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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cortex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Cortex</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cortex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trabeculae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trabeculae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Trabeculae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trabeculae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marrow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marrow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Marrow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marrow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vascular_supply" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vascular_supply"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Vascular supply</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vascular_supply-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Cells</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Osteoblast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osteoblast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Osteoblast</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osteoblast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Osteocyte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osteocyte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.2</span> <span>Osteocyte</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osteocyte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Osteoclast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osteoclast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.3</span> <span>Osteoclast</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osteoclast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>Deposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Functions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Functions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Functions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mechanical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Mechanical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synthetic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synthetic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Synthetic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synthetic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Metabolic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calcium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calcium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Calcium</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calcium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remodeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remodeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Remodeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remodeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volume" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volume"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Volume</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volume-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Clinical significance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fractures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fractures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Fractures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fractures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tumors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tumors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Tumors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tumors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Cancer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diabetes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diabetes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Diabetes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diabetes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_painful_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_painful_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Other painful conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_painful_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Osteoporosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osteoporosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Osteoporosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osteoporosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Osteopathic_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osteopathic_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Osteopathic medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osteopathic_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bone_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bone_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bone health</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bone_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Osteology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Osteology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Osteology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Osteology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Other animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bone</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 158 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-158" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">158 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Been" title="Been – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Been" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knochen" title="Knochen – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Knochen" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A0%E1%8C%A5%E1%8A%95%E1%89%B5" title="አጥንት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="አጥንት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C4%81n" title="Bān – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Bān" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85" title="عظم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عظم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ueso" title="Ueso – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ueso" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%93%DC%AA%DC%A1%DC%90" title="ܓܪܡܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܓܪܡܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%80" title="Ոսկոր – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Ոսկոր" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osu" title="Osu – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Osu" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%94s" title="Ôs – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Ôs" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC" title="হাড় – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="হাড়" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%BCesu" title="Güesu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Güesu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-atj mw-list-item"><a href="https://atj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oskan" title="Oskan – Atikamekw" lang="atj" hreflang="atj" data-title="Oskan" data-language-autonym="Atikamekw" data-language-local-name="Atikamekw" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Atikamekw</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangue" title="Kangue – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kangue" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%8C%D0%B0" title="Ракьа – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Ракьа" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%27aka" title="Ch'aka – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Ch'aka" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BCm%C3%BCk" title="Sümük – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sümük" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%DA%A9" title="سوموک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سوموک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC" title="হাড় – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="হাড়" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kut" title="Kut – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kut" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balung" title="Balung – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Balung" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%BA%D3%A9%D0%B9%D3%99%D0%BA" title="Һөйәк – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Һөйәк" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Косць – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Косць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Косьць – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Косьць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang" title="Tulang – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tulang" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Кост – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Кост" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boana" title="Boana – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Boana" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kost" title="Kost – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kost" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askorn" title="Askorn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Askorn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os" title="Os – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Os" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%C4%83%D0%BC%C4%83" title="Шăмă – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Шăмă" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kost" title="Kost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossu" title="Ossu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Ossu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asgwrn" title="Asgwrn – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Asgwrn" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C9%94bili" title="Kɔbili – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Kɔbili" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knogle_(anatomi)" title="Knogle (anatomi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Knogle (anatomi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A1kti" title="Dákti – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Dákti" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knochen" title="Knochen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Knochen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luu" title="Luu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Luu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8C" title="Οστό – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Οστό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hueso" title="Hueso – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Hueso" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osto" title="Osto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Osto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hezur" title="Hezur – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hezur" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="استخوان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="استخوان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os" title="Os – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Os" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bonke" title="Bonke – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Bonke" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cn%C3%A1mh" title="Cnámh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cnámh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cn%C3%A0mh" title="Cnàmh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cnàmh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93so" title="Óso – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Óso" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%80%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BA" title="ТӀехк – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="ТӀехк" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kut-kak" title="Kut-kak – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Kut-kak" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%BC%88" title="뼈 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="뼈" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%80" title="Ոսկոր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ոսկոր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF" title="अस्थि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अस्थि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kost" title="Kost – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kost" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulalo" title="Tulalo – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Tulalo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osto" title="Osto – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Osto" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang" title="Tulang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tulang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osso" title="Osso – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Osso" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sauniq" title="Sauniq – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Sauniq" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Iñupiatun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bein" title="Bein – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bein" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osso" title="Osso – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Osso" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%9D" title="עצם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עצם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balung" title="Balung – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Balung" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%94%C9%94y%C9%9B" title="Mɔɔyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Mɔɔyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%86" title="ಮೂಳೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮೂಳೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AB%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ძვალი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ძვალი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%DA%88%D9%90%D8%AC%D8%A0" title="أڈِجؠ – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="أڈِجؠ" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B5%D0%BA" title="Сүйек – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Сүйек" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Askorn" title="Askorn – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Askorn" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfupa" title="Mfupa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mfupa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zo" title="Zo – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Zo" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hest%C3%AE" title="Hestî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Hestî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D3%80" title="ТтаркӀ – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="ТтаркӀ" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лакку</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_(anatomia_ossis)" title="Os (anatomia ossis) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Os (anatomia ossis)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauls" title="Kauls – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kauls" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schank" title="Schank – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Schank" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaulas" title="Kaulas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kaulas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knaok" title="Knaok – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Knaok" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mok%C3%BAwa" title="Mokúwa – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mokúwa" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oso" title="Oso – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Oso" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%92s" title="Òs – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Òs" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Csont" title="Csont – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Csont" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Коска – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Коска" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taolana" title="Taolana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Taolana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BF" title="അസ്ഥി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അസ്ഥി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF" title="अस्थि – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अस्थि" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A7%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ყვილი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ყვილი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="استکا – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="استکا" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang" title="Tulang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tulang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang" title="Tulang – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Tulang" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1uk-g%C3%A1uk" title="Gáuk-gáuk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gáuk-gáuk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C" title="Пакарь – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Пакарь" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D1%81" title="Яс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Яс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B8" title="အရိုး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အရိုး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah mw-list-item"><a href="https://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omitl" title="Omitl – Nahuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah" data-title="Omitl" data-language-autonym="Nāhuatl" data-language-local-name="Nahuatl" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nāhuatl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sui" title="Sui – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Sui" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bot_(anatomie)" title="Bot (anatomie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bot (anatomie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8D" title="क्वँय् – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="क्वँय्" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AA%A8" title="骨 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="骨" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knokkel" title="Knokkel – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Knokkel" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%92s" title="Òs – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Òs" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%83" title="Лу – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Лу" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B9%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A1%E0%AC%BC" title="ହାଡ଼ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ହାଡ଼" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lafee" title="Lafee – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Lafee" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suyak" title="Suyak – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Suyak" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B9%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%A1%E0%A9%80" title="ਹੱਡੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਹੱਡੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokel" title="Pokel – Pangasinan" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Pokel" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="Pangasinan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangasinan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%DA%88%DB%8C" title="ہڈی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ہڈی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%DA%89%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="هډوکی – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هډوکی" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko%C5%9B%C4%87" title="Kość – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kość" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osso" title="Osso – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Osso" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Os_(anatomie)" title="Os (anatomie) – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Os (anatomie)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tullu" title="Tullu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Tullu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Кость – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кость" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF" title="अस्थि – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="अस्थि" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9D_(%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%A3)" title="ᱡᱟᱝ (ᱡᱤᱣ) – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱡᱟᱝ (ᱡᱤᱣ)" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bane" title="Bane – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Bane" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tn mw-list-item"><a href="https://tn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lerapo" title="Lerapo – Tswana" lang="tn" hreflang="tn" data-title="Lerapo" data-language-autonym="Setswana" data-language-local-name="Tswana" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Setswana</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kocka" title="Kocka – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kocka" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossu_(struttura_r%C3%ACggida)" title="Ossu (struttura rìggida) – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ossu (struttura rìggida)" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone" title="Bone – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Bone" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%DA%8F%D9%88" title="ھڏو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ھڏو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kos%C5%A5" title="Kosť – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kosť" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kost" title="Kost – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kost" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laf" title="Laf – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Laf" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%8E%D8%B3%DA%A9" title="ئێسک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئێسک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82" title="Кост – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кост" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kost" title="Kost – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kost" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang" title="Tulang – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Tulang" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luu" title="Luu – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Luu" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_(skelett)" title="Ben (skelett) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ben (skelett)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buto_(anatomiya)" title="Buto (anatomiya) – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Buto (anatomiya)" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="எலும்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="எலும்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C9%A3ss" title="Iɣss – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Iɣss" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C9%A3ess" title="Iɣess – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Iɣess" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%95" title="ఎముక – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఎముక" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%81" title="กระดูก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กระดูก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Устухон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Устухон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemik" title="Kemik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kemik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kungkup" title="Kungkup – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Kungkup" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Кістка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кістка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%81%DA%88%DB%8C" title="ہڈی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ہڈی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndok" title="Ndok – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Ndok" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Xương – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Xương" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bom" title="Bom – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Bom" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxhea" title="Oxhea – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Oxhea" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AA%A8" title="骨 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="骨" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukog" title="Bukog – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Bukog" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AA%A8%E9%AA%BC" title="骨骼 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="骨骼" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9F" title="ביין – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="ביין" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egungun" title="Egungun – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Egungun" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AA%A8" title="骨 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="骨" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Este" title="Este – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Este" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AA%A8%E9%AA%BC" title="骨骼 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="骨骼" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulang" title="Tulang – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Tulang" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holi-holi" title="Holi-holi – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Holi-holi" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuhlan" title="Tuhlan – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Tuhlan" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kumoring</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q265868#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span>For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bone_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Bone (disambiguation)">Bone (disambiguation)</a>.</span> <span>"Bones" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Bones_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Bones (disambiguation)">Bones (disambiguation)</a>.</span></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Bone</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Left_femur_of_extinct_elephant,_Alaska,_Ice_Age_Wellcome_L0057714.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Left_femur_of_extinct_elephant%2C_Alaska%2C_Ice_Age_Wellcome_L0057714.jpg/250px-Left_femur_of_extinct_elephant%2C_Alaska%2C_Ice_Age_Wellcome_L0057714.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Left_femur_of_extinct_elephant%2C_Alaska%2C_Ice_Age_Wellcome_L0057714.jpg/375px-Left_femur_of_extinct_elephant%2C_Alaska%2C_Ice_Age_Wellcome_L0057714.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Left_femur_of_extinct_elephant%2C_Alaska%2C_Ice_Age_Wellcome_L0057714.jpg/500px-Left_femur_of_extinct_elephant%2C_Alaska%2C_Ice_Age_Wellcome_L0057714.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A bone dating from the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">Pleistocene Ice Age</a> of an extinct species of elephant</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_bone_-_wistar_rat_-_x10k.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_bone_-_wistar_rat_-_x10k.tif/lossy-page1-250px-Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_bone_-_wistar_rat_-_x10k.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_bone_-_wistar_rat_-_x10k.tif/lossy-page1-375px-Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_bone_-_wistar_rat_-_x10k.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_bone_-_wistar_rat_-_x10k.tif/lossy-page1-500px-Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_bone_-_wistar_rat_-_x10k.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">A <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning electronic micrograph</a> of bone at 10,000× magnification</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001842">D001842</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA98</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/Entity%20TA98%20EN/02.0.00.000%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm">A02.0.00.000</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">TA2</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=366">366</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ta2viewer.openanatomy.org/?id=377">377</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Histologica" title="Terminologia Histologica">TH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ifaa.unifr.ch/Public/EntryPage/PDF/TH%20Chapter%20H3.01.pdf">H3.01.00.0.00001 </a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma5018">5018</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q265868" class="extiw" title="d:Q265868">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>bone</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Stiffness" title="Stiffness">rigid</a> <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organ</a><sup id="cite_ref-BoneOrgan_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BoneOrgan-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that constitutes part of the <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeleton</a> in most <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a>, store <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a>, provide structure and support for the body, and enable <a href="/wiki/Animal_locomotion" title="Animal locomotion">mobility</a>. