_preoptic_nucleus" title="Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus">Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">Sleep</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Medial </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Medial_preoptic_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial preoptic nucleus">Medial preoptic nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li>Regulates the release of gonadotropic hormones from the adenohypophysis</li> <li>Contains the <a href="/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic_nucleus" title="Sexually dimorphic nucleus">sexually dimorphic nucleus</a>, which releases GnRH, differential development between sexes is based upon in utero testosterone levels</li> <li>Thermoregulation<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Supraoptic_nucleus" title="Supraoptic nucleus">Supraoptic nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin</a> release</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a> release</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraventricular nucleus">Paraventricular nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone">thyrotropin-releasing hormone</a> release</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">corticotropin-releasing hormone</a> release</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a> release</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a> release</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">somatostatin</a> round</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> (wakefulness and attention)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appetite" title="Appetite">appetite</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Anterior_hypothalamic_nucleus" title="Anterior hypothalamic nucleus">Anterior hypothalamic nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">thermoregulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">panting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweating" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweating">sweating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyrotropin">thyrotropin</a> inhibition</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">Suprachiasmatic nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythms" class="mw-redirect" title="Circadian rhythms">Circadian rhythms</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Lateral </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamic_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral hypothalamic nucleus">Lateral nucleus</a></td> <td>See <a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamus#Function" title="Lateral hypothalamus">Lateral hypothalamus § Function</a> – primary source of <a href="/wiki/Orexin" title="Orexin">orexin</a> neurons that project throughout the brain and spinal cord </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Middle (tuberal) </td> <td rowspan="3">Medial </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dorsomedial_hypothalamic_nucleus" title="Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus">Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart_rate" title="Heart rate">heart rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">GI</a> stimulation</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventromedial nucleus">Ventromedial nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satiety" title="Satiety">satiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">neuroendocrine</a> control</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arcuate_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcuate nucleus">Arcuate nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone-releasing_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth hormone-releasing hormone">Growth hormone-releasing hormone</a> (GHRH)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding" class="mw-redirect" title="Feeding">feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a>-mediated <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a> inhibition</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Lateral</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamic_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral hypothalamic nucleus">Lateral nucleus</a></td> <td>See <a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamus#Function" title="Lateral hypothalamus">Lateral hypothalamus § Function</a> – primary source of <a href="/wiki/Orexin" title="Orexin">orexin</a> neurons that project throughout the brain and spinal cord </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lateral_tuberal_nuclei&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lateral tuberal nuclei (page does not exist)">Lateral tuberal nuclei</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">Posterior (mammillary) </td> <td rowspan="2">Medial </td> <td>Mammillary nuclei (part of <a href="/wiki/Mammillary_body" title="Mammillary body">mammillary bodies</a>)</td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">memory</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Posterior_nucleus_(hypothalamus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior nucleus (hypothalamus)">Posterior nucleus</a></td> <td> <ul><li>Increase <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">pupillary</a> dilation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shivering" title="Shivering">shivering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a> release</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Lateral </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamic_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral hypothalamic nucleus">Lateral nucleus</a></td> <td>See <a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamus#Function" title="Lateral hypothalamus">Lateral hypothalamus § Function</a> – primary source of <a href="/wiki/Orexin" title="Orexin">orexin</a> neurons that project throughout the brain and spinal cord </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Tuberomammillary_nucleus" title="Tuberomammillary nucleus">Tuberomammillary nucleus</a><sup id="cite_ref-Histamine_pathways_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Histamine_pathways-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arousal" title="Arousal">arousal</a> (wakefulness and attention)</li> <li>feeding and <a href="/wiki/Energy_balance_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy balance (biology)">energy balance</a></li> <li>learning</li> <li>memory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep" title="Sleep">sleep</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HIGHPVN.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cross-section of the monkey hypothalamus displays two of the major hypothalamic nuclei on either side of the fluid-filled third ventricle."><img alt="Cross-section of the monkey hypothalamus displays two of the major hypothalamic nuclei on either side of the fluid-filled third ventricle." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/HIGHPVN.jpg/120px-HIGHPVN.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/HIGHPVN.jpg/180px-HIGHPVN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/HIGHPVN.jpg/240px-HIGHPVN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="432" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cross-section of the monkey hypothalamus displays two of the major hypothalamic nuclei on either side of the fluid-filled third ventricle.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:HypothalamicNuclei.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Hypothalamic nuclei"><img alt="Hypothalamic nuclei" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/HypothalamicNuclei.PNG/120px-HypothalamicNuclei.PNG" decoding="async" width="120" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/HypothalamicNuclei.PNG/180px-HypothalamicNuclei.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/HypothalamicNuclei.PNG/240px-HypothalamicNuclei.PNG 2x" data-file-width="769" data-file-height="603" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hypothalamic nuclei </div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:3D-Hypothalamus.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Hypothalamic nuclei on one side of the hypothalamus, shown in a 3-D computer reconstruction[18]"><img alt="Hypothalamic nuclei on one side of the hypothalamus, shown in a 3-D computer reconstruction[18]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/3D-Hypothalamus.JPG/120px-3D-Hypothalamus.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/3D-Hypothalamus.JPG/180px-3D-Hypothalamus.