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Computer - Wikipedia

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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Pre-20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_computer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_computer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>First computer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_computer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electromechanical_calculating_machine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromechanical_calculating_machine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Electromechanical calculating machine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromechanical_calculating_machine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analog_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analog_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Analog computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analog_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Digital computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electromechanical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromechanical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Electromechanical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromechanical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vacuum_tubes_and_digital_electronic_circuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vacuum_tubes_and_digital_electronic_circuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vacuum_tubes_and_digital_electronic_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Modern computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concept_of_modern_computer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concept_of_modern_computer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.1</span> <span>Concept of modern computer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concept_of_modern_computer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stored_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stored_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.2</span> <span>Stored programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stored_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transistors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transistors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.3</span> <span>Transistors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transistors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integrated_circuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integrated_circuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6.4</span> <span>Integrated circuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integrated_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mobile_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mobile_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Mobile computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mobile_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-By_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>By architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_size,_form-factor_and_purpose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_size,_form-factor_and_purpose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>By size, form-factor and purpose</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-By_size,_form-factor_and_purpose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hardware" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hardware"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Hardware</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hardware-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hardware subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hardware-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_computing_hardware" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_computing_hardware"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>History of computing hardware</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_computing_hardware-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_hardware_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_hardware_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Other hardware topics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_hardware_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Input_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Input_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Input devices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Input_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Output_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Output_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Output devices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Output_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_unit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_unit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Control unit</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_unit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Central_processing_unit_(CPU)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Central_processing_unit_(CPU)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Central processing unit (CPU)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Central_processing_unit_(CPU)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arithmetic_logic_unit_(ALU)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arithmetic_logic_unit_(ALU)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arithmetic_logic_unit_(ALU)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Memory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Input/output_(I/O)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Input/output_(I/O)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Input/output (I/O)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Input/output_(I/O)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multitasking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multitasking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Multitasking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multitasking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multiprocessing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiprocessing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.11</span> <span>Multiprocessing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multiprocessing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Software" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Software"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Software</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Software-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Software subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Software-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stored_program_architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stored_program_architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Stored program architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stored_program_architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Machine_code" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Machine_code"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Machine code</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Machine_code-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Programming_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Programming_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3</span> <span>Programming language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Programming_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Low-level_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-level_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3.1</span> <span>Low-level languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-level_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-level_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-level_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3.2</span> <span>High-level languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-level_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Program_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Program_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.4</span> <span>Program design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Program_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.5</span> <span>Bugs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Networking_and_the_Internet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Networking_and_the_Internet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Networking and the Internet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Networking_and_the_Internet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unconventional_computers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unconventional_computers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Unconventional computers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unconventional_computers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Future</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Future-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Future subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Future-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computer_architecture_paradigms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer_architecture_paradigms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Computer architecture paradigms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer_architecture_paradigms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Artificial intelligence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professions_and_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professions_and_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Professions and organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professions_and_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Computer</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 241 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-241" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">241 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekenaar" title="Rekenaar – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Rekenaar" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%AE%E1%88%9D%E1%8D%92%E1%8B%A9%E1%89%B0%E1%88%AD" title="ኮምፒዩተር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ኮምፒዩተር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="कंप्यूटर – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="कंप्यूटर" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearctelle" title="Spearctelle – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Spearctelle" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ab mw-list-item"><a href="https://ab.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Акомпиутер – Abkhazian" lang="ab" hreflang="ab" data-title="Акомпиутер" data-language-autonym="Аԥсшәа" data-language-local-name="Abkhazian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Аԥсшәа</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8" title="حاسوب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حاسوب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinador" title="Ordinador – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ordinador" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9A%DC%AB%DC%98%DC%92%DC%90_(%DC%A1%DC%90%DC%9F%DC%A2%DC%90)" title="ܚܫܘܒܐ (ܡܐܟܢܐ) – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܚܫܘܒܐ (ܡܐܟܢܐ)" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%B9" title="Համակարգիչ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Համակարգիչ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0" title="কম্পিউটাৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কম্পিউটাৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordenador" title="Ordenador – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ordenador" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="कंप्युटर – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="कंप्युटर" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kombutad%C3%B3ra" title="Kombutadóra – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kombutadóra" data-language-autonym="Avañe&#039;ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe&#039;ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qillaya_atamiri" title="Qillaya atamiri – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Qillaya atamiri" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komp%C3%BCter" title="Kompüter – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kompüter" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%84%DA%AF%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="بیلگی‌سایار – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیلگی‌سایار" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="কম্পিউটার – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কম্পিউটার" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-n%C3%A1u" title="Tiān-náu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-náu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%E2%80%99%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Камп’ютар – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Камп’ютар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Кампутар – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кампутар" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="कंप्यूटर – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="कंप्यूटर" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyuter" title="Kompyuter – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kompyuter" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compter" title="Compter – Bislama" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Compter" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="Bislama" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8E%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%80" title="Компютър – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Компютър" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechna" title="Rechna – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Rechna" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%82%E0%BE%B3%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%80%E0%BE%B3%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8D" title="གློག་ཀླད། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="གློག་ཀླད།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunar" title="Računar – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Računar" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urzhiataer" title="Urzhiataer – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Urzhiataer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinador" title="Ordinador – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ordinador" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagitabyan" title="Dagitabyan – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Dagitabyan" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8D" title="Počítač – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Počítač" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kombiyuta" title="Kombiyuta – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Kombiyuta" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyfrifiadur" title="Cyfrifiadur – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyfrifiadur" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1" title="أورديناطور – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="أورديناطور" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="कम्प्युटर – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="कम्प्युटर" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvuti" title="Arvuti – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Arvuti" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82" title="Ηλεκτρονικός υπολογιστής – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλεκτρονικός υπολογιστής" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarvl%C3%A5n" title="Zarvlån – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Zarvlån" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Арси машинась – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Арси машинась" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computadora" title="Computadora – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Computadora" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputilo" title="Komputilo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Komputilo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordenaol" title="Ordenaol – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Ordenaol" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordenagailu" title="Ordenagailu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ordenagailu" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="رایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رایانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teldur" title="Teldur – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Teldur" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinateur" title="Ordinateur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ordinateur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordenad%C3%B4r" title="Ordenadôr – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Ordenadôr" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADomhaire" title="Ríomhaire – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ríomhaire" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-earrooder" title="Co-earrooder – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Co-earrooder" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coimpiutair" title="Coimpiutair – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Coimpiutair" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordenador" title="Ordenador – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ordenador" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6" title="電腦 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="電腦" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kombuita" title="Kombuita – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Kombuita" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-glk mw-list-item"><a href="https://glk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D9%8A%DB%8A%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="کامپيۊتر – Gilaki" lang="glk" hreflang="glk" data-title="کامپيۊتر" data-language-autonym="گیلکی" data-language-local-name="Gilaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>گیلکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%97%E0%AA%A3%E0%AA%95" title="સંગણક – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સંગણક" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%B2%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%B7%F0%90%8C%BD%F0%90%8C%BE%F0%90%8C%B0" title="𐌲𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌷𐌽𐌾𐌰 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐌲𐌰𐍂𐌰𐌷𐌽𐌾𐌰" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thien-n%C3%B3" title="Thien-nó – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Thien-nó" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%84%B0" title="컴퓨터 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="컴퓨터" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komfuta" title="Komfuta – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Komfuta" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%B9" title="Համակարգիչ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Համակարգիչ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="कंप्यूटर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कंप्यूटर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunalo" title="Računalo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Računalo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputero" title="Komputero – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Komputero" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orunotu" title="Orunotu – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Orunotu" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompiuter" title="Kompiuter – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kompiuter" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0" title="কম্পিউটার – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="কম্পিউটার" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computator" title="Computator – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Computator" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computator" title="Computator – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Computator" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%96%83%E1%95%8B%E1%93%B4%E1%90%85%E1%94%AD%E1%96%85" title="ᖃᕋᓴᐅᔭᖅ – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᖃᕋᓴᐅᔭᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="Inuktitut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ik mw-list-item"><a href="https://ik.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaqasauraq" title="Qaqasauraq – Inupiaq" lang="ik" hreflang="ik" data-title="Qaqasauraq" data-language-autonym="Iñupiatun" data-language-local-name="Inupiaq" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Iñupiatun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikhompyutha" title="Ikhompyutha – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ikhompyutha" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiCikizi" title="IsiCikizi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiCikizi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B6lva" title="Tölva – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Tölva" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A9%D7%91" title="מחשב – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מחשב" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%86%C9%94r%C9%A9d%C9%A9nat%C9%9B%C9%9Br%C9%A9" title="Ɔɔrɩdɩnatɛɛrɩ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ɔɔrɩdɩnatɛɛrɩ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="კომპიუტერი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კომპიუტერი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%8E%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%97%D9%B9%D9%8E%D8%B1" title="کَمپیوٗٹَر – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="کَمپیوٗٹَر" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B2mp%C3%B9ter" title="Kòmpùter – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Kòmpùter" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jynn_amontya" title="Jynn amontya – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Jynn amontya" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarakilishi" title="Tarakilishi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Tarakilishi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Коми</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludinatelo" title="Ludinatelo – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Ludinatelo" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%92dinat%C3%A8" title="Òdinatè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Òdinatè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinat%C3%B2" title="Ordinatò – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Ordinatò" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contador" title="Contador – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Contador" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%A7%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%B5" title="ຄອມພິວເຕີ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຄອມພິວເຕີ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computatrum" title="Computatrum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Computatrum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dators" title="Dators – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dators" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompiuteris" title="Kompiuteris – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kompiuteris" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Es%C3%A1lela" title="Esálela – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Esálela" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computador" title="Computador – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Computador" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiedokoneh" title="Tiedokoneh – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Tiedokoneh" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/skami" title="skami – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="skami" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sz%C3%A1m%C3%ADt%C3%B3g%C3%A9p" title="Számítógép – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Számítógép" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="कम्प्युटर – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="कम्प्युटर" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%87" title="Сметач – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сметач" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solosaina" title="Solosaina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Solosaina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BC" title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കമ്പ്യൂട്ടർ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompjuter" title="Kompjuter – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Kompjuter" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="संगणक विज्ञान – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="संगणक विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="კომპიუტერი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კომპიუტერი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="كومبيوتر – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كومبيوتر" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%81%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC" title="ခမ်ပျူတာ – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ခမ်ပျူတာ" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1" title="کامپیوتر – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="کامپیوتر" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%AAng-n%C5%8D%CC%A4" title="Diêng-nō̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Diêng-nō̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumputador" title="Cumputador – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Cumputador" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC" title="ကွန်ပျူတာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကွန်ပျူတာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompiuta" title="Kompiuta – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Kompiuta" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="कम्प्युटर – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="कम्प्युटर" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0" title="कम्प्युटर – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="कम्प्युटर" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%94%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF" title="コンピュータ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コンピュータ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%95%DF%9F%DF%8B%DF%AC%DF%93%DF%8A%DF%AE" title="ߕߟߋ߬ߓߊ߮ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߕߟߋ߬ߓߊ߮" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompjuuter" title="Kompjuuter – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kompjuuter" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datamaskin" title="Datamaskin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Datamaskin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datamaskin" title="Datamaskin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Datamaskin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinator" title="Ordinator – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ordinator" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%95%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%9F%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%9F%E0%AC%B0" title="କମ୍ପ୍ୟୁଟର – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="କମ୍ପ୍ୟୁଟର" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompitara" title="Kompitara – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Kompitara" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyuter" title="Kompyuter – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kompyuter" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%B0" title="ਕੰਪਿਊਟਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੰਪਿਊਟਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="کمپیوٹر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کمپیوٹر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC" title="ကွန်ပျူတာ – Pa&#039;O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ကွန်ပျူတာ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa&#039;O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%BC%D8%B1" title="کمپیوټر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="کمپیوټر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyuuta" title="Kompyuuta – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kompyuuta" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%BB%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%96%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%9A" title="កុំព្យូទ័រ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="កុំព្យូទ័រ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinator" title="Ordinator – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Ordinator" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reekner" title="Reekner – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Reekner" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CE%BD_%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82" title="Ηλεκτρονικόν υπολογιστής – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Ηλεκτρονικόν υπολογιστής" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ποντιακά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computador" title="Computador – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Computador" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyuter" title="Kompyuter – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Kompyuter" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyuter" title="Kompyuter – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Kompyuter" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Calculator" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginepaskro" title="Ginepaskro – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Ginepaskro" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anta%C3%B1iqichaq" title="Antañiqichaq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Antañiqichaq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компютер – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Компютер" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Компьютер – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Компьютер" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%BF%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Көмпүүтэр – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Көмпүүтэр" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/tingnaw" title="tingnaw – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="tingnaw" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sm mw-list-item"><a href="https://sm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komipiuta" title="Komipiuta – Samoan" lang="sm" hreflang="sm" data-title="Komipiuta" data-language-autonym="Gagana Samoa" data-language-local-name="Samoan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gagana Samoa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="सङ्गणकम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सङ्गणकम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%AF%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%B4%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A8" title="ᱠᱚᱢᱯᱩᱴᱚᱨ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱠᱚᱢᱯᱩᱴᱚᱨ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="کمپیوٹر – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="کمپیوٹر" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khomputa" title="Khomputa – Southern Sotho" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Khomputa" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="Southern Sotho" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompjuteri" title="Kompjuteri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kompjuteri" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BA" title="පරිගණකය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පරිගණකය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AA%D9%85%D9%BE%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%BD%D8%B1" title="ڪمپيوٽر – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڪمپيوٽر" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8D" title="Počítač – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Počítač" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra%C4%8Dunalnik" title="Računalnik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Računalnik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%89%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%94%D0%BB%D2%84%D1%8C" title="Ищислитєл҄ь – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Ищислитєл҄ь" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%AFmputer" title="Kůmputer – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Kůmputer" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasjil_(kombiyuutar)" title="Kasjil (kombiyuutar) – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Kasjil (kombiyuutar)" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B1" title="کۆمپیوتەر – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆمپیوتەر" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Рачунар – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Рачунар" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompjuter" title="Kompjuter – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kompjuter" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tietokone" title="Tietokone – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tietokone" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dator" title="Dator – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Dator" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyuter" title="Kompyuter – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kompyuter" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF" title="கணினி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கணினி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amssuds" title="Amssuds – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Amssuds" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aselkim" title="Aselkim – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Aselkim" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Санак – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Санак" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/tennaw" title="tennaw – Atayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="tennaw" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Atayal" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tayal</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81" title="కంప్యూటరు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కంప్యూటరు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="คอมพิวเตอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="คอมพิวเตอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-din mw-list-item"><a href="https://din.