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have complex internal and external structures.<sup id="cite_ref-de_Buffrénil_2021_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de_Buffrénil_2021-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are lightweight yet strong and hard and serve multiple <a href="/wiki/Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">functions</a>. </p><p><b>Bone tissue</b> (osseous tissue), which is also called <b>bone</b> in the <a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">uncountable</a> sense of that word, is <a href="/wiki/Hard_tissue" title="Hard tissue">hard tissue</a>, a type of specialised <a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a>. It has a <a href="/wiki/Honeycomb" title="Honeycomb">honeycomb</a>-like <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(biology)" title="Matrix (biology)">matrix</a> internally, which helps to give the bone rigidity. Bone tissue is made up of different types of <a href="/wiki/Bone_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone cell">bone cells</a>. <a href="/wiki/Osteoblast" title="Osteoblast">Osteoblasts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osteocyte" title="Osteocyte">osteocytes</a> are involved in the formation and <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralization (biology)">mineralisation</a> of bone; <a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclasts</a> are involved in the <a href="/wiki/Bone_resorption" title="Bone resorption">resorption</a> of bone tissue. Modified (flattened) osteoblasts become the lining cells that form a protective layer on the bone surface. The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component of mainly <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> called <i><a href="/wiki/Ossein" title="Ossein">ossein</a></i> and an inorganic component of <a href="/wiki/Bone_mineral" title="Bone mineral">bone mineral</a> made up of various salts. Bone tissue is <a href="/wiki/Mineralized_tissues" title="Mineralized tissues">mineralized tissue</a> of two types, <a href="#Structure">cortical bone and cancellous bone</a>. Other types of tissue found in bones include <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Endosteum" title="Endosteum">endosteum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Periosteum" title="Periosteum">periosteum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a>. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">human body</a> at birth, approximately 300 bones are present. Many of these fuse together during development, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult, not counting numerous small <a href="/wiki/Sesamoid_bone" title="Sesamoid bone">sesamoid bones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest bone in the body is the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a> or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the <i><a href="/wiki/Stapes" title="Stapes">stapes</a></i> in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_ear" title="Middle ear">middle ear</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> word for bone is ὀστέον ("<i>osteon</i>"), hence the many terms that use it as a prefix—such as <a href="/wiki/Osteopathy" title="Osteopathy">osteopathy</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">anatomical terminology</a>, including the <i><a href="/wiki/Terminologia_Anatomica" title="Terminologia Anatomica">Terminologia Anatomica</a></i> international standard, the word for a bone is <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/os#Noun" class="extiw" title="wikt:os">os</a></i> (for example, <i><a href="/wiki/Short_bone" title="Short bone">os breve</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Long_bone" title="Long bone">os longum</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sesamoid_bone" title="Sesamoid bone">os sesamoideum</a></i>). </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bone is not uniformly solid, but consists of a flexible <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(biology)" title="Matrix (biology)">matrix</a> (about 30%) and bound minerals (about 70%), which are intricately woven and continuously remodeled by a group of specialized bone cells. Their unique composition and design allows bones to be relatively <a href="/wiki/Rockwell_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Rockwell scale">hard</a> and strong, while remaining lightweight. </p><p>Bone matrix is 90 to 95% composed of elastic <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> fibers, also known as ossein,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the remainder is <a href="/wiki/Ground_substance" title="Ground substance">ground substance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The elasticity of <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> improves fracture resistance.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt-Nielsen_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt-Nielsen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The matrix is hardened by the binding of inorganic mineral salt, <a href="/wiki/Calcium_phosphate" title="Calcium phosphate">calcium phosphate</a>, in a chemical arrangement known as <a href="/wiki/Bone_mineral" title="Bone mineral">bone mineral</a>, a form of calcium <a href="/wiki/Apatite" title="Apatite">apatite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the mineralization that gives bones rigidity. </p><p>Bone is actively constructed and remodeled throughout life by specialized bone cells known as osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Within any single bone, the tissue is woven into two main patterns: cortical and cancellous bone, each with a distinct appearance and characteristics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cortex">Cortex</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Cortex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg/220px-Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg/330px-Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg/440px-Illu_compact_spongy_bone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Cross-section details of a long bone</figcaption></figure> <p>The hard outer layer of bones is composed of <b>cortical bone</b>, which is also called <b>compact bone</b> as it is much denser than cancellous bone. It forms the hard exterior (cortex) of bones. The cortical bone gives bone its smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult <a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">human skeleton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It facilitates bone's main functions—to support the whole body, to protect organs, to provide <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">levers</a> for movement, and to store and release chemical elements, mainly calcium. It consists of multiple microscopic columns, each called an <a href="/wiki/Osteon" title="Osteon">osteon</a> or Haversian system. Each column is multiple layers of <a href="/wiki/Osteoblast" title="Osteoblast">osteoblasts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osteocyte" title="Osteocyte">osteocytes</a> around a central canal called the <a href="/wiki/Haversian_canal" title="Haversian canal">osteonic canal</a>. <a href="/wiki/Volkmann%27s_canal" title="Volkmann's canal">Volkmann's canals</a> at right angles connect the osteons together. The columns are metabolically active, and as bone is reabsorbed and created the nature and location of the cells within the osteon will change. Cortical bone is covered by a <a href="/wiki/Periosteum" title="Periosteum">periosteum</a> on its outer surface, and an <a href="/wiki/Endosteum" title="Endosteum">endosteum</a> on its inner surface. The endosteum is the boundary between the cortical bone and the cancellous bone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006192_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006192-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The primary anatomical and functional unit of cortical bone is the <a href="/wiki/Osteon" title="Osteon">osteon</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trabeculae">Trabeculae <span class="anchor" id="Cancellous_bone"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Trabeculae"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Trabecula#Bone_trabecula" title="Trabecula">Trabecula § Bone trabecula</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spongy_bone_-_trabecules.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Spongy_bone_-_trabecules.jpg/220px-Spongy_bone_-_trabecules.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Spongy_bone_-_trabecules.jpg/330px-Spongy_bone_-_trabecules.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Spongy_bone_-_trabecules.jpg/440px-Spongy_bone_-_trabecules.jpg 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="545" /></a><figcaption>Micrograph of cancellous bone</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Cancellous bone</b> or <b>spongy bone</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-SEER_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SEER-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006192_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006192-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also known as <b>trabecular bone</b>, is the internal tissue of the skeletal bone and is an open cell <a href="/wiki/Porosity" title="Porosity">porous</a> network that follows the material properties of <a href="/wiki/Biofoams" class="mw-redirect" title="Biofoams">biofoams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Buss_2022_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buss_2022-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cancellous bone has a higher <a href="/wiki/Surface-area-to-volume_ratio" title="Surface-area-to-volume ratio">surface-area-to-volume ratio</a> than cortical bone and it is less <a href="/wiki/Dense" class="mw-redirect" title="Dense">dense</a>. This makes it weaker and more flexible. The greater surface area also makes it suitable for metabolic activities such as the exchange of calcium ions. Cancellous bone is typically found at the ends of long bones, near joints, and in the interior of vertebrae. Cancellous bone is highly <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">vascular</a> and often contains red <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> where <a href="/wiki/Hematopoiesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hematopoiesis">hematopoiesis</a>, the production of blood cells, occurs. The primary anatomical and functional unit of cancellous bone is the <a href="/wiki/Trabecula" title="Trabecula">trabecula</a>. The trabeculae are aligned towards the mechanical load distribution that a bone experiences within long bones such as the <a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a>. As far as short bones are concerned, trabecular alignment has been studied in the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral">vertebral</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedicle_of_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedicle of vertebral arch">pedicle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thin formations of <a href="/wiki/Osteoblast" title="Osteoblast">osteoblasts</a> covered in endosteum create an irregular network of spaces,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006195_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006195-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> known as trabeculae. Within these spaces are <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell" title="Hematopoietic stem cell">hematopoietic stem cells</a> that give rise to <a href="/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">platelets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006195_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006195-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Trabecular marrow is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and marrow. Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The words <i>cancellous</i> and <i>trabecular</i> refer to the tiny lattice-shaped units (trabeculae) that form the tissue. It was first illustrated accurately in the engravings of <a href="/wiki/Cris%C3%B3stomo_Martinez" title="Crisóstomo Martinez">Crisóstomo Martinez</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marrow">Marrow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Marrow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a>, also known as <a href="/wiki/Myeloid_tissue" title="Myeloid tissue">myeloid tissue</a> in red bone marrow, can be found in almost any bone that holds <a href="/wiki/Cancellous_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancellous tissue">cancellous tissue</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Infant" title="Infant">newborns</a>, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow or <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hematopoietic">hematopoietic</a> marrow, but as the child ages the hematopoietic fraction decreases in quantity and the fatty/ yellow fraction called <a href="/wiki/Marrow_adipose_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Marrow adipose tissue">marrow adipose tissue</a> (MAT) increases in quantity. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the bone marrow of the femur, the ribs, the vertebrae and <a href="/wiki/Pelvic_bones" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelvic bones">pelvic bones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vascular_supply">Vascular supply</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Vascular supply"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bone receives about 10% of cardiac output.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26273504_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26273504-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blood enters the <a href="/wiki/Endosteum" title="Endosteum">endosteum</a>, flows through the marrow, and exits through small vessels in the cortex.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26273504_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26273504-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In humans, <a href="/wiki/Blood_gas_tension#Oxygen_tension" title="Blood gas tension">blood oxygen tension</a> in bone marrow is about 6.6%, compared to about 12% in arterial blood, and 5% in venous and capillary blood.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26273504_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26273504-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cells">Cells</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Cells"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:604_Bone_cells.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/604_Bone_cells.jpg/220px-604_Bone_cells.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/604_Bone_cells.jpg/330px-604_Bone_cells.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/604_Bone_cells.jpg/440px-604_Bone_cells.jpg 2x" data-file-width="807" data-file-height="567" /></a><figcaption>Bone cells</figcaption></figure> <p>Bone is metabolically active tissue composed of several types of cells. These cells include <a href="/wiki/Osteoblast" title="Osteoblast">osteoblasts</a>, which are involved in the creation and <a href="/wiki/Mineralized_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralized tissue">mineralization</a> of bone tissue, <a href="/wiki/Osteocyte" title="Osteocyte">osteocytes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclasts</a>, which are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are derived from <a href="/wiki/Osteoprogenitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Osteoprogenitor">osteoprogenitor</a> cells, but <a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclasts</a> are derived from the same cells that differentiate to form <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monocyte" title="Monocyte">monocytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006189_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006189-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the marrow of the bone there are also <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell" title="Hematopoietic stem cell">hematopoietic stem cells</a>. These cells give rise to other cells, including <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">platelets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung200658_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200658-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Osteoblast">Osteoblast</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Osteoblast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Active_osteoblasts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Active_osteoblasts.jpg/220px-Active_osteoblasts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Active_osteoblasts.jpg/330px-Active_osteoblasts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Active_osteoblasts.jpg/440px-Active_osteoblasts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">Light micrograph</a> of <a href="/wiki/Bone_decalcification" title="Bone decalcification">decalcified</a> cancellous bone tissue displaying osteoblasts actively synthesizing osteoid, containing two osteocytes.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Osteoblast" title="Osteoblast">Osteoblasts</a> are mononucleate bone-forming cells. They are located on the surface of osteon seams and make a <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> mixture known as <a href="/wiki/Osteoid" title="Osteoid">osteoid</a>, which mineralizes to become bone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006189–190_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006189–190-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The osteoid seam is a narrow region of a newly formed organic matrix, not yet mineralized, located on the surface of a bone. Osteoid is primarily composed of Type I <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>. Osteoblasts also manufacture <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">hormones</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandins</a>, to act on the bone itself. The osteoblast creates and repairs new bone by actually building around itself. First, the osteoblast puts up collagen fibers. These collagen fibers are used as a framework for the osteoblasts' work. The osteoblast then deposits calcium phosphate which is hardened by <a href="/wiki/Hydroxide" title="Hydroxide">hydroxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a> ions. The brand-new bone created by the osteoblast is called <a href="/wiki/Osteoid" title="Osteoid">osteoid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the osteoblast is finished working it is actually trapped inside the bone once it hardens. When the osteoblast becomes trapped, it becomes known as an osteocyte. Other osteoblasts remain on the top of the new bone and are used to protect the underlying bone, these become known as bone lining cells.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Osteocyte">Osteocyte</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Osteocyte"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Osteocyte" title="Osteocyte">Osteocytes</a> are cells of mesenchymal origin and originate from osteoblasts that have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by a bone matrix that they themselves produced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006192_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006192-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spaces the cell body of osteocytes occupy within the mineralized collagen type I matrix are known as <a href="/wiki/Lacuna_(histology)" title="Lacuna (histology)">lacunae</a>, while the osteocyte cell processes occupy channels called canaliculi. The many processes of osteocytes reach out to meet osteoblasts, osteoclasts, bone lining cells, and other osteocytes probably for the purposes of communication.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osteocytes remain in contact with other osteocytes in the bone through gap junctions—coupled cell processes which pass through the canalicular channels. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Osteoclast">Osteoclast</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Osteoclast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">Osteoclasts</a> are very large <a href="/wiki/Multinucleate" title="Multinucleate">multinucleate</a> cells that are responsible for the breakdown of bones by the process of <a href="/wiki/Bone_resorption" title="Bone resorption">bone resorption</a>. New bone is then formed by the osteoblasts. Bone is constantly <a href="/wiki/Bone_remodeling" title="Bone remodeling">remodeled</a> by the resorption of osteoclasts and created by osteoblasts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006189_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006189-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osteoclasts are large cells with multiple <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a> located on bone surfaces in what are called <i>Howship's lacunae</i> (or <i>resorption pits</i>). These lacunae are the result of surrounding bone tissue that has been reabsorbed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006190_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006190-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the osteoclasts are derived from a <a href="/wiki/Monocyte" title="Monocyte">monocyte</a> <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem-cell</a> lineage, they are equipped with <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytic</a>-like mechanisms similar to circulating <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006189_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006189-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon arrival, active enzymes, such as <a href="/wiki/Tartrate-resistant_acid_phosphatase" title="Tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase">tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase</a>, are <a href="/wiki/Secretion" title="Secretion">secreted</a> against the mineral substrate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts also plays a role in <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung2006190_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung2006190-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition">Composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">Extracellular matrix</a></div> <p>Bones consist of living cells (osteoblasts and osteocytes) embedded in a mineralized organic matrix. The primary inorganic component of human bone is <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyapatite" title="Hydroxyapatite">hydroxyapatite</a>, the dominant <a href="/wiki/Bone_mineral" title="Bone mineral">bone mineral</a>, having the nominal composition of Ca<sub>10</sub>(PO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>6</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organic components of this matrix consist mainly of <a href="/wiki/Collagen#Types" title="Collagen">type I collagen</a>—"organic" referring to materials produced as a result of the human body—and inorganic components, which alongside the dominant <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyapatite" title="Hydroxyapatite">hydroxyapatite</a> phase, include other compounds of <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> including salts. Approximately 30% of the acellular component of bone consists of organic matter, while roughly 70% by mass is attributed to the inorganic phase.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall2005981_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2005981-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a> fibers give bone its <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_tensile_strength" title="Ultimate tensile strength">tensile strength</a>, and the interspersed crystals of <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyapatite" title="Hydroxyapatite">hydroxyapatite</a> give bone its <a href="/wiki/Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a>. These effects are <a href="/wiki/Synergy" title="Synergy">synergistic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall2005981_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2005981-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The exact composition of the matrix may be subject to change over time due to nutrition and <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">biomineralization</a>, with the ratio of <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> to <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> varying between 1.3 and 2.0 (per weight), and trace minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a> also be found.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall2005981_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2005981-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Woven_vs._lamellar_bone"></span> Type I collagen composes 90–95% of the organic matrix, with the remainder of the matrix being a homogenous liquid called <a href="/wiki/Ground_substance" title="Ground substance">ground substance</a> consisting of <a href="/wiki/Proteoglycan" title="Proteoglycan">proteoglycans</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Hyaluronic_acid" title="Hyaluronic acid">hyaluronic acid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chondroitin_sulfate" title="Chondroitin sulfate">chondroitin sulfate</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall2005981_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2005981-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as non-collagenous proteins such as <a href="/wiki/Osteocalcin" title="Osteocalcin">osteocalcin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osteopontin" title="Osteopontin">osteopontin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bone_sialoprotein" title="Bone sialoprotein">bone sialoprotein</a>. Collagen consists of strands of repeating units, which give bone tensile strength, and are arranged in an overlapping fashion that prevents shear stress. The function of ground substance is not fully known.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall2005981_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2005981-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two types of bone can be identified microscopically according to the arrangement of collagen: woven and lamellar. </p> <ul><li>Woven bone (also known as <i>fibrous bone</i>), which is characterized by a haphazard organization of collagen fibers and is mechanically weak.<sup id="cite_ref-Curry2006_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curry2006-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Lamellar bone, which has a regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets ("lamellae") and is mechanically strong.<sup id="cite_ref-Buss_2022_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buss_2022-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Curry2006_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Curry2006-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woven_bone_matrix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Woven_bone_matrix.jpg/220px-Woven_bone_matrix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Woven_bone_matrix.jpg/330px-Woven_bone_matrix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Woven_bone_matrix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="293" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopy" title="Transmission electron microscopy">Transmission</a> <a href="/wiki/Electron_micrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron micrograph">electron micrograph</a> of decalcified woven bone matrix displaying characteristic irregular orientation of collagen fibers</figcaption></figure> <p>Woven bone is produced when osteoblasts produce osteoid rapidly, which occurs initially in all <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetal</a> bones, but is later replaced by more resilient lamellar bone. In adults, woven bone is created after <a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">fractures</a> or in <a href="/wiki/Paget%27s_disease_of_bone" title="Paget's disease of bone">Paget's disease</a>. Woven bone is weaker, with a smaller number of randomly oriented collagen fibers, but forms quickly; it is for this appearance of the fibrous matrix that the bone is termed <i>woven</i>. It is soon replaced by lamellar bone, which is highly organized in <a href="/wiki/Concentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Concentric">concentric</a> sheets with a much lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissue. Lamellar bone, which makes its first appearance in humans in the <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a> during the third trimester,<sup id="cite_ref-Salentijn_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salentijn-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the same layer (these parallel columns are called osteons). In <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(geometry)" title="Cross section (geometry)">cross-section</a>, the fibers run in opposite directions in alternating layers, much like in <a href="/wiki/Plywood" title="Plywood">plywood</a>, assisting in the bone's ability to resist <a href="/wiki/Torsion_(mechanics)" title="Torsion (mechanics)">torsion</a> forces. After a fracture, woven bone forms initially and is gradually replaced by lamellar bone during a process known as "bony substitution". Compared to woven bone, lamellar bone formation takes place more slowly. The orderly deposition of collagen fibers restricts the formation of osteoid to about 1 to 2 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a> per day. Lamellar bone also requires a relatively flat surface to lay the collagen fibers in parallel or concentric layers.