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/3D-Hypothalamus.JPG/240px-3D-Hypothalamus.JPG 2x" data-file-width="384" data-file-height="373" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Hypothalamic nuclei on one side of the hypothalamus, shown in a 3-D computer reconstruction<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connections">Connections</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Connections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamus#Orexinergic_projection_system" title="Lateral hypothalamus">Lateral hypothalamus § Orexinergic projection system</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tuberomammillary_nucleus#Histaminergic_outputs" title="Tuberomammillary nucleus">Tuberomammillary nucleus § Histaminergic outputs</a></div> <p>The hypothalamus is highly interconnected with other parts of the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>, in particular the brainstem and its <a href="/wiki/Reticular_formation" title="Reticular formation">reticular formation</a>. As part of the <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic system</a>, it has connections to other limbic structures including the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Septum" title="Septum">septum</a>, and is also connected with areas of the <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_nervous_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomous nervous system">autonomous nervous system</a>. </p><p>The hypothalamus receives many inputs from the <a href="/wiki/Brainstem" title="Brainstem">brainstem</a>, the most notable from the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_of_the_solitary_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus of the solitary tract">nucleus of the solitary tract</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Locus_coeruleus" title="Locus coeruleus">locus coeruleus</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ventrolateral_medulla" title="Ventrolateral medulla">ventrolateral medulla</a>. </p><p><b>Most</b> nerve fibres within the hypothalamus run in two ways (bidirectional). </p> <ul><li>Projections to areas <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">caudal</a> to the hypothalamus go through the <a href="/wiki/Medial_forebrain_bundle" title="Medial forebrain bundle">medial forebrain bundle</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mammillotegmental_fasciculus" title="Mammillotegmental fasciculus">mammillotegmental tract</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dorsal_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus">dorsal longitudinal fasciculus</a>.</li> <li>Projections to areas rostral to the hypothalamus are carried by the <a href="/wiki/Mammillothalamic_tract" title="Mammillothalamic tract">mammillothalamic tract</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fornix_of_brain" class="mw-redirect" title="Fornix of brain">fornix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terminal_stria" class="mw-redirect" title="Terminal stria">terminal stria</a>.</li> <li>Projections to areas of the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic motor system</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lateral_horn_of_spinal_cord" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral horn of spinal cord">lateral horn</a> spinal segments T1–L2/L3) are carried by the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamospinal_tract" title="Hypothalamospinal tract">hypothalamospinal tract</a> and they activate the sympathetic motor pathway.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sexual dimorphism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several hypothalamic nuclei are <a href="/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually dimorphic">sexually dimorphic</a>; i.e., there are clear differences in both structure and function between males and females.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some differences are apparent even in gross neuroanatomy: most notable is the <a href="/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic_nucleus" title="Sexually dimorphic nucleus">sexually dimorphic nucleus</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Preoptic_area" title="Preoptic area">preoptic area</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the differences are subtle changes in the connectivity and chemical sensitivity of particular sets of neurons. The importance of these changes can be recognized by functional differences between males and females. For instance, males of most species prefer the odor and appearance of females over males, which is instrumental in stimulating male sexual behavior. If the sexually dimorphic nucleus is lesioned, this preference for females by males diminishes. Also, the pattern of secretion of <a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth hormone</a> is sexually dimorphic;<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this is why in many species, adult males are visibly distinct sizes from females. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Responsiveness_to_ovarian_steroids">Responsiveness to ovarian steroids</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Responsiveness to ovarian steroids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other striking functional dimorphisms are in the behavioral responses to <a href="/wiki/Ovarian_steroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovarian steroids">ovarian steroids</a> of the adult. Males and females respond to ovarian steroids in different ways, partly because the expression of estrogen-sensitive neurons in the hypothalamus is sexually dimorphic; i.e., estrogen receptors are expressed in different sets of neurons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">Estrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">progesterone</a> can influence gene expression in particular neurons or induce changes in <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membrane</a> potential and <a href="/wiki/Kinase" title="Kinase">kinase</a> activation, leading to diverse non-genomic cellular functions. Estrogen and progesterone bind to their cognate <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_hormone_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear hormone receptor">nuclear hormone receptors</a>, which translocate to the cell nucleus and interact with regions of DNA known as <a href="/wiki/Hormone_response_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormone response element">hormone response elements</a> (HREs) or get tethered to another <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factor</a>'s binding site. <a href="/wiki/Estrogen_receptor" title="Estrogen receptor">Estrogen receptor</a> (ER) has been shown to transactivate other transcription factors in this manner, despite the absence of an <a href="/wiki/Estrogen_response_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Estrogen response element">estrogen response element</a> (ERE) in the proximal promoter region of the gene. In general, ERs and <a href="/wiki/Progesterone_receptor" title="Progesterone receptor">progesterone receptors</a> (PRs) are gene activators, with increased mRNA and subsequent protein synthesis following hormone exposure.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Male and female brains differ in the distribution of estrogen receptors, and this difference is an irreversible consequence of neonatal steroid exposure.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Estrogen receptors (and progesterone receptors) are found mainly in neurons in the anterior and mediobasal hypothalamus, notably: </p> <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Preoptic_area" title="Preoptic area">preoptic area</a> (where <a href="/wiki/LHRH" class="mw-redirect" title="LHRH">LHRH</a> neurons are located, regulating dopamine responses and maternal behavior;<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Periventricular_nucleus" title="Periventricular nucleus">periventricular nucleus</a> where <a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">somatostatin</a> neurons are located, regulating stress levels;<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_hypothalamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventromedial hypothalamus">ventromedial hypothalamus</a> which regulates hunger and sexual arousal.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray654.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Gray654.png/220px-Gray654.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Gray654.png/330px-Gray654.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/Gray654.png 2x" data-file-width="402" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Median sagittal section of brain of human embryo of three months</figcaption></figure> <p>In neonatal life, gonadal steroids influence the development of the neuroendocrine hypothalamus. For instance, they determine the ability of females to exhibit a normal reproductive cycle, and of males and females to display appropriate reproductive behaviors in adult life. </p> <ul><li>If a <i>female rat</i> is injected once with testosterone in the first few days of postnatal life (during the "critical period" of sex-steroid influence), the hypothalamus is irreversibly masculinized; the adult rat will be incapable of generating an <a href="/wiki/LH_surge" class="mw-redirect" title="LH surge">LH surge</a> in response to estrogen (a characteristic of females), but will be capable of exhibiting <i>male</i> sexual behaviors (mounting a sexually receptive female).<sup id="cite_ref-jneuro_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jneuro-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>By contrast, a <i>male rat</i> castrated just after birth will be <i>feminized</i>, and the adult will show <i>female</i> sexual behavior in response to estrogen (sexual receptivity, <a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">lordosis behavior</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-jneuro_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jneuro-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In primates, the developmental influence of <a href="/wiki/Androgens" class="mw-redirect" title="Androgens">androgens</a> is less clear, and the consequences are less understood. Within the brain, testosterone is aromatized (to <a href="/wiki/Estradiol" title="Estradiol">estradiol</a>), which is the principal active hormone for developmental influences. The human <a href="/wiki/Testis" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis">testis</a> secretes high levels of testosterone from about week eight of fetal life until five to six months after birth (a similar perinatal surge in testosterone is observed in many species), a process that appears to underlie the male phenotype. Estrogen from the maternal circulation is relatively ineffective, partly because of the high circulating levels of steroid-binding proteins in pregnancy.