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maku%C9%9B%CC%88n" title="Makuɛ̈n – Dinka" lang="din" hreflang="din" data-title="Makuɛ̈n" data-language-autonym="Thuɔŋjäŋ" data-language-local-name="Dinka" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Thuɔŋjäŋ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Роёна – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Роёна" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chy mw-list-item"><a href="https://chy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ts%C3%A9ohketoetan%C3%B3to" title="Tséohketoetanóto – Cheyenne" lang="chy" hreflang="chy" data-title="Tséohketoetanóto" data-language-autonym="Tsetsêhestâhese" data-language-local-name="Cheyenne" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tsetsêhestâhese</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tcy mw-list-item"><a href="https://tcy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D" title="ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್ – Tulu" lang="tcy" hreflang="tcy" data-title="ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್" data-language-autonym="ತುಳು" data-language-local-name="Tulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ತುಳು</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilgisayar" title="Bilgisayar – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilgisayar" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komp%C3%BDuter" title="Kompýuter – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Kompýuter" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="https://bug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%A8%80%E1%A8%9A%E1%A8%87%E1%A8%98%E1%A8%88%E1%A8%9B%E1%A8%91%E1%A8%99" title="ᨀᨚᨇᨘᨈᨛᨑᨙ – Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" data-title="ᨀᨚᨇᨘᨈᨛᨑᨙ" data-language-autonym="Basa Ugi" data-language-local-name="Buginese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Ugi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%27%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Комп&#039;ютер – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Комп&#039;ютер" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%B1" title="کمپیوٹر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کمپیوٹر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%88%D9%85%D9%BE%D9%8A%DB%87%D8%AA%DB%90%D8%B1" title="كومپيۇتېر – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="كومپيۇتېر" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennauj" title="Dennauj – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Dennauj" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompjuter" title="Kompjuter – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Kompjuter" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A1y_t%C3%ADnh" title="Máy tính – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Máy tính" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komp%C3%BCt%C3%B6m" title="Kompütöm – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Kompütöm" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puutri" title="Puutri – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Puutri" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copiutrece" title="Copiutrece – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Copiutrece" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputatoora" title="Komputatoora – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Komputatoora" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6" title="電腦 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="電腦" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer" title="Computer – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Computer" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompyuter" title="Kompyuter – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kompyuter" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nosukaay" title="Nosukaay – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Nosukaay" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA" title="电子计算机 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电子计算机" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khompuyuta" title="Khompuyuta – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Khompuyuta" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%95%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%A8" title="קאמפיוטער – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאמפיוטער" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%E1%BB%8D%CC%80mp%C3%BAt%C3%A0" title="Kọ̀mpútà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Kọ̀mpútà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6" title="電腦 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="電腦" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuompioteris" title="Kuompioteris – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Kuompioteris" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E8%AE%A1%E7%AE%97%E6%9C%BA" title="电子计算机 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="电子计算机" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ann mw-list-item"><a href="https://ann.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akpatan%CC%84_nden%CC%84" title="Akpatan̄ nden̄ – Obolo" lang="ann" hreflang="ann" data-title="Akpatan̄ nden̄" data-language-autonym="Obolo" data-language-local-name="Obolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Obolo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumputer" title="Kumputer – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Kumputer" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokud" title="Tokud – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Tokud" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Komputer" title="Komputer – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Komputer" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-syl mw-list-item"><a href="https://syl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%A0%87%EA%A0%9D%EA%A0%86%EA%A0%99%EA%A0%A5%EA%A0%90%EA%A0%A3%EA%A0%9E" title="ꠇꠝ꠆ꠙꠥꠐꠣꠞ – Sylheti" lang="syl" hreflang="syl" data-title="ꠇꠝ꠆ꠙꠥꠐꠣꠞ" data-language-autonym="ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ" data-language-local-name="Sylheti" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꠍꠤꠟꠐꠤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompjuter" title="Kompjuter – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Kompjuter" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%93%E2%B4%B7%E2%B5%99" title="ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ – Standard Moroccan Tamazight" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="Standard Moroccan Tamazight" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/ENIAC-changing_a_tube_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-ENIAC-changing_a_tube_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1239" data-file-height="966" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:147px;max-width:147px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:108px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IBM_System360_Mainframe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Computer room with multiple computer cabinets and operating panel" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/IBM_System360_Mainframe.jpg/145px-IBM_System360_Mainframe.jpg" decoding="async" width="145" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/IBM_System360_Mainframe.jpg/218px-IBM_System360_Mainframe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/IBM_System360_Mainframe.jpg/290px-IBM_System360_Mainframe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:116px;max-width:116px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:152px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LYF_WATER_2_Smartphone.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Smartphone with rainbow-like display held in a hand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/LYF_WATER_2_Smartphone.JPG/114px-LYF_WATER_2_Smartphone.JPG" decoding="async" width="114" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/LYF_WATER_2_Smartphone.JPG/171px-LYF_WATER_2_Smartphone.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/LYF_WATER_2_Smartphone.JPG/228px-LYF_WATER_2_Smartphone.JPG 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="320" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:152px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:ThinkCentre_S50.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Black desktop computer with monitor on top and keyboard in front" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/ThinkCentre_S50.jpg/250px-ThinkCentre_S50.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/ThinkCentre_S50.jpg/330px-ThinkCentre_S50.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/ThinkCentre_S50.jpg/500px-ThinkCentre_S50.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="922" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:128px;max-width:128px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:126px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gamecube-console.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Purple video game console with attached controller" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Gamecube-console.jpg/126px-Gamecube-console.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Gamecube-console.jpg/189px-Gamecube-console.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Gamecube-console.jpg/252px-Gamecube-console.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:160px;max-width:160px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:126px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Summit_(supercomputer).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Rows of large, dark computer cabinets in warehouse-like room" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Summit_%28supercomputer%29.jpg/250px-Summit_%28supercomputer%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Summit_%28supercomputer%29.jpg/330px-Summit_%28supercomputer%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3535" data-file-height="2828" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Computers and computing devices from different eras—left to right, top to bottom: <div><ul><li>Early vacuum tube computer (<a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Mainframe" class="mw-redirect" title="Mainframe">Mainframe</a> computer (<a href="/wiki/IBM_System/360" title="IBM System/360">IBM System/360</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a> (<a href="/wiki/LYF" title="LYF">LYF</a> Water 2)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">Desktop computer</a> (IBM <a href="/wiki/ThinkCentre#S50" title="ThinkCentre">ThinkCentre S50</a> with monitor)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">Video game console</a> (Nintendo <a href="/wiki/GameCube" title="GameCube">GameCube</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">Supercomputer</a> (IBM <a href="/wiki/Summit_(supercomputer)" title="Summit (supercomputer)">Summit</a>)</li></ul></div></div></div></div></div> <p>A <b>computer</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machine</a> that can be <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmed</a> to automatically <a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">carry out</a> sequences of <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Logical_operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical operations">logical operations</a> (<a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a>). Modern <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronic" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital electronic">digital electronic</a> computers can perform generic sets of operations known as <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">programs</a>. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks. The term <b>computer system</b> may refer to a nominally complete computer that includes the <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">peripheral</a> equipment needed and used for full operation; or to a group of computers that are linked and function together, such as a <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer network</a> or <a href="/wiki/Computer_cluster" title="Computer cluster">computer cluster</a>. It is sometimes named <b>general purpose computer</b> to distinguish it from a <a href="/wiki/Computer_appliance" title="Computer appliance">computer appliance</a>. </p><p>A broad range of <a href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller" title="Programmable logic controller">industrial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics" title="Consumer electronics">consumer products</a> use computers as <a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">control systems</a>, including simple special-purpose devices like <a href="/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">microwave ovens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Remote_control" title="Remote control">remote controls</a>, and factory devices like <a href="/wiki/Industrial_robot" title="Industrial robot">industrial robots</a>. Computers are at the core of general-purpose devices such as <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">personal computers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobile_device" title="Mobile device">mobile devices</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a>. Computers power the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>, which links billions of computers and users.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>Early computers were meant to be used only for calculations. Simple manual instruments like the <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> have aided people in doing calculations since ancient times. Early in the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, some mechanical devices were built to automate long, tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for <a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">looms</a>. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized <a href="/wiki/Analogue_electronics" title="Analogue electronics">analog</a> calculations in the early 20th century. The first <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> electronic calculating machines were developed during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, both <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_computer" title="Mechanical computer">electromechanical</a> and using <a href="/wiki/Thermionic_valve" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermionic valve">thermionic valves</a>. The first <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> in the late 1940s were followed by the <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>-based <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> (MOS transistor) and <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolithic integrated circuit">monolithic integrated circuit</a> chip technologies in the late 1950s, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcomputer revolution">microcomputer revolution</a> in the 1970s. The speed, power, and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with <a href="/wiki/Transistor_count" title="Transistor count">transistor counts</a> increasing at a rapid pace (<a href="/wiki/Moore%27s_law" title="Moore&#39;s law">Moore's law</a> noted that counts doubled every two years), leading to the <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Digital Revolution</a> during the late 20th and early 21st centuries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one <a href="/wiki/Processing_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Processing element">processing element</a>, typically a <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU) in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>, together with some type of <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">computer memory</a>, typically <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a> chips. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">information</a>. Peripheral devices include input devices (<a href="/wiki/Keyboard_technology" title="Keyboard technology">keyboards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">mice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joysticks" class="mw-redirect" title="Joysticks">joysticks</a>, etc.), output devices (<a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">monitors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">printers</a>, etc.), and <a href="/wiki/Input_and_output_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="Input and output devices">input/output devices</a> that perform both functions (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">touchscreens</a>). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and they enable the results of operations to be saved and retrieved.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:X-4_with_Female_Computer_-_GPN-2000-001932.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A human computer." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/X-4_with_Female_Computer_-_GPN-2000-001932.jpg/250px-X-4_with_Female_Computer_-_GPN-2000-001932.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/X-4_with_Female_Computer_-_GPN-2000-001932.jpg/500px-X-4_with_Female_Computer_-_GPN-2000-001932.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Human_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computer">human computer</a>, with microscope and calculator, 1952</figcaption></figure> <p>It was not until the mid-20th century that the word acquired its modern definition; according to the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i>, the first known use of the word <i>computer</i> was in a different sense, in a 1613 book called <i>The Yong Mans Gleanings</i> by the English writer <a href="/wiki/Richard_Brathwait" title="Richard Brathwait">Richard Brathwait</a>: "I haue &#32;&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>&#93; read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer &#32;&#91;<i>sic</i>&#93; breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number." This usage of the term referred to a <a href="/wiki/Human_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computer">human computer</a>, a person who carried out calculations or <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computations</a>. The word continued to have the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. During the latter part of this period, women were often hired as computers because they could be paid less than their male counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans201823_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans201823-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> By 1943, most human computers were women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith20136_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith20136-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Online_Etymology_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Online Etymology Dictionary">Online Etymology Dictionary</a></i> gives the first attested use of <i>computer</i> in the 1640s, meaning 'one who calculates'; this is an "agent noun from compute (v.)". The <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i> states that the use of the term to mean <span style="padding-right:.15em;">"</span>'calculating machine' (of any type) is from 1897." The <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i> indicates that the "modern use" of the term, to mean 'programmable digital electronic computer' dates from "1945 under this name; [in a] theoretical [sense] from 1937, as <i><a href="/wiki/Turing_machine" title="Turing machine">Turing machine</a></i>".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The name has remained, although modern computers are capable of many higher-level functions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing" title="Timeline of computing">Timeline of computing</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-20th_century">Pre-20th century</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG/250px-Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG" decoding="async" width="140" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG/330px-Os_d%27Ishango_IRSNB.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1404" data-file-height="2274" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ishango_bone" title="Ishango bone">Ishango bone</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Bone_tool" title="Bone tool">bone tool</a> dating back to <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Africa" title="Prehistoric Africa">prehistoric Africa</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using <a href="/wiki/One-to-one_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="One-to-one correspondence">one-to-one correspondence</a> with <a href="/wiki/Finger_counting" class="mw-redirect" title="Finger counting">fingers</a>. The earliest counting device was most likely a form of <a href="/wiki/Tally_stick" title="Tally stick">tally stick</a>. Later record keeping aids throughout the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, likely livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The use of <a href="/wiki/Counting_rods" title="Counting rods">counting rods</a> is one example. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abacus_6.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Abacus_6.png" decoding="async" width="247" height="145" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="145" /></a><figcaption>The Chinese <a href="/wiki/Suanpan" title="Suanpan">suanpan</a> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh">算盘</span></span>). The number represented on this <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> is 6,302,715,408.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_abacus" title="Roman abacus">Roman abacus</a> was developed from devices used in <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> as early as 2400 BCE. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European <a href="/wiki/Counting_house" title="Counting house">counting house</a>, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/250px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/330px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/500px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1036" data-file-height="924" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a>, dating back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a> circa 150–100 BCE, is an early <a href="/wiki/Analog_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog computing">analog computing</a> device.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> is believed to be the earliest known mechanical <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a>, according to <a href="/wiki/Derek_J._de_Solla_Price" title="Derek J. de Solla Price">Derek J. de Solla Price</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_wreck" title="Antikythera wreck">Antikythera wreck</a> off the Greek island of <a href="/wiki/Antikythera" title="Antikythera">Antikythera</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Kythera" class="mw-redirect" title="Kythera">Kythera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, and has been dated to approximately <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;">&#8201;100 BCE</span>. Devices of comparable complexity to the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until the fourteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The <a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">planisphere</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Star_chart" title="Star chart">star chart</a> invented by <a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī</a> in the early 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Wiet_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wiet-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> was invented in the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenistic world</a> in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BCE and is often attributed to <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>. A combination of the <a href="/wiki/Planisphere" title="Planisphere">planisphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">dioptra</a>, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in <a href="/wiki/Spherical_astronomy" title="Spherical astronomy">spherical astronomy</a>. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendar</a> computer<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">gear</a>-wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> in 1235.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared <a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">lunisolar calendar</a> astrolabe,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> an early fixed-<a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">wired</a> knowledge processing machine<sup id="cite_ref-Oren_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oren-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> with a <a href="/wiki/Gear_train" title="Gear train">gear train</a> and gear-wheels,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;">&#8201;1000 AD</span>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Sector_(instrument)" title="Sector (instrument)">sector</a>, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a>, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Planimeter" title="Planimeter">planimeter</a> was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sliderule_2005.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sliderule_2005.png/280px-Sliderule_2005.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sliderule_2005.png/420px-Sliderule_2005.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sliderule_2005.png/560px-Sliderule_2005.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="462" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a> was invented around 1620–1630, by the English clergyman <a href="/wiki/William_Oughtred" title="William Oughtred">William Oughtred</a>, shortly after the publication of the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Logarithm" title="Logarithm">logarithm</a>. It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_function" title="Transcendental function">transcendental functions</a> such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_functions" title="Hyperbolic functions">hyperbolic</a> trigonometry and other <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">functions</a>. Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the <a href="/wiki/E6B" title="E6B">E6B</a> circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft. </p><p>In the 1770s, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Jaquet-Droz" title="Pierre Jaquet-Droz">Pierre Jaquet-Droz</a>, a Swiss <a href="/wiki/Watchmaker" title="Watchmaker">watchmaker</a>, built a mechanical doll (<a href="/wiki/Automata" class="mw-redirect" title="Automata">automaton</a>) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed" to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of <a href="/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel" title="Neuchâtel">Neuchâtel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, and still operates.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1831–1835, mathematician and engineer <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Plana" title="Giovanni Plana">Giovanni Plana</a> devised a <a href="/wiki/Cappella_dei_Mercanti_(Turin)#Perpetual_calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Cappella dei Mercanti (Turin)">Perpetual Calendar machine</a>, which through a system of pulleys and cylinders could predict the <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_calendar" title="Perpetual calendar">perpetual calendar</a> for every year from 0 CE (that is, 1 BCE) to 4000 CE, keeping track of leap years and varying day length. The <a href="/wiki/Tide-predicting_machine" title="Tide-predicting machine">tide-predicting machine</a> invented by the Scottish scientist <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">Sir William Thomson</a> in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Differential_analyser" title="Differential analyser">differential analyser</a>, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equations</a> by <a href="/wiki/Integral" title="Integral">integration</a>, used wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876, Sir William Thomson had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the <a href="/wiki/Ball-and-disk_integrator" title="Ball-and-disk integrator">ball-and-disk integrators</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-scientific-computing.com_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scientific-computing.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The <a href="/wiki/Torque_amplifier" title="Torque amplifier">torque amplifier</a> was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a> and others developed mechanical differential analyzers. </p><p>In the 1890s, the Spanish engineer <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">Leonardo Torres Quevedo</a> began to develop a series of advanced <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo#Analogue_calculating_machines" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">analog machines</a> that could solve real and complex roots of <a href="/wiki/Polynomial" title="Polynomial">polynomials</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MaquinasAlgebricasLTQ_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MaquinasAlgebricasLTQ-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thomas2008_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas2008-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gomez-JaureguiGutierrez-GarciaGonzález-RedondoIglesiasManchadoOtero2022_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gomez-JaureguiGutierrez-GarciaGonzález-RedondoIglesiasManchadoOtero2022-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> which were published in 1901 by the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">Paris Academy of Sciences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_computer">First computer</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Babbage._Wood_engraving,_1871._Wellcome_V0000259.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Charles_Babbage._Wood_engraving%2C_1871._Wellcome_V0000259.jpg/250px-Charles_Babbage._Wood_engraving%2C_1871._Wellcome_V0000259.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Charles_Babbage._Wood_engraving%2C_1871._Wellcome_V0000259.jpg/330px-Charles_Babbage._Wood_engraving%2C_1871._Wellcome_V0000259.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Charles_Babbage._Wood_engraving%2C_1871._Wellcome_V0000259.jpg/500px-Charles_Babbage._Wood_engraving%2C_1871._Wellcome_V0000259.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2454" data-file-height="2884" /></a><figcaption>Charles Babbage</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti" /><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg/250px-Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg/330px-Difference_engine_plate_1853.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="725" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A diagram of a portion of Babbage's <a href="/wiki/Difference_engine" title="Difference engine">Difference engine</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Differenceengine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Differenceengine.jpg/165px-Differenceengine.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Differenceengine.jpg/248px-Differenceengine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Differenceengine.jpg/330px-Differenceengine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2748" data-file-height="2960" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Difference Engine Number 2 at the <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_Ventures" title="Intellectual Ventures">Intellectual Ventures</a> laboratory in Seattle</div></div></div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a>, an English mechanical engineer and <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "<a href="/wiki/Computer_pioneer" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer pioneer">father of the computer</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> he conceptualized and invented the first <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_computer" title="Mechanical computer">mechanical computer</a> in the early 19th century. </p><p>After working on his <a href="/wiki/Difference_engine" title="Difference engine">difference engine</a> he announced his invention in 1822, in a paper to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society" title="Royal Astronomical Society">Royal Astronomical Society</a>, titled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables".<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> He also designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an <a href="/wiki/Analytical_engine" title="Analytical engine">analytical engine</a>, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched cards</a>, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical <a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">looms</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Jacquard_loom" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacquard loom">Jacquard loom</a>. For output, the machine would have a <a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">printer</a>, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The engine would incorporate an <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" title="Arithmetic logic unit">arithmetic logic unit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Control_flow" title="Control flow">control flow</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Conditional_branching" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional branching">conditional branching</a> and <a href="/wiki/Program_loop#Loops" class="mw-redirect" title="Program loop">loops</a>, and integrated <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a>, making it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as <a href="/wiki/Turing-complete" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing-complete">Turing-complete</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-babbageonline_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-babbageonline-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand – this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the <a href="/wiki/British_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="British Government">British Government</a> to cease funding. Babbage's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Babbage" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Babbage">Henry Babbage</a>, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing unit (the <i>mill</i>) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electromechanical_calculating_machine">Electromechanical calculating machine</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aritm%C3%B3metro_Electromec%C3%A1nico.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Aritm%C3%B3metro_Electromec%C3%A1nico.jpg/220px-Aritm%C3%B3metro_Electromec%C3%A1nico.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Aritm%C3%B3metro_Electromec%C3%A1nico.jpg/330px-Aritm%C3%B3metro_Electromec%C3%A1nico.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Aritm%C3%B3metro_Electromec%C3%A1nico.jpg/440px-Aritm%C3%B3metro_Electromec%C3%A1nico.jpg 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="249" /></a><figcaption>Electro-mechanical calculator (1920) by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">Leonardo Torres Quevedo</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In his work <i>Essays on Automatics</i> published in 1914, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_Quevedo" title="Leonardo Torres Quevedo">Leonardo Torres Quevedo</a> wrote a brief history of Babbage's efforts at constructing a mechanical Difference Engine and Analytical Engine. The paper contains a design of a machine capable to calculate formulas like <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a^{x}(y-z)^{2}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi>a</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>x</mi> </mrow> </msup> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>y</mi> <mo>&#x2212;<!