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deposition">Deposition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Deposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The extracellular matrix of bone is laid down by <a href="/wiki/Osteoblast" title="Osteoblast">osteoblasts</a>, which secrete both collagen and ground substance. These cells synthesise collagen alpha polypetpide chains and then secrete collagen molecules. The collagen molecules associate with their neighbors and crosslink via lysyl oxidase to form collagen fibrils. At this stage, they are not yet mineralized, and this zone of unmineralized collagen fibrils is called "osteoid". Around and inside collagen fibrils calcium and phosphate eventually <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitate</a> within days to weeks becoming then fully mineralized bone with an overall carbonate substituted hydroxyapatite inorganic phase.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHall2005981_29-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2005981-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In order to mineralise the bone, the osteoblasts secrete alkaline phosphatase, some of which is carried by <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology_and_chemistry)" title="Vesicle (biology and chemistry)">vesicles</a>. This cleaves the inhibitory pyrophosphate and simultaneously generates free phosphate ions for mineralization, acting as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition. Vesicles may initiate some of the early mineralization events by rupturing and acting as a centre for crystals to grow on. Bone mineral may be formed from globular and plate structures, and via initially amorphous phases.<sup id="cite_ref-r1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:603_Anatomy_of_Long_Bone.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/603_Anatomy_of_Long_Bone.jpg/220px-603_Anatomy_of_Long_Bone.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/603_Anatomy_of_Long_Bone.jpg/330px-603_Anatomy_of_Long_Bone.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/603_Anatomy_of_Long_Bone.jpg/440px-603_Anatomy_of_Long_Bone.jpg 2x" data-file-width="708" data-file-height="1156" /></a><figcaption>Structure of a long bone</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0229_ClassificationofBones.png" class="mw-file-description" title="One way to classify bones is by their shape or appearance."><img alt="One way to classify bones is by their shape or appearance." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Blausen_0229_ClassificationofBones.png/300px-Blausen_0229_ClassificationofBones.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Blausen_0229_ClassificationofBones.png/450px-Blausen_0229_ClassificationofBones.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Blausen_0229_ClassificationofBones.png/600px-Blausen_0229_ClassificationofBones.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption>One way to classify bones is by their shape or appearance.</figcaption></figure> <p>Five types of bones are found in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Skeletal_system.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Skeletal_system.svg/220px-Skeletal_system.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="701" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Skeletal_system.svg/330px-Skeletal_system.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Skeletal_system.svg/440px-Skeletal_system.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1036" data-file-height="3300" /></a><figcaption>Skeletal System of Human Body</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Long_bone" title="Long bone">Long bones</a> are characterized by a shaft, the <a href="/wiki/Diaphysis" title="Diaphysis">diaphysis</a>, that is much longer than its width; and by an <a href="/wiki/Epiphysis" title="Epiphysis">epiphysis</a>, a rounded head at each end of the shaft. They are made up mostly of <a href="/wiki/Cortical_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical bone">compact bone</a>, with lesser amounts of <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">marrow</a>, located within the <a href="/wiki/Medullary_cavity" title="Medullary cavity">medullary cavity</a>, and areas of spongy, cancellous bone at the ends of the bones.<sup id="cite_ref-TLP_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TLP-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most bones of the <a href="/wiki/Limb_(anatomy)" title="Limb (anatomy)">limbs</a>, including those of the <a href="/wiki/Metacarpus" class="mw-redirect" title="Metacarpus">fingers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metatarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Metatarsus">toes</a>, are long bones. The exceptions are the eight <a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">carpal bones</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Wrist" title="Wrist">wrist</a>, the seven articulating <a href="/wiki/Tarsal_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarsal bone">tarsal bones</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">ankle</a> and the sesamoid bone of the <a href="/wiki/Kneecap" class="mw-redirect" title="Kneecap">kneecap</a>. Long bones such as the clavicle, that have a differently shaped shaft or ends are also called <i>modified long bones</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_bone" title="Short bone">Short bones</a> are roughly <a href="/wiki/Cube" title="Cube">cube</a>-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. Short bones provide stability and support as well as some limited motion.<sup id="cite_ref-Openstax_Anatomy_&_Physiology_attribution_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Openstax_Anatomy_&_Physiology_attribution-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_bone" title="Flat bone">Flat bones</a> are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> are flat bones, as is the <a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">sternum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesamoid_bone" title="Sesamoid bone">Sesamoid bones</a> are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the <a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">patella</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pisiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Pisiform">pisiform</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_bone" title="Irregular bone">Irregular bones</a> do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. Often this irregular shape is due to their many centers of ossification or because they contain bony sinuses. The bones of the <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">spine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvis</a>, and some bones of the skull are irregular bones. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Ethmoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethmoid">ethmoid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sphenoid_bone" title="Sphenoid bone">sphenoid</a> bones.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_bone" title="Anatomical terms of bone">Anatomical terms of bone</a></div> <p>In the study of <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, anatomists use a number of <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">anatomical terms</a> to describe the appearance, shape and function of bones. Other anatomical terms are also used to describe the <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location" title="Anatomical terms of location">location of bones</a>. Like other anatomical terms, many of these derive from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. Some anatomists still use Latin to refer to bones. The term "osseous", and the prefix "osteo-", referring to things related to bone, are still used commonly today. </p><p>Some examples of terms used to describe bones include the term "foramen" to describe a hole through which something passes, and a "canal" or "meatus" to describe a tunnel-like structure. A protrusion from a bone can be called a number of terms, including a "condyle", "crest", "spine", "eminence", "tubercle" or "tuberosity", depending on the protrusion's shape and location. In general, <a href="/wiki/Long_bone" title="Long bone">long bones</a> are said to have a "head", "neck", and "body". </p><p>When two bones join, they are said to "articulate". If the two bones have a fibrous connection and are relatively immobile, then the joint is called a "suture". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bone_growth.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bone_growth.png/300px-Bone_growth.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Bone_growth.png/450px-Bone_growth.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Bone_growth.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption>Endochondral ossification</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bone_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Bone_%281%29.jpg/220px-Bone_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Bone_%281%29.jpg/330px-Bone_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Bone_%281%29.jpg/440px-Bone_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3164" data-file-height="2151" /></a><figcaption>Light micrograph of a section through a juvenile knee joint (rat) showing the cartilagineous growth plates</figcaption></figure> <p>The formation of bone is called <a href="/wiki/Ossification" title="Ossification">ossification</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Prenatal_development" title="Prenatal development">fetal stage of development</a> this occurs by two processes: <a href="/wiki/Intramembranous_ossification" title="Intramembranous ossification">intramembranous ossification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endochondral_ossification" title="Endochondral ossification">endochondral ossification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Intramembranous ossification involves the formation of bone from <a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissue</a> whereas endochondral ossification involves the formation of bone from <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a>. </p><p><b>Intramembranous ossification</b> mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> but also the mandible, maxilla, and clavicles; the bone is formed from connective tissue such as <a href="/wiki/Mesenchyme" title="Mesenchyme">mesenchyme</a> tissue rather than from cartilage. The process includes: the development of the <a href="/wiki/Ossification_center" title="Ossification center">ossification center</a>, <a href="/wiki/Calcification" title="Calcification">calcification</a>, trabeculae formation and the development of the periosteum.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Endochondral ossification</b> occurs in long bones and most other bones in the body; it involves the development of bone from cartilage. This process includes the development of a cartilage model, its growth and development, development of the primary and secondary <a href="/wiki/Ossification_center" title="Ossification center">ossification centers</a>, and the formation of articular cartilage and the <a href="/wiki/Epiphyseal_plate" title="Epiphyseal plate">epiphyseal plates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers". They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after <a href="/wiki/Birth" title="Birth">birth</a>. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after birth and forms the <a href="/wiki/Epiphysis" title="Epiphysis">epiphyses</a> of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the <a href="/wiki/Epiphyseal_plate" title="Epiphyseal plate">epiphyseal plate</a>). At skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the upper limbs, only the diaphyses of the long bones and scapula are ossified. The epiphyses, carpal bones, coracoid process, medial border of the scapula, and acromion are still cartilaginous.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following steps are followed in the conversion of cartilage to bone: </p> <ol><li>Zone of reserve cartilage. This region, farthest from the marrow cavity, consists of typical hyaline cartilage that as yet shows no sign of transforming into bone.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_2012_217_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin_2012_217-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Zone of cell proliferation. A little closer to the marrow cavity, chondrocytes multiply and arrange themselves into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_2012_217_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin_2012_217-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Zone of cell hypertrophy. Next, the chondrocytes cease to divide and begin to hypertrophy (enlarge), much like they do in the primary ossification center of the fetus. The walls of the matrix between lacunae become very thin.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_2012_217_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin_2012_217-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Zone of calcification. Minerals are deposited in the matrix between the columns of lacunae and calcify the cartilage. These are not the permanent mineral deposits of bone, but only a temporary support for the cartilage that would otherwise soon be weakened by the breakdown of the enlarged lacunae.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_2012_217_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin_2012_217-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Zone of bone deposition. Within each column, the walls between the lacunae break down and the chondrocytes die. This converts each column into a longitudinal channel, which is immediately invaded by blood vessels and marrow from the marrow cavity. Osteoblasts line up along the walls of these channels and begin depositing concentric lamellae of matrix, while osteoclasts dissolve the temporarily calcified cartilage.<sup id="cite_ref-Saladin_2012_217_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saladin_2012_217-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Bone development in youth is extremely important in preventing future complications of the skeletal system. Regular exercise during childhood and adolescence can help improve bone architecture, making bones more resilient and less prone to fractures in adulthood. Physical activity, specifically resistance training, stimulates growth of bones by increasing both bone density and strength. Studies have shown a positive correlation between the adaptations of resistance training and bone density.<sup id="cite_ref-Layne_1999_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Layne_1999-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While nutritional and pharmacological approaches may also improve bone health, the strength and balance adaptations from resistance training are a substantial added benefit.<sup id="cite_ref-Layne_1999_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Layne_1999-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Weight-bearing exercise may assist in osteoblast (bone-forming cells) formation and help to increase bone mineral content. High-impact sports, which involve quick changes in direction, jumping, and running, are particularly effective with stimulating bone growth in the youth.<sup id="cite_ref-López-García_2019_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-López-García_2019-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sports such as soccer, basketball, and tennis have shown to have positive effects on bone mineral density as well as bone mineral content in teenagers.<sup id="cite_ref-López-García_2019_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-López-García_2019-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Engaging in physical activity during childhood years, particularly in these high-impact osteogenic sports, can help to positively influence bone mineral density in adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Langendonck_2003_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Langendonck_2003-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children and adolescents who participate in regular physical activity will place the groundwork for bone health later in life, reducing the risk of bone-related conditions such as osteoporosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Langendonck_2003_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Langendonck_2003-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Functions">Functions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Functions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable floatright"> <tbody><tr> <th>Functions of bone </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Mechanical</b> <ul><li>Protection</li> <li>Gives structure</li> <li>Facilitates movement</li> <li>Facilitates <a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">hearing</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Synthetic</b> <ul><li>Contains <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Metabolic</b> <ul><li>Stores <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a></li> <li>Helps regulate the <a href="/wiki/Acid-base_balance" class="mw-redirect" title="Acid-base balance">acid-base balance</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Bones have a variety of functions: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical">Mechanical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mechanical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">Skeleton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Human skeleton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_bones_of_the_human_skeleton" title="List of bones of the human skeleton">List of bones of the human skeleton</a></div> <p>Bones serve a variety of mechanical functions. Together the bones in the body form the <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeleton</a>. They provide a frame to keep the body supported, and an attachment point for <a href="/wiki/Skeletal_muscle" title="Skeletal muscle">skeletal muscles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">tendons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ligament" title="Ligament">ligaments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">joints</a>, which function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space (the interaction between bone and muscle is studied in <a href="/wiki/Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">biomechanics</a>). </p><p>Bones protect internal organs, such as the <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">skull</a> protecting the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribs">ribs</a> protecting the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lungs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lungs">lungs</a>. Because of the way that bone is formed, bone has a high <a href="/wiki/Compressive_strength" title="Compressive strength">compressive strength</a> of about 170 <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">MPa</a> (1,700 <a href="/wiki/Kilogram-force" title="Kilogram-force">kgf/cm<sup>2</sup></a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt-Nielsen_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt-Nielsen-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> poor <a href="/wiki/Tensile_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile strength">tensile strength</a> of 104–121 MPa, and a very low <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stress</a> strength (51.6 MPa).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that bone resists pushing (compressional) stress well, resist pulling (tensional) stress less well, but only poorly resists shear stress (such as due to torsional loads). While bone is essentially <a href="/wiki/Brittleness" title="Brittleness">brittle</a>, bone does have a significant degree of <a href="/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)" title="Elasticity (physics)">elasticity</a>, contributed chiefly by <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>. </p><p>Mechanically, bones also have a special role in <a href="/wiki/Hearing_(sense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hearing (sense)">hearing</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">ossicles</a> are three small bones in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_ear" title="Middle ear">middle ear</a> which are involved in sound transduction. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthetic">Synthetic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Synthetic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The cancellous part of bones contain <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>. Bone marrow produces blood cells in a process called <a href="/wiki/Hematopoiesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hematopoiesis">hematopoiesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blood cells that are created in bone marrow include <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">platelets</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung200660–61_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200660–61-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Progenitor cells such as the <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell" title="Hematopoietic stem cell">hematopoietic stem cell</a> divide in a process called <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> to produce precursor cells. These include precursors which eventually give rise to <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="White blood cells">white blood cells</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Erythroblast" class="mw-redirect" title="Erythroblast">erythroblasts</a> which give rise to red blood cells.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung200660_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200660-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike red and white blood cells, created by mitosis, platelets are shed from very large cells called <a href="/wiki/Megakaryocyte" title="Megakaryocyte">megakaryocytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung200657_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200657-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process of progressive differentiation occurs within the bone marrow. After the cells are matured, they enter the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung200646_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200646-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every day, over 2.5 billion red blood cells and platelets, and 50–100 billion <a href="/wiki/Granulocyte" title="Granulocyte">granulocytes</a> are produced in this way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung200658_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200658-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As well as creating cells, bone marrow is also one of the major sites where defective or aged red blood cells are destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYoung200658_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200658-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metabolic">Metabolic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Metabolic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Mineral storage – bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most notably <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Determined by the species, age, and the type of bone, bone cells make up to 15 percent of the bone. <a href="/wiki/Growth_factor" title="Growth factor">Growth factor</a> storage—mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors such as <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>-like growth factors, transforming growth factor, <a href="/wiki/Bone_morphogenetic_protein" title="Bone morphogenetic protein">bone morphogenetic proteins</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fat</a> storage – <a href="/wiki/Marrow_adipose_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Marrow adipose tissue">marrow adipose tissue</a> (MAT) acts as a storage reserve of <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">Acid</a>-<a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">base</a> balance – bone buffers the blood against excessive <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> changes by absorbing or releasing <a href="/wiki/Alkali_salt" title="Alkali salt">alkaline salts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Detoxification – bone tissues can also store <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">heavy metals</a> and other foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues. These can later be gradually released for <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">excretion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine</a> organ – bone controls <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> metabolism by releasing <a href="/wiki/Fibroblast_growth_factor_23" title="Fibroblast growth factor 23">fibroblast growth factor 23</a> (FGF-23), which acts on <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidneys</a> to reduce phosphate <a href="/wiki/Reabsorption" title="Reabsorption">reabsorption</a>. Bone cells also release a hormone called <a href="/wiki/Osteocalcin" title="Osteocalcin">osteocalcin</a>, which contributes to the regulation of <a href="/wiki/Blood_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood sugar">blood sugar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Adipose_tissue" title="Adipose tissue">fat deposition</a>. Osteocalcin increases both the <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of <a href="/wiki/Beta_cell" title="Beta cell">insulin-producing cells</a> and reducing stores of fat.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Calcium balance – the process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. As bone formation actively <i>fixes</i> circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream, resorption actively <i>unfixes</i> it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Calcium">Calcium</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Calcium"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Strong bones during our youth is essential for preventing osteoporosis and bone fragility as we age. The importance of insuring factors that could influence increases in BMD while lowering our risks for further bone degradation is necessary during our childhood as these factors lead to a supportive and healthy lifestyle/bone health. Up till the age of 30, the bone stores that we have will ultimately start to decrease as we surpass this age. Influencing factors that can help us have larger stores and higher amounts of BMD will allow us to see less harmful results as we reach older adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon_2000_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon_2000-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The issue of having fragile bones during our childhood leads to an increase in certain disorders and conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Juvenile_osteoporosis" title="Juvenile osteoporosis">juvenile osteoporosis</a>, though it is less common to see, the necessity for a healthy routine especially when it comes to bone development is essential in our youth.<sup id="cite_ref-Pan_2020_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pan_2020-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children that naturally have lower bone mineral density have a lower quality of life and therefore lead a life that is less fulfilling and uncomfortable. Factors such as increases in Calcium intake has been shown to increase BMD stores. Studies have shown that increasing calcium stores whether that be through supplementation or intake via foods and beverages such as leafy greens and milk have pushed the notion that prepuberty or even early pubertal children will see increases in BMD with the addition of increase Calcium intake.<sup id="cite_ref-Pan_2020_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pan_2020-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another research study goes on to show that long-term calcium intake has been proven to significantly contribute to overall BMD in children without certain conditions or disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This data shows that ensuring adequate calcium intake in children reinforces the structure and rate at which bones will begin to densify. Further detailing how structuring a strong nutritional plan with adequate amounts of Calcium sources can lead to strong bones but also can be a worth-while strategy into preventing further damage or degradation of bone stores as we age. </p><p>The connection between Calcium intake & BMD and its effects on youth as a whole is a very world-wide issue and has been shown to affect different ethnicities in a variety of differing ways. In a recent study,<sup id="cite_ref-Pan_2020_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pan_2020-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there was a strong correlation between calcium intake and BMD across a variety of diverse populations of children and adolescence ultimately coming to the conclusion that fundamentally, achieving optimal bone health is necessary for providing our youth with the ability to undergo hormonal changes as well. They found in a study of over 10,000 children ages 8–19 that in females, African Americans, and the 12-15 adolescent groups that at 2.6-2.8g/kg of body weight, they began to see a decrease in BMD. They elaborate on this by determining that this is strongly influenced by a lower baseline in calcium intake throughout puberty. Genetic factors have also been shown to influence lower acceptance of calcium stores.