<sup id="cite_ref-jneuro_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jneuro-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Sex_steroid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex steroid">Sex steroids</a> are not the only important influences upon hypothalamic development; in particular, <a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">pre-pubertal</a> stress in early life (of rats) determines the capacity of the adult hypothalamus to respond to an acute stressor.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike gonadal steroid receptors, <a href="/wiki/Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">glucocorticoid</a> receptors are very widespread throughout the brain; in the <a href="/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraventricular nucleus">paraventricular nucleus</a>, they mediate negative feedback control of <a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">CRF</a> synthesis and secretion, but elsewhere their role is not well understood. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hormone_release">Hormone release</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hormone release"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Endocrine_central_nervous_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Endocrine_central_nervous_en.svg/220px-Endocrine_central_nervous_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Endocrine_central_nervous_en.svg/330px-Endocrine_central_nervous_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Endocrine_central_nervous_en.svg/440px-Endocrine_central_nervous_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_gland" title="Endocrine gland">Endocrine glands</a> in the human head and neck and their hormones</figcaption></figure> <p>The hypothalamus has a central <a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">neuroendocrine</a> function, most notably by its control of the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a>, which in turn regulates various endocrine glands and organs. <a href="/wiki/Releasing_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Releasing hormone">Releasing hormones</a> (also called releasing factors) are produced in hypothalamic nuclei then transported along <a href="/wiki/Axons" class="mw-redirect" title="Axons">axons</a> to either the <a href="/wiki/Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">median eminence</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">posterior pituitary</a>, where they are stored and released as needed.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Anterior pituitary</dt></dl> <p>In the hypothalamic–adenohypophyseal axis, releasing hormones, also known as hypophysiotropic or hypothalamic hormones, are released from the median eminence, a prolongation of the hypothalamus, into the <a href="/wiki/Hypophyseal_portal_system" title="Hypophyseal portal system">hypophyseal portal system</a>, which carries them to the anterior pituitary where they exert their regulatory functions on the secretion of adenohypophyseal hormones.<sup id="cite_ref-MelmedJameson_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MelmedJameson-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These hypophysiotropic hormones are stimulated by parvocellular neurosecretory cells located in the periventricular area of the hypothalamus. After their release into the capillaries of the third ventricle, the hypophysiotropic hormones travel through what is known as the hypothalamo-pituitary portal circulation. Once they reach their destination in the anterior pituitary, these hormones bind to specific receptors located on the surface of pituitary cells. Depending on which cells are activated through this binding, the pituitary will either begin secreting or stop secreting hormones into the rest of the bloodstream.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <th width="25%">Secreted hormone</th> <th width="6%">Abbreviation</th> <th width="17%">Produced by</th> <th>Effect </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone">Thyrotropin-releasing hormone</a> <br />(Prolactin-releasing hormone) </th> <td>TRH, TRF, or PRH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Parvocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Parvocellular neurosecretory cell">Parvocellular neurosecretory cells</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraventricular nucleus">paraventricular nucleus</a></td> <td>Stimulate <a href="/wiki/Thyroid-stimulating_hormone" title="Thyroid-stimulating hormone">thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)</a> release from <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> (primarily) <br />Stimulate <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a> release from <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">Corticotropin-releasing hormone</a> </th> <td>CRH or CRF</td> <td>Parvocellular neurosecretory cells of the paraventricular nucleus</td> <td>Stimulate <a href="/wiki/Adrenocorticotropic_hormone" title="Adrenocorticotropic hormone">adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)</a> release from <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">Dopamine</a> <br />(Prolactin-inhibiting hormone) </th> <td>DA or PIH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Arcuate_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcuate nucleus">Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus</a></td> <td>Inhibit <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a> release from <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Growth-hormone-releasing_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Growth-hormone-releasing hormone">Growth-hormone-releasing hormone</a> </th> <td>GHRH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">Neuroendocrine</a> neurons of the <a href="/wiki/Arcuate_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcuate nucleus">Arcuate nucleus</a></td> <td>Stimulate <a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth-hormone (GH)</a> release from <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Gonadotropin-releasing hormone">Gonadotropin-releasing hormone</a> </th> <td>GnRH or LHRH</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">Neuroendocrine</a> cells of the <a href="/wiki/Preoptic_area" title="Preoptic area">Preoptic area</a></td> <td>Stimulate <a href="/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone">follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)</a> release from <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> <br />Stimulate <a href="/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone" title="Luteinizing hormone">luteinizing hormone (LH)</a> release from <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">Somatostatin</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <br />(growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone) </th> <td>SS, GHIH, or SRIF</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">Neuroendocrine</a> cells of the <a href="/wiki/Periventricular_nucleus" title="Periventricular nucleus">Periventricular nucleus</a></td> <td>Inhibit <a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth-hormone (GH)</a> release from <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> <br />Inhibit (moderately) <a href="/wiki/Thyroid-stimulating_hormone" title="Thyroid-stimulating hormone">thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)</a> release from <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Other hormones secreted from the median eminence include <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neurotensin" title="Neurotensin">neurotensin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-horn_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-horn-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Posterior pituitary</dt></dl> <p>In the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, <a href="/wiki/Neurohypophysial_hormone" title="Neurohypophysial hormone">neurohypophysial hormones</a> are released from the posterior pituitary, which is actually a prolongation of the hypothalamus, into the circulation. </p> <table class="wikitable" width="100%"> <tbody><tr> <th width="25%">Secreted hormone</th> <th width="6%">Abbreviation</th> <th width="17%">Produced by</th> <th>Effect </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a> </th> <td>OXY or OXT</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Magnocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Magnocellular neurosecretory cell">Magnocellular neurosecretory cells</a> of the paraventricular nucleus and <a href="/wiki/Supraoptic_nucleus" title="Supraoptic nucleus">supraoptic nucleus</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Uterine_contraction" title="Uterine contraction">Uterine contraction</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Letdown_reflex" class="mw-redirect" title="Letdown reflex">Lactation (letdown reflex)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">Vasopressin</a> <br />(antidiuretic hormone) </th> <td>ADH or AVP</td> <td>Magnocellular and parvocellular neurosecretory cells of the paraventricular nucleus, magnocellular cells in supraoptic nucleus</td> <td>Increase in the permeability to water of the cells of <a href="/wiki/Distal_tubule" class="mw-redirect" title="Distal tubule">distal tubule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Collecting_duct" class="mw-redirect" title="Collecting duct">collecting duct</a> in the kidney and thus allows water reabsorption and excretion of concentrated urine </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>It is also known that <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis</a> (HPA) hormones are related to certain skin diseases and skin homeostasis. There is evidence linking hyperactivity of HPA hormones to stress-related skin diseases and skin tumors.