-- − --></mo> <mi>z</mi> <msup> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a^{x}(y-z)^{2}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f171c18a804b28aee37b7074cc778659bd2dc4af" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.35ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a^{x}(y-z)^{2}}" /></span>, for a sequence of sets of values. The whole machine was to be controlled by a <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only</a> program, which was complete with provisions for <a href="/wiki/Conditional_branching" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional branching">conditional branching</a>. He also introduced the idea of <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_arithmetic" title="Floating-point arithmetic">floating-point arithmetic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LTQ1914es_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LTQ1914es-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In 1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">arithmometer</a>, Torres presented in Paris the Electromechanical Arithmometer, which allowed a user to input arithmetic problems through a <a href="/wiki/Keyboard_layout" title="Keyboard layout">keyboard</a>, and computed and printed the results,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERandell19826,_11–13_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERandell19826,_11–13-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Randell1982p109_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Randell1982p109-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBromley1990_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBromley1990-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> demonstrating the feasibility of an electromechanical analytical engine.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analog_computers">Analog computers</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">Analog computer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:099-tpm3-sk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/099-tpm3-sk.jpg/200px-099-tpm3-sk.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/099-tpm3-sk.jpg/300px-099-tpm3-sk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/099-tpm3-sk.jpg/400px-099-tpm3-sk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3921" data-file-height="3793" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">Sir William Thomson</a>'s third tide-predicting machine design, 1879–81</figcaption></figure> <p>During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific <a href="/wiki/Computing" title="Computing">computing</a> needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a>. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.<sup id="cite_ref-stanf_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanf-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The first modern analog computer was a <a href="/wiki/Tide-predicting_machine" title="Tide-predicting machine">tide-predicting machine</a>, invented by <a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">Sir William Thomson</a> (later to become Lord Kelvin) in 1872. The <a href="/wiki/Differential_analyser" title="Differential analyser">differential analyser</a>, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(engineer)" title="James Thomson (engineer)">James Thomson</a>, the elder brother of the more famous Sir William Thomson.<sup id="cite_ref-scientific-computing.com_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scientific-computing.com-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the <a href="/wiki/Differential_analyzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential analyzer">differential analyzer</a>, built by H. L. Hazen and <a href="/wiki/Vannevar_Bush" title="Vannevar Bush">Vannevar Bush</a> at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(engineer)" title="James Thomson (engineer)">James Thomson</a> and the torque amplifiers invented by H. W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> By the 1950s, the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications such as education (<a href="/wiki/Slide_rule" title="Slide rule">slide rule</a>) and aircraft (<a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">control systems</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_computers">Digital computers</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electromechanical">Electromechanical</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a>'s 1937 <a href="/wiki/A_Symbolic_Analysis_of_Relay_and_Switching_Circuits" title="A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits">master's thesis</a> laid the foundations of digital computing, with his insight of applying Boolean algebra to the analysis and synthesis of switching circuits being the basic concept which underlies all electronic digital computers.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1938, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarine</a>. This was the <a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo Data Computer</a>, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> similar devices were developed in other countries as well.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2025)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG/200px-Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG/300px-Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG/400px-Z3_Deutsches_Museum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Replica of <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>, the first fully automatic, digital (electromechanical) computer</figcaption></figure> <p>Early digital computers were <a href="/wiki/Electromechanics" title="Electromechanics">electromechanical</a>; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Z2_(computer)" title="Z2 (computer)">Z2</a>, created by German engineer <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a> in 1939 in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.<sup id="cite_ref-Part_4_Zuse_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Part_4_Zuse-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Konrad_Zuse_(1992).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg/130px-Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg/195px-Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg/260px-Konrad_Zuse_%281992%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Konrad Zuse</a>, inventor of the modern computer<sup id="cite_ref-Bellis_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bellis-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a>, the world's first working electromechanical <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmable</a>, fully automatic digital computer.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The Z3 was built with 2000 <a href="/wiki/Relay" title="Relay">relays</a>, implementing a 22 <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bit</a> <a href="/wiki/Word_(computer_architecture)" title="Word (computer architecture)">word length</a> that operated at a <a href="/wiki/Clock_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Clock frequency">clock frequency</a> of about 5–10 <a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">Hz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Program code was supplied on punched <a href="/wiki/Celluloid" title="Celluloid">film</a> while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as <a href="/wiki/Floating-point_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating-point number">floating-point numbers</a>. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system (used in <a href="/wiki/Charles_Babbage" title="Charles Babbage">Charles Babbage</a>'s earlier design), using a <a href="/wiki/Binary_number" title="Binary number">binary</a> system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The Z3 was not itself a universal computer but could be extended to be <a href="/wiki/Turing_complete" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing complete">Turing complete</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-rojas-ieee_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rojas-ieee-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rojas-universal_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rojas-universal-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Zuse's next computer, the <a href="/wiki/Z4_(computer)" title="Z4 (computer)">Z4</a>, became the world's first commercial computer; after initial delay due to the Second World War, it was completed in 1950 and delivered to the <a href="/wiki/ETH_Zurich" title="ETH Zurich">ETH Zurich</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-OReganZuse_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OReganZuse-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The computer was manufactured by Zuse's own company, <a href="/wiki/Zuse_KG" class="mw-redirect" title="Zuse KG">Zuse KG</a>, which was founded in 1941 as the first company with the sole purpose of developing computers in Berlin.<sup id="cite_ref-OReganZuse_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OReganZuse-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The Z4 served as the inspiration for the construction of the <a href="/wiki/ERMETH" title="ERMETH">ERMETH</a>, the first Swiss computer and one of the first in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vacuum_tubes_and_digital_electronic_circuits">Vacuum tubes and digital electronic circuits</h4></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Digital_computer"></span><span class="anchor" id="Digital"></span> Purely <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">electronic circuit</a> elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer <a href="/wiki/Tommy_Flowers" title="Tommy Flowers">Tommy Flowers</a>, working at the <a href="/wiki/Post_Office_Research_Station" title="Post Office Research Station">Post Office Research Station</a> in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the <a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">telephone exchange</a>. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the <a href="/wiki/Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">telephone exchange</a> network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-stanf_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanf-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In the US, <a href="/wiki/John_Vincent_Atanasoff" title="John Vincent Atanasoff">John Vincent Atanasoff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Berry" title="Clifford Berry">Clifford E. Berry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iowa_State_University" title="Iowa State University">Iowa State University</a> developed and tested the <a href="/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a> (ABC) in 1942,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> the first "automatic electronic digital computer".<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> This design was also all-electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.<sup id="cite_ref-Copeland2006_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copeland2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colossus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two women are seen by the Colossus computer." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Colossus.jpg/250px-Colossus.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Colossus.jpg/500px-Colossus.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2337" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">electronic digital</a> programmable computing device, was used to break German ciphers during World War II. It is seen here in use at <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a> in 1943.</figcaption></figure> <p>During World War II, the British code-breakers at <a href="/wiki/Bletchley_Park" title="Bletchley Park">Bletchley Park</a> achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, <a href="/wiki/Enigma_machine" title="Enigma machine">Enigma</a>, was first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical <a href="/wiki/Bombe" title="Bombe">bombes</a> which were often run by women.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> To crack the more sophisticated German <a href="/wiki/Lorenz_SZ_40/42" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorenz SZ 40/42">Lorenz SZ 40/42</a> machine, used for high-level Army communications, <a href="/wiki/Max_Newman" title="Max Newman">Max Newman</a> and his colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the <a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Copeland2006_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copeland2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> He spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the first Colossus.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944<sup id="cite_ref-The_Colossus_Computer_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Colossus_Computer-55"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and attacked its first message on 5 February.<sup id="cite_ref-Copeland2006_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copeland2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colossus was the world's first <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">electronic digital</a> programmable computer.<sup id="cite_ref-stanf_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanf-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of <a href="/wiki/Boolean_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean logic">boolean logical</a> operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both five times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/250px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/375px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg/500px-Glen_Beck_and_Betty_Snyder_program_the_ENIAC_in_building_328_at_the_Ballistic_Research_Laboratory.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1340" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a>, Turing-complete device, and performed ballistics trajectory calculations for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmable</a> computer built in the U.S. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing-complete. Like the Colossus, a "program" on the ENIAC was defined by the <a href="/wiki/State_(computer_science)" title="State (computer science)">states</a> of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the <a href="/wiki/Stored_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Stored program">stored program</a> electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. The programmers of the ENIAC were six women, often known collectively as the "ENIAC girls".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans201839_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans201839-59"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELight1999459_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELight1999459-60"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of <a href="/wiki/John_Mauchly" title="John Mauchly">John Mauchly</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._Presper_Eckert" title="J. Presper Eckert">J. Presper Eckert</a> at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.<sup id="cite_ref-Eniac_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eniac-61"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_computers">Modern computers</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Concept_of_modern_computer">Concept of modern computer</h4></div> <p>The principle of the modern computer was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> in his seminal 1936 paper,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <i>On Computable Numbers</i>. Turing proposed a simple device that he called "Universal Computing machine" and that is now known as a <a href="/wiki/Universal_Turing_machine" title="Universal Turing machine">universal Turing machine</a>. He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing's design is the <a href="/wiki/Stored_program" class="mw-redirect" title="Stored program">stored program</a>, where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. <a href="/wiki/John_von_Neumann" title="John von Neumann">Von Neumann</a> acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_computation" title="Theory of computation">theory of computation</a>. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be <a href="/wiki/Turing_completeness" title="Turing completeness">Turing-complete</a>, which is to say, they have <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a> execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stored_programs">Stored programs</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">Stored-program computer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three tall racks containing electronic circuit boards" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg/250px-SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg/375px-SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg/500px-SSEM_Manchester_museum_close_up.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3430" data-file-height="2286" /></a><figcaption>A section of the reconstructed <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a>, the first electronic <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine.<sup id="cite_ref-Copeland2006_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Copeland2006-51"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> With the proposal of the stored-program computer this changed. A stored-program computer includes by design an <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction set">instruction set</a> and can store in memory a set of instructions (a <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a>) that details the <a href="/wiki/Computation" title="Computation">computation</a>. The theoretical basis for the stored-program computer was laid out by <a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a> in his 1936 paper. In 1945, Turing joined the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">National Physical Laboratory</a> and began work on developing an electronic stored-program digital computer. His 1945 report "Proposed Electronic Calculator" was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a> also circulated his <i><a href="/wiki/First_Draft_of_a_Report_on_the_EDVAC" title="First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC">First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC</a></i> in 1945.<sup id="cite_ref-stanf_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanf-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a> was the world's first <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a>. It was built at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a> in England by <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Calland_Williams" class="mw-redirect" title="Frederic Calland Williams">Frederic C. Williams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kilburn" title="Tom Kilburn">Tom Kilburn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geoff_Tootill" title="Geoff Tootill">Geoff Tootill</a>, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> It was designed as a <a href="/wiki/Testbed" title="Testbed">testbed</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Williams_tube" title="Williams tube">Williams tube</a>, the first <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access</a> digital storage device.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Although the computer was described as "small and primitive" by a 1998 retrospective, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> As soon as the Baby had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project began at the university to develop it into a practically useful computer, the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a>. </p><p>The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mark_1" title="Ferranti Mark 1">Ferranti Mark 1</a>, the world's first commercially available general-purpose computer.<sup id="cite_ref-NapperMK1_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NapperMK1-67"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Built by <a href="/wiki/Ferranti" title="Ferranti">Ferranti</a>, it was delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to <a href="/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Dutch Shell">Shell</a> labs in <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In October 1947 the directors of British catering company <a href="/wiki/J._Lyons_and_Co." title="J. Lyons and Co.">J. Lyons &amp; Company</a> decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. Lyons's <a href="/wiki/LEO_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="LEO computer">LEO I</a> computer, modelled closely on the Cambridge <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Delay_Storage_Automatic_Calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator">EDSAC</a> of 1949, became operational in April 1951<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and ran the world's first routine office computer <a href="/wiki/Job_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Job (software)">job</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transistors">Transistors</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">History of the transistor</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Transistor_computer" title="Transistor computer">Transistor computer</a> and <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg/220px-Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg/330px-Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg/440px-Transistor-die-KSY34.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">Bipolar junction transistor</a> (BJT)</figcaption></figure> <p>The concept of a <a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">field-effect transistor</a> was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld" title="Julius Edgar Lilienfeld">Julius Edgar Lilienfeld</a> in 1925. <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a>, while working under <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley">William Shockley</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, built the first working <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a>, in 1947, which was followed by Shockley's <a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">bipolar junction transistor</a> in 1948.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-70"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Puers_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Puers-71"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> From 1955 onwards, transistors replaced <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation" of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. <a href="/wiki/Junction_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Junction transistor">Junction transistors</a> were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a <a href="/wiki/Mass-production" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass-production">mass-production</a> basis, which limited them to a number of specialized applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-72"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>, a team under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Tom_Kilburn" title="Tom Kilburn">Tom Kilburn</a> designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELavington199834–35_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELavington199834–35-73"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Their first <a href="/wiki/Transistor_computer" title="Transistor computer">transistorized computer</a> and the first in the world, was <a href="/wiki/Manchester_computers#Transistor_Computer" title="Manchester computers">operational by 1953</a>, and a second version was completed there in April 1955. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125&#160;kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic <a href="/wiki/Drum_memory" title="Drum memory">drum memory</a>, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That distinction goes to the <a href="/wiki/Harwell_CADET" title="Harwell CADET">Harwell CADET</a> of 1955,<sup id="cite_ref-ieeexplore.ieee_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee-74"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> built by the electronics division of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Research_Establishment" title="Atomic Energy Research Establishment">Atomic Energy Research Establishment</a> at <a href="/wiki/Harwell,_Oxfordshire" title="Harwell, Oxfordshire">Harwell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ieeexplore.ieee_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieeexplore.ieee-74"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MOSFET_Structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/MOSFET_Structure.svg/220px-MOSFET_Structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/MOSFET_Structure.svg/330px-MOSFET_Structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/MOSFET_Structure.svg/440px-MOSFET_Structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> (MOS transistor), showing <a href="/wiki/Metal_gate" title="Metal gate">gate</a> (G), body (B), source (S) and drain (D) terminals. The gate is separated from the body by an insulating layer (pink).</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET), also known as the MOS transistor, was invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960<sup id="cite_ref-:03_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-76"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lojek12023_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek12023-81"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturized and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.<sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-72"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> With its <a href="/wiki/MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">high scalability</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and much lower power consumption and higher density than bipolar junction transistors,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> the MOSFET made it possible to build <a href="/wiki/Very_large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very large-scale integration">high-density integrated circuits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-84"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hittinger_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hittinger-85"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In addition to data processing, it also enabled the practical use of MOS transistors as <a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">memory cell</a> storage elements, leading to the development of MOS <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a>, which replaced earlier <a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">magnetic-core memory</a> in computers. The MOSFET led to the <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Microcomputer revolution">microcomputer revolution</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and became the driving force behind the <a href="/wiki/Computer_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer revolution">computer revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-uspto_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uspto-88"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The MOSFET is the most widely used transistor in computers,<sup id="cite_ref-kahng_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kahng-89"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-atalla_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atalla-90"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and is the fundamental building block of <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">digital electronics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-triumph_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-triumph-91"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Integrated_circuits">Integrated circuits</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_the_integrated_circuit" title="Invention of the integrated circuit">Invention of the integrated circuit</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Planar_process" title="Planar process">Planar process</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MOS_6502A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/MOS_6502A.jpg/220px-MOS_6502A.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/MOS_6502A.jpg/330px-MOS_6502A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/MOS_6502A.jpg/440px-MOS_6502A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption>Integrated circuits are typically packaged in plastic, metal, or ceramic cases to protect the IC from damage and for ease of assembly.</figcaption></figure> <p>The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> (IC). The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Radar_Establishment" title="Royal Radar Establishment">Royal Radar Establishment</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(United_Kingdom)" title="Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)">Ministry of Defence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Dummer" title="Geoffrey Dummer">Geoffrey W.A. Dummer</a>. Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington,&#160;D.C.</a>, on 7 May 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first working ICs were invented by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a> at <a href="/wiki/Texas_Instruments" title="Texas Instruments">Texas Instruments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Noyce" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a> at <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958.<sup id="cite_ref-TIJackBuilt_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TIJackBuilt-94"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material&#160;... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated".<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> However, Kilby's invention was a <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">hybrid integrated circuit</a> (hybrid IC), rather than a <a href="/wiki/Monolithic_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Monolithic integrated circuit">monolithic integrated circuit</a> (IC) chip.<sup id="cite_ref-Saxena140_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saxena140-97"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Kilby's IC had external wire connections, which made it difficult to mass-produce.<sup id="cite_ref-nasa_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-98"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Noyce's invention was the first true monolithic IC chip.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1959_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1959-100"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nasa_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nasa-98"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, whereas Kilby's chip was made of <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>. Noyce's monolithic IC was <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">fabricated</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Planar_process" title="Planar process">planar process</a>, developed by his colleague <a href="/wiki/Jean_Hoerni" title="Jean Hoerni">Jean Hoerni</a> in early 1959. In turn, the planar process was based on <a href="/wiki/Carl_Frosch" title="Carl Frosch">Carl Frosch</a> and Lincoln Derick work on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz4_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz4-103"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lojek1204_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek1204-106"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Modern monolithic ICs are predominantly MOS (<a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a>) integrated circuits, built from <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFETs</a> (MOS transistors).<sup id="cite_ref-Kuo_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuo-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at <a href="/wiki/RCA" title="RCA">RCA</a> in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-digital_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-digital-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/General_Microelectronics" class="mw-redirect" title="General Microelectronics">General Microelectronics</a> later introduced the first commercial MOS IC in 1964,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> developed by Robert Norman.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-digital_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-digital-108"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Following the development of the <a href="/wiki/Self-aligned_gate" title="Self-aligned gate">self-aligned gate</a> (silicon-gate) MOS transistor by Robert Kerwin, <a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Klein" title="Donald L. Klein">Donald Klein</a> and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967, the first <a href="/wiki/Silicon-gate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silicon-gate">silicon-gate</a> MOS IC with <a href="/wiki/Self-aligned_gate" title="Self-aligned gate">self-aligned gates</a> was developed by <a href="/wiki/Federico_Faggin" title="Federico Faggin">Federico Faggin</a> at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The MOSFET has since become the most critical device component in modern ICs.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuo_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuo-107"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MOS_6502_die.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/MOS_6502_die.jpg/250px-MOS_6502_die.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/MOS_6502_die.jpg/330px-MOS_6502_die.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/MOS_6502_die.jpg/500px-MOS_6502_die.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2696" data-file-height="2998" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Die_(integrated_circuit)" title="Die (integrated circuit)">Die</a> photograph of a <a href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502" title="MOS Technology 6502">MOS 6502</a>, an early 1970s microprocessor integrating 3500 transistors on a single chip</figcaption></figure> <p>The development of the MOS integrated circuit led to the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1971_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1971-111"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Colinge2016_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colinge2016-112"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> and heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor", it is largely undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor was the <a href="/wiki/Intel_4004" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> designed and realized by Federico Faggin with his silicon-gate MOS IC technology,<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory1971_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory1971-111"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> along with <a href="/wiki/Marcian_Hoff" title="Marcian Hoff">Ted Hoff</a>, <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Shima" title="Masatoshi Shima">Masatoshi Shima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Mazor" title="Stanley Mazor">Stanley Mazor</a> at <a href="/wiki/Intel" title="Intel">Intel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ieee_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ieee-116"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In the early 1970s, MOS IC technology enabled the <a href="/wiki/Very_large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Very large-scale integration">integration</a> of more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip.<sup id="cite_ref-Hittinger_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hittinger-85"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/System_on_a_Chip" class="mw-redirect" title="System on a Chip">System on a Chip</a> (SoCs) are complete computers on a <a href="/wiki/Microchip" class="mw-redirect" title="Microchip">microchip</a> (or chip) the size of a coin.