<sup id="cite_ref-Pan_2020_68-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pan_2020-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ultimately, the window that youth have for accruing and building resilient bones is very minimal. Being able to consistently meet calcium needs while also engaging in weight-bearing exercise is essential for building a strong initial bone foundation at which to build upon. Being able to reach our daily value of 1300 mg for ages 9–18 <sup id="cite_ref-Gordon_2000_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon_2000-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is becoming more and more necessary and as we progress in health, the chance that osteoporosis and other factors such as bone fragility or potential for stunted growth can be greatly reduced through these resources, ultimately leading to a more fulfilling and healthier lifestyle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Remodeling">Remodeling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Remodeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bone_remodeling" title="Bone remodeling">Bone remodeling</a></div> <p>Bone is constantly being created and replaced in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Bone_remodeling" title="Bone remodeling">remodeling</a>. This ongoing turnover of bone is a process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape. This is accomplished through osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Cells are stimulated by a variety of <a href="/wiki/Paracrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine">signals</a>, and together referred to as a remodeling unit. Approximately 10% of the skeletal mass of an adult is remodelled each year.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The purpose of remodeling is to regulate <a href="/wiki/Calcium_homeostasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium homeostasis">calcium homeostasis</a>, repair <a href="/wiki/Microdamage_in_bone" title="Microdamage in bone">microdamaged bones</a> from everyday stress, and to shape the skeleton during growth.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing <a href="/wiki/Exercise" title="Exercise">exercise</a> or bone healing, results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (<a href="/wiki/Wolff%27s_law" title="Wolff's law">Wolff's law</a>). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's <a href="/wiki/Piezoelectricity" title="Piezoelectricity">piezoelectric</a> properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts are controlled by a number of chemical <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> that either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodeling cells, controlling the rate at which bone is made, destroyed, or changed in shape. The cells also use <a href="/wiki/Paracrine_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Paracrine signalling">paracrine signalling</a> to control the activity of each other.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the rate at which osteoclasts resorb bone is inhibited by <a href="/wiki/Calcitonin" title="Calcitonin">calcitonin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osteoprotegerin" title="Osteoprotegerin">osteoprotegerin</a>. Calcitonin is produced by <a href="/wiki/Parafollicular_cell" title="Parafollicular cell">parafollicular cells</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid gland">thyroid gland</a>, and can bind to receptors on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation.<sup id="cite_ref-Boron_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boron-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Osteoblasts can also be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased secretion of <a href="/wiki/Osteoid" title="Osteoid">osteoid</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor" title="Enzyme inhibitor">inhibiting</a> the ability of osteoclasts to break down <a href="/wiki/Osseous_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Osseous tissue">osseous tissue</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Increased secretion of osteoid is stimulated by the secretion of <a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth hormone</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Pituitary" class="mw-redirect" title="Pituitary">pituitary</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid hormone">thyroid hormone</a> and the sex hormones (<a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Androgen" title="Androgen">androgens</a>). These hormones also promote increased secretion of osteoprotegerin.<sup id="cite_ref-Boron_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boron-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osteoblasts can also be induced to secrete a number of <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a> that promote reabsorption of bone by stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor cells. <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" title="Parathyroid hormone">parathyroid hormone</a> and stimulation from osteocytes induce osteoblasts to increase secretion of RANK-<a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">ligand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_6" title="Interleukin 6">interleukin 6</a>, which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase secretion of <a href="/wiki/Macrophage_colony-stimulating_factor" title="Macrophage colony-stimulating factor">macrophage colony-stimulating factor</a> by osteoblasts, which promotes the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts, and decrease secretion of osteoprotegerin.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Volume">Volume</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Volume"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Bone volume is determined by the rates of bone formation and bone resorption. Certain growth factors may work to locally alter bone formation by increasing osteoblast activity. Numerous bone-derived growth factors have been isolated and classified via bone cultures. These factors include insulin-like growth factors I and II, transforming growth factor-beta, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and bone morphogenetic proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-ukpmc.ac.uk_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ukpmc.ac.uk-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence suggests that bone cells produce growth factors for extracellular storage in the bone matrix. The release of these growth factors from the bone matrix could cause the proliferation of osteoblast precursors. Essentially, bone growth factors may act as potential determinants of local bone formation.<sup id="cite_ref-ukpmc.ac.uk_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ukpmc.ac.uk-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cancellous bone volume in postmenopausal osteoporosis may be determined by the relationship between the total bone forming surface and the percent of surface resorption.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid6114324_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid6114324-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bone_disease" title="Bone disease">Bone disease</a></div> <p>A number of diseases can affect bone, including arthritis, fractures, infections, osteoporosis and tumors. Conditions relating to bone can be managed by a variety of doctors, including <a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">rheumatologists</a> for joints, and <a href="/wiki/Orthopedic" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthopedic">orthopedic</a> surgeons, who may conduct surgery to fix broken bones. Other doctors, such as <a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Rehabilitation medicine">rehabilitation specialists</a> may be involved in recovery, <a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">radiologists</a> in interpreting the findings on imaging, and <a href="/wiki/Pathologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathologist">pathologists</a> in investigating the cause of the disease, and <a href="/wiki/Family_doctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Family doctor">family doctors</a> may play a role in preventing complications of bone disease such as osteoporosis. </p><p>When a doctor sees a patient, a history and exam will be taken. Bones are then often imaged, called <a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">radiography</a>. This might include <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">ultrasound</a> <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a>, <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scan</a>, <a href="/wiki/MRI_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI scan">MRI scan</a> and other imaging such as a <a href="/wiki/Bone_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone scan">Bone scan</a>, which may be used to investigate cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101059–1062_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101059–1062-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other tests such as a blood test for autoimmune markers may be taken, or a <a href="/wiki/Synovial_fluid" title="Synovial fluid">synovial fluid</a> aspirate may be taken.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101059–1062_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101059–1062-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fractures">Fractures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Fractures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xraymachine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Xraymachine.JPG/220px-Xraymachine.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Xraymachine.JPG/330px-Xraymachine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Xraymachine.JPG/440px-Xraymachine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2336" data-file-height="3504" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Radiography" title="Radiography">Radiography</a> used to identify possible <a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">bone fractures</a> after a knee injury</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">Bone fracture</a></div> <p>In normal bone, <a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">fractures</a> occur when there is significant force applied or repetitive trauma over a long time. Fractures can also occur when a bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there is a structural problem, such as when the bone remodels excessively (such as <a href="/wiki/Paget%27s_disease_of_bone" title="Paget's disease of bone">Paget's disease</a>) or is the site of the growth of cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101068_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101068-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common fractures include <a href="/wiki/Wrist_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrist fracture">wrist fractures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hip_fracture" title="Hip fracture">hip fractures</a>, associated with <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral fracture">vertebral fractures</a> associated with high-energy trauma and cancer, and fractures of long-bones. Not all fractures are painful.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101068_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101068-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When serious, depending on the fractures type and location, complications may include <a href="/wiki/Flail_chest" title="Flail chest">flail chest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Compartment_syndrome" title="Compartment syndrome">compartment syndromes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fat_embolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Fat embolism">fat embolism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Compound_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound fracture">Compound fractures</a> involve the bone's penetration through the skin. Some complex fractures can be treated by the use of <a href="/wiki/Bone_grafting" title="Bone grafting">bone grafting</a> procedures that replace missing bone portions. </p><p>Fractures and their underlying causes can be investigated by <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/CT_scans" class="mw-redirect" title="CT scans">CT scans</a> and <a href="/wiki/MRI" class="mw-redirect" title="MRI">MRIs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101068_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101068-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fractures are described by their location and shape, and several classification systems exist, depending on the location of the fracture. A common long bone fracture in children is a <a href="/wiki/Salter%E2%80%93Harris_fracture" title="Salter–Harris fracture">Salter–Harris fracture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When fractures are managed, pain relief is often given, and the fractured area is often immobilised. This is to promote <a href="/wiki/Bone_healing" title="Bone healing">bone healing</a>. In addition, surgical measures such as <a href="/wiki/Internal_fixation" title="Internal fixation">internal fixation</a> may be used. Because of the immobilisation, people with fractures are often advised to undergo <a href="/wiki/Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">rehabilitation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101068_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101068-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tumors">Tumors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Tumors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bone_tumor" title="Bone tumor">Bone tumor</a></div> <p>Tumor that can affect bone in several ways. Examples of benign <a href="/wiki/Bone_tumor" title="Bone tumor">bone tumors</a> include <a href="/wiki/Osteoma" title="Osteoma">osteoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osteoid_osteoma" title="Osteoid osteoma">osteoid osteoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osteochondroma" title="Osteochondroma">osteochondroma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osteoblastoma" title="Osteoblastoma">osteoblastoma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Enchondroma" title="Enchondroma">enchondroma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giant-cell_tumor_of_bone" title="Giant-cell tumor of bone">giant-cell tumor of bone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aneurysmal_bone_cyst" title="Aneurysmal bone cyst">aneurysmal bone cyst</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer">Cancer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Cancer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bone_metastases" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone metastases">Bone metastases</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">Cancer</a> can arise in bone tissue, and bones are also a common site for other cancers to spread (<a href="/wiki/Metastasise" class="mw-redirect" title="Metastasise">metastasise</a>) to.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101125_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101125-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cancers that arise in bone are called "primary" cancers, although such cancers are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101125_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101125-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Metastases within bone are "secondary" cancers, with the most common being <a href="/wiki/Breast_cancer" title="Breast cancer">breast cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lung_cancer" title="Lung cancer">lung cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kidney_cancer" title="Kidney cancer">kidney cancer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101125_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101125-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Secondary cancers that affect bone can either destroy bone (called a "<a href="/wiki/Lytic_cycle" title="Lytic cycle">lytic</a>" cancer) or create bone (a "<a href="/wiki/Sclerosis_(medicine)" title="Sclerosis (medicine)">sclerotic</a>" cancer). Cancers of the bone marrow inside the bone can also affect bone tissue, examples including <a href="/wiki/Leukemia" title="Leukemia">leukemia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiple_myeloma" title="Multiple myeloma">multiple myeloma</a>. Bone may also be affected by cancers in other parts of the body. Cancers in other parts of the body may release <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone" title="Parathyroid hormone">parathyroid hormone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_hormone-related_peptide" class="mw-redirect" title="Parathyroid hormone-related peptide">parathyroid hormone-related peptide</a>. This increases bone reabsorption, and can lead to bone fractures. </p><p>Bone tissue that is destroyed or altered as a result of cancers is distorted, weakened, and more prone to fracture. This may lead to compression of the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>, destruction of the marrow resulting in <a href="/wiki/Bruising" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruising">bruising</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bleeding" title="Bleeding">bleeding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">immunosuppression</a>, and is one cause of bone pain. If the cancer is metastatic, then there might be other symptoms depending on the site of the original cancer. Some bone cancers can also be felt. </p><p>Cancers of the bone are managed according to their type, their <a href="/wiki/Cancer_staging" title="Cancer staging">stage</a>, prognosis, and what symptoms they cause. Many primary cancers of bone are treated with <a href="/wiki/Radiotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotherapy">radiotherapy</a>. Cancers of bone marrow may be treated with <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">chemotherapy</a>, and other forms of targeted therapy such as <a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">immunotherapy</a> may be used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101032_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101032-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a>, which focuses on maximising a person's <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>, may play a role in management, particularly if the likelihood of <a href="/wiki/5-year_survival" class="mw-redirect" title="5-year survival">survival within five years</a> is poor. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diabetes">Diabetes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Diabetes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Type_1_diabetes" title="Type 1 diabetes">Type 1 diabetes</a> is an autoimmune disease in which the body attacks the insulin-producing pancreas cells causing the body to not make enough insulin.<sup id="cite_ref-Ndisang_2017_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ndisang_2017-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a> in which the body creates enough Insulin, but becomes resistant to it over time.<sup id="cite_ref-Ndisang_2017_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ndisang_2017-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Children makeup approximately 85% of Type 1 Diabetes cases and in America there was an average 22% rise in cases<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> over the first 24 months of the COVID-19 Pandemic. With the increase of developing some form of diabetes across all ranges continually growing the health impacts on bone development and bone health in these populations are still being researched. Most evidence suggests that diabetes, either Type 1 and Type 2, inhibits osteoblastic activity<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and causes both lower BMD and BMC in both adults and children. The weakening of these developmental aspects is thought to lead to an increased risk of developing many diseases such as osteoarthritis, osteoporosis, osteopenia and fractures.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Development of any of these diseases is thought to be correlated with a decrease in ability to perform in athletic environments and activities of daily living. </p><p>Focusing on therapies that target molecules like osteocalcin or AGEs could provide new ways to improve bone health and help manage the complications of diabetes more effectively.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_painful_conditions">Other painful conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Other painful conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteomyelitis" title="Osteomyelitis">Osteomyelitis</a> is inflammation of the bone or bone marrow due to bacterial infection.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteomalacia" title="Osteomalacia">Osteomalacia</a> is a painful softening of adult bone caused by severe vitamin D deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteogenesis_imperfecta" title="Osteogenesis imperfecta">Osteogenesis imperfecta</a><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteochondritis_dissecans" title="Osteochondritis dissecans">Osteochondritis dissecans</a><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankylosing_spondylitis" title="Ankylosing spondylitis">Ankylosing spondylitis</a><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_fluorosis" title="Skeletal fluorosis">Skeletal fluorosis</a> is a bone disease caused by an excessive accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a> in the bones. In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis damages bones and joints and is painful.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Osteoporosis">Osteoporosis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Osteoporosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">Osteoporosis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Osteoporosis_in_Bones.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Osteoporosis_in_Bones.jpg/220px-Osteoporosis_in_Bones.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Osteoporosis_in_Bones.jpg/330px-Osteoporosis_in_Bones.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Osteoporosis_in_Bones.jpg/440px-Osteoporosis_in_Bones.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Reduced bone mineral density in Osteoporosis (R), increasing the likelihood of fractures</figcaption></figure> <p>Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced <a href="/wiki/Bone_mineral_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone mineral density">bone mineral density</a>, increasing the likelihood of <a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">fractures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101116–1121_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101116–1121-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osteoporosis is defined in women by the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> as a bone mineral density of 2.5 <a href="/wiki/Standard_deviation" title="Standard deviation">standard deviations</a> below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average. This density is measured using <a href="/wiki/Dual_energy_X-ray_absorptiometry" class="mw-redirect" title="Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry">dual energy X-ray absorptiometry</a> (DEXA), with the term "established osteoporosis" including the presence of a <a href="/wiki/Fragility_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Fragility fracture">fragility fracture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO1994_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO1994-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osteoporosis is most common in women after <a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">menopause</a>, when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other <a href="/wiki/Chronic_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic (medicine)">chronic</a> diseases or as a result of <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">smoking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medications" class="mw-redirect" title="Medications">medications</a>, specifically <a href="/wiki/Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">glucocorticoids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101116–1121_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101116–1121-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101116–1121_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101116–1121-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and are at risk of fracture.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101116–1121_95-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavidson20101116–1121-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the most important risk factors for <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a> is <a href="/wiki/Ageing" title="Ageing">advanced age</a>. Accumulation of oxidative <a href="/wiki/DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)" title="DNA damage (naturally occurring)">DNA damage</a> in <a href="/wiki/Osteocyte" title="Osteocyte">osteoblastic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclastic</a> cells appears to be a key factor in age-related osteoporosis.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet. <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Calcium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trace_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Trace mineral">trace mineral</a> supplements may also be advised, as may <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D</a>. When medication is used, it may include <a href="/wiki/Bisphosphonate" title="Bisphosphonate">bisphosphonates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strontium_ranelate" title="Strontium ranelate">Strontium ranelate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hormone_replacement_therapy" title="Hormone replacement therapy">hormone replacement therapy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DAVIDSONS2010_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DAVIDSONS2010-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Osteopathic_medicine">Osteopathic medicine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Osteopathic medicine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Osteopathic_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="Osteopathic medicine in the United States">Osteopathic medicine in the United States</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Osteopathic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Osteopathic medicine">Osteopathic medicine</a> is a school of medical thought that links the musculoskeletal system to overall health. As of 2012<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, over 77,000 physicians <a href="/wiki/Osteopathic_medicine_in_the_United_States" title="Osteopathic medicine in the United States">in the United States</a> are trained in osteopathic medical schools.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bone_health">Bone health</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bone health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bone_health" title="Bone health">Bone health</a></div> <p>Bone health is vastly important all throughout life due to a number of reasons, some of those being, without strong healthy bones we are more at risk for different chronic diseases, and fractures as well as day-to-day function being more difficult with poor bone health. Developing strong bones as a child is one of the most important steps to having healthy bones all throughout life because this is when a strong foundation is built, which will make it much easier to maintain musculoskeletal health in later years. Adolescence offers a window to really develop bones in either a positive or negative way. It is estimated that diet and exercise during these years can impact peak bone mass as an adult nearly 20-40%.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid38161439_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid38161439-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One study done on children with developmental coordination disorder found an increase in bone mass up to 4% and 5% in the cortical areas of the tibia alone from a 13-week training period,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid33265073_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid33265073-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is truly significant when considering how participants only participated in the multimodal workouts twice per week, and it would be reasonable to expect these increases to be greater if workouts were more frequent, especially in youth without developmental coordination disorder. Peak bone mass occurs between the second and third decade of most people's lives,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid36578952_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid36578952-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and with this being the case if we can really stockpile as much bone mass and increase our BMD and BMC by living healthy active lives, and having good diets that consume adequate calcium and vitamin D then we will truly have a leg up in our later lives as well as actively decreasing risks of certain chronic diseases such as osteoporosis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Osteology">Osteology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Osteology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paleopathology;_Human_femurs_from_Roman_period,_Tell_Fara_Wellcome_L0008764.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Paleopathology%3B_Human_femurs_from_Roman_period%2C_Tell_Fara_Wellcome_L0008764.jpg/220px-Paleopathology%3B_Human_femurs_from_Roman_period%2C_Tell_Fara_Wellcome_L0008764.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Paleopathology%3B_Human_femurs_from_Roman_period%2C_Tell_Fara_Wellcome_L0008764.jpg/330px-Paleopathology%3B_Human_femurs_from_Roman_period%2C_Tell_Fara_Wellcome_L0008764.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Paleopathology%3B_Human_femurs_from_Roman_period%2C_Tell_Fara_Wellcome_L0008764.jpg/440px-Paleopathology%3B_Human_femurs_from_Roman_period%2C_Tell_Fara_Wellcome_L0008764.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1302" data-file-height="1408" /></a><figcaption>Human femurs and humerus from Roman period, with evidence of healed <a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">fractures</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The study of bones and teeth is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Osteology" title="Osteology">osteology</a>. It is frequently used in <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">archeology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forensics" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensics">forensic science</a> for a variety of tasks. This can include determining the nutritional, health, age or injury status of the individual the bones were taken from. Preparing fleshed bones for these types of studies can involve the process of <a href="/wiki/Maceration_(bone)" title="Maceration (bone)">maceration</a>. </p><p>Typically anthropologists and archeologists study <a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">bone tools</a> made by <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_neanderthalensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo neanderthalensis">Homo neanderthalensis</a></i>. Bones can serve a number of uses such as projectile points or artistic pigments, and can also be made from external bones such as <a href="/wiki/Antler" title="Antler">antlers</a>. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Other animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Bird anatomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">Exoskeleton</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fluwor%C3%B4ze_egzostozes1-800h.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="knobby hoofed leg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Fluwor%C3%B4ze_egzostozes1-800h.jpg/180px-Fluwor%C3%B4ze_egzostozes1-800h.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Fluwor%C3%B4ze_egzostozes1-800h.jpg/270px-Fluwor%C3%B4ze_egzostozes1-800h.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Fluwor%C3%B4ze_egzostozes1-800h.jpg/360px-Fluwor%C3%B4ze_egzostozes1-800h.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_fluorosis" title="Skeletal fluorosis">Skeletal fluorosis</a> in a cow's leg, due to industrial contamination</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif/200px-Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif/300px-Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif/400px-Bird_leg_and_pelvic_girdle_skeleton_EN.gif 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Leg and pelvic girdle bones of bird</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Bird</a> skeletons are very lightweight. Their bones are smaller and thinner, to aid flight. Among mammals, <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a> come closest to birds in terms of bone density, suggesting that small dense bones are a flight adaptation. Many bird bones have little marrow due to them being hollow.<sup id="cite_ref-RSPB-BirdBoneDensity_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RSPB-BirdBoneDensity-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A bird's <a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">beak</a> is primarily made of bone as projections of the <a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">mandibles</a> which are covered in <a href="/wiki/Keratin" title="Keratin">keratin</a>. </p><p>Some bones, primarily formed separately in subcutaneous tissues, include headgears (such as bony core of horns, antlers, ossicones), osteoderm, and <a href="/wiki/Os_penis" class="mw-redirect" title="Os penis">os penis</a>/<a href="/wiki/Os_clitoris" class="mw-redirect" title="Os clitoris">os clitoris</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Antler" title="Antler">antlers</a> are composed of bone which is an unusual example of bone being outside the skin of the animal once the velvet is shed.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid10321994_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid10321994-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The extinct predatory fish <i><a href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus</a></i> had sharp edges of hard exposed bone along its jaws.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proportion of cortical bone that is 80% in the human skeleton may be much lower in other animals, especially in <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">marine mammals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_turtles" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine turtles">marine turtles</a>, or in various <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">marine reptiles</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ichthyosaur" class="mw-redirect" title="Ichthyosaur">ichthyosaurs</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Buff&Maz90_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buff&Maz90-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> among others.<sup id="cite_ref-ZL11_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ZL11-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This proportion can vary quickly in evolution; it often increases in early stages of returns to an aquatic lifestyle, as seen in early <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">whales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pinniped" title="Pinniped">pinnipeds</a>, among others. It subsequently decreases in pelagic taxa, which typically acquire spongy bone, but aquatic taxa that live in shallow water can retain very thick, <a href="/wiki/Pachyostosis" title="Pachyostosis">pachyostotic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Osteosclerosis" title="Osteosclerosis">osteosclerotic</a>, or pachyosteosclerotic<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> bones, especially if they move slowly, like <a href="/wiki/Sirenia" title="Sirenia">sea cows</a>. In some cases, even marine taxa that had acquired spongy bone can revert to thicker, compact bones if they become adapted to live in shallow water, or in <a href="/wiki/Hypersaline_lake" title="Hypersaline lake">hypersaline</a> (denser) water.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many animals, particularly <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a>, practice <a href="/wiki/Osteophagy" title="Osteophagy">osteophagy</a>—the eating of bones. This is presumably carried out in order to replenish lacking <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a>. </p><p>Many bone diseases that affect humans also affect other vertebrates—an example of one disorder is skeletal fluorosis. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bones_of_cattle_on_a_farm_in_Namibia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bones_of_cattle_on_a_farm_in_Namibia.jpg/220px-Bones_of_cattle_on_a_farm_in_Namibia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bones_of_cattle_on_a_farm_in_Namibia.jpg/330px-Bones_of_cattle_on_a_farm_in_Namibia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Bones_of_cattle_on_a_farm_in_Namibia.jpg/440px-Bones_of_cattle_on_a_farm_in_Namibia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4883" data-file-height="3239" /></a><figcaption>Bones of slaughtered <a href="/wiki/Cattle" title="Cattle">cattle</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">farm</a> in <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Bones from slaughtered animals have a number of uses. In <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_times" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric times">prehistoric times</a>, they have been used for making <a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">bone tools</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have further been used in <a href="/wiki/Bone_carving" title="Bone carving">bone carving</a>, already important in <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_art" title="Prehistoric art">prehistoric art</a>, and also in <a href="/wiki/Modern_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern time">modern time</a> as crafting materials for <a href="/wiki/Button" title="Button">buttons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bead" title="Bead">beads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Handle" title="Handle">handles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bobbin" title="Bobbin">bobbins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Napier%27s_bones" title="Napier's bones">calculation aids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Head_nut" class="mw-redirect" title="Head nut">head nuts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dice" title="Dice">dice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poker_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Poker chip">poker chips</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pick-up_sticks" title="Pick-up sticks">pick-up sticks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arrow" title="Arrow">arrows</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scrimshaw" title="Scrimshaw">scrimshaw</a>, ornaments, etc. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bone_glue" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone glue">Bone glue</a> can be made by prolonged boiling of ground or cracked bones, followed by filtering and evaporation to thicken the resulting fluid. Historically once important, bone glue and other animal glues today have only a few specialized uses, such as in <a href="/wiki/Antiques_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiques restoration">antiques restoration</a>. Essentially the same process, with further refinement, thickening and drying, is used to make <a href="/wiki/Gelatin" title="Gelatin">gelatin</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Broth" title="Broth">Broth</a> is made by simmering several ingredients for a long time, traditionally including bones. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bone_char" title="Bone char">Bone char</a>, a porous, black, granular material primarily used for <a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">filtration</a> and also as a black <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a>, is produced by <a href="/wiki/Charring" title="Charring">charring</a> mammal bones. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a> was a writing system used in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a> based on inscriptions in bones. Its name originates from oracle bones, which were mainly ox clavicle. The Ancient Chinese (mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a>), would write their questions on the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone" title="Oracle bone">oracle bone</a>, and burn the bone, and where the bone cracked would be the answer for the questions. </p><p>To <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/point_the_bone" class="extiw" title="wikt:point the bone">point the bone</a> at someone is considered bad luck in some cultures, such as <a href="/wiki/Australian_aborigines" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian aborigines">Australian aborigines</a>, such as by the <a href="/wiki/Kurdaitcha#Bone_pointing" title="Kurdaitcha">Kurdaitcha</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Furcula" title="Furcula">wishbones</a> of fowl have been used for <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, and are still customarily used in a tradition to determine which one of two people pulling on either prong of the bone may make a wish. </p><p>Various cultures throughout history have adopted the custom of shaping an infant's head by the practice of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_cranial_deformation" title="Artificial cranial deformation">artificial cranial deformation</a>. A widely practised custom in China was that of <a href="/wiki/Foot_binding" title="Foot binding">foot binding</a> to limit the normal growth of the foot. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gray72-en.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cells in bone marrow"><img alt="Cells in bone marrow" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Gray72-en.svg/120px-Gray72-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Gray72-en.svg/180px-Gray72-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Gray72-en.svg/240px-Gray72-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="526" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cells in bone marrow</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_trabecular_-_wistar_rat_-_x100.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Scanning electron microscope of bone at 100× magnification"><img alt="Scanning electron microscope of bone at 100× magnification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_trabecular_-_wistar_rat_-_x100.tif/lossy-page1-120px-Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_trabecular_-_wistar_rat_-_x100.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_trabecular_-_wistar_rat_-_x100.tif/lossy-page1-180px-Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_trabecular_-_wistar_rat_-_x100.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_trabecular_-_wistar_rat_-_x100.tif/lossy-page1-240px-Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_trabecular_-_wistar_rat_-_x100.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Scanning electron microscope of bone at 100× magnification</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bone_structure_marco_photo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Structure detail of an animal bone"><img alt="Structure detail of an animal bone" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Bone_structure_marco_photo.jpg/120px-Bone_structure_marco_photo.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Bone_structure_marco_photo.jpg/180px-Bone_structure_marco_photo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Bone_structure_marco_photo.jpg/240px-Bone_structure_marco_photo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Structure detail of an animal bone</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_bone" title="Artificial bone">Artificial bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_health" title="Bone health">Bone health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">Calcareous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuttlebone" title="Cuttlebone">Cuttlebone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distraction_osteogenesis" title="Distraction osteogenesis">Distraction osteogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Bone_Health_Campaign" title="National Bone Health Campaign">National Bone Health Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">Skeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossicle_(echinoderm)" title="Ossicle (echinoderm)">Ossicle (echinoderm)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossification#Evolution" title="Ossification">Ossification § Evolution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-BoneOrgan-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BoneOrgan_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLee2001" class="citation book cs1">Lee C (January 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124708624500027"><i>The Bone Organ System: Form and Function</i></a>. Academic Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">3–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-012470862-4%2F50002-7">10.1016/B978-012470862-4/50002-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780124708624" title="Special:BookSources/9780124708624"><bdi>9780124708624</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2022</span> – via Science Direct.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bone+Organ+System%3A+Form+and+Function&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2001-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FB978-012470862-4%2F50002-7&rft.isbn=9780124708624&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FB9780124708624500027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-de_Buffrénil_2021-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-de_Buffrénil_2021_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Buffrénilde_RicqlèsZylberbergPadian2021" class="citation book cs1">de Buffrénil V, de Ricqlès AJ, Zylberberg L, Padian K, Laurin M, Quilhac A (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tJcwEAAAQBAJ&dq=Vertebrate+Skeletal+Histology+and+Paleohistology&pg=PT8"><i>Vertebrate skeletal histology and paleohistology</i></a> (First ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. pp. xii + 825. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1351189576" title="Special:BookSources/978-1351189576"><bdi>978-1351189576</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vertebrate+skeletal+histology+and+paleohistology&rft.place=Boca+Raton%2C+FL&rft.pages=xii+%2B+825&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1351189576&rft.aulast=de+Buffr%C3%A9nil&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=de+Ricql%C3%A8s%2C+AJ&rft.au=Zylberberg%2C+L&rft.au=Padian%2C+K&rft.au=Laurin%2C+M&rft.au=Quilhac%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtJcwEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DVertebrate%2BSkeletal%2BHistology%2Band%2BPaleohistology%26pg%3DPT8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteeleBramblett1988" class="citation book cs1">Steele DG, Bramblett CA (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anatomybiologyo00stee"><i>The Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton</i></a></span>. Texas A&M University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anatomybiologyo00stee/page/4">4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-300-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89096-300-5"><bdi>978-0-89096-300-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anatomy+and+Biology+of+the+Human+Skeleton&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Texas+A%26M+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-89096-300-5&rft.aulast=Steele&rft.aufirst=DG&rft.au=Bramblett%2C+CA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanatomybiologyo00stee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Mammal anatomy: an illustrated guide</i>. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 2010. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780761478829" title="Special:BookSources/9780761478829"><bdi>9780761478829</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mammal+anatomy%3A+an+illustrated+guide&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Marshall+Cavendish&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780761478829&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/ossein">"Ossein"</a>. <i>The Free Dictionary</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Free+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Ossein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com%2Fossein&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hall-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hall_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2011" class="citation book cs1">Hall J (2011). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/textbookofmedica00guyt_1/page/957/mode/2up"><i>Textbook of Medical Physiology</i></a></span> (12th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier. pp. <span class="nowrap">957–</span>960. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-08089-2400-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-08089-2400-5"><bdi>978-08089-2400-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Medical+Physiology&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E957-%3C%2Fspan%3E960&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-08089-2400-5&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftextbookofmedica00guyt_1%2Fpage%2F957%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmidt-Nielsen-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt-Nielsen_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt-Nielsen_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt-Nielsen1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Knut_Schmidt-Nielsen" title="Knut Schmidt-Nielsen">Schmidt-Nielsen K</a> (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scalingwhyisanim0000schm/page/6"><i>Scaling: Why Is Animal Size So Important?</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scalingwhyisanim0000schm/page/6">6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31987-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-31987-4"><bdi>978-0-521-31987-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Scaling%3A+Why+Is+Animal+Size+So+Important%3F&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-521-31987-4&rft.aulast=Schmidt-Nielsen&rft.aufirst=K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscalingwhyisanim0000schm%2Fpage%2F6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWopenkaPasteris2005" class="citation journal cs1">Wopenka B, Pasteris JD (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.msec.2005.01.008">"A mineralogical perspective on the apatite in bone"</a>. <i>Materials Science and Engineering: C</i>. <b>25</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">131–</span>143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.msec.2005.01.008">10.1016/j.msec.2005.01.008</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Materials+Science+and+Engineering%3A+C&rft.atitle=A+mineralogical+perspective+on+the+apatite+in+bone&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E131-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.msec.2005.01.008&rft.aulast=Wopenka&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Pasteris%2C+JD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.msec.2005.01.008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangZhangPan2023" class="citation journal cs1">Wang B, Zhang Z, Pan H (February 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10046636">"Bone Apatite Nanocrystal: Crystalline Structure, Chemical Composition, and Architecture"</a>. <i>Biomimetics</i>. <b>8</b> (1): 90. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fbiomimetics8010090">10.3390/biomimetics8010090</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10046636">10046636</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36975320">36975320</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biomimetics&rft.atitle=Bone+Apatite+Nanocrystal%3A+Crystalline+Structure%2C+Chemical+Composition%2C+and+Architecture&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=90&rft.date=2023-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10046636%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36975320&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fbiomimetics8010090&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Z&rft.au=Pan%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10046636&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-college-human-biology-flexbook-2.0/section/13.4/primary/lesson/structure-of-bone-chumbio">"Structure of Bone"</a>. <i>flexbooks.ck12.org</i>. 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title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244485732">244485732</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Hypersalinity+drives+convergent+bone+mass+increases+in+Miocene+marine+mammals+from+the+Paratethys&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=248-255.e2&rft.date=2022-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2021.10.065&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244485732%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34813730&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022CBio...32E.248D&rft.aulast=Dewaele&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Gol%27din%2C+P&rft.au=Marx%2C+FG&rft.au=Lambert%2C+O&rft.au=Laurin%2C+M&rft.au=Obad%C4%83%2C+T&rft.au=de+Buffr%C3%A9nil%2C+V&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2021.10.065&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoussaye2022" class="citation journal cs1">Houssaye A (January 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03820094/file/Houssaye_et_al_Current_Biology.pdf">"Evolution: Back to heavy bones in salty seas"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>32</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">R42 –</span> <span class="nowrap">R44</span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022CBio...32..R42H">2022CBio...32..R42H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2021.11.049">10.1016/j.cub.2021.11.049</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35015995">35015995</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245879886">245879886</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221123162936/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03820094/file/Houssaye_et_al_Current_Biology.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 23 November 2022.</cite><span 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Colledge NR, Walker BR, Ralston SH (eds.). <i>Davidson's Principles and Practice of Medicine</i>. Illustrated by Robert Britton (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3085-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7020-3085-7"><bdi>978-0-7020-3085-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Davidson%27s+Principles+and+Practice+of+Medicine.&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.edition=21st&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone%2FElsevier&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7020-3085-7&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall2005" class="citation book cs1">Hall AC, Guyton JE (2005). <i>Textbook of Medical Physiology</i> (11th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7216-0240-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7216-0240-0"><bdi>978-0-7216-0240-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Textbook+of+Medical+Physiology&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=W.B.+Saunders&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7216-0240-0&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=AC&rft.au=Guyton%2C+JE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung2006" class="citation book cs1">Young B, Lowe JS, Stevens A, Heath JW (2006). <i>Wheater's Functional Histology: a text and colour atlas</i> (5th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-443-068-508" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-443-068-508"><bdi>978-0-443-068-508</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wheater%27s+Functional+Histology%3A+a+text+and+colour+atlas&rft.place=London&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Churchill+Livingstone%2FElsevier&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-443-068-508&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Lowe%2C+JS&rft.au=Stevens%2C+A&rft.au=Heath%2C+JW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDerricksonTortora2005" class="citation book cs1">Derrickson BH, Tortora GJ (2005). <i>Principles of anatomy and physiology</i>. New York: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-68934-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-68934-8"><bdi>978-0-471-68934-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+anatomy+and+physiology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-471-68934-8&rft.aulast=Derrickson&rft.aufirst=BH&rft.au=Tortora%2C+GJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFauciBraunwaldKasperHauser2008" class="citation book cs1">Fauci AS, Braunwald E, Kasper DL, Hauser SL, Longo DL, Jameson JL, et al. (2008). <i>Harrison's principles of internal medicine</i> (17th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-147692-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-147692-8"><bdi>978-0-07-147692-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harrison%27s+principles+of+internal+medicine&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=17th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Medical&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-07-147692-8&rft.aulast=Fauci&rft.aufirst=AS&rft.au=Braunwald%2C+E&rft.au=Kasper%2C+DL&rft.au=Hauser%2C+SL&rft.au=Longo%2C+DL&rft.au=Jameson%2C+JL&rft.au=Loscalzo%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoehnMarieb2007" class="citation book cs1">Hoehn K, Marieb EN (2007). <i>Human Anatomy & Physiology</i> (7th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-5909-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8053-5909-1"><bdi>978-0-8053-5909-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Anatomy+%26+Physiology&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Benjamin+Cummings&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8053-5909-1&rft.aulast=Hoehn&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Marieb%2C+EN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKiniNandeesh2013" class="citation book cs1">Kini U, Nandeesh BN (3 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201106152855/https://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783642023996-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-1356540-p173959977">"Ch 2: Physiology of Bone Formation, Remodeling, and Metabolism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Fogelman I, Gnanasegaran G, van der Wall H (eds.). <i>Radionuclide and hybrid bone imaging</i>. Berlin: Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">29–</span>57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-02399-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-02399-6"><bdi>978-3-642-02399-6</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9783642023996-c1.