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stimulation">Stimulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Stimulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hypothalamus coordinates many hormonal and behavioural circadian rhythms, complex patterns of <a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">neuroendocrine</a> outputs, complex <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostatic</a> mechanisms, and important behaviours. The hypothalamus must, therefore, respond to many different signals, some of which are generated externally and some internally. <a href="/wiki/Delta_wave" title="Delta wave">Delta wave</a> signalling arising either in the thalamus or in the cortex influences the secretion of releasing hormones; <a href="/wiki/GHRH" class="mw-redirect" title="GHRH">GHRH</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a> are stimulated whilst <a href="/wiki/TRH" class="mw-redirect" title="TRH">TRH</a> is inhibited. </p><p>The hypothalamus is responsive to: </p> <ul><li>Light: daylength and <a href="/wiki/Photoperiod" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoperiod">photoperiod</a> for regulating <a href="/wiki/Circadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Circadian">circadian</a> and seasonal rhythms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory">Olfactory</a> stimuli, including <a href="/wiki/Pheromones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pheromones">pheromones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Steroids">Steroids</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Gonadal_steroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonadal steroids">gonadal steroids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corticosteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Corticosteroids">corticosteroids</a></li> <li>Neurally transmitted information arising in particular from the heart, <a href="/wiki/Enteric_nervous_system" title="Enteric nervous system">enteric nervous system</a> (of the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the reproductive tract.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Your explanation here (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_Nervous_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Autonomic Nervous System">Autonomic</a> inputs</li> <li>Blood-borne stimuli, including <a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">leptin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghrelin" title="Ghrelin">ghrelin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin" title="Angiotensin">angiotensin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pituitary hormones">pituitary hormones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cytokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytokines">cytokines</a>, plasma concentrations of glucose and osmolarity etc.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (medicine)">Stress</a></li> <li>Invading microorganisms by increasing body temperature, resetting the body's thermostat upward.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Olfactory_stimuli">Olfactory stimuli</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Olfactory stimuli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Olfactory stimuli are important for <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroendocrine">neuroendocrine</a> function in many species. For instance, if a pregnant mouse is exposed to the urine of a 'strange' male during a critical period after coitus then the pregnancy fails (the <a href="/wiki/Bruce_effect" title="Bruce effect">Bruce effect</a>). Thus, during coitus, a female mouse forms a precise 'olfactory memory' of her partner that persists for several days. Pheromonal cues aid synchronization of <a href="/wiki/Oestrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oestrus">oestrus</a> in many species; in women, synchronized <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a> may also arise from pheromonal cues, although the role of pheromones in humans is disputed. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Blood-borne_stimuli">Blood-borne stimuli</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Blood-borne stimuli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">Peptide</a> hormones have important influences upon the hypothalamus, and to do so they must pass through the <a href="/wiki/Blood%E2%80%93brain_barrier" title="Blood–brain barrier">blood–brain barrier</a>. The hypothalamus is bounded in part by specialized brain regions that lack an effective blood–brain barrier; the <a href="/wiki/Capillary#Types" title="Capillary">capillary</a> <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a> at these sites is fenestrated to allow free passage of even large proteins and other molecules. Some of these sites are the sites of neurosecretion - the <a href="/wiki/Neurohypophysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurohypophysis">neurohypophysis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">median eminence</a>. However, others are sites at which the brain samples the composition of the blood. Two of these sites, the SFO (<a href="/wiki/Subfornical_organ" title="Subfornical organ">subfornical organ</a>) and the OVLT (<a href="/wiki/Organum_vasculosum_of_the_lamina_terminalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis">organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis</a>) are so-called <a href="/wiki/Circumventricular_organs" title="Circumventricular organs">circumventricular organs</a>, where neurons are in intimate contact with both blood and <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">CSF</a>. These structures are densely vascularized, and contain osmoreceptive and sodium-receptive neurons that control <a href="/wiki/Drinking" title="Drinking">drinking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a> release, sodium excretion, and sodium appetite. They also contain neurons with receptors for <a href="/wiki/Angiotensin" title="Angiotensin">angiotensin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atrial_natriuretic_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Atrial natriuretic factor">atrial natriuretic factor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endothelin" title="Endothelin">endothelin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relaxin" title="Relaxin">relaxin</a>, each of which important in the regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance. Neurons in the OVLT and SFO project to the <a href="/wiki/Supraoptic_nucleus" title="Supraoptic nucleus">supraoptic nucleus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraventricular nucleus">paraventricular nucleus</a>, and also to preoptic hypothalamic areas. The circumventricular organs may also be the site of action of <a href="/wiki/Interleukins" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukins">interleukins</a> to elicit both fever and ACTH secretion, via effects on paraventricular neurons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It is not clear how all peptides that influence hypothalamic activity gain the necessary access. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">leptin</a>, there is evidence of active uptake at the <a href="/wiki/Choroid_plexus" title="Choroid plexus">choroid plexus</a> from the blood into the <a href="/wiki/Cerebrospinal_fluid" title="Cerebrospinal fluid">cerebrospinal fluid</a> (CSF). Some pituitary hormones have a negative feedback influence upon hypothalamic secretion; for example, <a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth hormone</a> feeds back on the hypothalamus, but how it enters the brain is not clear. There is also evidence for central actions of <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Findings have suggested that <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid hormone">thyroid hormone</a> (T4) is taken up by the hypothalamic <a href="/wiki/Glial_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Glial cells">glial cells</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Infundibular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Infundibular nucleus">infundibular nucleus</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">median eminence</a>, and that it is here converted into <a href="/wiki/Triiodothyronine" title="Triiodothyronine">T3</a> by the type 2 deiodinase (D2). Subsequent to this, T3 is transported into the <a href="/wiki/Thyrotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Thyrotropin-releasing hormone">thyrotropin-releasing hormone</a> (<a href="/wiki/TRH" class="mw-redirect" title="TRH">TRH</a>)-producing <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraventricular nucleus">paraventricular nucleus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_hormone_receptor" title="Thyroid hormone receptor">Thyroid hormone receptors</a> have been found in these <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a>, indicating that they are indeed sensitive to T3 stimuli. In addition, these neurons expressed <a href="/wiki/SLC16A2" class="mw-redirect" title="SLC16A2">MCT8</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid hormone">thyroid hormone</a> transporter, supporting the theory that T3 is transported into them. T3 could then bind to the thyroid hormone receptor in these neurons and affect the production of thyrotropin-releasing hormone, thereby regulating thyroid hormone production.