<sup id="cite_ref-networkworld.com_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-networkworld.com-117"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> They may or may not have integrated <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">flash memory</a>. If not integrated, the RAM is usually placed directly above (known as <a href="/wiki/Package_on_package" class="mw-redirect" title="Package on package">Package on package</a>) or below (on the opposite side of the <a href="/wiki/Circuit_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit board">circuit board</a>) the SoC, and the flash memory is usually placed right next to the SoC. This is done to improve data transfer speeds, as the data signals do not have to travel long distances. Since ENIAC in 1945, computers have advanced enormously, with modern SoCs (such as the Snapdragon 865) being the size of a coin while also being hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than ENIAC, integrating billions of transistors, and consuming only a few watts of power. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mobile_computers">Mobile computers</h3></div> <p>The first <a href="/wiki/Portable_computer" title="Portable computer">mobile computers</a> were heavy and ran from mains power. The 50&#160;lb (23&#160;kg) <a href="/wiki/IBM_5100" title="IBM 5100">IBM 5100</a> was an early example. Later portables such as the <a href="/wiki/Osborne_1" title="Osborne 1">Osborne 1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compaq_Portable" title="Compaq Portable">Compaq Portable</a> were considerably lighter but still needed to be plugged in. The first laptops, such as the <a href="/wiki/Grid_Compass" title="Grid Compass">Grid Compass</a>, removed this requirement by incorporating batteries – and with the continued miniaturization of computing resources and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The same developments allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular mobile phones by the early 2000s. </p><p>These <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">tablets</a> run on a variety of operating systems and recently became the dominant computing device on the market.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> These are powered by <a href="/wiki/System_on_a_Chip" class="mw-redirect" title="System on a Chip">System on a Chip</a> (SoCs), which are complete computers on a microchip the size of a coin.<sup id="cite_ref-networkworld.com_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-networkworld.com-117"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Classes_of_computers" title="Classes of computers">Classes of computers</a></div> <p>Computers can be classified in a number of different ways, including: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_architecture">By architecture</h3></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">Analog computer</a></li> <li>Digital computer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_computer" title="Hybrid computer">Hybrid computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_architecture" title="Harvard architecture">Harvard architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">Von Neumann architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_instruction_set_computer" title="Complex instruction set computer">Complex instruction set computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_instruction_set_computer" title="Reduced instruction set computer">Reduced instruction set computer</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_size,_form-factor_and_purpose"><span id="By_size.2C_form-factor_and_purpose"></span>By size, form-factor and purpose</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_size_categories" title="List of computer size categories">List of computer size categories</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">Supercomputer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">Mainframe computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minicomputer" title="Minicomputer">Minicomputer</a> (term no longer used),<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Midrange_computer" title="Midrange computer">Midrange computer</a></li> <li>Server <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">Rackmount server</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blade_server" title="Blade server">Blade server</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_tower" title="Computer tower">Tower server</a></li></ul></li> <li>Personal computer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Workstation" title="Workstation">Workstation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microcomputer" title="Microcomputer">Microcomputer</a> (term no longer used)<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer">Home computer</a> (term fallen into disuse)<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">Desktop computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_tower" title="Computer tower">Tower desktop</a></li> <li>Slimline desktop <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia_computer" title="Multimedia computer">Multimedia computer</a> (<a href="/wiki/Non-linear_editing_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-linear editing system">non-linear editing system</a> computers, video editing PCs and the like, this term is no longer used)<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaming_computer" title="Gaming computer">Gaming computer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All-in-one_PC" class="mw-redirect" title="All-in-one PC">All-in-one PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nettop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nettop">Nettop</a> (<a href="/wiki/Small_form_factor_(desktop_and_motherboard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Small form factor (desktop and motherboard)">Small form factor PCs</a>, Mini PCs)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_theater_PC" title="Home theater PC">Home theater PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keyboard_computer" title="Keyboard computer">Keyboard computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portable_computer" title="Portable computer">Portable computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thin_client" title="Thin client">Thin client</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_appliance" title="Internet appliance">Internet appliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laptop" title="Laptop">Laptop computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desktop_replacement_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Desktop replacement computer">Desktop replacement computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaming_computer#Gaming_laptop_computers" title="Gaming computer">Gaming laptop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugged_computer" title="Rugged computer">Rugged laptop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2-in-1_PC" class="mw-redirect" title="2-in-1 PC">2-in-1 PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultrabook" title="Ultrabook">Ultrabook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromebook" title="Chromebook">Chromebook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subnotebook" title="Subnotebook">Subnotebook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartbook" title="Smartbook">Smartbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netbook" title="Netbook">Netbook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_computing" title="Mobile computing">Mobile computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">Tablet computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-mobile_PC" title="Ultra-mobile PC">Ultra-mobile PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_PC" title="Pocket PC">Pocket PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmtop_PC" title="Palmtop PC">Palmtop PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Handheld_PC" title="Handheld PC">Handheld PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_computer" title="Pocket computer">Pocket computer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wearable_computer" title="Wearable computer">Wearable computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smartwatch" title="Smartwatch">Smartwatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartglasses" title="Smartglasses">Smartglasses</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-board_computer" title="Single-board computer">Single-board computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plug_computer" title="Plug computer">Plug computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stick_PC" title="Stick PC">Stick PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_controller" title="Programmable logic controller">Programmable logic controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer-on-module" title="Computer-on-module">Computer-on-module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_on_module" title="System on module">System on module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_in_a_package" title="System in a package">System in a package</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System-on-chip" class="mw-redirect" title="System-on-chip">System-on-chip</a> (Also known as an Application Processor or AP if it lacks circuitry such as radio circuitry)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">Microcontroller</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hardware">Hardware</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Computer hardware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware#Personal_computer" title="Computer hardware">Personal computer hardware</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">Central processing unit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Computer_Components.webm/220px--Computer_Components.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="147" data-durationhint="115" data-mwtitle="Computer_Components.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Computer_Components.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dc/Computer_Components.webm/Computer_Components.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="720" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Computer_Components.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-width="720" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dc/Computer_Components.webm/Computer_Components.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="216" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dc/Computer_Components.webm/Computer_Components.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="360" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dc/Computer_Components.webm/Computer_Components.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="540" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/dc/Computer_Components.webm/Computer_Components.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="540" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Video demonstrating the standard components of a "slimline" computer</figcaption></figure> <p>The term <i>hardware</i> covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects. <a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">Circuits</a>, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice" input devices are all hardware. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_computing_hardware">History of computing hardware</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="2">First generation<br />(mechanical/electromechanical)</td> <td>Calculators</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_calculator" class="mw-redirect" title="Pascal&#39;s calculator">Pascal's calculator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arithmometer" title="Arithmometer">Arithmometer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Difference_engine" title="Difference engine">Difference engine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Torres_y_Quevedo#Analytical_machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonardo Torres y Quevedo">Quevedo's analytical machines</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Programmable devices</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jacquard_loom" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacquard loom">Jacquard loom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Analytical_engine" title="Analytical engine">Analytical engine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">IBM ASCC/Harvard Mark I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_II" title="Harvard Mark II">Harvard Mark II</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_SSEC" title="IBM SSEC">IBM SSEC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Z1_(computer)" title="Z1 (computer)">Z1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Z2_(computer)" title="Z2 (computer)">Z2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Z3_(computer)" title="Z3 (computer)">Z3</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Second generation<br />(vacuum tubes)</td> <td>Calculators</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Atanasoff%E2%80%93Berry_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Atanasoff–Berry Computer">Atanasoff–Berry Computer</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_604" title="IBM 604">IBM 604</a>, <a href="/wiki/Remington_Rand_409" title="Remington Rand 409">UNIVAC 60</a>, <a href="/wiki/Remington_Rand_409" title="Remington Rand 409">UNIVAC 120</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_vacuum-tube_computers" title="List of vacuum-tube computers">Programmable devices</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus</a>, <a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a>, <a href="/wiki/EDSAC" title="EDSAC">EDSAC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Mark_1" title="Manchester Mark 1">Manchester Mark 1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Pegasus" title="Ferranti Pegasus">Ferranti Pegasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferranti_Mercury" title="Ferranti Mercury">Ferranti Mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/CSIRAC" title="CSIRAC">CSIRAC</a>, <a href="/wiki/EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_I" title="UNIVAC I">UNIVAC I</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_701" title="IBM 701">IBM 701</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_702" title="IBM 702">IBM 702</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_650" title="IBM 650">IBM 650</a>, <a href="/wiki/Z22_(computer)" title="Z22 (computer)">Z22</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Third generation<br />(discrete <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> and SSI, MSI, LSI <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">Mainframes</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/IBM_7090" title="IBM 7090">IBM 7090</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_7080" title="IBM 7080">IBM 7080</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/360" title="IBM System/360">IBM System/360</a>, <a href="/wiki/BUNCH" title="BUNCH">BUNCH</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Minicomputer" title="Minicomputer">Minicomputer</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/HP_2100" title="HP 2100">HP 2116A</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/32" title="IBM System/32">IBM System/32</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_System/36" title="IBM System/36">IBM System/36</a>, <a href="/wiki/LINC" title="LINC">LINC</a>, <a href="/wiki/PDP-8" title="PDP-8">PDP-8</a>, <a href="/wiki/PDP-11" title="PDP-11">PDP-11</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Desktop_Computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Desktop Computer">Desktop Computer</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/HP_9100" class="mw-redirect" title="HP 9100">HP 9100</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="8">Fourth generation<br />(<a href="/wiki/VLSI" class="mw-redirect" title="VLSI">VLSI</a> integrated circuits)</td> <td>Minicomputer</td> <td><a href="/wiki/VAX" title="VAX">VAX</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_AS/400" title="IBM AS/400">IBM AS/400</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/4-bit_computing" title="4-bit computing">4-bit</a> microcomputer</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Intel_4004" title="Intel 4004">Intel 4004</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intel_4040" title="Intel 4040">Intel 4040</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/8-bit_computing" title="8-bit computing">8-bit</a> microcomputer</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Intel_8008" title="Intel 8008">Intel 8008</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intel_8080" title="Intel 8080">Intel 8080</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motorola_6800" title="Motorola 6800">Motorola 6800</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motorola_6809" title="Motorola 6809">Motorola 6809</a>, <a href="/wiki/MOS_Technology_6502" title="MOS Technology 6502">MOS Technology 6502</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z80" title="Zilog Z80">Zilog Z80</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/16-bit_computing" title="16-bit computing">16-bit</a> <a href="/wiki/Microcomputer" title="Microcomputer">microcomputer</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Intel_8088" title="Intel 8088">Intel 8088</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zilog_Z8000" title="Zilog Z8000">Zilog Z8000</a>, <a href="/wiki/WDC_65816/65802" class="mw-redirect" title="WDC 65816/65802">WDC 65816/65802</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/32-bit_computing" title="32-bit computing">32-bit</a> microcomputer</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Intel_80386" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel 80386">Intel 80386</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pentium" title="Pentium">Pentium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Motorola_68000" title="Motorola 68000">Motorola 68000</a>, <a href="/wiki/ARMv7" class="mw-redirect" title="ARMv7">ARM</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/64-bit_computing" title="64-bit computing">64-bit</a> microcomputer<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></td> <td><a href="/wiki/DEC_Alpha" title="DEC Alpha">Alpha</a>, <a href="/wiki/MIPS_architecture" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS</a>, <a href="/wiki/PA-RISC" title="PA-RISC">PA-RISC</a>, <a href="/wiki/PowerPC" title="PowerPC">PowerPC</a>, <a href="/wiki/SPARC" title="SPARC">SPARC</a>, <a href="/wiki/X86-64" title="X86-64">x86-64</a>, <a href="/wiki/ARMv8-A" class="mw-redirect" title="ARMv8-A">ARMv8-A</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded computer</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Intel_8048" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel 8048">Intel 8048</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intel_8051" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel 8051">Intel 8051</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Personal computer</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">Desktop computer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer">Home computer</a>, Laptop computer, <a href="/wiki/Personal_digital_assistant" title="Personal digital assistant">Personal digital assistant</a> (PDA), <a href="/wiki/Portable_computer" title="Portable computer">Portable computer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">Tablet PC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wearable_computer" title="Wearable computer">Wearable computer</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6">Theoretical/experimental</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Quantum_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum computer">Quantum computer</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/IBM_Q_System_One" title="IBM Q System One">IBM Q System One</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chemical_computer" title="Chemical computer">Chemical computer</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/DNA_computing" title="DNA computing">DNA computing</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Photonic_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Photonic computing">Optical computer</a></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">Spintronics</a>-based computer</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Wetware_computer" title="Wetware computer">Wetware/Organic computer</a></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_hardware_topics">Other hardware topics</h3></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">Peripheral</a> device (<a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">input/output</a>)</td> <td>Input</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">Mouse</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">keyboard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joystick" title="Joystick">joystick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Image_scanner" title="Image scanner">image scanner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Webcam" title="Webcam">webcam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Graphics_tablet" title="Graphics tablet">graphics tablet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">microphone</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Output</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">Monitor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">printer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_speakers" title="Computer speakers">loudspeaker</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Both</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk</a> drive, <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">hard disk drive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">optical disc</a> drive, <a href="/wiki/Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">teleprinter</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bus_(computing)" title="Bus (computing)">Computer buses</a></td> <td>Short range</td> <td><a href="/wiki/RS-232" title="RS-232">RS-232</a>, <a href="/wiki/SCSI" title="SCSI">SCSI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect" title="Peripheral Component Interconnect">PCI</a>, <a href="/wiki/USB" title="USB">USB</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Long range (<a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer networking</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode" title="Asynchronous Transfer Mode">ATM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fiber_Distributed_Data_Interface" title="Fiber Distributed Data Interface">FDDI</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A general-purpose computer has four main components: the <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" title="Arithmetic logic unit">arithmetic logic unit</a> (ALU), the <a href="/wiki/Control_unit" title="Control unit">control unit</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">memory</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Input_and_output_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="Input and output devices">input and output devices</a> (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by <a href="/wiki/Bus_(computing)" title="Bus (computing)">buses</a>, often made of groups of <a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">wires</a>. Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small <a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">electrical circuits</a> which can be turned off or on by means of an <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">electronic switch</a>. Each circuit represents a <a href="/wiki/Bit" title="Bit">bit</a> (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">logic gates</a> so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Input_devices">Input devices</h3></div> <p>When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand-operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input devices are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">Computer keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Digital camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_tablet" title="Graphics tablet">Graphics tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_scanner" title="Image scanner">Image scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joystick" title="Joystick">Joystick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">Microphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">Mouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overlay_keyboard" title="Overlay keyboard">Overlay keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real-time_clock" title="Real-time clock">Real-time clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trackball" title="Trackball">Trackball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">Touchscreen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pen" title="Light pen">Light pen</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Output_devices">Output devices</h3></div> <p>The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">Computer monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">Printer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PC_speaker" title="PC speaker">PC speaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projector" title="Projector">Projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_card" title="Sound card">Sound card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">Graphics card</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_unit">Control unit</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/CPU_design" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU design">CPU design</a> and <a href="/wiki/Control_unit" title="Control unit">Control unit</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mips32_addi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Mips32_addi.svg/330px-Mips32_addi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Mips32_addi.svg/500px-Mips32_addi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Mips32_addi.svg/660px-Mips32_addi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="180" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing how a particular <a href="/wiki/MIPS_architecture" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS architecture</a> instruction would be decoded by the control system</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Control_unit" title="Control unit">control unit</a> (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance. </p><p>A key component common to all CPUs is the <a href="/wiki/Program_counter" title="Program counter">program counter</a>, a special memory cell (a <a href="/wiki/Processor_register" title="Processor register">register</a>) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>The control system's function is as follows— this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU: </p> <ol><li>Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.</li> <li>Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.</li> <li>Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.</li> <li>Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.</li> <li>Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.</li> <li>If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.</li> <li>Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.</li> <li>Jump back to step (1).</li></ol> <p>Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of <a href="/wiki/Control_flow" title="Control flow">control flow</a>). </p><p>The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a <a href="/wiki/Microsequencer" title="Microsequencer">microsequencer</a>, which runs a <a href="/wiki/Microcode" title="Microcode">microcode</a> program that causes all of these events to happen. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Central_processing_unit_(CPU)"><span id="Central_processing_unit_.28CPU.29"></span>Central processing unit (CPU)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">Central processing unit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></div> <p>The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">central processing unit</a> (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components. Since the 1970s, CPUs have typically been constructed on a single <a href="/wiki/MOS_integrated_circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS integrated circuit">MOS integrated circuit</a> chip called a <i><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arithmetic_logic_unit_(ALU)"><span id="Arithmetic_logic_unit_.28ALU.29"></span>Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_logic_unit" title="Arithmetic logic unit">Arithmetic logic unit</a></div> <p>The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a> functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and <a href="/wiki/Square_root" title="Square root">square roots</a>. Some can operate only on whole numbers (<a href="/wiki/Integer" title="Integer">integers</a>) while others use <a href="/wiki/Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floating point</a> to represent <a href="/wiki/Real_number" title="Real number">real numbers</a>, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">Boolean truth values</a> (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?"). Logic operations involve <a href="/wiki/Boolean_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean logic">Boolean logic</a>: <a href="/wiki/Logical_conjunction" title="Logical conjunction">AND</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logical_disjunction" title="Logical disjunction">OR</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exclusive_or" title="Exclusive or">XOR</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Negation" title="Negation">NOT</a>. These can be useful for creating complicated <a href="/wiki/Conditional_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional (programming)">conditional statements</a> and processing <a href="/wiki/Boolean_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Boolean logic">Boolean logic</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Superscalar" class="mw-redirect" title="Superscalar">Superscalar</a> computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">Graphics processors</a> and computers with <a href="/wiki/Single_instruction,_multiple_data" title="Single instruction, multiple data">SIMD</a> and <a href="/wiki/Multiple_instruction,_multiple_data" title="Multiple instruction, multiple data">MIMD</a> features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_vector" title="Euclidean vector">vectors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)" title="Matrix (mathematics)">matrices</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memory">Memory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">Computer memory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Computer data storage</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magnetic_core.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Magnetic_core.jpg/250px-Magnetic_core.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Magnetic_core.jpg/330px-Magnetic_core.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Magnetic_core.jpg/500px-Magnetic_core.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Magnetic-core_memory" title="Magnetic-core memory">Magnetic-core memory</a> (using <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_cores" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic cores">magnetic cores</a>) was the <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">computer memory</a> of choice in the 1960s, until it was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_memory" title="Semiconductor memory">semiconductor memory</a> (using <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOS</a> memory cells).</figcaption></figure> <p>A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595." The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers. </p><p>In almost all modern computers, each <a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">memory cell</a> is set up to store <a href="/wiki/Binary_number" title="Binary number">binary numbers</a> in groups of eight bits (called a <a href="/wiki/Byte" title="Byte">byte</a>). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2<sup>8</sup> = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in <a href="/wiki/Two%27s_complement" title="Two&#39;s complement">two's complement</a> notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory. </p><p>The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called <a href="/wiki/Processor_register" title="Processor register">registers</a> that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed. </p><p>Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">random-access memory</a> or RAM</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">read-only memory</a> or ROM</li></ul> <p>RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the <a href="/wiki/BIOS" title="BIOS">BIOS</a> that orchestrates loading the computer's <a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">operating system</a> from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In <a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">embedded computers</a>, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called <a href="/wiki/Firmware" title="Firmware">firmware</a>, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. <a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM <a href="/wiki/CPU_cache" title="CPU cache">cache memories</a>, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Input/output_(I/O)"><span id="Input.2Foutput_.28I.2FO.29"></span>Input/output (I/O)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">Input/output</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HDDspin.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/HDDspin.JPG/220px-HDDspin.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/HDDspin.JPG/330px-HDDspin.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/HDDspin.JPG/440px-HDDspin.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">Hard disk drives</a> are common storage devices used with computers.</figcaption></figure> <p>I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called <a href="/wiki/Peripheral" title="Peripheral">peripherals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and <a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">mouse</a>, and output devices such as the <a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">display</a> and <a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">printer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">Hard disk drives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">floppy disk</a> drives and <a href="/wiki/Optical_disc_drive" title="Optical disc drive">optical disc drives</a> serve as both input and output devices. <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer networking</a> is another form of I/O. I/O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A <a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">graphics processing unit</a> might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display <a href="/wiki/3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">3D graphics</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> Modern <a href="/wiki/Desktop_computer" title="Desktop computer">desktop computers</a> contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O. A 2016-era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multitasking">Multitasking</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Computer_multitasking" title="Computer multitasking">Computer multitasking</a></div> <p>While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an <a href="/wiki/Interrupt" title="Interrupt">interrupt</a>, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time". then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer. Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the <a href="/wiki/Event_(computing)" title="Event (computing)">event</a> it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Multiprocessing" title="Multiprocessing">Multiprocessing</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cray_2_Arts_et_Metiers_dsc03940.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Cray_2_Arts_et_Metiers_dsc03940.jpg/250px-Cray_2_Arts_et_Metiers_dsc03940.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Cray_2_Arts_et_Metiers_dsc03940.jpg/375px-Cray_2_Arts_et_Metiers_dsc03940.