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-1356540-p173959977">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch+2%3A+Physiology+of+Bone+Formation%2C+Remodeling%2C+and+Metabolism&rft.btitle=Radionuclide+and+hybrid+bone+imaging&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2013-01-03&rft.isbn=978-3-642-02399-6&rft.aulast=Kini&rft.aufirst=U&rft.au=Nandeesh%2C+BN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fcda%2Fcontent%2Fdocument%2Fcda_downloaddocument%2F9783642023996-c1.pdf%3FSGWID%3D0-0-45-1356540-p173959977&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABone" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bone&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/File:Wikiquote-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Bone" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Bone">Bone</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170509104452/http://depts.washington.edu/bonebio/ASBMRed/ASBMRed.html">Educational resource materials (including animations) by the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/BoneElectr.html">Review (including references) of piezoelectricity and bone remodelling</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=400">A good basic overview of bone biology from the Science Creative Quarterly</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.histology-world.com/photoalbum/thumbnails.php?album=8">Bone histology photomicrographs</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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cartilage"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bone_and_cartilage" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bone and cartilage"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bone_and_cartilage47" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">cartilage</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perichondrium" title="Perichondrium">perichondrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrocartilage_callus" title="Fibrocartilage callus">fibrocartilage callus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysis" title="Metaphysis">metaphysis</a></li> <li>Cells <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chondroblast" title="Chondroblast">chondroblast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chondrocyte" title="Chondrocyte">chondrocyte</a></li></ul></li> <li>Types <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hyaline_cartilage" title="Hyaline cartilage">hyaline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elastic_cartilage" title="Elastic cartilage">elastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrocartilage" title="Fibrocartilage">fibrous</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bone</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ossification" title="Ossification">Ossification</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_bone" title="Primary bone">primary bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intramembranous_ossification" title="Intramembranous ossification">intramembranous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endochondral_ossification" title="Endochondral ossification">endochondral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cells</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteoblast" title="Osteoblast">osteoblast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteocyte" title="Osteocyte">osteocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteoclast" title="Osteoclast">osteoclast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Matrix</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_mineral" title="Bone mineral">bone mineral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossein" title="Ossein">ossein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteoid" title="Osteoid">osteoid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Cancellous_bone">cancellous</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Cortical_bone">cortical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epiphysis" title="Epiphysis">subchondral bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphysis" title="Epiphysis">epiphysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphyseal_plate" title="Epiphyseal plate">epiphyseal plate</a>/<a href="/wiki/Epiphyseal_line" title="Epiphyseal line">epiphyseal line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysis" title="Metaphysis">metaphysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaphysis" title="Diaphysis">diaphysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condyle" title="Condyle">condyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicondyle" title="Epicondyle">epicondyle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osteon" title="Osteon">osteon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haversian_canal" title="Haversian canal">Haversian canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volkmann%27s_canals" class="mw-redirect" title="Volkmann's canals">Volkmann's canals</a></li> <li><i>connective tissue</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endosteum" title="Endosteum">endosteum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periosteum" title="Periosteum">periosteum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharpey%27s_fibres" title="Sharpey's fibres">Sharpey's fibres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthesis" title="Enthesis">enthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacuna_(histology)" title="Lacuna (histology)">lacunae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_canaliculus" title="Bone canaliculus">canaliculi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabecula" title="Trabecula">trabeculae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medullary_cavity" title="Medullary cavity">medullary cavity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Shapes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long_bone" title="Long bone">long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short_bone" title="Short bone">short</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_bone" title="Flat bone">flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_bone" title="Irregular bone">irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesamoid_bone" title="Sesamoid bone">sesamoid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bones_of_the_human_skeleton97" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Bones_of_the_human_skeleton97" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Bones of the <a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">human skeleton</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bones_in_the_human_skeleton91" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bones_in_the_human_skeleton" title="Template:Bones in the human skeleton"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bones_in_the_human_skeleton" title="Template talk:Bones in the human skeleton"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bones_in_the_human_skeleton" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bones in the human skeleton"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bones_in_the_human_skeleton91" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bones</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">human skeleton</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Axial_skeleton" title="Axial skeleton">Axial skeleton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">Skull</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neurocranium" title="Neurocranium">Neurocranium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_bone" title="Occipital bone">occipital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_bone" title="Parietal bone">parietal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_bone" title="Frontal bone">frontal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_bone" title="Temporal bone">temporal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphenoid_bone" title="Sphenoid bone">sphenoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethmoid_bone" title="Ethmoid bone">ethmoid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Facial_skeleton" title="Facial skeleton">Face</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_bone" title="Nasal bone">nasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxilla" title="Maxilla">maxilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_bone" title="Lacrimal bone">lacrimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomatic_bone" title="Zygomatic bone">zygomatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_bone" title="Palatine bone">palatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_nasal_concha" title="Inferior nasal concha">inferior nasal conchae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vomer" title="Vomer">vomer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mandible" class="mw-redirect" title="Human mandible">mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyoid_bone" title="Hyoid bone">hyoid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">ossicles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malleus" title="Malleus">malleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incus" title="Incus">incus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stapes" title="Stapes">stapes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_skeleton" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic skeleton">Thorax</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">sternum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">rib cage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">rib</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral column">Vertebral column</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinal vertebra">vertebrae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">cervical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">thoracic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">lumbar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">sacrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Appendicular_skeleton" title="Appendicular skeleton">Appendicular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pectoral_girdle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral girdle">Shoulder</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">clavicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapula" title="Scapula">scapula</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arm" title="Arm">Arm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">humerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">ulna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">radius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hand" title="Hand">Hand</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">carpals</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scaphoid_bone" title="Scaphoid bone">scaphoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lunate_bone" title="Lunate bone">lunate bone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triquetral_bone" title="Triquetral bone">triquetral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pisiform_bone" title="Pisiform bone">pisiform</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trapezium_(bone)" title="Trapezium (bone)">trapezium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trapezoid_bone" title="Trapezoid bone">trapezoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capitate_bone" title="Capitate bone">capitate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hamate_bone" title="Hamate bone">hamate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacarpus" class="mw-redirect" title="Metacarpus">metacarpals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanges_of_the_hand" class="mw-redirect" title="Phalanges of the hand">phalanges</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proximal_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Proximal phalanges">prox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermediate phalanges">int</a>, <a href="/wiki/Distal_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Distal phalanges">dist</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ilium_(bone)" title="Ilium (bone)">ilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ischium" title="Ischium">ischium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pubis_(bone)" title="Pubis (bone)">pubis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_leg" title="Human leg">Leg</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">femur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">patella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">fibula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">tibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesamoid_bones" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesamoid bones">sesamoid bones</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foot" title="Foot">Foot</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">tarsals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heelbone" class="mw-redirect" title="Heelbone">heelbone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anklebone" class="mw-redirect" title="Anklebone">anklebone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navicular_bone" title="Navicular bone">navicular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_bones" title="Cuneiform bones">cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuboid_bone" title="Cuboid bone">cuboid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatarsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Metatarsus">metatarsals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">phalanges</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proximal_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Proximal phalanges">proximal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermediate phalanges">intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distal_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Distal phalanges">distal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_bone" title="Accessory bone">accessory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_navicular_bone" title="Accessory navicular bone">accessory navicular</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="The_facial_skeleton_of_the_skull138" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Facial_bones" title="Template:Facial bones"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Facial_bones" title="Template talk:Facial bones"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Facial_bones" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Facial bones"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="The_facial_skeleton_of_the_skull138" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">The <a href="/wiki/Facial_skeleton" title="Facial skeleton">facial skeleton</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maxilla" title="Maxilla">Maxilla</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surfaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_surface_of_the_body_of_the_maxilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior surface of the body of the maxilla">Anterior</a>: <i>fossae</i> (<a href="/wiki/Incisive_foramen" title="Incisive foramen">Incisive fossa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canine_fossa" title="Canine fossa">Canine fossa</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infraorbital_foramen" title="Infraorbital foramen">Infraorbital foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital bone">Orbital bones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_nasal_spine" title="Anterior nasal spine">Anterior nasal spine</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infratemporal_surface_of_the_body_of_the_maxilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Infratemporal surface of the body of the maxilla">Infratemporal</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_canals" title="Alveolar canals">Alveolar canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxillary_tuberosity" title="Maxillary tuberosity">Maxillary tuberosity</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_surface_of_the_body_of_the_maxilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital surface of the body of the maxilla">Orbital</a>: <a href="/wiki/Infraorbital_groove" title="Infraorbital groove">Infraorbital groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infraorbital_canal" title="Infraorbital canal">Infraorbital canal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_surface_of_the_body_of_the_maxilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal surface of the body of the maxilla">Nasal</a>: <a href="/wiki/Greater_palatine_canal" title="Greater palatine canal">Greater palatine canal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zygomatic_process_of_maxilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Zygomatic process of maxilla">Zygomatic process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_process_of_maxilla" title="Frontal process of maxilla">Frontal process</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agger_nasi" title="Agger nasi">Agger nasi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anterior_lacrimal_crest" title="Anterior lacrimal crest">Anterior lacrimal crest</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_process" title="Alveolar process">Alveolar process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_process_of_maxilla" title="Palatine process of maxilla">Palatine process</a> (<a href="/wiki/Incisive_foramen" title="Incisive foramen">Incisive foramen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incisive_canals" title="Incisive canals">Incisive canals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foramina_of_Scarpa" title="Foramina of Scarpa">Foramina of Scarpa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incisive_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Incisive bone">Incisive bone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anterior_nasal_spine" title="Anterior nasal spine">Anterior nasal spine</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_maxilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of maxilla">Body of maxilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxillary_sinus" title="Maxillary sinus">Maxillary sinus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zygomatic_bone" title="Zygomatic bone">Zygomatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_process_of_the_zygomatic_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Orbital process of the zygomatic bone">Orbital process</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zygomatico-orbital_foramina" title="Zygomatico-orbital foramina">Zygomatico-orbital</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_surface_of_the_zygomatic_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporal surface of the zygomatic bone">Temporal process</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zygomaticotemporal_foramen" class="mw-redirect" title="Zygomaticotemporal foramen">Zygomaticotemporal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_process_of_the_zygomatic_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral process of the zygomatic bone">Lateral process</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zygomaticofacial_foramen" title="Zygomaticofacial foramen">Zygomaticofacial</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Palatine_bone" title="Palatine bone">Palatine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fossae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pterygopalatine_fossa" title="Pterygopalatine fossa">Pterygopalatine fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygoid_fossa" title="Pterygoid fossa">Pterygoid fossa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_plate_of_palatine_bone" title="Horizontal plate of palatine bone">Horizontal plate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Posterior_nasal_spine" title="Posterior nasal spine">Posterior nasal spine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpendicular_plate_of_palatine_bone" title="Perpendicular plate of palatine bone">Perpendicular plate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Greater_palatine_canal" title="Greater palatine canal">Greater palatine canal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sphenopalatine_foramen" title="Sphenopalatine foramen">Sphenopalatine foramen</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_palate" title="Hard palate">Hard palate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_process_of_palatine_bone" title="Pyramidal process of palatine bone">Pyramidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_process_of_palatine_bone" title="Orbital process of palatine bone">Orbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphenoidal_process_of_palatine_bone" title="Sphenoidal process of palatine bone">Sphenoidal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Body</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>external surface</i> (<a href="/wiki/Chin" title="Chin">Chin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">Jaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandibular_prominence" title="Mandibular prominence">Mandibular prominence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandibular_symphysis" title="Mandibular symphysis">Mandibular symphysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lingual_foramen" title="Lingual foramen">Lingual foramen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mental_protuberance" title="Mental protuberance">Mental protuberance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mental_foramen" title="Mental foramen">Mental foramen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandibular_incisive_canal" title="Mandibular incisive canal">Mandibular incisive canal</a>)</li> <li><i>internal surface</i> (<a href="/wiki/Mental_spine" title="Mental spine">Mental spine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mylohyoid_line" title="Mylohyoid line">Mylohyoid line</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sublingual_fovea" title="Sublingual fovea">Sublingual fovea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Submandibular_fovea" title="Submandibular fovea">Submandibular fovea</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_part_of_mandible" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolar part of mandible">Alveolar part </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ramus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mylohyoid_groove" class="mw-redirect" title="Mylohyoid groove">Mylohyoid groove</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandibular_canal" title="Mandibular canal">Mandibular canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingula_of_mandible" title="Lingula of mandible">Lingula</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandibular_foramen" title="Mandibular foramen">Mandibular foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_the_mandible" title="Angle of the mandible">Angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronoid_process_of_the_mandible" title="Coronoid process of the mandible">Coronoid process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandibular_notch" title="Mandibular notch">Mandibular notch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condyloid_process" title="Condyloid process">Condyloid process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygoid_fovea" title="Pterygoid fovea">Pterygoid fovea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nose</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_bone" title="Nasal bone">Nasal bone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internasal_suture" class="mw-redirect" title="Internasal suture">Internasal suture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_foramina" title="Nasal foramina">Nasal foramina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_nasal_concha" title="Inferior nasal concha">Inferior nasal concha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethmoidal_process_of_inferior_nasal_concha" title="Ethmoidal process of inferior nasal concha">Ethmoidal process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxillary_process_of_inferior_nasal_concha" title="Maxillary process of inferior nasal concha">Maxillary process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vomer" title="Vomer">Vomer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wing_of_vomer" class="mw-redirect" title="Wing of vomer">Wing</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_bone" title="Lacrimal bone">Lacrimal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_lacrimal_crest" title="Posterior lacrimal crest">Posterior lacrimal crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_groove" title="Lacrimal groove">Lacrimal groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_hamulus" title="Lacrimal hamulus">Lacrimal hamulus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prognathism" title="Prognathism">Prognathism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retromolar_space" title="Retromolar space">Retromolar space</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Neurocranium_of_the_skull199" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Neurocranium" title="Template:Neurocranium"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Neurocranium" title="Template talk:Neurocranium"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Neurocranium" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Neurocranium"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Neurocranium_of_the_skull199" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Neurocranium" title="Neurocranium">Neurocranium</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_skull" class="mw-redirect" title="Human skull">skull</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occipital_bone" title="Occipital bone">Occipital</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Squama_occipitalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Squama occipitalis">Squamous part</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>external</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inion" class="mw-redirect" title="Inion">Inion</a>/<a href="/wiki/External_occipital_protuberance" title="External occipital protuberance">External occipital protuberance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_bun" title="Occipital bun">Occipital bun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/External_occipital_crest" title="External occipital crest">External occipital crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuchal_lines" title="Nuchal lines">Nuchal lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suprainiac_fossa" title="Suprainiac fossa">Suprainiac fossa</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>planes</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Occipital plane">Occipital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuchal_plane" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuchal plane">Nuchal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>internal</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cruciform_eminence" title="Cruciform eminence">Cruciform eminence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_occipital_protuberance" title="Internal occipital protuberance">Internal occipital protuberance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_occipital_crest" title="Internal occipital crest">Internal occipital crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groove_for_transverse_sinus" title="Groove for transverse sinus">Groove for transverse sinus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lateral_parts_of_occipital_bone" title="Lateral parts of occipital bone">Lateral parts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_condyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Occipital condyle">Condyle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Condyloid_fossa" title="Condyloid fossa">Condyloid fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condylar_canal" title="Condylar canal">Condylar canal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoglossal_canal" title="Hypoglossal canal">Hypoglossal canal</a></li> <li><i>jugular</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jugular_process" title="Jugular process">Jugular process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugular_tubercle" title="Jugular tubercle">Jugular tubercle</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Basilar_part_of_occipital_bone" title="Basilar part of occipital bone">Basilar part</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_tubercle" title="Pharyngeal tubercle">Pharyngeal tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clivus_(anatomy)" title="Clivus (anatomy)">Clivus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foramen_magnum" title="Foramen magnum">Foramen magnum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basion" class="mw-redirect" title="Basion">Basion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opisthion" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthion">Opisthion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Parietal_bone" title="Parietal bone">Parietal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_eminence" title="Parietal eminence">Parietal eminence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporal line">Temporal line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parietal_foramina" title="Parietal foramina">Parietal foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagittal_sulcus" title="Sagittal sulcus">Sagittal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagittal_keel" title="Sagittal keel">Sagittal keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagittal_crest" title="Sagittal crest">Sagittal crest</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Frontal_bone" title="Frontal bone">Frontal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Squama_frontalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Squama frontalis">Squamous part</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_suture" title="Frontal suture">Frontal suture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_eminence" title="Frontal eminence">Frontal eminence</a></li> <li><i>external</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superciliary_arches" class="mw-redirect" title="Superciliary arches">Superciliary arches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glabella" title="Glabella">Glabella</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>foramina</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supraorbital_foramen" title="Supraorbital foramen">Supraorbital foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brow_ridge" title="Brow ridge">Brow ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foramen_cecum_(frontal_bone)" title="Foramen cecum (frontal bone)">Foramen cecum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomatic_process_of_frontal_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Zygomatic process of frontal bone">Zygomatic process</a></li> <li><i>internal</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sagittal_sulcus" title="Sagittal sulcus">Sagittal sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_crest" title="Frontal crest">Frontal crest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orbital_part_of_frontal_bone" title="Orbital part of frontal bone">Orbital part</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethmoidal_notch" title="Ethmoidal notch">Ethmoidal notch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossa_for_lacrimal_gland" title="Fossa for lacrimal gland">Fossa for lacrimal gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochlear_fovea" title="Trochlear fovea">Trochlear fovea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontal_sinus" title="Frontal sinus">Frontal sinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontonasal_duct" title="Frontonasal duct">Frontonasal duct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Temporal_bone" title="Temporal bone">Temporal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Squama_temporalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Squama temporalis">Squamous part</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Articular_tubercle" title="Articular tubercle">Articular tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suprameatal_triangle" title="Suprameatal triangle">Suprameatal triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandibular_fossa" title="Mandibular fossa">Mandibular fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrotympanic_fissure" title="Petrotympanic fissure">Petrotympanic fissure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomatic_process_of_temporal_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Zygomatic process of temporal bone">Zygomatic process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mastoid_part_of_the_temporal_bone" title="Mastoid part of the temporal bone">Mastoid part</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mastoid_foramen" title="Mastoid foramen">Mastoid foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastoid_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastoid process">Mastoid process</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mastoid_cells" title="Mastoid cells">Mastoid cells</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastoid_notch" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastoid notch">Mastoid notch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occipital_groove" class="mw-redirect" title="Occipital groove">Occipital groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmoid_sulcus" title="Sigmoid sulcus">Sigmoid sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastoid_antrum" title="Mastoid antrum">Mastoid antrum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Aditus_to_mastoid_antrum" title="Aditus to mastoid antrum">Aditus</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Petrous_part_of_the_temporal_bone" title="Petrous part of the temporal bone">Petrous part</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carotid_canal" title="Carotid canal">Carotid canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_canal" title="Facial canal">Facial canal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiatus_for_greater_petrosal_nerve" title="Hiatus for greater petrosal nerve">Hiatus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_auditory_meatus" title="Internal auditory meatus">Internal auditory meatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochlear_aqueduct" title="Cochlear aqueduct">Cochlear aqueduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stylomastoid_foramen" title="Stylomastoid foramen">Stylomastoid foramen</a></li> <li><i>fossae</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subarcuate_fossa" title="Subarcuate fossa">Subarcuate fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jugular_fossa" title="Jugular fossa">Jugular fossa</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>canaliculi</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_tympanic_canaliculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior tympanic canaliculus">Inferior tympanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastoid_canaliculus" title="Mastoid canaliculus">Mastoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_styloid_process" title="Temporal styloid process">Styloid process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosquamous_suture" title="Petrosquamous suture">Petrosquamous suture</a></li> <li><i>(note: <a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">ossicles</a> in petrous part, but not part of temporal bone)</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tympanic_part_of_the_temporal_bone" title="Tympanic part of the temporal bone">Tympanic part</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suprameatal_spine" title="Suprameatal spine">Suprameatal spine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sphenoid_bone" title="Sphenoid bone">Sphenoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surfaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Superior surface:</i> <a href="/wiki/Sella_turcica" title="Sella turcica">Sella turcica</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsum_sellae" title="Dorsum sellae">Dorsum sellae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculum_sellae" title="Tuberculum sellae">Tuberculum sellae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypophysial_fossa" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypophysial fossa">Hypophysial fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_clinoid_processes" title="Posterior clinoid processes">Posterior clinoid processes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethmoidal_spine" title="Ethmoidal spine">Ethmoidal spine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiasmatic_groove" title="Chiasmatic groove">Chiasmatic groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_clinoid_process" title="Middle clinoid process">Middle clinoid process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrosal_process" title="Petrosal process">Petrosal process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clivus_(anatomy)" title="Clivus (anatomy)">Clivus</a></li> <li><i>Lateral surface:</i> <a href="/wiki/Carotid_groove" title="Carotid groove">Carotid groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphenoidal_lingula" title="Sphenoidal lingula">Sphenoidal lingula</a></li> <li><i>Anterior surface:</i> <a href="/wiki/Sphenoidal_sinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphenoidal sinus">Sphenoidal sinuses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Greater_wing_of_sphenoid_bone" title="Greater wing of sphenoid bone">Great wings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>foramina</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foramen_rotundum" title="Foramen rotundum">Rotundum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foramen_ovale_(skull)" title="Foramen ovale (skull)">Ovale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphenoidal_emissary_foramen" title="Sphenoidal emissary foramen">Vesalii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foramen_spinosum" title="Foramen spinosum">Spinosum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spine_of_sphenoid_bone" title="Spine of sphenoid bone">Spine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infratemporal_crest" title="Infratemporal crest">Infratemporal crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulcus_of_auditory_tube" title="Sulcus of auditory tube">Sulcus of auditory tube</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lesser_wing_of_sphenoid_bone" title="Lesser wing of sphenoid bone">Small wings</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_orbital_fissure" title="Superior orbital fissure">Superior orbital fissure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_clinoid_process" title="Anterior clinoid process">Anterior clinoid process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_canal" title="Optic canal">Optic canal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pterygoid_processes_of_the_sphenoid" title="Pterygoid processes of the sphenoid">Pterygoid<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>fossae</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pterygoid_fossa" title="Pterygoid fossa">Pterygoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scaphoid_fossa" title="Scaphoid fossa">Scaphoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>pterygoid plates</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_pterygoid_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral pterygoid plate">Lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_pterygoid_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial pterygoid plate">Medial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygoid_canal" title="Pterygoid canal">Pterygoid canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygoid_hamulus" title="Pterygoid hamulus">Hamulus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_sphenoid_bone" title="Body of sphenoid bone">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphenoidal_conchae" title="Sphenoidal conchae">Sphenoidal conchae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethmoid_bone" title="Ethmoid bone">Ethmoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cribriform_plate" title="Cribriform plate">Cribriform plate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crista_galli" title="Crista galli">Crista galli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_foramina" title="Olfactory foramina">Olfactory foramina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpendicular_plate_of_ethmoid_bone" title="Perpendicular plate of ethmoid bone">Perpendicular plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surfaces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Lateral surface</i> <a href="/wiki/Orbital_lamina_of_ethmoid_bone" title="Orbital lamina of ethmoid bone">Orbital lamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncinate_process_of_ethmoid_bone" title="Uncinate process of ethmoid bone">Uncinate process</a></li> <li><i>Medial surface</i> <a href="/wiki/Supreme_nasal_concha" title="Supreme nasal concha">Supreme nasal concha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_nasal_concha" title="Superior nasal concha">Superior nasal concha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superior_meatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior meatus">Superior meatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_nasal_concha" title="Middle nasal concha">Middle nasal concha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_meatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle meatus">Middle meatus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Labyrinth_of_ethmoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinth of ethmoid">Labyrinth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethmoid_sinus" title="Ethmoid sinus">Ethmoid sinus</a></li> <li><i>ethmoidal foramina</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_ethmoidal_foramen" title="Posterior ethmoidal foramen">Posterior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_ethmoidal_foramen" title="Anterior ethmoidal foramen">Anterior</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Compound_structures_of_skull67" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Compound_structures_of_skull" title="Template:Compound structures of skull"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Compound_structures_of_skull" title="Template talk:Compound structures of skull"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Compound_structures_of_skull" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Compound structures of skull"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Compound_structures_of_skull67" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Compound structures of skull</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neurocranium" title="Neurocranium">Neurocranium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calvaria_(skull)" title="Calvaria (skull)">Calvaria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diplo%C3%AB" title="Diploë">Diploë</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asterion_(anatomy)" title="Asterion (anatomy)">Asterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterion" title="Pterion">Pterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanion" title="Stephanion">Stephanion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inion" class="mw-redirect" title="Inion">Inion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bregma" title="Bregma">Bregma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_(anatomy)" title="Lambda (anatomy)">Lambda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranial_fossa" title="Cranial fossa">Fossae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_cranial_fossa" title="Anterior cranial fossa">anterior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_cranial_fossa" title="Middle cranial fossa">middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_cranial_fossa" title="Posterior cranial fossa">posterior</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cranial_cavity" title="Cranial cavity">cranial cavity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_of_skull" title="Base of skull">Base of skull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontanelle" title="Fontanelle">Fontanelle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_fontanelle" title="Anterior fontanelle">anterior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_fontanelle" title="Posterior fontanelle">posterior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphenoidal_fontanelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphenoidal fontanelle">sphenoidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastoid_fontanelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastoid fontanelle">mastoid</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Facial_skeleton" title="Facial skeleton">Facial skeleton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nasion" title="Nasion">Nasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonion" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonion">Gonion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Both</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacryon" title="Dacryon">dacryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomatic_arch" title="Zygomatic arch">zygomatic arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_fossa" title="Temporal fossa">temporal fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infratemporal_fossa" title="Infratemporal fossa">infratemporal fossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygomaxillary_fissure" title="Pterygomaxillary fissure">pterygomaxillary fissure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygopalatine_fossa" title="Pterygopalatine fossa">pterygopalatine fossa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bones_of_the_arm98" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bones_of_upper_limb" title="Template:Bones of upper limb"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bones_of_upper_limb" title="Template talk:Bones of upper limb"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bones_of_upper_limb" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bones of upper limb"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bones_of_the_arm98" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bones</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arm" title="Arm">arm</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_girdle" title="Shoulder girdle">Shoulder girdle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">clavicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conoid_tubercle" class="mw-redirect" title="Conoid tubercle">conoid tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapezoid_line" title="Trapezoid line">trapezoid line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costal_tuberosity_of_clavicle" title="Costal tuberosity of clavicle">costal tuberosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subclavian_groove" title="Subclavian groove">subclavian groove</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scapula" title="Scapula">Scapula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>fossae</i> (<a href="/wiki/Subscapular_fossa" class="mw-redirect" title="Subscapular fossa">subscapular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supraspinatous_fossa" class="mw-redirect" title="Supraspinatous fossa">supraspinatous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infraspinatous_fossa" class="mw-redirect" title="Infraspinatous fossa">infraspinatous</a>)</li> <li><i>notches</i> (<a href="/wiki/Suprascapular_notch" title="Suprascapular notch">suprascapular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_scapular_notch" title="Great scapular notch">great scapular</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenoid_fossa" title="Glenoid fossa">glenoid fossa</a></li> <li><i>tubercles</i> (<a href="/wiki/Infraglenoid_tubercle" title="Infraglenoid tubercle">infraglenoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supraglenoid_tubercle" title="Supraglenoid tubercle">supraglenoid</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spine_of_scapula" title="Spine of scapula">spine of scapula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acromion" title="Acromion">acromion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracoid_process" title="Coracoid process">coracoid process</a></li> <li><i>angles</i> (<a href="/wiki/Superior_angle_of_scapula" class="mw-redirect" title="Superior angle of scapula">superior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inferior_angle_of_the_scapula" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior angle of the scapula">inferior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lateral_angle_of_the_scapula" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral angle of the scapula">lateral</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">Humerus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Upper_extremity_of_humerus" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper extremity of humerus">upper extremity</a>:</i> <i>necks</i> (<a href="/wiki/Anatomical_neck_of_humerus" title="Anatomical neck of humerus">anatomical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgical_neck_of_the_humerus" title="Surgical neck of the humerus">surgical</a>)</li> <li><i>tubercles</i> (<a href="/wiki/Greater_tubercle" title="Greater tubercle">greater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesser_tubercle" title="Lesser tubercle">lesser</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicipital_groove" title="Bicipital groove">bicipital groove</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Body_of_humerus" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of humerus">body</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Radial_sulcus" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial sulcus">radial sulcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deltoid_tuberosity" title="Deltoid tuberosity">deltoid tuberosity</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lower_extremity_of_humerus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower extremity of humerus">lower extremity</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Capitulum_of_the_humerus" title="Capitulum of the humerus">capitulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochlea_of_humerus" title="Trochlea of humerus">trochlea</a></li> <li><i>epicondyles</i> (<a href="/wiki/Lateral_epicondyle_of_the_humerus" title="Lateral epicondyle of the humerus">lateral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medial_epicondyle_of_the_humerus" title="Medial epicondyle of the humerus">medial</a>)</li> <li><i>supracondylar ridges</i> (<a href="/wiki/Lateral_supracondylar_ridge" title="Lateral supracondylar ridge">lateral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medial_supracondylar_ridge" title="Medial supracondylar ridge">medial</a>)</li> <li><i>fossae</i> (<a href="/wiki/Radial_fossa" title="Radial fossa">radial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coronoid_fossa_of_the_humerus" title="Coronoid fossa of the humerus">coronoid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olecranon_fossa" title="Olecranon fossa">olecranon</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Forearm" title="Forearm">Forearm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">Radius</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>near elbow (<a href="/wiki/Head_of_radius" title="Head of radius">head</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radial_tuberosity" title="Radial tuberosity">tuberosity</a>)</li> <li>near wrist (<a href="/wiki/Ulnar_notch_of_the_radius" title="Ulnar notch of the radius">ulnar notch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radial_styloid_process" title="Radial styloid process">styloid process</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lister%27s_tubercle" title="Lister's tubercle">Lister's tubercle</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">Ulna</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>near elbow (<a href="/wiki/Tuberosity_of_the_ulna" title="Tuberosity of the ulna">tuberosity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Olecranon" title="Olecranon">olecranon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coronoid_process_of_the_ulna" title="Coronoid process of the ulna">coronoid process</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radial_notch" title="Radial notch">radial notch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trochlear_notch" title="Trochlear notch">trochlear notch</a>)</li> <li>near wrist (<a href="/wiki/Ulnar_styloid_process" title="Ulnar styloid process">styloid process</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hand" title="Hand">Hand</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">Carpal bones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scaphoid_bone" title="Scaphoid bone">scaphoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunate_bone" title="Lunate bone">lunate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triquetral_bone" title="Triquetral bone">triquetral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisiform_bone" title="Pisiform bone">pisiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapezium_(bone)" title="Trapezium (bone)">trapezium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapezoid_bone" title="Trapezoid bone">trapezoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitate_bone" title="Capitate bone">capitate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamate_bone" title="Hamate bone">hamate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hamulus_of_hamate_bone" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamulus of hamate bone">hamulus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">Metacarpal bones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_metacarpal_bone" title="First metacarpal bone">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_metacarpal_bone" title="Second metacarpal bone">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_metacarpal_bone" title="Third metacarpal bone">3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_metacarpal_bone" title="Fourth metacarpal bone">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_metacarpal_bone" title="Fifth metacarpal bone">5th</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proximal_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Proximal phalanges">proximal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermediate phalanges">intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distal_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Distal phalanges">distal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bones_of_the_torso49" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bones_of_torso" title="Template:Bones of torso"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bones_of_torso" title="Template talk:Bones of torso"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bones_of_torso" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bones of torso"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bones_of_the_torso49" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bones</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Torso" title="Torso">torso</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">Vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of vertebra">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral arch">Arch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedicle_of_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedicle of vertebral arch">pedicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamina_of_the_vertebral_arch" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamina of the vertebral arch">lamina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_notch" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebral notch">notch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_foramen" title="Vertebral foramen">Vertebral foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_foramen" title="Intervertebral foramen">Intervertebral foramen</a></li> <li><i>Processes</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse processes">transverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articular_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Articular processes">articular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinous_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinous process">spinous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_canal" title="Spinal canal">Spinal canal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cervical_vertebrae" title="Cervical vertebrae">Cervical vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uncinate_process_of_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncinate process of vertebra">Uncinate process of vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_foramen" class="mw-redirect" title="Transverse foramen">Transverse foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_tubercle_of_cervical_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior tubercle of cervical vertebra">Anterior tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carotid_tubercle" class="mw-redirect" title="Carotid tubercle">Carotid tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_tubercle_of_cervical_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior tubercle of cervical vertebra">Posterior tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlas_(anatomy)" title="Atlas (anatomy)">Atlas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_mass_of_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral mass of atlas">lateral mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_arch_of_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior arch of atlas">anterior arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_arch_of_atlas" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior arch of atlas">posterior arch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axis_(anatomy)" title="Axis (anatomy)">Axis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dens (anatomy)">dens</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebra_prominens" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebra prominens">Vertebra prominens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_vertebrae" title="Thoracic vertebrae">Thoracic vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costal_facet" title="Costal facet">Costal facets</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_costal_facet" title="Superior costal facet">superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_costal_facet" title="Inferior costal facet">inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transverse_costal_facet" title="Transverse costal facet">transverse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncinate_process_of_vertebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Uncinate process of vertebra">Uncinate process of vertebra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lumbar_vertebrae" title="Lumbar vertebrae">Lumbar vertebrae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Processes</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accessory_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessory process">accessory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammillary_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammillary process">mammillary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">Sacrum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_of_the_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Base of the sacrum">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_promontory" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral promontory">sacral promontory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ala_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ala of sacrum">Ala of sacrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_surface_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral surface of sacrum">Lateral surface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_tuberosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral tuberosity">sacral tuberosity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_surface_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelvic surface of sacrum">Pelvic surface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_sacral_foramina" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior sacral foramina">anterior sacral foramina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_surface_of_sacrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorsal surface of sacrum">Dorsal surface</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_sacral_foramina" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior sacral foramina">posterior sacral foramina</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_sacral_crest" class="mw-redirect" title="Median sacral crest">Median sacral crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_sacral_crest" class="mw-redirect" title="Medial sacral crest">Medial sacral crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_sacral_crest" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral sacral crest">Lateral sacral crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_canal" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral canal">Sacral canal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_hiatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacral hiatus">sacral hiatus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">Coccyx</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>none</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thorax" title="Thorax">Thorax</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rib_cage" title="Rib cage">Rib cage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Ribs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/True_ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="True ribs">true ribs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="False ribs">false ribs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_ribs" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating ribs">floating ribs</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Parts</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_(rib)" class="mw-redirect" title="Angle (rib)">angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubercle_(rib)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubercle (rib)">tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costal_groove" class="mw-redirect" title="Costal groove">costal