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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Economy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Architecture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Religion </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Religion-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Religion subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imperial_cult" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperial_cult"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Imperial cult </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperial_cult-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cult_of_Serapis_and_Isis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cult_of_Serapis_and_Isis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Cult of Serapis and Isis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cult_of_Serapis_and_Isis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Temples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Roman_Egypt_(30_BC–4th_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Roman_Egypt_(30_BC–4th_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Early Roman Egypt (30 BC–4th century) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Roman_Egypt_(30_BC–4th_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_Roman_Egypt_(4th–7th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Roman_Egypt_(4th–7th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Later Roman Egypt (4th–7th centuries) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Roman_Egypt_(4th–7th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Episcopal_sees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Episcopal_sees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Episcopal sees </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Episcopal_sees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sassanian_Persian_invasion_(619_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sassanian_Persian_invasion_(619_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Sassanian Persian invasion (619 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sassanian_Persian_invasion_(619_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_Islamic_conquest_(639–646_AD)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_Islamic_conquest_(639–646_AD)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Arab Islamic conquest (639–646 AD) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_Islamic_conquest_(639–646_AD)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Roman Egypt</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" > 55 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus_(Romeinse_provinsie)" title="Aegyptus (Romeinse provinsie) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Aegyptus (Romeinse provinsie)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_(%D9%85%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B7%D8%B9%D8%A9_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9)" title="مصر (مقاطعة رومانية) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مصر (مقاطعة رومانية)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%95%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Рымскі Егіпет – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Рымскі Егіпет" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82_(%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Египет (римска провинция) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Египет (римска провинция)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipte_(prov%C3%ADncia_romana)" title="Egipte (província romana) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Egipte (província romana)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86gyptus" title="Ægyptus – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ægyptus" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egiptus_(Rooma_provints)" title="Egiptus (Rooma provints) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Egiptus (Rooma provints)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%91%CE%AF%CE%B3%CF%85%CF%80%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Ρωμαϊκή Αίγυπτος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαϊκή Αίγυπτος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipto_(provincia_romana)" title="Egipto (provincia romana) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Egipto (provincia romana)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipto_(erromatar_probintzia)" title="Egipto (erromatar probintzia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Egipto (erromatar probintzia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_(%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85)" title="مصر (استان روم) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مصر (استان روم)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89gypte_romaine_et_byzantine" title="Égypte romaine et byzantine – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Égypte romaine et byzantine" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exipto_(provincia_romana)" title="Exipto (provincia romana) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Exipto (provincia romana)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EC%9D%B4%EA%B9%81%ED%88%AC%EC%8A%A4" title="아이깁투스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아이깁투스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BD_(%D5%B0%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A3)" title="Եգիպտոս (հռոմեական նահանգ) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Եգիպտոս (հռոմեական նահանգ)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus_(provinsi_Romawi)" title="Aegyptus (provinsi Romawi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Aegyptus (provinsi Romawi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egitto_(provincia_romana)" title="Egitto (provincia romana) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Egitto (provincia romana)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="פרובינקיה מצרים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרובינקיה מצרים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%92%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94_(%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%90)" title="ეგვიპტე (რომის პროვინცია) – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეგვიპტე (რომის პროვინცია)" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus_(provincia_Romana)" title="Aegyptus (provincia Romana) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Aegyptus (provincia Romana)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egiptas_(Romos_provincija)" title="Egiptas (Romos provincija) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Egiptas (Romos provincija)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82_(%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Египет (римска провинција) – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Египет (римска провинција)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanimpotoana_r%C3%B4mana_tany_Ejipta" title="Vanimpotoana rômana tany Ejipta – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vanimpotoana rômana tany Ejipta" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4_(%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4)" title="इजिप्त (रोमन प्रांत) – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="इजिप्त (रोमन प्रांत)" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="مصر الرومانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مصر الرومانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeins_en_Byzantijns_Egypte" title="Romeins en Byzantijns Egypte – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Romeins en Byzantijns Egypte" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%82%A8%E3%82%AE%E3%83%A5%E3%83%97%E3%83%88%E3%82%A5%E3%82%B9" title="アエギュプトゥス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アエギュプトゥス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegyptus" title="Aegyptus – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Aegyptus" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peri%C3%B2de_roman_d%27Egipte" title="Periòde roman