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Cray_2_Arts_et_Metiers_dsc03940.jpg/500px-Cray_2_Arts_et_Metiers_dsc03940.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cray" title="Cray">Cray</a> designed many supercomputers that used multiprocessing heavily.</figcaption></figure> <p>Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed in only large and powerful machines such as <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">mainframe computers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">servers</a>. Multiprocessor and <a href="/wiki/Multi-core" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-core">multi-core</a> (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result. </p><p>Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general-purpose computers.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful for only specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to use most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">simulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rendering_(computer_graphics)" title="Rendering (computer graphics)">graphics rendering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a> applications, as well as with other so-called "<a href="/wiki/Embarrassingly_parallel" title="Embarrassingly parallel">embarrassingly parallel</a>" tasks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Software">Software</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Software</a></div> <p><i>Software</i> refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">hardware</a> from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs, <a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">libraries</a> and related non-executable <a href="/wiki/Data_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (computing)">data</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Software_documentation" title="Software documentation">online documentation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">digital media</a>. It is often divided into <a href="/wiki/System_software" title="System software">system software</a> and <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">application software</a>. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified, such as with <a href="/wiki/BIOS" title="BIOS">BIOS</a> <a href="/wiki/Read-only_memory" title="Read-only memory">ROM</a> in an <a href="/wiki/IBM_PC_compatible" title="IBM PC compatible">IBM PC compatible</a> computer, it is sometimes called "firmware". </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a> /System Software </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution" title="Berkeley Software Distribution">BSD</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/UNIX_System_V" title="UNIX System V">UNIX System V</a>, <a href="/wiki/IBM_AIX" title="IBM AIX">IBM AIX</a>, <a href="/wiki/HP-UX" title="HP-UX">HP-UX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solaris (operating system)">Solaris</a> (<a href="/wiki/SunOS" title="SunOS">SunOS</a>), <a href="/wiki/IRIX" title="IRIX">IRIX</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_BSD_operating_systems" title="List of BSD operating systems">List of BSD operating systems</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Linux" title="Linux">Linux</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_Linux_distributions" title="List of Linux distributions">List of Linux distributions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Linux_distributions" title="Comparison of Linux distributions">Comparison of Linux distributions</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Windows_95" title="Windows 95">Windows 95</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_98" title="Windows 98">Windows 98</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_NT" title="Windows NT">Windows NT</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_2000" title="Windows 2000">Windows 2000</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_ME" class="mw-redirect" title="Windows ME">Windows ME</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_XP" title="Windows XP">Windows XP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_Vista" title="Windows Vista">Windows Vista</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_7" title="Windows 7">Windows 7</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_8" title="Windows 8">Windows 8</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_8.1" title="Windows 8.1">Windows 8.1</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_10" title="Windows 10">Windows 10</a>, <a href="/wiki/Windows_11" title="Windows 11">Windows 11</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/DOS" title="DOS">DOS</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/86-DOS" title="86-DOS">86-DOS</a> (QDOS), <a href="/wiki/IBM_PC_DOS" title="IBM PC DOS">IBM PC DOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/MS-DOS" title="MS-DOS">MS-DOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/DR-DOS" title="DR-DOS">DR-DOS</a>, <a href="/wiki/FreeDOS" title="FreeDOS">FreeDOS</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Macintosh_operating_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Macintosh operating systems">Macintosh operating systems</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Classic_Mac_OS" title="Classic Mac OS">Classic Mac OS</a>, <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a> (previously OS X and Mac OS X) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Embedded_operating_system" title="Embedded operating system">Embedded</a> and <a href="/wiki/Real-time_operating_system" title="Real-time operating system">real-time</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/List_of_operating_systems#Embedded" title="List of operating systems">List of embedded operating systems</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Experimental</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amoeba_(operating_system)" title="Amoeba (operating system)">Amoeba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oberon_(operating_system)" title="Oberon (operating system)">Oberon</a>–<a href="/wiki/A2_(operating_system)" title="A2 (operating system)">AOS, Bluebottle, A2</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plan_9_from_Bell_Labs" title="Plan 9 from Bell Labs">Plan 9 from Bell Labs</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)" title="Library (computing)">Library</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Multimedia" title="Multimedia">Multimedia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/DirectX" title="DirectX">DirectX</a>, <a href="/wiki/OpenGL" title="OpenGL">OpenGL</a>, <a href="/wiki/OpenAL" title="OpenAL">OpenAL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vulkan" title="Vulkan">Vulkan (API)</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Programming library</td> <td><a href="/wiki/C_standard_library" title="C standard library">C standard library</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standard_Template_Library" title="Standard Template Library">Standard Template Library</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Data_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (computing)">Data</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Protocol_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protocol (computing)">Protocol</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" title="Internet protocol suite">TCP/IP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kermit_(protocol)" title="Kermit (protocol)">Kermit</a>, <a href="/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" title="File Transfer Protocol">FTP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">HTTP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol" title="Simple Mail Transfer Protocol">SMTP</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/File_format" title="File format">File format</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a>, <a href="/wiki/XML" title="XML">XML</a>, <a href="/wiki/JPEG" title="JPEG">JPEG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moving_Picture_Experts_Group" title="Moving Picture Experts Group">MPEG</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics" class="mw-redirect" title="Portable Network Graphics">PNG</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/User_interface" title="User interface">User interface</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">Graphical user interface</a> (<a href="/wiki/WIMP_(computing)" title="WIMP (computing)">WIMP</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>, <a href="/wiki/GNOME" title="GNOME">GNOME</a>, <a href="/wiki/KDE" title="KDE">KDE</a>, <a href="/wiki/QNX" title="QNX">QNX</a> Photon, <a href="/wiki/Common_Desktop_Environment" title="Common Desktop Environment">CDE</a>, <a href="/wiki/GEM_(desktop_environment)" title="GEM (desktop environment)">GEM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aqua_(user_interface)" title="Aqua (user interface)">Aqua</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Text-based_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Text-based (computing)">Text-based user interface</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Command-line_interface" title="Command-line interface">Command-line interface</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_user_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Text user interface">Text user interface</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">Application</a> Software </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Office_suite" class="mw-redirect" title="Office suite">Office suite</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Word_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Word processing">Word processing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desktop_publishing" title="Desktop publishing">Desktop publishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Presentation_program" title="Presentation program">Presentation program</a>, <a href="/wiki/Database_management_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Database management system">Database management system</a>, Scheduling &amp; Time management, <a href="/wiki/Spreadsheet" title="Spreadsheet">Spreadsheet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accounting_software" title="Accounting software">Accounting software</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Internet Access</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">Browser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Email_client" title="Email client">Email client</a>, <a href="/wiki/Web_server" title="Web server">Web server</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mail_transfer_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Mail transfer agent">Mail transfer agent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Instant_messaging" title="Instant messaging">Instant messaging</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Design and manufacturing</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_design" title="Computer-aided design">Computer-aided design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer-aided_manufacturing" title="Computer-aided manufacturing">Computer-aided manufacturing</a>, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing, Supply chain management </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer graphics">Graphics</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Raster_graphics_editor" title="Raster graphics editor">Raster graphics editor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vector_graphics_editor" title="Vector graphics editor">Vector graphics editor</a>, <a href="/wiki/3D_computer_graphics_software" class="mw-redirect" title="3D computer graphics software">3D modeler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_animation" title="Computer animation">Animation editor</a>, <a href="/wiki/3D_computer_graphics" title="3D computer graphics">3D computer graphics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_editing" title="Video editing">Video editing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Image_processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Image processing">Image processing</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">Audio</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Digital_audio_editor" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital audio editor">Digital audio editor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Audio_player_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio player (software)">Audio playback</a>, <a href="/wiki/Audio_mixing" title="Audio mixing">Mixing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_synthesizer" title="Software synthesizer">Audio synthesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_music" title="Computer music">Computer music</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Software engineering</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">Compiler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assembler_(computer_programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assembler (computer programming)">Assembler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">Interpreter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Debugger" title="Debugger">Debugger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Text_editor" title="Text editor">Text editor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Integrated_development_environment" title="Integrated development environment">Integrated development environment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_performance_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Software performance analysis">Software performance analysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Revision_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Revision control">Revision control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Software_configuration_management" title="Software configuration management">Software configuration management</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Educational</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Edutainment" class="mw-redirect" title="Edutainment">Edutainment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Educational_game" title="Educational game">Educational game</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serious_game" title="Serious game">Serious game</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flight_simulator" title="Flight simulator">Flight simulator</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Games</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Strategy_game" title="Strategy game">Strategy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arcade_game" title="Arcade game">Arcade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puzzle_video_game" title="Puzzle video game">Puzzle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simulation_video_game" title="Simulation video game">Simulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/First-person_shooter" title="First-person shooter">First-person shooter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Platform_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Platform game">Platform</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massively_multiplayer_online_game" title="Massively multiplayer online game">Massively multiplayer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interactive_fiction" title="Interactive fiction">Interactive fiction</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Misc</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antivirus_software" title="Antivirus software">Antivirus software</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malware_scanner" class="mw-redirect" title="Malware scanner">Malware scanner</a>, <a href="/wiki/Installation_(computer_programs)" title="Installation (computer programs)">Installer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Package_management_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Package management system">Package management systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/File_manager" title="File manager">File manager</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Languages">Languages</h3></div> <p>There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended for general purpose, others useful for only highly specialized applications. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming languages</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Lists of programming languages</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming languages">Timeline of programming languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_languages_by_category" class="mw-redirect" title="List of programming languages by category">List of programming languages by category</a>, <a href="/wiki/Generational_list_of_programming_languages" title="Generational list of programming languages">Generational list of programming languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming languages">List of programming languages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based programming languages">Non-English-based programming languages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Commonly used <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly languages</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="ARM architecture">ARM</a>, <a href="/wiki/MIPS_architecture" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS</a>, <a href="/wiki/X86_assembly_language" title="X86 assembly language">x86</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Commonly used <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming language)">Ada</a>, <a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a>, <a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a>, <a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a>, <a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming language)">C#</a>, <a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a>, <a href="/wiki/PL/I" title="PL/I">PL/I</a>, <a href="/wiki/REXX" class="mw-redirect" title="REXX">REXX</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming language)">Pascal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Commonly used <a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting languages</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bourne_shell" title="Bourne shell">Bourne script</a>, <a href="/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript">JavaScript</a>, <a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming language)">Python</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming language)">Ruby</a>, <a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a>, <a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Programs">Programs</h3></div> <p>The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">programmed</a>. That is to say that some type of <a href="/wiki/Instruction_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction (computer science)">instructions</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">program</a>) can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a> often have machine code in the form of an <a href="/wiki/Imperative_programming_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperative programming language">imperative programming language</a>. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for <a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">word processors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browsers</a> for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (<a href="/wiki/FLOPS" class="mw-redirect" title="FLOPS">gigaflops</a>) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of <a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">programmers</a> years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Stored_program_architecture">Stored program architecture</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">Computer program</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer_programming" title="Computer programming">Computer programming</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg/250px-SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg/330px-SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg/500px-SSEM_Manchester_museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3477" data-file-height="2296" /></a><figcaption>Replica of the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Baby" title="Manchester Baby">Manchester Baby</a>, the world's first electronic <a href="/wiki/Stored-program_computer" title="Stored-program computer">stored-program computer</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Industry_(Manchester)" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester)">Museum of Science and Industry</a> in Manchester, England</figcaption></figure> <p>This section applies to most common <a href="/wiki/RAM_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="RAM machine">RAM machine</a>–based computers. </p><p>In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's <a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">memory</a> and are generally carried out (<a href="/wiki/Execution_(computing)" title="Execution (computing)">executed</a>) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or <a href="/wiki/Branch_(computer_science)" title="Branch (computer science)">branches</a>). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen <a href="/wiki/Conditional_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conditional (programming)">conditionally</a> so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support <a href="/wiki/Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">subroutines</a> by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction. </p><p>Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the <a href="/wiki/Control_flow" title="Control flow">flow of control</a> within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention. </p><p>Comparatively, a person using a pocket <a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">calculator</a> can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the <a href="/wiki/MIPS_architecture" title="MIPS architecture">MIPS assembly language</a>: </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-asm mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre><span></span><span class="w"> </span><span class="nl">begin:</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">addi</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$8</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">0</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># initialize sum to 0</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">addi</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$9</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># set first number to add = 1</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nl">loop:</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">slti</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$10</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$9</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">1000</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># check if the number is less than 1000</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">beq</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$10</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$0</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">finish</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># if odd number is greater than n then exit</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">add</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$8</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$8</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$9</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># update sum</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">addi</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$9</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$9</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="mi">1</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># get next number</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">j</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">loop</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># repeat the summing process</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nl">finish:</span> <span class="w"> </span><span class="nf">add</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$2</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$8</span><span class="p">,</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="no">$0</span><span class="w"> </span><span class="c1"># put sum in output register</span> </pre></div> <p>Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Machine_code">Machine code</h4></div> <p>In most computers, individual instructions are stored as <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or <a href="/wiki/Opcode" title="Opcode">opcode</a> for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_architecture" title="Harvard architecture">Harvard architecture</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I</a> computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in <a href="/wiki/CPU_cache" title="CPU cache">CPU caches</a>. </p><p>While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (<a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine language</a>) and while this technique was used with many early computers,<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember&#160;– a <a href="/wiki/Mnemonic" title="Mnemonic">mnemonic</a> such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">assembly language</a>. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FortranCardPROJ039.agr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/FortranCardPROJ039.agr.jpg/220px-FortranCardPROJ039.agr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/FortranCardPROJ039.agr.jpg/330px-FortranCardPROJ039.agr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/FortranCardPROJ039.agr.jpg/440px-FortranCardPROJ039.agr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1687" data-file-height="809" /></a><figcaption>A 1970s <a href="/wiki/Punched_card" title="Punched card">punched card</a> containing one line from a <a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a> program. The card reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labeled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Programming_language">Programming language</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></div> <p>Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Natural_language" title="Natural language">natural languages</a>, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into <a href="/wiki/Machine_code" title="Machine code">machine code</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Assembly_language#Assembler" title="Assembly language">assembler</a> before being run, or translated directly at run time by an <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Low-level_languages">Low-level languages</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Low-level_programming_language" title="Low-level programming language">Low-level programming language</a></div> <p>Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed <i>low-level programming languages</i>) are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer's central processing unit (<a href="/wiki/CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPU</a>). For instance, an <a href="/wiki/ARM_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="ARM architecture">ARM architecture</a> CPU (such as may be found in a <a href="/wiki/Smartphone" title="Smartphone">smartphone</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Handheld_video_game" class="mw-redirect" title="Handheld video game">hand-held videogame</a>) cannot understand the machine language of an <a href="/wiki/X86" title="X86">x86</a> CPU that might be in a <a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">PC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Historically a significant number of other CPU architectures were created and saw extensive use, notably including the MOS Technology 6502 and 6510 in addition to the Zilog Z80. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="High-level_languages">High-level languages</h5></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">High-level programming language</a></div> <p>Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level programming language">high-level programming languages</a> that are able to express the needs of the <a href="/wiki/Programmer" title="Programmer">programmer</a> more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various <a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">video game consoles</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Program_design">Program design</h4></div> <p>Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable.<sup id="cite_ref-Leach2016_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leach2016-142"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered.<sup id="cite_ref-Zhu2005_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhu2005-143"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies.<sup id="cite_ref-Leach2016b_144-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leach2016b-144"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The task of developing large <a href="/wiki/Computer_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer software">software</a> systems presents a significant intellectual challenge.<sup id="cite_ref-Knight2012_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knight2012-145"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult;<sup id="cite_ref-Brooks1975_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooks1975-146"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.<sup id="cite_ref-Sommerville2007_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sommerville2007-147"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bugs">Bugs</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Software_bug" title="Software bug">Software bug</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_Computer_Bug,_1945.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/First_Computer_Bug%2C_1945.jpg/220px-First_Computer_Bug%2C_1945.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/First_Computer_Bug%2C_1945.jpg/330px-First_Computer_Bug%2C_1945.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/First_Computer_Bug%2C_1945.jpg/440px-First_Computer_Bug%2C_1945.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2889" data-file-height="2285" /></a><figcaption>The actual first computer bug, a moth found trapped on a relay of the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_II" title="Harvard Mark II">Harvard Mark II</a> computer</figcaption></figure> <p>Errors in computer programs are called "<a href="/wiki/Software_bug" title="Software bug">bugs</a>". They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. However, in some cases they may cause the program or the entire system to "<a href="/wiki/Hang_(computing)" title="Hang (computing)">hang</a>", becoming unresponsive to input such as <a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">mouse</a> clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to <a href="/wiki/Crash_(computing)" title="Crash (computing)">crash</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an <a href="/wiki/Exploit_(computer_security)" title="Exploit (computer security)">exploit</a>, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Admiral <a href="/wiki/Grace_Hopper" title="Grace Hopper">Grace Hopper</a>, an American computer scientist and developer of the first <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiler</a>, is credited for having first used the term "bugs" in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_II" title="Harvard Mark II">Harvard Mark II</a> computer in September 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor84_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor84-150"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Networking_and_the_Internet">Networking and the Internet</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer networking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/250px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/330px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/500px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>Visualization of a portion of the <a href="/wiki/Routing" title="Routing">routes</a> on the Internet</figcaption></figure> <p>Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple physical locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's <a href="/wiki/Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment" title="Semi-Automatic Ground Environment">SAGE</a> system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems such as <a href="/wiki/Sabre_(computer_system)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabre (computer system)">Sabre</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded by ARPA (now <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">computer network</a> that resulted was called the <a href="/wiki/ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. </p><p>The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of computers. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s, computer networking become almost ubiquitous, due to the spread of applications like e-mail and the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like <a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_digital_subscriber_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Asymmetric digital subscriber line">ADSL</a>. </p><p>The number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unconventional_computers">Unconventional computers</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computer">Human computer</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a></div> <p>A computer does not need to be <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a>, nor even have a <a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">processor</a>, nor <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a>, nor even a <a href="/wiki/Hard_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard disk">hard disk</a>. While popular usage of the word "computer" is synonymous with a personal electronic computer,<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> a typical modern definition of a computer is: "<i>A device that computes</i>, especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information."<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> According to this definition, any device that <i>processes information</i> qualifies as a computer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Future">Future</h2></div> <p>There is active research to make unconventional computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as <a href="/wiki/Optical_computing" title="Optical computing">optical computers</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_computing" title="DNA computing">DNA computers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wetware_computer" title="Wetware computer">neural computers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_computing" title="Quantum computing">quantum computers</a>. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any <a href="/wiki/Computable_function" title="Computable function">computable function</a>, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms (by <a href="/wiki/Shor%27s_algorithm" title="Shor&#39;s algorithm">quantum factoring</a>) very quickly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer_architecture_paradigms">Computer architecture paradigms</h3></div> <p>There are many types of <a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">computer architectures</a>: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum computer">Quantum computer</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Chemical_computer" title="Chemical computer">Chemical computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalar_processor" title="Scalar processor">Scalar processor</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Vector_processor" title="Vector processor">Vector processor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Uniform_Memory_Access" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-Uniform Memory Access">Non-Uniform Memory Access</a> (NUMA) computers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_machine" title="Register machine">Register machine</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Stack_machine" title="Stack machine">Stack machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_architecture" title="Harvard architecture">Harvard architecture</a> vs. <a href="/wiki/Von_Neumann_architecture" title="Von Neumann architecture">von Neumann architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_architecture" title="Cellular architecture">Cellular architecture</a></li></ul> <p>Of all these <a href="/wiki/Abstract_machine" title="Abstract machine">abstract machines</a>, a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">Logic gates</a> are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> or <a href="/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal">analog</a> paradigms. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called <a href="/wiki/Computer_program" title="Computer program">programs</a> makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from <a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">calculators</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Church%E2%80%93Turing_thesis" title="Church–Turing thesis">Church–Turing thesis</a> is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a <a href="/wiki/Turing-complete" class="mw-redirect" title="Turing-complete">minimum capability (being Turing-complete)</a> is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, any type of computer (<a href="/wiki/Netbook" title="Netbook">netbook</a>, <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellular_automaton" title="Cellular automaton">cellular automaton</a>, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_intelligence">Artificial intelligence</h3></div> <p>A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a>. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: <a href="/wiki/Rule-based_system" title="Rule-based system">rule-based systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition" title="Pattern recognition">pattern recognition</a> systems. Rule-based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop. Pattern-based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions. Examples of pattern-based systems include <a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">voice recognition</a>, font recognition, translation and the emerging field of on-line marketing. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professions_and_organizations">Professions and organizations</h2></div> <p>As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Category:Computer_occupations" title="Category:Computer occupations">Computer-related professions</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Hardware-related</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_engineering" title="Telecommunications engineering">Telecommunications engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_engineering" title="Optical engineering">Optical engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanoengineering" title="Nanoengineering">Nanoengineering</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Software-related</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">Computer science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desktop_publishing" title="Desktop publishing">Desktop publishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a>, Information technology, <a href="/wiki/Information_systems_(discipline)" class="mw-redirect" title="Information systems (discipline)">Information systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computational_science" title="Computational science">Computational science</a>, Software engineering, <a href="/wiki/Video_game_industry" title="Video game industry">Video game industry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Web_design" title="Web design">Web design</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption><a href="/wiki/Category:Information_technology_organizations" title="Category:Information technology organizations">Organizations</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Standards groups</td> <td><a href="/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute" title="American National Standards Institute">ANSI</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission" title="International Electrotechnical Commission">IEC</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">IEEE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">IETF</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a>, <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium" title="World Wide Web Consortium">W3C</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Professional societies</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">ACM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Information_Systems" title="Association for Information Systems">AIS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institution_of_Engineering_and_Technology" title="Institution of Engineering and Technology">IET</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Federation_for_Information_Processing" title="International Federation for Information Processing">IFIP</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Computer_Society" title="British Computer Society">BCS</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">Free</a>/<a href="/wiki/Open_source_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Open source software">open source software</a> groups</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation" title="Free Software Foundation">Free Software Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mozilla_Foundation" title="Mozilla Foundation">Mozilla Foundation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apache_Software_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Apache Software Foundation">Apache Software Foundation</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computability_theory" title="Computability theory">Computability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_security" title="Computer security">Computer security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_hardware_terms" title="Glossary of computer hardware terms">Glossary of computer hardware terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">History of computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_term_etymologies" title="List of computer term etymologies">List of computer term etymologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_computer_system_manufacturers" title="List of computer system manufacturers">List of computer system manufacturers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_computers" title="List of fictional computers">List of fictional computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_computers" title="List of films about computers">List of films about computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_computers" title="Outline of computers">Outline of computers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulse_computation" title="Pulse computation">Pulse computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TOP500" title="TOP500">TOP500</a> (list of most powerful computers)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_computing" title="Unconventional computing">Unconventional computing</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to <a href="#CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1981">Schmandt-Besserat 1981</a>, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_lading" title="Bill of lading">bill of lading</a> or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.<br />Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. <a href="#CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1999">Schmandt-Besserat 1999</a> estimates it took 4000 years.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12&#160;mm<sup>2</sup>, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306&#160;mm<sup>2</sup>, composed of 5.5&#160;million transistors.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Most major 64-bit <a href="/wiki/Instruction_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Instruction set">instruction set</a> architectures are extensions of earlier designs. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in 32-bit forms before their 64-bit incarnations were introduced.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The control unit's role in interpreting instructions has varied somewhat in the past. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control unit with further interpretation performed by another device. For example, <a href="/wiki/EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a>, one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that interpreted only four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Instructions often occupy more than one memory address, therefore the program counter usually increases by the number of memory locations required to store one instruction.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Flash memory also may only be rewritten a limited number of times before wearing out, making it less useful for heavy random access usage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVermaMielke1988_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVermaMielke1988-129"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">However, it is also very common to construct supercomputers out of many pieces of cheap commodity hardware; usually individual computers connected by networks. These so-called <a href="/wiki/Computer_cluster" title="Computer cluster">computer clusters</a> can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETOP5002006&#91;&#91;Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2022&#93;&#93;&lt;sup_class=&quot;noprint_Inline-Template_&quot;_style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;&amp;#91;&lt;i&gt;&#91;&#91;Wikipedia:Citing_sources&#124;&lt;span_title=&quot;This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&amp;#32;(March_2022)&quot;&gt;page&amp;nbsp;needed&lt;/span&gt;&#93;&#93;&lt;/i&gt;&amp;#93;&lt;/sup&gt;_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETOP5002006[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2022]]&lt;sup_class=&quot;noprint_Inline-Template_&quot;_style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;&amp;#91;&lt;i&gt;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|&lt;span_title=&quot;This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&amp;#32;(March_2022)&quot;&gt;page&amp;nbsp;needed&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/i&gt;&amp;#93;&lt;/sup&gt;-135"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Even some later computers were commonly programmed directly in machine code. Some <a href="/wiki/Minicomputer" title="Minicomputer">minicomputers</a> like the DEC <a href="/wiki/PDP-8" title="PDP-8">PDP-8</a> could be programmed directly from a panel of switches. However, this method was usually used only as part of the <a href="/wiki/Booting" title="Booting">booting</a> process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some <a href="/wiki/Non-volatile_memory" title="Non-volatile memory">non-volatile memory</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">However, there is sometimes some form of machine language compatibility between different computers. An <a href="/wiki/X86-64" title="X86-64">x86-64</a> compatible microprocessor like the AMD <a href="/wiki/Athlon_64" title="Athlon 64">Athlon 64</a> is able to run most of the same programs that an <a href="/wiki/Intel_Core_2" title="Intel Core 2">Intel Core 2</a> microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel <a href="/wiki/Pentium" title="Pentium">Pentiums</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intel_80486" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel 80486">Intel 80486</a>. This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">High level languages are also often <a href="/wiki/Interpreted_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpreted language">interpreted</a> rather than compiled. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an <a href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">It is not universally true that bugs are solely due to programmer oversight. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Pentium_FDIV_bug" title="Pentium FDIV bug">Pentium FDIV bug</a> caused some <a href="/wiki/Intel_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel Corporation">Intel</a> microprocessors in the early 1990s to produce inaccurate results for certain <a href="/wiki/Floating_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Floating point">floating point</a> division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to the <i><a href="/wiki/Shorter_Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Shorter Oxford English Dictionary">Shorter Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (6th ed, 2007), the word <i>computer</i> dates back to the mid 17th century, when it referred to "A person who makes calculations; specifically a person employed for this in an observatory etc."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEvans201823-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEvans201823_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans2018">Evans 2018</a>, p.&#160;23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith20136-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith20136_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith2013">Smith 2013</a>, p.&#160;6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=computer">"computer (n.)"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161116065135/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=computer">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&amp;rft.atitle=computer+%28n.%29&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dcomputer&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRobson2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Robson" title="Eleanor Robson">Robson, Eleanor</a> (2008). <i>Mathematics in Ancient Iraq</i>. Princeton University Press. p.&#160;5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09182-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09182-2"><bdi>978-0-691-09182-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Mathematics+in+Ancient+Iraq&amp;rft.pages=5&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-691-09182-2&amp;rft.aulast=Robson&amp;rft.aufirst=Eleanor&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span>: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal_number_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexagesimal number system">sexagesimal number system</a> was in use 2350–2000 BCE.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlegg,_Graham.1989" class="citation book cs1">Flegg, Graham. (1989). <i>Numbers through the ages</i>. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-333-49130-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-333-49130-0"><bdi>0-333-49130-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/24660570">24660570</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Numbers+through+the+ages&amp;rft.place=Houndmills%2C+Basingstoke%2C+Hampshire&amp;rft.pub=Macmillan+Education&amp;rft.date=1989&amp;rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F24660570&amp;rft.isbn=0-333-49130-0&amp;rft.au=Flegg%2C+Graham.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html"><i>The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080428070448/http://www.antikythera-mechanism.gr/project/general/the-project.html">Archived</a> 28 April 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. 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Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060616002258/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html">"Charles Babbage"</a>. <i>MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</i>. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html">the original</a> on 16 June 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones,</i> Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta, Revista 12, pp. 391–418, 1914.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Torres Quevedo, Leonardo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quickclick.es/rop/pdf/publico/1914/1914_tomoI_2043_01.pdf">Automática: Complemento de la Teoría de las Máquinas, (pdf)</a>, pp. 575–583, Revista de Obras Públicas, 19 November 1914.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald T. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 January</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Modern+History+of+Computing&amp;rft.pub=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&amp;rft.date=2017&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcomputing-history%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO’Regan2008" class="citation book cs1">O’Regan, Gerard, ed. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=081H96F1enMC"><i>A Brief History of Computing</i></a>. London: Springer London. p.&#160;28. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-84800-084-1">10.1007/978-1-84800-084-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84800-083-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84800-083-4"><bdi>978-1-84800-083-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Computing&amp;rft.place=London&amp;rft.pages=28&amp;rft.pub=Springer+London&amp;rft.date=2008&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-84800-084-1&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-84800-083-4&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D081H96F1enMC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTse2020" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Tse" title="David Tse">Tse, David</a> (22 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.quantamagazine.org/how-claude-shannons-information-theory-invented-the-future-20201222/">"How Claude Shannon Invented the Future"</a>. <i>Quanta Magazine</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Life+and+Work+of+Konrad+Zuse&amp;rft.atitle=Part+4%3A+Konrad+Zuse%27s+Z1+and+Z3+Computers&amp;rft.aulast=Zuse&amp;rft.aufirst=Horst&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epemag.com%2Fzuse%2Fpart4a.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bellis-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bellis_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBellis2019" class="citation web cs1">Bellis, Mary (15 May 2019) [First published 2006 at inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa050298.htm]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/konrad-zuse-modern-computer-4078237">"Biography of Konrad Zuse, Inventor and Programmer of Early Computers"</a>. <i>thoughtco.com</i>. Dotdash Meredith. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201213003237/https://www.thoughtco.com/konrad-zuse-modern-computer-4078237">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 February</span> 2021</span>. <q>Konrad Zuse earned the semiofficial title of 'inventor of the modern computer'<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2023)">who?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=thoughtco.com&amp;rft.atitle=Biography+of+Konrad+Zuse%2C+Inventor+and+Programmer+of+Early+Computers&amp;rft.date=2019-05-15&amp;rft.aulast=Bellis&amp;rft.aufirst=Mary&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thoughtco.com%2Fkonrad-zuse-modern-computer-4078237&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhope.com/issues/ch001335.htm">"Who is the Father of the Computer?"</a>. <i>ComputerHope</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=ComputerHope&amp;rft.atitle=Who+is+the+Father+of+the+Computer%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhope.com%2Fissues%2Fch001335.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZuse2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Zuse, Konrad</a> (2010) [1984]. <i>The Computer – My Life </i>Translated by McKenna, Patricia and Ross, J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&amp;rft.atitle=A+Computer+Pioneer+Rediscovered%2C+50+Years+On&amp;rft.date=1994-04-20&amp;rft.aulast=Salz+Trautman&amp;rft.aufirst=Peggy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1994%2F04%2F20%2Fnews%2F20iht-zuse.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZuse1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Zuse" title="Konrad Zuse">Zuse, Konrad</a> (1993). <i>Der Computer. Mein Lebenswerk</i> (in German) (3rd&#160;ed.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag. p.&#160;55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-56292-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-56292-4"><bdi>978-3-540-56292-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Der+Computer.+Mein+Lebenswerk.&amp;rft.place=Berlin&amp;rft.pages=55&amp;rft.edition=3rd&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&amp;rft.date=1993&amp;rft.isbn=978-3-540-56292-4&amp;rft.aulast=Zuse&amp;rft.aufirst=Konrad&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160918203643/https://goremotesupport.com/blog/crash-the-story-of-it-zuse/">"Crash! The Story of IT: Zuse"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://goremotesupport.com/blog/crash-the-story-of-it-zuse">the original</a> on 18 September 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 June</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Crash%21+The+Story+of+IT%3A+Zuse&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgoremotesupport.com%2Fblog%2Fcrash-the-story-of-it-zuse&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rojas-ieee-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rojas-ieee_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRojas1998" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Rojas" title="Raúl Rojas">Rojas, R.</a> (1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". <i>IEEE Annals of the History of Computing</i>. <b>20</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">51–</span>54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F85.707574">10.1109/85.707574</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14606587">14606587</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=IEEE+Annals+of+the+History+of+Computing&amp;rft.atitle=How+to+make+Zuse%27s+Z3+a+universal+computer&amp;rft.volume=20&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F85.707574&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A14606587%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft.aulast=Rojas&amp;rft.aufirst=R.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rojas-universal-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rojas-universal_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRojas" class="citation web cs1">Rojas, Raúl. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/users/rojas/1997/Universal_Computer.pdf">"How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>fu-berlin.de</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170809123935/http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/users/rojas/1997/Universal_Computer.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 September</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=fu-berlin.de&amp;rft.atitle=How+to+Make+Zuse%27s+Z3+a+Universal+Computer&amp;rft.aulast=Rojas&amp;rft.aufirst=Ra%C3%BAl&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.inf.fu-berlin.de%2Fusers%2Frojas%2F1997%2FUniversal_Computer.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OReganZuse-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OReganZuse_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-OReganZuse_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFO&#39;Regan2010" class="citation book cs1">O'Regan, Gerard (2010). <i>A Brief History of Computing</i>. 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Burks (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Zja6hoP4psC"><i>The First Electronic Computer</i></a>. University of Michigan Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-08104-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-08104-7"><bdi>0-472-08104-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Engineering+Science+%26+Education+Journal&amp;rft.atitle=Some+early+transistor+applications+in+the+UK&amp;rft.volume=7&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E100-%3C%2Fspan%3E106&amp;rft.date=1998-06&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1049%2Fesej%3A19980301&amp;rft.issn=0963-7346&amp;rft.aulast=Cooke-Yarborough&amp;rft.aufirst=E.+H.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F689507&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_December_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024">link</a>)</span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCooke-Yarborough1957" class="citation book cs1">Cooke-Yarborough, E. 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J.; Derick, L (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650">"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"</a>. <i>Journal of the Electrochemical Society</i>. <b>104</b> (9): 547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1149%2F1.2428650">10.1149/1.2428650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Electrochemical+Society&amp;rft.atitle=Surface+Protection+and+Selective+Masking+during+Diffusion+in+Silicon&amp;rft.volume=104&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=547&amp;rft.date=1957&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1149%2F1.2428650&amp;rft.aulast=Frosch&amp;rft.aufirst=C.+J.&amp;rft.au=Derick%2C+L&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1149%2F1.2428650&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKahng1961" class="citation journal cs1">Kahng, D. 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(1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lyJGAQAAIAAJ"><i>Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Chemical_Society" title="American Chemical Society">American Chemical Society</a>. p.&#160;389. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8412-2861-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8412-2861-0"><bdi>978-0-8412-2861-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2019</span>. <q>The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Making+the+Right+Connections%3A+Microcomputers+and+Electronic+Instrumentation&amp;rft.pages=389&amp;rft.pub=American+Chemical+Society&amp;rft.date=1994&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8412-2861-0&amp;rft.aulast=Malmstadt&amp;rft.aufirst=Howard+V.&amp;rft.au=Enke%2C+Christie+G.&amp;rft.au=Crouch%2C+Stanley+R.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlyJGAQAAIAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFossumTrivedi2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jerry_G._Fossum" title="Jerry G. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=National+Inventors+Hall+of+Fame&amp;rft.atitle=Dawon+Kahng&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.invent.org%2Finductees%2Fdawon-kahng&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-atalla-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-atalla_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.invent.org/inductees/martin-john-m-atalla">"Martin Atalla in Inventors Hall of Fame, 2009"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190919204631/https://www.invent.org/inductees/martin-john-m-atalla">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Martin+Atalla+in+Inventors+Hall+of+Fame%2C+2009&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.invent.org%2Finductees%2Fmartin-john-m-atalla&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-triumph-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-triumph_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210818215224/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw"><i>Triumph of the MOS Transistor</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a>. 6 August 2010. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2019</span> &#8211; via YouTube.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Triumph+of+the+MOS+Transistor&amp;rft.pub=Computer+History+Museum&amp;rft.date=2010-08-06&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dq6fBEjf9WPw&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epn-online.com/page/22909/the-hapless-tale-of-geoffrey-dummer-this-is-the-sad-.html">"The Hapless Tale of Geoffrey Dummer"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130511181443/http://www.epn-online.com/page/22909/the-hapless-tale-of-geoffrey-dummer-this-is-the-sad-.html">Archived</a> 11 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (n.d.), (HTML), <i>Electronic Product News</i>, accessed 8 July 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKilby2000" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Kilby, Jack</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2000/kilby-lecture.pdf">"Nobel lecture"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Stockholm: Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080529024119/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2000/kilby-lecture.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 29 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 May</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Nobel+lecture&amp;rft.place=Stockholm&amp;rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.aulast=Kilby&amp;rft.aufirst=Jack&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F2000%2Fkilby-lecture.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TIJackBuilt-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-TIJackBuilt_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kilbyctr/jackbuilt.shtml"><i>The Chip that Jack Built</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150501073820/http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kilbyctr/jackbuilt.shtml">Archived</a> 1 May 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, (c. 2008), (HTML), Texas Instruments, Retrieved 29 May 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jack S. Kilby, Miniaturized Electronic Circuits, United States Patent Office, US Patent 3,138,743, filed 6 February 1959, issued 23 June 1964.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWinston1998" class="citation book cs1">Winston, Brian (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gfeCXlElJTwC&amp;pg=PA221"><i>Media Technology and Society: A History: From the Telegraph to the Internet</i></a>. Routledge. p.&#160;221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14230-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-14230-4"><bdi>978-0-415-14230-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Media+Technology+and+Society%3A+A+History%3A+From+the+Telegraph+to+the+Internet&amp;rft.pages=221&amp;rft.pub=Routledge&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-415-14230-4&amp;rft.aulast=Winston&amp;rft.aufirst=Brian&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgfeCXlElJTwC%26pg%3DPA221&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saxena140-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saxena140_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSaxena2009" class="citation book cs1">Saxena, Arjun N. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Invention+of+Integrated+Circuits%3A+Untold+Important+Facts&amp;rft.pages=140&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.isbn=978-981-281-445-6&amp;rft.aulast=Saxena&amp;rft.aufirst=Arjun+N.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-3lpDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA140&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nasa-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nasa_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nasa_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/ic-pg3.html">"Integrated circuits"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190721173218/https://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/ic-pg3.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=NASA&amp;rft.atitle=Integrated+circuits&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hq.nasa.gov%2Falsj%2Fic-pg3.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Noyce" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a>'s Unitary circuit, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation patent"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&amp;IDX=US2981877">US&#32;patent 2981877</a>,&#32;"Semiconductor device-and-lead structure",&#32;issued 1961-04-25,&#32; assigned to <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation">Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation</a></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&amp;rft.number=2981877&amp;rft.cc=US&amp;rft.title=Semiconductor+device-and-lead+structure&amp;rft.assignee=%5B%5BFairchild+Semiconductor+Corporation%5D%5D&amp;rft.date=1961-04-25"><span style="display: none;">&#160;</span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory1959-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory1959_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/practical-monolithic-integrated-circuit-concept-patented/">"1959: Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191024144046/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/practical-monolithic-integrated-circuit-concept-patented/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&amp;rft.atitle=1959%3A+Practical+Monolithic+Integrated+Circuit+Concept+Patented&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fpractical-monolithic-integrated-circuit-concept-patented%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFroschDerick1957" class="citation journal cs1">Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L. (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650">"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"</a>. <i>Journal of the Electrochemical Society</i>. <b>104</b> (9): 547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1149%2F1.2428650">10.1149/1.2428650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Electrochemical+Society&amp;rft.atitle=Surface+Protection+and+Selective+Masking+during+Diffusion+in+Silicon&amp;rft.volume=104&amp;rft.issue=9&amp;rft.pages=547&amp;rft.date=1957&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1149%2F1.2428650&amp;rft.aulast=Frosch&amp;rft.aufirst=C.+J.&amp;rft.au=Derick%2C+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1149%2F1.2428650&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562" /><span class="citation patent" id="CITEREFLincolnFrosch1957"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US2802760A">US2802760A</a>,&#32;Lincoln, Derick&#32;&amp;&#32;Frosch, Carl J.,&#32;"Oxidation of semiconductive surfaces for controlled diffusion",&#32;issued 1957-08-13</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Apatent&amp;rft.number=US2802760A&amp;rft.cc=&amp;rft.title=Oxidation+of+semiconductive+surfaces+for+controlled+diffusion&amp;rft.inventor=Lincoln&amp;rft.date=1957-08-13"><span style="display: none;">&#160;</span></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moskowitz4-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moskowitz4_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMoskowitz2016" class="citation book cs1">Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA168"><i>Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley &amp; Sons">John Wiley &amp; Sons</a>. p.&#160;168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-50892-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-50892-3"><bdi>978-0-470-50892-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Advanced+Materials+Innovation%3A+Managing+Global+Technology+in+the+21st+century&amp;rft.pages=168&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-470-50892-3&amp;rft.aulast=Moskowitz&amp;rft.aufirst=Sanford+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2STRDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA168&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLécuyerBrookLast2010" class="citation book cs1">Lécuyer, Christophe; Brook, David C.; Last, Jay (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LaZpUpkG70QC&amp;pg=PA62"><i>Makers of the Microchip: A Documentary History of Fairchild Semiconductor</i></a>. MIT Press. pp.