groove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neck_of_rib" class="mw-redirect" title="Neck of rib">neck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_rib" class="mw-redirect" title="Head of rib">head</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sternum">Sternum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suprasternal_notch" title="Suprasternal notch">Suprasternal notch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manubrium" class="mw-redirect" title="Manubrium">Manubrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternal_angle" title="Sternal angle">Sternal angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_sternum" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of sternum">Body of sternum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphisternal_joint" title="Xiphisternal joint">Xiphisternal joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiphoid_process" title="Xiphoid process">Xiphoid process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_cage" class="mw-redirect" title="Thoracic cage">Thoracic cage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superior_thoracic_aperture" title="Superior thoracic aperture">Superior thoracic aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercostal_space" title="Intercostal space">Intercostal space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Costal_margin" title="Costal margin">Costal margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrasternal_angle" title="Infrasternal angle">Infrasternal angle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bones_of_the_human_leg81" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bones_of_lower_limb" title="Template:Bones of lower limb"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bones_of_lower_limb" title="Template talk:Bones of lower limb"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bones_of_lower_limb" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bones of lower limb"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bones_of_the_human_leg81" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bones</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_leg" title="Human leg">human leg</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">Femur</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Upper_extremity_of_femur" title="Upper extremity of femur">upper extremity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Femoral_head" title="Femoral head">head</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Femoral_head" title="Femoral head">fovea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femur_neck" class="mw-redirect" title="Femur neck">neck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_trochanter" title="Greater trochanter">greater trochanter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trochanteric_fossa" title="Trochanteric fossa">fossa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_trochanter" title="Lesser trochanter">lesser trochanter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertrochanteric_line" title="Intertrochanteric line">intertrochanteric line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertrochanteric_crest" title="Intertrochanteric crest">intertrochanteric crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrate_tubercle" title="Quadrate tubercle">quadrate tubercle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Body_of_femur" title="Body of femur">shaft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linea_aspera" title="Linea aspera">linea aspera</a> <ul><li><i>upper medial</i>: merges with <a href="/wiki/Intertrochanteric_line" title="Intertrochanteric line">intertrochanteric line</a></li> <li><i>upper intermediate</i>: <a href="/wiki/Pectineal_line_(femur)" title="Pectineal line (femur)">pectineal line</a></li> <li><i>upper lateral</i>: <a href="/wiki/Gluteal_tuberosity" title="Gluteal tuberosity">gluteal tuberosity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Third_trochanter" title="Third trochanter">third trochanter</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lower_extremity_of_femur" title="Lower extremity of femur">lower extremity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adductor_tubercle_of_femur" title="Adductor tubercle of femur">adductor tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercondylar_fossa_of_femur" title="Intercondylar fossa of femur">patellar surface</a></li> <li><i>epicondyles</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_epicondyle_of_the_femur" title="Lateral epicondyle of the femur">lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_epicondyle_of_the_femur" title="Medial epicondyle of the femur">medial</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>condyles</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_condyle_of_femur" title="Lateral condyle of femur">lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_condyle_of_femur" title="Medial condyle of femur">medial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercondylar_fossa_of_femur" title="Intercondylar fossa of femur">intercondylar fossa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">Tibia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">upper extremity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerdy%27s_tubercle" title="Gerdy's tubercle">Gerdy's tubercle</a></li> <li><i>condyles</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateral_condyle_of_tibia" title="Lateral condyle of tibia">lateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medial_condyle_of_tibia" title="Medial condyle of tibia">medial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercondylar_area" title="Intercondylar area">intercondylar area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">shaft</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuberosity_of_the_tibia" title="Tuberosity of the tibia">tuberosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soleal_line" title="Soleal line">soleal line</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">lower extremity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malleolus" title="Malleolus">medial malleolus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_colliculus" title="Anterior colliculus">Anterior colliculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_colliculus" title="Posterior colliculus">Posterior colliculus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibular_notch" title="Fibular notch">fibular notch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">Fibula</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malleolus" title="Malleolus">lateral malleolus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">patella</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">apex</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foot" title="Foot">Foot</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">Tarsus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcaneus" title="Calcaneus">calcaneus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcaneus" title="Calcaneus">sustentaculum tali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcaneus" title="Calcaneus">calcaneal tubercle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talus_bone" title="Talus bone">talus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navicular_bone" title="Navicular bone">navicular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuboid_bone" title="Cuboid bone">cuboid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_bones" title="Cuneiform bones">cuneiform</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_bones" title="Cuneiform bones">medial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_bones" title="Cuneiform bones">intermediate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_bones" title="Cuneiform bones">lateral</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">Metatarsals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_metatarsal_bone" title="First metatarsal bone">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_metatarsal_bone" title="Second metatarsal bone">2nd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_metatarsal_bone" title="Third metatarsal bone">3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_metatarsal_bone" title="Fourth metatarsal bone">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_metatarsal_bone" title="Fifth metatarsal bone">5th</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bones_of_the_pelvis110" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pelvis" title="Template:Pelvis"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pelvis" title="Template talk:Pelvis"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pelvis" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pelvis"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bones_of_the_pelvis110" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Bones</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Human_pelvis" class="mw-redirect" title="Human pelvis">pelvis</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacrum" title="Sacrum">sacrum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coccyx" title="Coccyx">coccyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hip_bone" title="Hip bone">hip bone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ilium_(bone)" title="Ilium (bone)">Ilium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Body_of_ilium" class="mw-redirect" title="Body of ilium">body</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcuate_line_of_ilium" title="Arcuate line of ilium">arcuate line</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wing_of_ilium" title="Wing of ilium">wing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>gluteal lines</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_gluteal_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Posterior gluteal line">posterior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_gluteal_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior gluteal line">anterior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_gluteal_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferior gluteal line">inferior</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>iliac spines</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_superior_iliac_spine" title="Anterior superior iliac spine">anterior superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_inferior_iliac_spine" title="Anterior inferior iliac spine">anterior inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_superior_iliac_spine" title="Posterior superior iliac spine">posterior superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_inferior_iliac_spine" title="Posterior inferior iliac spine">posterior inferior</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><i>other:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iliac_crest" title="Iliac crest">crest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iliac_tuberosity" title="Iliac tuberosity">tuberosity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iliac_tubercle" title="Iliac tubercle">tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iliac_fossa" title="Iliac fossa">fossa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ischium" title="Ischium">Ischium</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">body</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischial_spine" title="Ischial spine">ischial spine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_sciatic_notch" title="Lesser sciatic notch">lesser sciatic notch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">superior ramus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tuberosity_of_the_ischium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuberosity of the ischium">tuberosity of the ischium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">inferior ramus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>no substructures</i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pubis_(bone)" title="Pubis (bone)">Pubis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>body <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pubic_crest" title="Pubic crest">pubic crest</a></li></ul></li> <li>superior ramus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pubic_tubercle" title="Pubic tubercle">pubic tubercle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obturator_crest" title="Obturator crest">obturator crest</a></li></ul></li> <li>inferior ramus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pectineal_line_(pubis)" title="Pectineal line (pubis)">pectineal line</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Compound</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetabulum" title="Acetabulum">acetabulum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acetabular_notch" title="Acetabular notch">acetabular notch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iliopubic_eminence" title="Iliopubic eminence">iliopubic eminence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Iliopectineal_line" title="Iliopectineal line">iliopectineal line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linea_terminalis" title="Linea terminalis">linea terminalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ischiopubic_ramus" title="Ischiopubic ramus">ischiopubic ramus</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pubic_arch" title="Pubic arch">pubic arch</a></li> <li>Foramina <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obturator_foramen" title="Obturator foramen">obturator foramen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_sciatic_foramen" title="Greater sciatic foramen">greater sciatic foramen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Greater_sciatic_notch" title="Greater sciatic notch">greater sciatic notch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_sciatic_foramen" title="Lesser sciatic foramen">lesser sciatic foramen</a></li></ul></li> <li>Landmarks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_inlet" title="Pelvic inlet">pelvic inlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_brim" title="Pelvic brim">pelvic brim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_outlet" title="Pelvic outlet">pelvic outlet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Fractures_and_cartilage_damage225" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Fractures" title="Template:Fractures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Fractures" title="Template talk:Fractures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Fractures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Fractures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Fractures_and_cartilage_damage225" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bone_fracture" title="Bone fracture">Fractures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Articular_cartilage_damage" title="Articular cartilage damage">cartilage damage</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_fracture" title="Avulsion fracture">Avulsion fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalkstick_fracture" title="Chalkstick fracture">Chalkstick fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenstick_fracture" title="Greenstick fracture">Greenstick fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_fracture" title="Open fracture">Open fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathologic_fracture" title="Pathologic fracture">Pathologic fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_fracture" title="Spiral fracture">Spiral fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_head" title="Human head">Head</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilar_skull_fracture" title="Basilar skull fracture">Basilar skull fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blowout_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Blowout fracture">Blowout fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandibular_fracture" title="Mandibular fracture">Mandibular fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasal_fracture" title="Nasal fracture">Nasal fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Fort_fracture_of_skull" title="Le Fort fracture of skull">Le Fort fracture of skull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygomaticomaxillary_complex_fracture" title="Zygomaticomaxillary complex fracture">Zygomaticomaxillary complex fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygoma_fracture" title="Zygoma fracture">Zygoma fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spinal_fracture" title="Spinal fracture">Spinal fracture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_fracture" title="Cervical fracture">Cervical fracture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burst_fracture" title="Burst fracture">Burst fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chance_fracture" title="Chance fracture">Chance fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay-shoveler_fracture" title="Clay-shoveler fracture">Clay-shoveler fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craniocervical_instability" title="Craniocervical instability">Craniocervical instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexion_teardrop_fracture" title="Flexion teardrop fracture">Flexion teardrop fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangman%27s_fracture" title="Hangman's fracture">Hangman's fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holdsworth_fracture" title="Holdsworth fracture">Holdsworth fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_fracture" title="Jefferson fracture">Jefferson fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_compression_fracture" title="Vertebral compression fracture">Vertebral compression fracture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Ribs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rib_fracture" title="Rib fracture">Rib fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternal_fracture" title="Sternal fracture">Sternal fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoulder fracture">Shoulder fracture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clavicle_fracture" title="Clavicle fracture">Clavicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapular_fracture" title="Scapular fracture">Scapular</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arm_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Arm fracture">Arm fracture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:WhiteSmoke;"><a href="/wiki/Humerus_fracture" title="Humerus fracture">Humerus fracture</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proximal_humerus_fracture" title="Proximal humerus fracture">Proximal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supracondylar_humerus_fracture" title="Supracondylar humerus fracture">Supracondylar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holstein%E2%80%93Lewis_fracture" title="Holstein–Lewis fracture">Holstein–Lewis fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:WhiteSmoke;"><a href="/wiki/Forearm_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Forearm fracture">Forearm fracture</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulna_fracture" title="Ulna fracture">Ulna fracture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monteggia_fracture" title="Monteggia fracture">Monteggia fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hume_fracture" title="Hume fracture">Hume fracture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radius_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Radius fracture">Radius fracture</a>/<a href="/wiki/Distal_radius_fracture" title="Distal radius fracture">Distal radius</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galeazzi_fracture" title="Galeazzi fracture">Galeazzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colles%27_fracture" title="Colles' fracture">Colles'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauffeur%27s_fracture" title="Chauffeur's fracture">Chauffeur's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith%27s_fracture" title="Smith's fracture">Smith's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barton%27s_fracture" title="Barton's fracture">Barton's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essex-Lopresti_fracture" title="Essex-Lopresti fracture">Essex-Lopresti fracture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hand_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Hand fracture">Hand fracture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scaphoid_fracture" title="Scaphoid fracture">Scaphoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolando_fracture" title="Rolando fracture">Rolando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bennett%27s_fracture" title="Bennett's fracture">Bennett's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boxer%27s_fracture" title="Boxer's fracture">Boxer's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Busch_fracture" title="Busch fracture">Busch's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_finger" title="Broken finger">Broken finger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_fracture" title="Pelvic fracture">Pelvic fracture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duverney_fracture" title="Duverney fracture">Duverney fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipkin_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipkin fracture">Pipkin fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leg</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:WhiteSmoke;"><a href="/wiki/Tibia_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Tibia fracture">Tibia fracture</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bumper_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Bumper fracture">Bumper fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segond_fracture" title="Segond fracture">Segond fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gosselin_fracture" title="Gosselin fracture">Gosselin fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toddler%27s_fracture" title="Toddler's fracture">Toddler's fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilon_fracture" title="Pilon fracture">Pilon fracture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plafond_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Plafond fracture">Plafond fracture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tillaux_fracture" title="Tillaux fracture">Tillaux fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:WhiteSmoke;"><a href="/wiki/Fibular_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibular fracture">Fibular fracture</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maisonneuve_fracture" title="Maisonneuve fracture">Maisonneuve fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Fort_fracture_of_ankle" class="mw-redirect" title="Le Fort fracture of ankle">Le Fort fracture of ankle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosworth_fracture" title="Bosworth fracture">Bosworth fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:WhiteSmoke;"><a href="/wiki/Combined_tibia_and_fibula_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined tibia and fibula fracture">Combined tibia and fibula fracture</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trimalleolar_fracture" title="Trimalleolar fracture">Trimalleolar fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimalleolar_fracture" title="Bimalleolar fracture">Bimalleolar fracture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pott%27s_fracture" title="Pott's fracture">Pott's fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:WhiteSmoke;"><a href="/wiki/Crus_fracture" title="Crus fracture">Crus fracture</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patella_fracture" title="Patella fracture">Patella fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:WhiteSmoke;"><a href="/wiki/Femoral_fracture" title="Femoral fracture">Femoral fracture</a>:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_fracture" title="Hip fracture">Hip fracture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foot_fracture" class="mw-redirect" title="Foot fracture">Foot fracture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lisfranc_injury" title="Lisfranc injury">Lisfranc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_fracture" title="Jones fracture">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_fracture" title="Cuneiform fracture">Cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_fracture" title="March fracture">March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcaneal_fracture" title="Calcaneal fracture">Calcaneal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken_toe" title="Broken toe">Broken toe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div 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</div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-698c79758b-5kw79","wgBackendResponseTime":208,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.685","walltime":"1.908","ppvisitednodes":{"value":11679,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":662868,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":103855,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":24,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":499916,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1536.905 1 -total"," 41.63% 639.810 1 Template:Reflist"," 16.56% 254.568 47 Template:Cite_journal"," 14.73% 226.408 29 Template:Cite_book"," 12.96% 199.255 34 Template:Navbox"," 10.24% 157.319 38 Template:Sfn"," 7.00% 107.578 1 Template:Human_bones"," 6.90% 106.097 1 Template:Navboxes"," 6.77% 103.987 1 Template:Infobox_anatomy"," 6.44% 98.972 1 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[\"CITEREFDumont2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaienzaUrbanoChiaritoLassandro2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFauciBraunwaldKasperHauser2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernándezde_Alarcón2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFogelmanGnanasegaranvan_der_Wall2013\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGdyczynskiManbachiHashemiLashkari2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGomez2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordonMisraMitchell2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHadjidakisAndroulakis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHauschkaChenMavrakos1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoehnMarieb2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoussaye2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoussayeDe_BuffrenilRageBardet2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJerezMangioneAbdala2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamrathHollRosenbauer2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKiniNandeesh2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaszlovszkySzabo2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaurinCanovilleGermain2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLayneNelson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeeSowaHinoiFerron2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoxtonNarayanMunnsCraig2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLópez-GarcíaCruz-CastruitaMorales-CorralBanda-Sauceda2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManolagas2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarenzanaArnett2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyersChenLinSeki2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMohanBaylink1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasoori2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNdisangVannacciRastogi2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNordinAaronSpeedCrilly1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPanZhangYaoZhu2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratt\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRolfEnderle1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoyceSteinmann2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaladin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalterHarris1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt-Nielsen1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimsVrahnas2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteeleBramblett1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStynerPagnottiMcGrathWu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTanSiafarikasRantalainenHart2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTortoraDerrickson2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurnerWangBurr2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_LangendonckLefevreClaessensThomis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVincent\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWHO1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWangZhangPan2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWein2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitford1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodburne1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWopenkaPasteris2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_AraújoMoreirade_Paula2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_BuffrénilCanovilleD\u0026#039;AnastasioDomning2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_BuffrénilMazin1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Buffrénilde_RicqlèsZylberbergPadian2021\"] = 1,\n [\"Woven_vs._lamellar_bone\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bone and cartilage\"] = 1,\n [\"CC-notice\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 29,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 47,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 23,\n [\"Clear\"] = 2,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Cs1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Cvt\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Fractures\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 1,\n [\"Hatnote group\"] = 1,\n [\"Human bones\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox anatomy\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 10,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Pipe\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 38,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-int.codfw.main-679bf888dd-p8djx","timestamp":"20250225094831","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Bone","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Bone","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q265868","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q265868","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia 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