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The hypothalamus functions as a type of <a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">thermostat</a> for the body.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrisons_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrisons-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It sets a desired body temperature, and stimulates either heat production and retention to raise the blood temperature to a higher setting or sweating and <a href="/wiki/Vasodilation" title="Vasodilation">vasodilation</a> to cool the blood to a lower temperature. All <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fevers</a> result from a raised setting in the hypothalamus; elevated body temperatures due to any other cause are classified as <a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">hyperthermia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrisons_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrisons-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rarely, direct damage to the hypothalamus, such as from a <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, will cause a fever; this is sometimes called a <i>hypothalamic fever</i>. However, it is more common for such damage to cause abnormally low body temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrisons_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrisons-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Steroids">Steroids</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Steroids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hypothalamus contains neurons that react strongly to steroids and <a href="/wiki/Glucocorticoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucocorticoids">glucocorticoids</a> (the steroid hormones of the <a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">adrenal gland</a>, released in response to <a href="/wiki/ACTH" class="mw-redirect" title="ACTH">ACTH</a>). It also contains specialized glucose-sensitive neurons (in the <a href="/wiki/Arcuate_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Arcuate nucleus">arcuate nucleus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_hypothalamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventromedial hypothalamus">ventromedial hypothalamus</a>), which are important for <a href="/wiki/Appetite" title="Appetite">appetite</a>. The preoptic area contains thermosensitive neurons; these are important for <a href="/wiki/TRH" class="mw-redirect" title="TRH">TRH</a> secretion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neural">Neural</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Neural"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a> secretion in response to suckling or vagino-cervical stimulation is mediated by some of these pathways; <a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a> secretion in response to cardiovascular stimuli arising from chemoreceptors in the <a href="/wiki/Carotid_body" title="Carotid body">carotid body</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aortic_arch" title="Aortic arch">aortic arch</a>, and from low-pressure <a href="/wiki/Atrial_volume_receptors" title="Atrial volume receptors">atrial volume receptors</a>, is mediated by others. In the rat, stimulation of the <a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">vagina</a> also causes <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a> secretion, and this results in <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudo-pregnancy">pseudo-pregnancy</a> following an infertile mating. In the rabbit, coitus elicits <a href="/wiki/Induced_ovulation_(animals)" title="Induced ovulation (animals)">reflex ovulation</a>. In the sheep, <a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">cervical</a> stimulation in the presence of high levels of estrogen can induce <a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal behavior</a> in a virgin ewe. These effects are all mediated by the hypothalamus, and the information is carried mainly by spinal pathways that relay in the brainstem. Stimulation of the nipples stimulates release of oxytocin and prolactin and suppresses the release of <a href="/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone" title="Luteinizing hormone">LH</a> and <a href="/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone">FSH</a>. </p><p>Cardiovascular stimuli are carried by the <a href="/wiki/Vagus_nerve" title="Vagus nerve">vagus nerve</a>. The vagus also conveys a variety of visceral information, including for instance signals arising from gastric distension or emptying, to suppress or promote feeding, by signalling the release of <a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">leptin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gastrin" title="Gastrin">gastrin</a>, respectively. Again, this information reaches the hypothalamus via relays in the brainstem. </p><p>In addition, hypothalamic function is responsive to—and regulated by—levels of all three classical <a href="/wiki/Monoamine_neurotransmitter" title="Monoamine neurotransmitter">monoamine neurotransmitters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Noradrenaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Noradrenaline">noradrenaline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a> (5-hydroxytryptamine), in those tracts from which it receives innervation. For example, noradrenergic inputs arising from the locus coeruleus have important regulatory effects upon <a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">corticotropin-releasing hormone</a> (CRH) levels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_of_food_intake">Control of food intake</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Control of food intake"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="width:40%; float:right; margin-left:15px"> <caption>Peptide hormones and neuropeptides that regulate feeding<sup id="cite_ref-Feeding_peptides_table_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Feeding_peptides_table-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="width:50%">Peptides that increase<br />feeding behavior </th> <th scope="col" style="width:50%">Peptides that decrease<br />feeding behavior </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Ghrelin" title="Ghrelin">Ghrelin</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">Leptin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Neuropeptide_Y" title="Neuropeptide Y">Neuropeptide Y</a></td> <td>(α,β,γ)-<a href="/wiki/Melanocyte-stimulating_hormone" title="Melanocyte-stimulating hormone">Melanocyte-stimulating hormones</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Agouti-related_peptide" title="Agouti-related peptide">Agouti-related peptide</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cocaine_and_amphetamine_regulated_transcript" title="Cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript">Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptides</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Orexin" title="Orexin">Orexins</a> (A,B)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Corticotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Corticotropin-releasing hormone">Corticotropin-releasing hormone</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Melanin-concentrating_hormone" title="Melanin-concentrating hormone">Melanin-concentrating hormone</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin" title="Cholecystokinin">Cholecystokinin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Galanin" title="Galanin">Galanin</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">Insulin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Glucagon-like_peptide_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucagon-like peptide 1">Glucagon-like peptide 1</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The extreme <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">lateral</a> part of the <a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventromedial nucleus">ventromedial nucleus</a> of the hypothalamus is responsible for the control of <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a> intake. Stimulation of this area causes increased food intake. Bilateral <a href="/wiki/Lesion" title="Lesion">lesion</a> of this area causes complete cessation of food intake. Medial parts of the nucleus have a controlling effect on the lateral part. Bilateral lesion of the medial part of the ventromedial nucleus causes <a href="/wiki/Hyperphagia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperphagia">hyperphagia</a> and obesity of the animal. Further lesion of the lateral part of the ventromedial nucleus in the same animal produces complete cessation of food intake. </p><p>There are different hypotheses related to this regulation:<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Lipostatic hypothesis: This hypothesis holds that <a href="/wiki/Adipose" class="mw-redirect" title="Adipose">adipose</a> <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">tissue</a> produces a <a href="/wiki/Humoral_immunity" title="Humoral immunity">humoral</a> signal that is proportionate to the amount of fat and acts on the hypothalamus to decrease food intake and increase energy output. It has been evident that a <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormone</a> <a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">leptin</a> acts on the hypothalamus to decrease food intake and increase energy output.</li> <li>Gutpeptide hypothesis: <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal</a> hormones like Grp, <a href="/wiki/Glucagon" title="Glucagon">glucagons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cholecystokinin" title="Cholecystokinin">CCK</a> and others claimed to inhibit food intake. The food entering the gastrointestinal tract triggers the release of these hormones, which act on the brain to produce satiety. The brain contains both CCK-A and CCK-B receptors.