&#160;<span class="nowrap">62–</span>63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01424-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-01424-3"><bdi>978-0-262-01424-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Makers+of+the+Microchip%3A+A+Documentary+History+of+Fairchild+Semiconductor&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E62-%3C%2Fspan%3E63&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2010&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-01424-3&amp;rft.aulast=L%C3%A9cuyer&amp;rft.aufirst=Christophe&amp;rft.au=Brook%2C+David+C.&amp;rft.au=Last%2C+Jay&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLaZpUpkG70QC%26pg%3DPA62&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFClaeys2003" class="citation book cs1">Claeys, Cor L. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bu22JNYbE5MC&amp;pg=PA27"><i>ULSI Process Integration III: Proceedings of the International Symposium</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Electrochemical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The Electrochemical Society">The Electrochemical Society</a>. pp.&#160;<span class="nowrap">27–</span>30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56677-376-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56677-376-8"><bdi>978-1-56677-376-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=ULSI+Process+Integration+III%3A+Proceedings+of+the+International+Symposium&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&amp;rft.pub=The+Electrochemical+Society&amp;rft.date=2003&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-56677-376-8&amp;rft.aulast=Claeys&amp;rft.aufirst=Cor+L.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dbu22JNYbE5MC%26pg%3DPA27&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lojek1204-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lojek1204_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLojek2007" class="citation book cs1">Lojek, Bo (2007). <i>History of Semiconductor Engineering</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science &amp; Business Media">Springer Science &amp; Business Media</a>. p.&#160;120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783540342588" title="Special:BookSources/9783540342588"><bdi>9783540342588</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=History+of+Semiconductor+Engineering&amp;rft.pages=120&amp;rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&amp;rft.date=2007&amp;rft.isbn=9783540342588&amp;rft.aulast=Lojek&amp;rft.aufirst=Bo&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuo-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kuo_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuo_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKuo2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kuo, Yue (1 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/spr/spr13/spr13_p055_061.pdf">"Thin Film Transistor Technology—Past, Present, and Future"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Electrochemical Society Interface</i>. <b>22</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">55–</span>61. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013ECSIn..22a..55K">2013ECSIn..22a..55K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1149%2F2.F06131if">10.1149/2.F06131if</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1064-8208">1064-8208</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829042321/http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/spr/spr13/spr13_p055_061.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 29 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=The+Electrochemical+Society+Interface&amp;rft.atitle=Thin+Film+Transistor+Technology%E2%80%94Past%2C+Present%2C+and+Future&amp;rft.volume=22&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E61&amp;rft.date=2013-01-01&amp;rft.issn=1064-8208&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1149%2F2.F06131if&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2013ECSIn..22a..55K&amp;rft.aulast=Kuo&amp;rft.aufirst=Yue&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.electrochem.org%2Fdl%2Finterface%2Fspr%2Fspr13%2Fspr13_p055_061.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory-digital-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory-digital_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory-digital_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/279">"Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200310142421/https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/digital-logic/12/279">Archived</a> from the original on 10 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&amp;rft.atitle=Tortoise+of+Transistors+Wins+the+Race+%E2%80%93+CHM+Revolution&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Frevolution%2Fdigital-logic%2F12%2F279&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1964-Commecial.html">"1964 – First Commercial MOS IC Introduced"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222203215/http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1964-Commecial.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&amp;rft.atitle=1964+%E2%80%93+First+Commercial+MOS+IC+Introduced&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsemiconductor%2Ftimeline%2F1964-Commecial.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/silicon-gate-technology-developed-for-ics/">"1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200729145834/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/silicon-gate-technology-developed-for-ics/">Archived</a> from the original on 29 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&amp;rft.atitle=1968%3A+Silicon+Gate+Technology+Developed+for+ICs&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fsilicon-gate-technology-developed-for-ics%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-computerhistory1971-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory1971_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory1971_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/">"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210812104243/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/microprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&amp;rft.atitle=1971%3A+Microprocessor+Integrates+CPU+Function+onto+a+Single+Chip&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Fmicroprocessor-integrates-cpu-function-onto-a-single-chip%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Colinge2016-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Colinge2016_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFColingeGreer2016" class="citation book cs1">Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjUCwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA2"><i>Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p.&#160;2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-05240-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-05240-6"><bdi>978-1-107-05240-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Nanowire+Transistors%3A+Physics+of+Devices+and+Materials+in+One+Dimension&amp;rft.pages=2&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2016&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-107-05240-6&amp;rft.aulast=Colinge&amp;rft.aufirst=Jean-Pierre&amp;rft.au=Greer%2C+James+C.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFvjUCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513221700/http://www.intel.com/museum/archives/4004.htm">"Intel's First Microprocessor—the Intel 4004"</a>. Intel Corp. November 1971. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intel.com/museum/archives/4004.htm">the original</a> on 13 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 May</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Intel%27s+First+Microprocessor%E2%80%94the+Intel+4004&amp;rft.pub=Intel+Corp.&amp;rft.date=1971-11&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.intel.com%2Fmuseum%2Farchives%2F4004.htm&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPattersonHennessy1998" class="citation book cs1">Patterson, David; Hennessy, John (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/computerorganiz000henn"><i>Computer Organization and Design</i></a>. San Francisco: <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Morgan Kaufmann">Morgan Kaufmann</a>. pp.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/computerorganiz000henn/page/27">27–39</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-428-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55860-428-5"><bdi>978-1-55860-428-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Organization+and+Design&amp;rft.place=San+Francisco&amp;rft.pages=27-39&amp;rft.pub=Morgan+Kaufmann&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-55860-428-5&amp;rft.aulast=Patterson&amp;rft.aufirst=David&amp;rft.au=Hennessy%2C+John&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputerorganiz000henn&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ieee-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ieee_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Federico_Faggin" title="Federico Faggin">Federico Faggin</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=4776530">The Making of the First Microprocessor</a>, <i>IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine</i>, Winter 2009, <a href="/wiki/IEEE_Xplore" title="IEEE Xplore">IEEE Xplore</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-networkworld.com-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-networkworld.com_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-networkworld.com_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.networkworld.com/article/3154386/7-dazzling-smartphone-improvements-with-qualcomms-snapdragon-835-chip.html">"7 dazzling smartphone improvements with Qualcomm's Snapdragon 835 chip"</a>. 3 January 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190930224934/https://www.networkworld.com/article/3154386/7-dazzling-smartphone-improvements-with-qualcomms-snapdragon-835-chip.html">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Wiley. p.&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontomi0000barn/page/85">85</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-05051-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-05051-3"><bdi>978-0-471-05051-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Microcomputers+and+the+Microprocessors&amp;rft.pages=85&amp;rft.pub=Wiley&amp;rft.date=1976&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-471-05051-3&amp;rft.aulast=Barna&amp;rft.aufirst=Arpad&amp;rft.au=Porat%2C+Dan+I.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fintroductiontomi0000barn%2Fpage%2F85&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPeekTodinoStrang2002" class="citation book cs1">Peek, Jerry; Todino, Grace; Strang, John (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/learningunixoper00jerr/page/130"><i>Learning the UNIX Operating System: A Concise Guide for the New User</i></a>. 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(2002). <i>Noise Reduction in Speech Applications</i>. CRC Press. p.&#160;111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0949-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-0949-6"><bdi>978-0-8493-0949-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Noise+Reduction+in+Speech+Applications&amp;rft.pages=111&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8493-0949-6&amp;rft.aulast=Davis&amp;rft.aufirst=Gillian+M.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETOP5002006&#91;&#91;Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2022&#93;&#93;&lt;sup_class=&quot;noprint_Inline-Template_&quot;_style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;&amp;#91;&lt;i&gt;&#91;&#91;Wikipedia:Citing_sources&#124;&lt;span_title=&quot;This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&amp;#32;(March_2022)&quot;&gt;page&amp;nbsp;needed&lt;/span&gt;&#93;&#93;&lt;/i&gt;&amp;#93;&lt;/sup&gt;-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETOP5002006[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2022]]&lt;sup_class=&quot;noprint_Inline-Template_&quot;_style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;&amp;#91;&lt;i&gt;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|&lt;span_title=&quot;This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&amp;#32;(March_2022)&quot;&gt;page&amp;nbsp;needed&lt;/span&gt;]]&lt;/i&gt;&amp;#93;&lt;/sup&gt;_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTOP5002006">TOP500 2006</a>, p.&#160;<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2022)">page&#160;needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCragon2000" class="citation book cs1">Cragon, Harvey (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_ykfBAWBkxoC"><i>Computer Architecture and Implementation</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p.&#160;5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65168-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-65168-4"><bdi>978-0-521-65168-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730093353/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Computer_Architecture_and_Implementation/_ykfBAWBkxoC">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Architecture+and+Implementation&amp;rft.pages=5&amp;rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-521-65168-4&amp;rft.aulast=Cragon&amp;rft.aufirst=Harvey&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ykfBAWBkxoC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFXuZhang2021" class="citation book cs1">Xu, Zhiwei; Zhang, Jialin (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s2RXEAAAQBAJ"><i>Computational Thinking: A Perspective on Computer Science</i></a>. Singapore: Springer. p.&#160;60. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-16-3848-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-16-3848-0"><bdi>978-981-16-3848-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730093353/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Computational_Thinking_A_Perspective_on/s2RXEAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2022</span>. <q>It is called the stored program architecture or stored program model, also known as the von Neumann architecture. We will use these terms interchangeably.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computational+Thinking%3A+A+Perspective+on+Computer+Science&amp;rft.place=Singapore&amp;rft.pages=60&amp;rft.pub=Springer&amp;rft.date=2021&amp;rft.isbn=978-981-16-3848-0&amp;rft.aulast=Xu&amp;rft.aufirst=Zhiwei&amp;rft.au=Zhang%2C+Jialin&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds2RXEAAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leach2016-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leach2016_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeach2016" class="citation book cs1">Leach, Ronald J. (27 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8W2mCwAAQBAJ"><i>Introduction to Software Engineering</i></a>. CRC Press. p.&#160;11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4987-0528-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4987-0528-8"><bdi>978-1-4987-0528-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Software+Engineering&amp;rft.pages=11&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2016-01-27&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4987-0528-8&amp;rft.aulast=Leach&amp;rft.aufirst=Ronald+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8W2mCwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zhu2005-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Zhu2005_143-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFZhu2005" class="citation book cs1">Zhu, Hong (22 March 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rqRVbb0SKjEC"><i>Software Design Methodology: From Principles to Architectural Styles</i></a>. Elsevier. pp.&#160;<span class="nowrap">47–</span>72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045496-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045496-2"><bdi>978-0-08-045496-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Software+Design+Methodology%3A+From+Principles+to+Architectural+Styles&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E47-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&amp;rft.pub=Elsevier&amp;rft.date=2005-03-22&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-08-045496-2&amp;rft.aulast=Zhu&amp;rft.aufirst=Hong&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrqRVbb0SKjEC&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leach2016b-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leach2016b_144-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeach2016" class="citation book cs1">Leach, Ronald J. (27 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8W2mCwAAQBAJ"><i>Introduction to Software Engineering</i></a>. CRC Press. p.&#160;56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4987-0528-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4987-0528-8"><bdi>978-1-4987-0528-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Software+Engineering&amp;rft.pages=56&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2016-01-27&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4987-0528-8&amp;rft.aulast=Leach&amp;rft.aufirst=Ronald+J.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8W2mCwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Knight2012-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Knight2012_145-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKnight2012" class="citation book cs1">Knight, John (12 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fn06DwAAQBAJ"><i>Fundamentals of Dependable Computing for Software Engineers</i></a>. CRC Press. p.&#160;186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-1821-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4665-1821-6"><bdi>978-1-4665-1821-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Dependable+Computing+for+Software+Engineers&amp;rft.pages=186&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2012-01-12&amp;rft.isbn=978-1-4665-1821-6&amp;rft.aulast=Knight&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfn06DwAAQBAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brooks1975-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brooks1975_146-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBrooks_(Jr.)1975" class="citation book cs1">Brooks (Jr.), Frederick P. (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gWgPAQAAMAAJ"><i>The Mythical Man-month: Essays on Software Engineering</i></a>. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-00650-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-201-00650-6"><bdi>978-0-201-00650-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 November</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Mythical+Man-month%3A+Essays+on+Software+Engineering&amp;rft.pub=Addison-Wesley+Publishing+Company&amp;rft.date=1975&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-201-00650-6&amp;rft.aulast=Brooks+%28Jr.%29&amp;rft.aufirst=Frederick+P.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgWgPAQAAMAAJ&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sommerville2007-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sommerville2007_147-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSommerville2007" class="citation book cs1">Sommerville, Ian (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B7idKfL0H64C"><i>Software Engineering</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.atitle=Why+do+computers+crash%3F&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fwhy-do-computers-crash%2F&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taylor84-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taylor84_150-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1984" class="citation magazine cs1">Taylor, Alexander L. III (16 April 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070316082637/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,954266,00.html">"The Wizard Inside the Machine"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,954266,00.html">the original</a> on 16 March 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Time&amp;rft.atitle=The+Wizard+Inside+the+Machine&amp;rft.date=1984-04-16&amp;rft.aulast=Taylor&amp;rft.aufirst=Alexander+L.+III&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fprintout%2F0%2C8816%2C954266%2C00.html&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHughes2000" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Agatha C. (2000). <i>Systems, Experts, and Computers</i>. <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. p.&#160;161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-08285-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-08285-3"><bdi>978-0-262-08285-3</bdi></a>. <q>The experience of SAGE helped make possible the first truly large-scale commercial real-time network: the SABRE computerized airline reservations system.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Systems%2C+Experts%2C+and+Computers&amp;rft.pages=161&amp;rft.pub=MIT+Press&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-08285-3&amp;rft.aulast=Hughes&amp;rft.aufirst=Agatha+C.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeinerCerfClarkKahn1999" class="citation arxiv cs1">Leiner, Barry M.; Cerf, Vinton G.; Clark, David D.; Kahn, Robert E.; Kleinrock, Leonard; Lynch, Daniel C.; Postel, Jon; Roberts, Larry G.; Wolf, Stephen (1999). "A Brief History of the Internet". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/cs/9901011">cs/9901011</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=preprint&amp;rft.jtitle=arXiv&amp;rft.atitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Internet&amp;rft.date=1999&amp;rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fcs%2F9901011&amp;rft.aulast=Leiner&amp;rft.aufirst=Barry+M.&amp;rft.au=Cerf%2C+Vinton+G.&amp;rft.au=Clark%2C+David+D.&amp;rft.au=Kahn%2C+Robert+E.&amp;rft.au=Kleinrock%2C+Leonard&amp;rft.au=Lynch%2C+Daniel+C.&amp;rft.au=Postel%2C+Jon&amp;rft.au=Roberts%2C+Larry+G.&amp;rft.au=Wolf%2C+Stephen&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thefreedictionary.com/computer">"Definition of computer"</a>. Thefreedictionary.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091226162252/http%3A//www.thefreedictionary.com/computer">Archived</a> from the original on 26 December 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.btitle=Definition+of+computer&amp;rft.pub=Thefreedictionary.com&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fthefreedictionary.com%2Fcomputer&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDumas_II2005" class="citation book cs1">Dumas II, Joseph D. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWaUurOwMPQC&amp;q=quantum%2520computers"><i>Computer Architecture: Fundamentals and Principles of Computer Design</i></a>. CRC Press. p.&#160;340. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2749-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8493-2749-0"><bdi>978-0-8493-2749-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 November</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Computer+Architecture%3A+Fundamentals+and+Principles+of+Computer+Design&amp;rft.pages=340&amp;rft.pub=CRC+Press&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8493-2749-0&amp;rft.aulast=Dumas+II&amp;rft.aufirst=Joseph+D.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZWaUurOwMPQC%26q%3Dquantum%252520computers&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="BOWDEN" class="citation book cs1">Bowden, B. V. (1953). <i>Faster than thought</i>. New York, Toronto, London: Pitman publishing corporation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Faster+than+thought&amp;rft.place=New+York%2C+Toronto%2C+London&amp;rft.pub=Pitman+publishing+corporation&amp;rft.date=1953&amp;rft.aulast=Bowden&amp;rft.aufirst=B.+V.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="BERK" class="citation book cs1">Berkeley, Edmund (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.285568"><i>Giant Brains, or Machines That Think</i></a>. John Wiley &amp; Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Giant+Brains%2C+or+Machines+That+Think&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=1949&amp;rft.aulast=Berkeley&amp;rft.aufirst=Edmund&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.285568&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBromley1990" class="citation book cs1">Bromley, Allan G. (1990). "Difference and Analytical Engines". In Aspray, William (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/CBC-Ch-02.pdf"><i>Computing Before Computers</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Ames: Iowa State University Press. pp.&#160;<span class="nowrap">59–</span>98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-0047-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8138-0047-9"><bdi>978-0-8138-0047-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/CBC-Ch-02.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.atitle=Difference+and+Analytical+Engines&amp;rft.btitle=Computing+Before+Computers&amp;rft.place=Ames&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E59-%3C%2Fspan%3E98&amp;rft.pub=Iowa+State+University+Press&amp;rft.date=1990&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-8138-0047-9&amp;rft.aulast=Bromley&amp;rft.aufirst=Allan+G.&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fed-thelen.org%2Fcomp-hist%2FCBC-Ch-02.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="AIKEN" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Bernard (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.883007">"Howard Aiken, Portrait of a computer pioneer"</a>. <i>Physics Today</i>. <b>53</b> (3). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press: <span class="nowrap">74–</span>75. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000PhT....53c..74C">2000PhT....53c..74C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.883007">10.1063/1.883007</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53179-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53179-5"><bdi>978-0-262-53179-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&amp;rft.atitle=Howard+Aiken%2C+Portrait+of+a+computer+pioneer&amp;rft.volume=53&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&amp;rft.date=2000&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.883007&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000PhT....53c..74C&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-262-53179-5&amp;rft.aulast=Cohen&amp;rft.aufirst=Bernard&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1063%252F1.883007&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="COLLIER" class="citation book cs1">Collier, Bruce (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.html"><i>The little engine that could've: The calculating machines of Charles Babbage</i></a>. Garland Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-0043-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8240-0043-1"><bdi>978-0-8240-0043-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070120190231/http://robroy.dyndns.info/collier/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 January 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Paris: Gauthier-Villars.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Les+machines+%C3%A0+calculer%3B+leurs+principes%2C+leur+%C3%A9volution&amp;rft.place=Paris&amp;rft.pub=Gauthier-Villars&amp;rft.date=1933&amp;rft.aulast=Couffignal&amp;rft.aufirst=Louis&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="DEC" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">Digital Equipment Corporation</a> (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.minttwist.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/D-09-30-PDP11-40-Processor-Handbook.pdf"><i>PDP-11/40 Processor Handbook</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/Maynard,_Massachusetts" title="Maynard, Massachusetts">Maynard, MA</a>: Digital Equipment Corporation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201030856/https://www.minttwist.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/D-09-30-PDP11-40-Processor-Handbook.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 1 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=PDP-11%2F40+Processor+Handbook&amp;rft.place=Maynard%2C+MA&amp;rft.pub=Digital+Equipment+Corporation&amp;rft.date=1972&amp;rft.au=Digital+Equipment+Corporation&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.minttwist.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F06%2FD-09-30-PDP11-40-Processor-Handbook.pdf&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="SWADE" class="citation journal cs1">Swade, Doron D. (February 1993). "Redeeming Charles Babbage's Mechanical Computer". <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>268</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">86–</span>91. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993SciAm.268b..86S">1993SciAm.268b..86S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0293-86">10.1038/scientificamerican0293-86</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24941379">24941379</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&amp;rft.atitle=Redeeming+Charles+Babbage%27s+Mechanical+Computer&amp;rft.volume=268&amp;rft.issue=2&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E86-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&amp;rft.date=1993-02&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24941379%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0293-86&amp;rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993SciAm.268b..86S&amp;rft.aulast=Swade&amp;rft.aufirst=Doron+D.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="JACWEB" class="citation book cs1">Essinger, James (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/jacquardswebhowh0000essi"><i>Jacquard's Web, How a hand loom led to the birth of the information age</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280577-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280577-5"><bdi>978-0-19-280577-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Jacquard%27s+Web%2C+How+a+hand+loom+led+to+the+birth+of+the+information+age&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.date=2004&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-19-280577-5&amp;rft.aulast=Essinger&amp;rft.aufirst=James&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjacquardswebhowh0000essi&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEvans2018" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Claire L. 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Chicago: Washington Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Mechanical+arithmetic%2C+or+The+history+of+the+counting+machine&amp;rft.place=Chicago&amp;rft.pub=Washington+Institute&amp;rft.date=1916&amp;rft.aulast=Felt&amp;rft.aufirst=Dorr+E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmechanicalarithm00feltrich&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="IFRAH" class="citation book cs1">Ifrah, Georges (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_w3q2"><i>The Universal History of Computing: From the Abacus to the Quantum Computer</i></a>. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39671-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39671-0"><bdi>978-0-471-39671-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=The+Universal+History+of+Computing%3A+From+the+Abacus+to+the+Quantum+Computer&amp;rft.place=New+York&amp;rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&amp;rft.date=2001&amp;rft.isbn=978-0-471-39671-0&amp;rft.aulast=Ifrah&amp;rft.aufirst=Georges&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funset0000unse_w3q2&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLavington1998" class="citation book cs1">Lavington, Simon (1998). <i>A History of Manchester Computers</i> (2nd&#160;ed.). 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(2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7771%2F1481-4374.1972">"Recognizing a Collective Inheritance through the History of Women in Computing"</a>. <i>CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture</i>. <b>15</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7771%2F1481-4374.1972">10.7771/1481-4374.1972</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=CLCWeb%3A+Comparative+Literature+and+Culture&amp;rft.atitle=Recognizing+a+Collective+Inheritance+through+the+History+of+Women+in+Computing&amp;rft.volume=15&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E9&amp;rft.date=2013&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7771%2F1481-4374.1972&amp;rft.aulast=Smith&amp;rft.aufirst=Erika+E.&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.7771%252F1481-4374.1972&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVermaMielke1988" class="citation conference cs1">Verma, G.; Mielke, N. (1988). <i>Reliability performance of ETOX based flash memories</i>. IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=conference&amp;rft.btitle=Reliability+performance+of+ETOX+based+flash+memories&amp;rft.date=1988&amp;rft.aulast=Verma&amp;rft.aufirst=G.&amp;rft.au=Mielke%2C+N.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="ZUSE" class="citation book cs1">Zuse, Konrad (1993). <i>The Computer – My life</i>. 