d'Egipte – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Periòde roman d'Egipte" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%85%D9%86%DB%8D_%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%90_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1" title="د روم تر واکمنۍ لاندې مصر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د روم تر واکمنۍ لاندې مصر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a 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href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%82_(%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Египет (римская провинция) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Египет (римская провинция)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyp_(Roman_province)" title="Egyp (Roman province) – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Egyp (Roman province)" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egipt_(rimska_provinca)" title="Egipt (rimska provinca) – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Egipt (rimska provinca)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" 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style="display:none">Roman province that encompassed most of modern-day Egypt</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the Roman subdivision which was called "Aegyptus". For Deities in Greek mythology, see <a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_(mythology)" title="Aegyptus (mythology)">Aegyptus (mythology)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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.infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-native{font-size:78%}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv .infobox-subheader{background-color:#cddeff;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms,.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms td{border:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms table{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-flagarms tbody tr:first-child td{width:50%;vertical-align:middle}.mw-parser-output .ib-former-subdiv-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}</style><table class="infobox ib-former-subdiv vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above fn org">Province of Egypt<div class="ib-former-subdiv-native nickname"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>Provincia Aegypti (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>) Ἐπαρχία Αἰγύπτου (<a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader category"><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader category">30 BC – 641 AD<hr />Under <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene</a> rule; 270–273<div style="clear:both;" class=""></div><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">occupation</a>; 619–628</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_-_Aegyptus_(125_AD).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Roman_Empire_-_Aegyptus_%28125_AD%29.svg/220px-Roman_Empire_-_Aegyptus_%28125_AD%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Roman_Empire_-_Aegyptus_%28125_AD%29.svg/330px-Roman_Empire_-_Aegyptus_%28125_AD%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Roman_Empire_-_Aegyptus_%28125_AD%29.svg/440px-Roman_Empire_-_Aegyptus_%28125_AD%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2186" data-file-height="1817" /></a> Province of Aegyptus in AD 125</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Population</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1st century AD </div></th><td class="infobox-data">4 to 8 million.<a href="#cite_note-pop-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a> <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Conquest of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">30 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Formation of the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Egypt" title="Diocese of Egypt">Diocese</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">390</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">641</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg/20px-Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg" decoding="async" width="20" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg/30px-Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg/40px-Ptolemaic-Empire_200bc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1164" data-file-height="636" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Sasanian Egypt</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/20px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/30px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg/40px-Derafsh_Kaviani_flag_of_the_late_Sassanid_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="2000" /> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/20px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG" decoding="async" width="20" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/30px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG/40px-Mohammad_adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="580" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td></tr></tbody></table><style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse; background:#fff2e2"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Egypt" title="Category:History of Egypt">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:transparent; padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">History of Egypt</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/140px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/210px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg/280px-All_Gizah_Pyramids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4372" data-file-height="2906" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background:#F2E4C3"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt#Neolithic_to_Proto-Dynastic" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Predynastic Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">6000–3000 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #E6FFF2"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">3150–2686 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">2686–2181 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">1st Intermediate Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">2181–2055 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">2055–1650 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Second Intermediate Period of Egypt">2nd Intermediate Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1650–1550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1550–1069 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="Third Intermediate Period of Egypt">3rd Intermediate Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1069–664 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">664–332 BC</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Greco-Roman Egypt</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #F2FFE6"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">332–310 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic dynasties</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">310–30 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman and Byzantine Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">30 BC–641 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Sasanian Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">619–629</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Medieval Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #F2E6FF"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">641–661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">750–935</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">868–905</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">935–969</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">969–1171</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1171–1250</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1250–1517</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern</a> Egypt</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #FFFACD"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1517–1867</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French