</li> <li>Glucostatic hypothesis: The activity of the satiety center in the ventromedial nuclei is probably governed by the <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> utilization in the neurons. It has been postulated that when their glucose utilization is low and consequently when the arteriovenous blood glucose difference across them is low, the activity across the neurons decrease. Under these conditions, the activity of the feeding center is unchecked and the individual feels hungry. Food intake is rapidly increased by intraventricular administration of <a href="/wiki/2-deoxy-D-glucose" class="mw-redirect" title="2-deoxy-D-glucose">2-deoxyglucose</a> therefore decreasing glucose utilization in cells.</li> <li>Thermostatic hypothesis: According to this hypothesis, a decrease in body temperature below a given set-point stimulates appetite, whereas an increase above the set-point inhibits appetite.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fear_processing">Fear processing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fear processing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The medial zone of hypothalamus is part of a circuitry that controls motivated behaviors, like defensive behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-swanson2000_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-swanson2000-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analyses of <a href="/wiki/C-Fos" class="mw-redirect" title="C-Fos">Fos</a>-labeling showed that a series of nuclei in the "behavioral control column" is important in regulating the expression of innate and conditioned defensive behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-canteras2002_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canteras2002-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Antipredatory defensive behavior</dt></dl> <p>Exposure to a predator (such as a cat) elicits defensive behaviors in laboratory rodents, even when the animal has never been exposed to a cat.<sup id="cite_ref-ribeiro2005_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ribeiro2005-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the hypothalamus, this exposure causes an increase in <a href="/wiki/C-Fos#Applications" class="mw-redirect" title="C-Fos">Fos-labeled</a> cells in the anterior hypothalamic nucleus, the dorsomedial part of the ventromedial nucleus, and in the ventrolateral part of the premammillary nucleus (PMDvl).<sup id="cite_ref-cezario2008_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cezario2008-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The premammillary nucleus has an important role in expression of defensive behaviors towards a predator, since lesions in this nucleus abolish defensive behaviors, like freezing and flight.<sup id="cite_ref-cezario2008_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cezario2008-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-blanchardpmd_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blanchardpmd-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The PMD does not modulate defensive behavior in other situations, as lesions of this nucleus had minimal effects on post-shock freezing scores.<sup id="cite_ref-blanchardpmd_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blanchardpmd-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The PMD has important connections to the dorsal <a href="/wiki/Periaqueductal_gray" title="Periaqueductal gray">periaqueductal gray</a>, an important structure in fear expression.<sup id="cite_ref-canteras1992_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-canteras1992-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-behbehani1995_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-behbehani1995-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, animals display risk assessment behaviors to the environment previously associated with the cat. Fos-labeled cell analysis showed that the PMDvl is the most activated structure in the hypothalamus, and inactivation with <a href="/wiki/Muscimol" title="Muscimol">muscimol</a> prior to exposure to the context abolishes the defensive behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-cezario2008_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cezario2008-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the hypothalamus, mainly the PMDvl, has an important role in expression of innate and conditioned defensive behaviors to a predator. </p> <dl><dt>Social defeat</dt></dl> <p>Likewise, the hypothalamus has a role in <a href="/wiki/Social_defeat" title="Social defeat">social defeat</a>: nuclei in medial zone are also mobilized during an encounter with an aggressive conspecific. The defeated animal has an increase in Fos levels in sexually dimorphic structures, such as the medial pre-optic nucleus, the ventrolateral part of ventromedial nucleus, and the ventral premammilary nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-motta2009_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-motta2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such structures are important in other social behaviors, such as sexual and aggressive behaviors. Moreover, the premammillary nucleus also is mobilized, the dorsomedial part but not the ventrolateral part.<sup id="cite_ref-motta2009_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-motta2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lesions in this nucleus abolish passive defensive behavior, like freezing and the "on-the-back" posture.<sup id="cite_ref-motta2009_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-motta2009-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Learning_arbitrator">Learning arbitrator</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Learning arbitrator"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recent research has questioned whether the lateral hypothalamus's role is only restricted to initiating and stopping innate behaviors and argued it learns about food-related cues. Specifically, that it opposes learning about information what is neutral or distant to food. According this view, the lateral hypothalamus is "a unique arbitrator of learning capable of shifting behavior toward or away from important events".<sup id="cite_ref-h081_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h081-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Illu_diencephalon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Illu_diencephalon.jpg/120px-Illu_diencephalon.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Illu_diencephalon.jpg/180px-Illu_diencephalon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Illu_diencephalon.jpg/240px-Illu_diencephalon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="263" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_brain_left_dissected_midsagittal_view_description_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Human brain left dissected midsagittal view"><img alt="Human brain left dissected midsagittal view" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Human_brain_left_dissected_midsagittal_view_description_2.JPG/120px-Human_brain_left_dissected_midsagittal_view_description_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Human_brain_left_dissected_midsagittal_view_description_2.JPG/180px-Human_brain_left_dissected_midsagittal_view_description_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Human_brain_left_dissected_midsagittal_view_description_2.JPG/240px-Human_brain_left_dissected_midsagittal_view_description_2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="701" data-file-height="488" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Human brain left dissected midsagittal view</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0536_HypothalamusLocation.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Location of the hypothalamus"><img alt="Location of the hypothalamus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Blausen_0536_HypothalamusLocation.png/120px-Blausen_0536_HypothalamusLocation.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Blausen_0536_HypothalamusLocation.png/180px-Blausen_0536_HypothalamusLocation.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Blausen_0536_HypothalamusLocation.png/240px-Blausen_0536_HypothalamusLocation.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="486" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Location of the hypothalamus</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventrolateral_preoptic_nucleus" title="Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus">ventrolateral preoptic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periventricular_nucleus" title="Periventricular nucleus">periventricular nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copeptin" title="Copeptin">Copeptin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis">Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis</a> (HPA axis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93gonadal_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis">Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis</a> (HPG axis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93thyroid_axis" title="Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis">Hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis</a> (HPT axis)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incertohypothalamic_pathway" title="Incertohypothalamic pathway">Incertohypothalamic pathway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroendocrinology" title="Neuroendocrinology">Neuroendocrinology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Neuroscience of sleep</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free 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"The cognitive (lateral) hypothalamus". <i>Trends in Cognitive Sciences</i>. <b>28</b> (1): 18–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tics.2023.08.019">10.1016/j.tics.2023.08.019</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> 10841673. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37758590">37758590</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Cognitive+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+cognitive+%28lateral%29+hypothalamus&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=18-29&rft.date=2024-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10841673%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37758590&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tics.2023.08.019&rft.aulast=Sharpe&rft.aufirst=MJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypothalamus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_VriesSödersten2009" class="citation journal cs1">de Vries GJ, Södersten P (May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3932614">"Sex differences in the brain: the relation between structure and function"</a>. <i>Hormones and Behavior</i>. <b>55</b> (5): 589–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.yhbeh.2009.03.012">10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3932614">3932614</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19446075">19446075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hormones+and+Behavior&rft.atitle=Sex+differences+in+the+brain%3A+the+relation+between+structure+and+function&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=589-96&rft.date=2009-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3932614%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19446075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.yhbeh.2009.03.012&rft.aulast=de+Vries&rft.aufirst=GJ&rft.au=S%C3%B6dersten%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3932614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHypothalamus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hypothalamus&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hypothalamus" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brainmaps.org/index.php?q=Hypothalamus">Stained brain slice images which include the "Hypothalamus"</a> at the <a href="/wiki/BrainMaps" title="BrainMaps">BrainMaps project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060514115805/http://www.endotext.org/neuroendo/neuroendo3b/neuroendo3b.htm">The Hypothalamus and Pituitary at endotexts.org</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130703215852/https://www.neuinfo.org/mynif/search.php?q=Hypothalamus&t=data&s=cover&b=0&r=20">NIF Search - Hypothalamus</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_Information_Framework" title="Neuroscience Information Framework">Neuroscience Information Framework</a></li> <li>Space-filling and cross-sectional diagrams of hypothalamic nuclei: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netterimages.com/image/8535.htm">right hypothalamus</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netterimages.com/image/8584.htm">anterior</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netterimages.com/image/8586.htm">tubular</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netterimages.com/image/8588.htm">posterior</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Diencephalon" title="Template:Diencephalon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Diencephalon" title="Template talk:Diencephalon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Diencephalon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Diencephalon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_diencephalon_of_the_human_brain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Diencephalon" title="Diencephalon">diencephalon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epithalamus" title="Epithalamus">Epithalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habenula" title="Habenula">Habenula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habenular_trigone" title="Habenular trigone">Habenular trigone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habenular_commissure" title="Habenular commissure">Habenular commissure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pretectal_area" title="Pretectal area">Pretectal area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habenular_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Habenular nuclei">Habenular nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcommissural_organ" title="Subcommissural organ">Subcommissural organ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">Thalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stria_medullaris" title="Stria medullaris">Stria medullaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalamic_reticular_nucleus" title="Thalamic reticular nucleus">Thalamic reticular nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taenia_thalami" title="Taenia thalami">Taenia thalami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_thalamic_nuclei" title="List of thalamic nuclei">nuclei</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>paired:</i> <a href="/wiki/Anterior_nuclei_of_thalamus" title="Anterior nuclei of thalamus">AN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_nuclear_group" title="Ventral nuclear group">Ventral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_anterior_nucleus" title="Ventral anterior nucleus">VA</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ventral_lateral_nucleus" title="Ventral lateral nucleus">VL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_posterior_nucleus" title="Ventral posterior nucleus">VP</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ventral_posteromedial_nucleus" title="Ventral posteromedial nucleus">VPM</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ventral_posterolateral_nucleus" title="Ventral posterolateral nucleus">VPL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_nuclear_group" title="Lateral nuclear group">Lateral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_dorsal_nucleus_of_thalamus" title="Lateral dorsal nucleus of thalamus">LD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_posterior_nucleus_of_thalamus" title="Lateral posterior nucleus of thalamus">LP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulvinar_nuclei" title="Pulvinar nuclei">Pulvinar nuclei</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metathalamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Metathalamus">Metathalamus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medial_geniculate_nucleus" title="Medial geniculate nucleus">MG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_geniculate_nucleus" title="Lateral geniculate nucleus">LG</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parvocellular_cell" title="Parvocellular cell">P cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnocellular_cell" title="Magnocellular cell">M cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koniocellular_cell" title="Koniocellular cell">K cell</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i>midline:</i> <a href="/wiki/Medial_dorsal_nucleus" title="Medial dorsal nucleus">MD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intralaminar_nuclei_of_thalamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Intralaminar nuclei of thalamus">Intralaminar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centromedian_nucleus" title="Centromedian nucleus">Centromedian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midline_nuclear_group" title="Midline nuclear group">Midline nuclear group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interthalamic_adhesion" title="Interthalamic adhesion">Interthalamic adhesion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammillothalamic_tract" title="Mammillothalamic tract">Mammillothalamic tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallidothalamic_tracts" title="Pallidothalamic tracts">Pallidothalamic tracts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ansa_lenticularis" title="Ansa lenticularis">Ansa lenticularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenticular_fasciculus" title="Lenticular fasciculus">Lenticular fasciculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalamic_fasciculus" title="Thalamic fasciculus">Thalamic fasciculus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_column-medial_lemniscus_pathway" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway">DCML</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medial_lemniscus" title="Medial lemniscus">Medial lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigeminal_lemniscus" title="Trigeminal lemniscus">Trigeminal lemniscus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinothalamic_tract" title="Spinothalamic tract">Spinothalamic tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_lemniscus" title="Lateral lemniscus">Lateral lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentatothalamic_tract" title="Dentatothalamic tract">Dentatothalamic tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation" title="Acoustic radiation">Acoustic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_radiation" title="Optic radiation">Optic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_fasciculus" title="Subthalamic fasciculus">Subthalamic fasciculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_trigeminal_tract" title="Ventral trigeminal tract">Ventral