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controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pen" title="Light pen">Light pen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">Mouse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">Optical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_trackpad" title="Optical trackpad">Optical trackpad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pointing_stick" title="Pointing stick">Pointing stick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touchpad" title="Touchpad">Touchpad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">Touchscreen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trackball" title="Trackball">Trackball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_keyboard" title="Computer keyboard">Keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_scanner" title="Image scanner">Image scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">Graphics card</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_processing_unit" title="Graphics processing unit">GPU</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microphone" title="Microphone">Microphone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_card" title="Sound card">Sound card</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sound_chip" title="Sound chip">Sound chip</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webcam" title="Webcam">Webcam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Softcam" title="Softcam">Softcam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Output_device" title="Output device">Output devices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_monitor" title="Computer monitor">Monitor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_visual_display" title="Electronic visual display">Screen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printer_(computing)" title="Printer (computing)">Printer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plotter" title="Plotter">Plotter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_speakers" title="Computer speakers">Speakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_card" title="Sound card">Sound card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_card" title="Graphics card">Graphics card</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Removable_media" title="Removable media">Removable <br /> data storage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disk_pack" title="Disk pack">Disk pack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floppy_disk" title="Floppy disk">Floppy disk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compact_disc" title="Compact disc">CD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blu-ray" title="Blu-ray">Blu-ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_memory" title="Flash memory">Flash memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_card" title="Memory card">Memory card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USB_flash_drive" title="USB flash drive">USB flash drive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_case" title="Computer case">Computer case</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_processing_unit" title="Central processing unit">Central processing unit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">Motherboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">Memory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonvolatile_BIOS_memory" title="Nonvolatile BIOS memory">BIOS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Data storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_disk_drive" title="Hard disk drive">HDD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_drive" title="Solid-state drive">SSD</a> (<a href="/wiki/SATA" title="SATA">SATA</a> / <a href="/wiki/NVM_Express" title="NVM Express">NVMe</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid-state_hybrid_drive" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state hybrid drive">SSHD</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_supply_unit_(computer)" title="Power supply unit (computer)">Power supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply" title="Switched-mode power supply">SMPS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_MOSFET" title="Power MOSFET">Power MOSFET</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltage_regulator_module" title="Voltage regulator module">VRM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network_interface_controller" title="Network interface controller">Network interface controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fax_modem" title="Fax modem">Fax modem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_card" title="Expansion card">Expansion card</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer_port_(hardware)" title="Computer port (hardware)">Ports</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USB" title="USB">USB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderbolt_(interface)" title="Thunderbolt (interface)">Thunderbolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phone_connector_(audio)" title="Phone connector (audio)">Analog audio jack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DisplayPort" title="DisplayPort">DisplayPort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HDMI" title="HDMI">HDMI</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Obsolete</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_1394" title="IEEE 1394">FireWire</a> (IEEE 1394)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_port" title="Parallel port">Parallel port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_port" title="Serial port">Serial port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_port" title="Game port">Game port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PS/2_port" title="PS/2 port">PS/2 port</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_ATA#eSATA" class="mw-redirect" title="Serial ATA">eSATA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Visual_Interface" title="Digital Visual Interface">DVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VGA_connector" title="VGA connector">VGA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Digital_electronics118" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Digital_electronics" title="Template:Digital electronics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Digital_electronics" title="Template talk:Digital electronics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Digital_electronics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Digital electronics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Digital_electronics118" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">Digital electronics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Components</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">Electronic circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)" title="Flip-flop (electronics)">Flip-flop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory_cell_(computing)" title="Memory cell (computing)">Memory cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combinational_logic" title="Combinational logic">Combinational logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_logic" title="Sequential logic">Sequential logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">Logic gate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boolean_circuit" title="Boolean circuit">Boolean circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a> (IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_integrated_circuit" title="Hybrid integrated circuit">Hybrid integrated circuit</a> (HIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-signal_integrated_circuit" title="Mixed-signal integrated circuit">Mixed-signal integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_integrated_circuit" title="Three-dimensional integrated circuit">Three-dimensional integrated circuit</a> (3D IC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emitter-coupled_logic" title="Emitter-coupled logic">Emitter-coupled logic</a> (ECL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasable_programmable_logic_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Erasable programmable logic device">Erasable programmable logic device</a> (EPLD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrocell_array" title="Macrocell array">Macrocell array</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_array" title="Programmable logic array">Programmable logic array</a> (PLA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_logic_device" title="Programmable logic device">Programmable logic device</a> (PLD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_Array_Logic" title="Programmable Array Logic">Programmable Array Logic</a> (PAL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generic_Array_Logic" title="Generic Array Logic">Generic Array Logic</a> (GAL)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_programmable_logic_device" title="Complex programmable logic device">Complex programmable logic device</a> (CPLD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array" title="Field-programmable gate array">Field-programmable gate array</a> (FPGA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-programmable_object_array" title="Field-programmable object array">Field-programmable object array</a> (FPOA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit" title="Application-specific integrated circuit">Application-specific integrated circuit</a> (ASIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensor_Processing_Unit" title="Tensor Processing Unit">Tensor Processing Unit</a> (TPU)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">Digital signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_synthesis" title="Logic synthesis">Logic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_computer_science" title="Logic in computer science">Logic in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_architecture" title="Computer architecture">Computer architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_(signal_processing)" title="Digital signal (signal processing)">Digital signal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processing" title="Digital signal processing">Digital signal processing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_minimization_for_Boolean_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit minimization for Boolean functions">Circuit minimization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switching_circuit_theory" title="Switching circuit theory">Switching circuit theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gate_equivalent" title="Gate equivalent">Gate equivalent</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Electronics_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronics design">Design</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_synthesis" title="Logic synthesis">Logic synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_and_route" title="Place and route">Place and route</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Placement_(electronic_design_automation)" title="Placement (electronic design automation)">Placement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Routing_(electronic_design_automation)" title="Routing (electronic design automation)">Routing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transaction-level_modeling" title="Transaction-level modeling">Transaction-level modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register-transfer_level" title="Register-transfer level">Register-transfer level</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_description_language" title="Hardware description language">Hardware description language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_synthesis" title="High-level synthesis">High-level synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_equivalence_checking" title="Formal equivalence checking">Formal equivalence checking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronous_circuit" title="Synchronous circuit">Synchronous logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_circuit" title="Asynchronous circuit">Asynchronous logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite-state_machine" title="Finite-state machine">Finite-state machine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchical_state_machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hierarchical state machine">Hierarchical state machine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Computer hardware</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hardware_acceleration" title="Hardware acceleration">Hardware acceleration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_audio" title="Digital audio">Digital audio</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_radio" title="Digital radio">radio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_photography" title="Digital photography">Digital photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephony#Digital_telephony" title="Telephony">Digital telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_video" title="Digital video">Digital video</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_cinematography" title="Digital cinematography">cinematography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_television" title="Digital television">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_literature" title="Electronic literature">Electronic literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Design issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metastability_(electronics)" title="Metastability (electronics)">Metastability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runt_pulse" title="Runt pulse">Runt pulse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mainframe_computers95" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mainframes" title="Template:Mainframes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mainframes" title="Template talk:Mainframes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mainframes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mainframes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mainframe_computers95" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mainframe_computer" title="Mainframe computer">Mainframe computers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Australia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SILLIAC" title="SILLIAC">SILLIAC</a> (1956)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WEIZAC" title="WEIZAC">WEIZAC</a> (1955)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Japan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FACOM" title="FACOM">FACOM</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FUJIC" title="FUJIC">FUJIC</a> (1949)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sweden</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SARA_(computer)" title="SARA (computer)">SARA</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SMIL_(computer)" title="SMIL (computer)">SMIL</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FACIT_EDB" title="FACIT EDB">EDB-1</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRASK_(computer)" title="TRASK (computer)">TRASK</a> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Soviet Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BESM-6" title="BESM-6">BESM-6</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=ES-2701&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="ES-2701 (page does not exist)">ES-2701</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;">&#160;&#91;<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%A1-2701" class="extiw" title="ru:ЕС-2701">ru</a>&#93;</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mars_(computer)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Mars (computer) (page does not exist)">Mars</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;">&#160;&#91;<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%90%D0%A0%D0%A1_(%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80)" class="extiw" title="ru:МАРС (компьютер)">ru</a>&#93;</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PS-2000" title="PS-2000">PS-2000</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=PS-3000&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="PS-3000 (page does not exist)">PS-3000</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;">&#160;&#91;<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%A1-3000" class="extiw" title="ru:ПС-3000">ru</a>&#93;</span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=SVS_(computer)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="SVS (computer) (page does not exist)">SVS</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;">&#160;&#91;<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%92%D0%A1_(%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BF%D1%8C%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80)" class="extiw" title="ru:СВС (компьютер)">ru</a>&#93;</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbrus_(computer)" title="Elbrus (computer)">Elbrus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronika_SS_VLSI&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Electronika SS VLSI (page does not exist)">Electronika SS VLSI</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;">&#160;&#91;<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%A1_%D0%91%D0%98%D0%A1" class="extiw" title="ru:Электроника СС БИС">ru</a>&#93;</span></li> <li>See also: <a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_Soviet_computer_systems" title="Template:List of Soviet computer systems">Soviet computer systems</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/IAS_machine" title="IAS machine">IAS family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="1950s10" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1950s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC" title="ILLIAC">ILLIAC</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/AVIDAC" title="AVIDAC">AVIDAC</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BESK" title="BESK">BESK</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_701" title="IBM 701">IBM 701</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/JOHNNIAC" title="JOHNNIAC">JOHNNIAC</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORACLE_(computer)" title="ORACLE (computer)">ORACLE</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ORDVAC" title="ORDVAC">ORDVAC</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/WEIZAC" title="WEIZAC">WEIZAC</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/DASK" title="DASK">DASK</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SARA_(computer)" title="SARA (computer)">SARA</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SILLIAC" title="SILLIAC">SILLIAC</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SMIL_(computer)" title="SMIL (computer)">SMIL</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MANIAC_I" title="MANIAC I">MANIAC I</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MANIAC_II" title="MANIAC II">MANIAC II</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MISTIC" title="MISTIC">MISTIC</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MUSASINO-1" title="MUSASINO-1">MUSASINO-1</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FACIT_EDB" title="FACIT EDB">EDB-1</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/FACIT_EDB" title="FACIT EDB">EDB-2/3</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclone_(computer)" title="Cyclone (computer)">Cyclone</a> (1959)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=FACOM_201&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="FACOM 201 (page does not exist)">FACOM 201</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRASK_(computer)" title="TRASK (computer)">TRASK</a> (1964)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Urbana-Champaign" title="University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign">University of Illinois</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ORDVAC" title="ORDVAC">ORDVAC</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC_I" title="ILLIAC I">ILLIAC I</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC_II" title="ILLIAC II">ILLIAC II</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC_III" title="ILLIAC III">ILLIAC III</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC_IV" title="ILLIAC IV">ILLIAC IV</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC#CEDAR" title="ILLIAC">CEDAR</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC#ILLIAC_6" title="ILLIAC">ILLIAC 6</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ILLIAC#Trusted_ILLIAC" title="ILLIAC">Trusted ILLIAC</a> (2006)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I" title="Harvard Mark I">Harvard Mark I</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_II" title="Harvard Mark II">Harvard Mark II</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_III" title="Harvard Mark III">Harvard Mark III</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvard_Mark_IV" title="Harvard Mark IV">Harvard Mark IV</a> (1952)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">IBM</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="IBM_vacuum_tube_computers67" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:IBM_vacuum_tube_computers" title="Template:IBM vacuum tube computers"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:IBM_vacuum_tube_computers" title="Template talk:IBM vacuum tube computers"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:IBM_vacuum_tube_computers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:IBM vacuum tube computers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="IBM_vacuum_tube_computers67" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">IBM vacuum tube computers</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IBM_305_RAMAC" title="IBM 305 RAMAC">305 RAMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_610" title="IBM 610">610</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_650" title="IBM 650">650</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_701" title="IBM 701">701</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_702" title="IBM 702">702</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_704" title="IBM 704">704</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_705" class="mw-redirect" title="IBM 705">705</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IBM_709" title="IBM 709">709</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Semi-Automatic_Ground_Environment" title="Semi-Automatic Ground Environment">SAGE</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AN/FSQ-7_Combat_Direction_Central" title="AN/FSQ-7 Combat Direction Central">AN/FSQ-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AN/FSQ-8_Combat_Control_Central" title="AN/FSQ-8 Combat Control Central">AN/FSQ-8</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Template:IBM_mainframes" title="Template:IBM mainframes">Mainframes</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania" title="University of Pennsylvania">University of Pennsylvania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ENIAC" title="ENIAC">ENIAC</a> (1945)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eckert%E2%80%93Mauchly_Computer_Corporation" title="Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation">EMCC</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EDVAC" title="EDVAC">EDVAC</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_I" title="UNIVAC I">UNIVAC I</a> (1951)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Remington_Rand" title="Remington Rand">Remington</a>–<a href="/wiki/Sperry_Rand" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperry Rand">Sperry Rand</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNIVAC_II" title="UNIVAC II">UNIVAC II</a></li> <li>See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_UNIVAC_products" title="List of UNIVAC products">Computers built 1955–1978</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Raytheon_Technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="Raytheon Technologies">Raytheon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RAYDAC" title="RAYDAC">RAYDAC</a> (1953)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colossus_computer" title="Colossus computer">Colossus computer</a> (1943)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transistor_computer" title="Transistor computer">Transistor computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transistorized_computers" title="List of transistorized computers">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum-tube_computer" title="Vacuum-tube computer">Vacuum-tube computer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vacuum-tube_computers" title="List of vacuum-tube computers">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware_(1960s%E2%80%93present)" title="History of computing hardware (1960s–present)">History of computing hardware (1960s–present)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science" title="List of pioneers in computer science">List of pioneers in computer science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electronics80" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electronic_systems" title="Template:Electronic systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electronic_systems" title="Template talk:Electronic systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electronics80" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">Electronics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analogue_electronics" title="Analogue electronics">Analogue electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">Digital electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">Instrumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optoelectronics" title="Optoelectronics">Optoelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_electronics" title="Power electronics">Power electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schematic_capture" title="Schematic capture">Schematic capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_management_(electronics)" title="Thermal management (electronics)">Thermal management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advanced<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present" title="Timeline of computing 2020–present">2020s in computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomtronics" title="Atomtronics">Atomtronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies#Electronics" title="List of emerging technologies">List of emerging electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failure_of_electronic_components" title="Failure of electronic components">Failure of electronic components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_electronics" title="Flexible electronics">Flexible electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-power_electronics" title="Low-power electronics">Low-power electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_electronics" title="Molecular electronics">Molecular electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">Nanoelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_electronics" title="Organic electronics">Organic electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piezotronics" title="Piezotronics">Piezotronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum electronics">Quantum electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">Spintronics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electronic<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">Air conditioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">Central heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothes_dryer" title="Clothes dryer">Clothes dryer</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Computer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Laptop" title="Laptop">Notebook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dishwasher" title="Dishwasher">Dishwasher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freezer" class="mw-redirect" title="Freezer">Freezer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_robot" title="Domestic robot">Home robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_cinema" title="Home cinema">Home cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_theater_PC" title="Home theater PC">Home theater PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_stove" title="Kitchen stove">Cooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">Microwave oven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Networking hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portable_media_player" title="Portable media player">Portable media player</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">Refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_vacuum_cleaner" title="Robotic vacuum cleaner">Robotic vacuum cleaner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">Tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tankless_water_heating" title="Tankless water heating">Water heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">Video game console</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washing_machine" title="Washing machine">Washing machine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_equipment" title="Audio equipment">Audio equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_electronics" title="Automotive electronics">Automotive electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avionics" title="Avionics">Avionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">Control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_acquisition" title="Data acquisition">Data acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebook" title="Ebook">e-book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EHealth" title="EHealth">e-health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">Electronics industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Home appliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">Home automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Home appliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics" title="Consumer electronics">Consumer electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_appliance" title="Major appliance">Major appliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_appliance" title="Small appliance">Small appliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_electronics" title="Marine electronics">Marine electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a> technology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> electronics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia" title="Multimedia">Multimedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_electronics" title="Nuclear electronics">Nuclear electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">Radio navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terahertz_radiation" title="Terahertz radiation">Terahertz technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">Wired</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">Wireless</a> 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class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q68#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata2130" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q68#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/872776/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Computer"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4070083-5">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Computers"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85029552">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119401913">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119401913">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561435">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="počítače"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&amp;local_base=aut&amp;ccl_term=ica=ph115859&amp;CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Ordenadores"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&amp;authority_id=XX524661">Spain</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&amp;local_base=lnc10&amp;doc_number=000047074&amp;P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007545617605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/055501">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10636641">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <!-- NewPP limit report Parsed by mw‐web.eqiad.main‐58c4b96c94‐l8sxq Cached time: 20250321121212 Cache expiry: 2592000 Reduced expiry: false Complications: [vary‐revision‐sha1, show‐toc] CPU time usage: 2.232 seconds Real time usage: 2.739 seconds Preprocessor visited node count: 15398/1000000 Post‐expand include size: 416590/2097152 bytes Template argument size: 16490/2097152 bytes Highest expansion depth: 23/100 Expensive parser function count: 57/500 Unstrip recursion depth: 1/20 Unstrip post‐expand size: 555618/5000000 bytes Lua time usage: 1.325/10.000 seconds Lua memory usage: 26755981/52428800 bytes Lua Profile: ? 300 ms 20.8% MediaWiki\Extension\Scribunto\Engines\LuaSandbox\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction 180 ms 12.5% dataWrapper <mw.lua:672> 100 ms 6.9% 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[\"CITEREFEnticknap1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFensom2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlegg,_Graham.1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFossumTrivedi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFroschDerick1957\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGomez-JaureguiGutierrez-GarciaGonzález-RedondoIglesias2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGraham-Cumming2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalacy,_Daniel_Stephen1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHittinger1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuffRiordan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIDC2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahng1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKilby2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnight2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKontoghiorghes2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuo2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLavington\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLavington1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaws2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeach2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLee2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeinerCerfClarkKahn1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLigenzaSpitzer1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLight1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLincolnFrosch1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLojek2007\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFLécuyerBrookLast2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMalmstadtEnkeCrouch1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarchant2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarriott2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoskowitz2016\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMotoyoshi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNapper\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;ConnorRobertson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Regan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO’Regan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPattersonHennessy1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeekTodinoStrang2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrice1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuersBaldiVoordeNooten2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandell1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandellFensomMilne1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRojas\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRojas1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalz_Trautman1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaxena2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmandt-Besserat1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSommerville2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTOP5002006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorres1895\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorres_Quevedo1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTse2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuring1937\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVermaMielke1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinston1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXuZhang2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhu2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuse\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuse1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZuse2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŐren2001\"] = 1,\n [\"COLLIER\"] = 1,\n [\"COUFFIGNAL\"] = 1,\n [\"DEC\"] = 1,\n [\"Digital\"] = 1,\n [\"Digital_computer\"] = 1,\n [\"FELT\"] = 1,\n [\"GENIUS\"] = 1,\n [\"IFRAH\"] = 1,\n [\"JACWEB\"] = 1,\n [\"LIGO\"] = 1,\n [\"SWADE\"] = 1,\n [\"ZUSE\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"\\\" '\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Basic computer components\"] = 1,\n [\"Bulleted list\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite arXiv\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 58,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 28,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite patent\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 39,\n [\"Clear\"] = 2,\n [\"Commons category-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Digital systems\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 12,\n [\"Electronic systems\"] = 1,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 2,\n [\"GBurl\"] = 18,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 2,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 22,\n [\"Mainframes\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"Ref patent\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 9,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sic\"] = 2,\n [\"Sister-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n [\"Who\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","20.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","180","12.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","100","6.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","80","5.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getEntityStatements","80","5.6"],["tostring","60","4.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::unstripNoWiki","40","2.8"],["pairs","40","2.8"],["(for generator)","40","2.8"],["[others]","440","30.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-58c4b96c94-l8sxq","timestamp":"20250321121212","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Computer","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Computer","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q68","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q68","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-02T14:05:53Z","dateModified":"2025-03-07T09:21:47Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/ENIAC-changing_a_tube_%28cropped%29.jpg","headline":"general-purpose device for performing arithmetic or logical operations"}</script> </body> </html>

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