occupation</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1798–1801</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty">Muhammad Ali dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1805–1953</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate of Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1867–1914</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_modern_Egypt" title="History of modern Egypt">Late Modern Egypt</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none;background: #E2EBEB"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">British occupation</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1882–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Sultanate of Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1914–1922</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Kingdom of Egypt</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1922–1953</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-left:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_republican_Egypt" title="History of republican Egypt">Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap; color:#666;padding-right:0.2em;">1953–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/16px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/24px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/32px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Egypt" title="Portal:Egypt">Egypt portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-top:0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Egypt" title="Template:History of Egypt"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Egypt" title="Template talk:History of Egypt"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Egypt" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Egypt"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Roman Egypt<a href="#cite_note-2">[note 1]</a> was an <a href="/wiki/Imperial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial province">imperial province</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> from 30 BC to AD 641. The province encompassed most of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> except for the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a>. It was bordered by the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Crete_and_Cyrenaica" title="Crete and Cyrenaica">Crete and Cyrenaica</a> to the west and <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a>, to the East. Egypt was conquered by Roman forces in 30 BC and became a province of the new Roman Empire upon its formation in 27 BC. Egypt came to serve as a major producer of <a href="/wiki/Grain" title="Grain">grain</a> for the empire and had a highly developed urban economy. It was by far the wealthiest Roman province outside of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[2]</a> The population of Roman Egypt is unknown, although estimates vary from 4 to 8 million.<a href="#cite_note-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-pop-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, its capital, was the largest <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">port</a> and second largest city of the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-5">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[5]</a> Three <a href="/wiki/Roman_legions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman legions">Roman legions</a> garrisoned Egypt in the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman imperial period">Roman imperial period</a>, with the garrison later reduced to two, alongside <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxilia</a> formations of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The major town of each <a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">nome</a> (administrative region) was known as a <a href="/wiki/Metropolis" title="Metropolis">metropolis</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[note 2]</a> and granted additional privileges.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The inhabitants of Roman Egypt were divided by social class along ethnic and cultural lines.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> Most inhabitants were peasant farmers, who lived in rural villages and spoke the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a> (which evolved from the Demotic Egyptian of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a> periods to <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> under Roman rule). In each metropolis, the citizens spoke <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> and followed a <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> culture. However there was considerable social mobility, increasing urbanization, and both the rural and urban population were involved in trade and had high literacy rates.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> In AD 212, the <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">Constitutio Antoniniana</a> gave <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> to all free Egyptians.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> struck in the late 2nd century, but Roman Egypt recovered by the 3rd century.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> Having escaped much of the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, Roman Egypt fell under the control of the breakaway <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> after <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_invasion_of_Egypt" title="Palmyrene invasion of Egypt">an invasion of Egypt</a> by <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a> in 269.<a href="#cite_note-egypt_keenan_nicholson-9">[7]</a> The emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 270–275) successfully besieged Alexandria and recovered Egypt. The usurpers <a href="/wiki/Domitius_Domitianus" title="Domitius Domitianus">Domitius Domitianus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Achilleus_(Roman_usurper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achilleus (Roman usurper)">Achilleus</a> took control of the province in opposition to emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 284–305), who recovered it in 297–298.<a href="#cite_note-egypt_keenan_nicholson-9">[7]</a> Diocletian then introduced administrative and economic reforms. These coincided with the <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization of the Roman Empire</a>, especially the growth of <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Egypt" title="Christianity in Egypt">Christianity in Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-egypt_keenan_nicholson-9">[7]</a> After <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> gained control of Egypt in AD 324, the emperors promoted Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-egypt_keenan_nicholson-9">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic language</a>, derived from earlier forms of Egyptian, emerged among the Christians of Roman Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> Under <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> the frontier was moved downriver to the <a href="/wiki/First_Cataract" class="mw-redirect" title="First Cataract">First Cataract</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> at Syene (<a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a>), withdrawing from the <a href="/wiki/Dodekaschoinos" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodekaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a> region.<a href="#cite_note-egypt_keenan_nicholson-9">[7]</a> This southern frontier was largely peaceful for many centuries,<a href="#cite_note-egypt_keenan_nicholson-9">[7]</a> likely garrisoned by <a href="/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei">limitanei</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">late Roman army</a>. Regular units also served in Egypt, including <a href="/wiki/Scythian" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian">Scythians</a> known to have been stationed in the <a href="/wiki/Thebaid" title="Thebaid">Thebaid</a> by <a href="/wiki/Justinian_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian the Great">Justinian the Great</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 527–565). Constantine introduced the gold <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">solidus coin</a>, which stabilized the economy.