trigeminal tract</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medullary_laminae_of_thalamus" title="Medullary laminae of thalamus">Medullary laminae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hypothalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">Median eminence</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tuber_cinereum" title="Tuber cinereum">Tuber cinereum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammillary_body" title="Mammillary body">Mammillary body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_stalk" title="Pituitary stalk">Infundibulum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">Autonomic</a> zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_hypothalamic_nucleus" title="Anterior hypothalamic nucleus">Anterior (parasympathetic/heat loss)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_nucleus_of_hypothalamus" title="Posterior nucleus of hypothalamus">Posterior (sympathetic/heat conservation)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">posterior pituitary</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Paraventricular_nucleus_of_hypothalamus" title="Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus">Paraventricular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Magnocellular neurosecretory cell">Magnocellular neurosecretory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parvocellular_neurosecretory_cell" title="Parvocellular neurosecretory cell">Parvocellular neurosecretory cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supraoptic_nucleus" title="Supraoptic nucleus">Supraoptic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">oxytocin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vasopressin" title="Vasopressin">vasopressin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i>other:</i> <a href="/wiki/Arcuate_nucleus_(hypothalamus)" title="Arcuate nucleus (hypothalamus)">Arcuate (dopamine/GHRH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preoptic_area" title="Preoptic area">Preoptic (GnRH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">Suprachiasmatic (melatonin)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_hypothalamus" title="Lateral hypothalamus">Lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventromedial_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ventromedial nucleus">Ventromedial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsomedial_hypothalamic_nucleus" title="Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus">Dorsomedial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>afferent</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stria_terminalis" title="Stria terminalis">Stria terminalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_forebrain_bundle" title="Medial forebrain bundle">Medial forebrain bundle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinohypothalamic_tract" title="Retinohypothalamic tract">Retinohypothalamic tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>efferent</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammillothalamic_tract" title="Mammillothalamic tract">Mammillothalamic tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_longitudinal_fasciculus" title="Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus">Dorsal longitudinal fasciculus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Posterior</a> is diencephalon, but <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior</a> is glandular</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subthalamus" title="Subthalamus">Subthalamus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subthalamic_nucleus" title="Subthalamic nucleus">Subthalamic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zona_incerta" title="Zona incerta">Zona incerta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclei_campi_perizonalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclei campi perizonalis">Nuclei campi perizonalis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fields_of_Forel" title="Fields of Forel">Fields of Forel</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatomy_of_the_endocrine_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Endocrine_system_anatomy" title="Template:Endocrine system anatomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Endocrine_system_anatomy" title="Template talk:Endocrine system anatomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Endocrine_system_anatomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Endocrine system anatomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anatomy_of_the_endocrine_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">Anterior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pars_intermedia" title="Pars intermedia">Pars intermedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pars_tuberalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pars tuberalis">Pars tuberalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary#Pars_distalis" title="Anterior pituitary">Pars distalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acidophil_cell" title="Acidophil cell">Acidophil cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somatotropic_cell" title="Somatotropic cell">Somatotropic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactotropic_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactotropic cell">Prolactin cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatomammotrophic_cell" title="Somatomammotrophic cell">Somatomammotrophic cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basophil_cell" title="Basophil cell">Basophil cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corticotropic_cell" title="Corticotropic cell">Corticotropic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonadotropic_cell" title="Gonadotropic cell">Gonadotropic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyrotropic_cell" title="Thyrotropic cell">Thyrotropic cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromophobe_cell" title="Chromophobe cell">Chromophobe cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Posterior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_pituitary" title="Posterior pituitary">Pars nervosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_eminence" title="Median eminence">Median eminence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_stalk" title="Pituitary stalk">Stalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pituicyte" title="Pituicyte">Pituicyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herring_bodies" title="Herring bodies">Herring bodies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid_follicular_cell" title="Thyroid follicular cell">Follicular cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parafollicular_cell" title="Parafollicular cell">Parafollicular cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_chief_cell" title="Parathyroid chief cell">Chief cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyphil_cell_(parathyroid)" title="Oxyphil cell (parathyroid)">Oxyphil cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_cortex" title="Adrenal cortex">Cortex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zona_glomerulosa" title="Zona glomerulosa">Zona glomerulosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zona_fasciculata" title="Zona fasciculata">Zona fasciculata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zona_reticularis" title="Zona reticularis">Zona reticularis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_medulla" title="Adrenal medulla">Medulla</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromaffin_cell" title="Chromaffin cell">Chromaffin cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gonad" title="Gonad">Gonads</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leydig_cell" title="Leydig cell">Leydig cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sertoli_cell" title="Sertoli cell">Sertoli cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theca_interna" title="Theca interna">Theca interna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granulosa_cell" title="Granulosa cell">Granulosa cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_luteum" title="Corpus luteum">Corpus luteum</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of pancreas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_cell" title="Alpha cell">Alpha cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_cell" title="Beta cell">Beta cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_polypeptide_cells" title="Pancreatic polypeptide cells">PP cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_cell" title="Delta cell">Delta cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epsilon_cell" title="Epsilon cell">Epsilon cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal gland</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pinealocyte" title="Pinealocyte">Pinealocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpora_arenacea" title="Corpora arenacea">Corpora arenacea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enteroendocrine_cell" title="Enteroendocrine cell">Enteroendocrine cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraganglion" title="Paraganglion">Paraganglia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organ_of_Zuckerkandl" title="Organ of Zuckerkandl">Organ of Zuckerkandl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_endocrine_system" title="Development of the endocrine system">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_endocrine_organs_and_actions" title="List of human endocrine organs and actions">List of human endocrine organs and actions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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