<a href="#cite_note-egypt_keenan_nicholson-9">[7]</a> The trend towards private ownership of land became more pronounced in the 5th century and peaked in the 6th century, with large estates built up from many individual plots.<a href="#cite_note-egypt_keenan_nicholson-9">[7]</a> Some large estates were owned by Christian churches, and smaller land-holders included those who were themselves both tenant farmers on larger estates and landlords of tenant-farmers working their own land.<a href="#cite_note-egypt_keenan_nicholson-9">[7]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_plague_pandemic" title="First plague pandemic">First Plague Pandemic</a> arrived in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a> with the emergence of the <a href="/wiki/Justinianic_Plague" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinianic Plague">Justinianic Plague</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pelusium" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a> in Roman Egypt in 541. <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Sasanian conquest of Egypt">Egypt was conquered</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> in 618, who <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">ruled the territory for a decade</a>, but it was returned to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> by the defection of the governor in 628. Egypt permanently ceased to be a part of the Roman Empire in 641, when it became part of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 305–30 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty</a>) had ruled Egypt since the <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a> that overthrew <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Egypt">Achaemenid Egypt</a>. The Ptolemaic <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VII">Cleopatra VII</a> sided with <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> during <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's Civil War">Caesar's Civil War</a> (49–45 BC) and Caesar's subsequent <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Roman dictatorship</a>. After <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Caesar's assassination</a> in 44 BC, Cleopatra aligned Egypt with <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>, the Roman <a href="/wiki/Triumvir" class="mw-redirect" title="Triumvir">triumvir</a> who controlled the eastern Mediterranean. In the <a href="/wiki/Last_war_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Last war of the Roman Republic">last war of the Roman Republic</a> (32–30 BC), Antony (with Cleopatra's support) fought against <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a>. The decisive naval <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a> was won by Octavian, who then invaded Egypt. Following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alexandria_(30_BC)" title="Battle of Alexandria (30 BC)">Battle of Alexandria</a> the defeated Antony and Cleopatra killed themselves.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt ceased to exist; Egypt was seized by Octavian as his personal possession.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The legal status <a href="/wiki/Augustus#First_settlement" title="Augustus">was settled</a> in 27 BC, when Octavian was granted the honorific name of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> and Egypt became an <a href="/wiki/Imperial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial province">imperial province</a> of the newly established <a href="/wiki/Roman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman empire">Roman empire</a>. Augustus (and succeeding <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperors</a>) ruled Egypt as the <a href="/wiki/Roman_pharaoh" title="Roman pharaoh">Roman pharaoh</a>. The Ptolemaic institutions were dismantled: the government administration was wholly reformed, as was the social structure, though some bureaucratic elements were maintained.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The Graeco-Egyptian legal system of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> continued in use, but within the bounds of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tetradrachm" title="Tetradrachm">tetradrachm</a> coinage minted at the Ptolemaic capital of Alexandria continued to be the currency of an increasingly monetized economy, but its value was made equal to the Roman <a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">denarius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> Augustus introduced land reforms that enabled wider entitlement to private ownership of land (previously rare under the Ptolemaic <a href="/wiki/Cleruchy" title="Cleruchy">cleruchy</a> system of allotments under royal ownership) and the local administration reformed into a Roman <a href="/wiki/Liturgy_(ancient_Greece)" title="Liturgy (ancient Greece)">liturgical</a> system, in which land-owners were required to serve in local government.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The priesthoods of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_deities" title="Ancient Egyptian deities">Ancient Egyptian deities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_religion" title="Hellenistic religion">Hellenistic religions</a> of Egypt kept most of their <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_temple" title="Egyptian temple">temples</a> and privileges, and in turn the priests also served the <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Roman imperial cult</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Deified" class="mw-redirect" title="Deified">deified</a> emperors and their families.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_government_in_Egypt">Roman government in Egypt</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Roman government in Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_Roman_Egypt" title="List of governors of Roman Egypt">List of governors of Roman Egypt</a></div> As Rome overtook the Ptolemaic system in place for areas of Egypt, they made many changes. The effect of the Roman conquest was at first to strengthen the position of the Greeks and of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic civilization">Hellenism</a> against Egyptian influences. Some of the previous offices and names of offices under the Hellenistic Ptolemaic rule were kept, some were changed, and some names would have remained but the function and administration would have changed. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans</a> introduced important changes in the administrative system, aimed at achieving a high level of efficiency and maximizing <a href="/wiki/Revenue" title="Revenue">revenue</a>. The duties of the prefect of Aegyptus combined responsibility for military security through command of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohorts</a>, for the organization of finance and taxation, and for the administration of justice. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emperador_romano_como_fara%C3%B3n_(26519131170).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Emperador_romano_como_fara%C3%B3n_%2826519131170%29.jpg/220px-Emperador_romano_como_fara%C3%B3n_%2826519131170%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Emperador_romano_como_fara%C3%B3n_%2826519131170%29.jpg/330px-Emperador_romano_como_fara%C3%B3n_%2826519131170%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Emperador_romano_como_fara%C3%B3n_%2826519131170%29.jpg/440px-Emperador_romano_como_fara%C3%B3n_%2826519131170%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2618" data-file-height="3500" /></a><figcaption>A 1st-century AD Roman emperor wearing <a href="/wiki/Nemes" title="Nemes">nemes</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Uraeus" title="Uraeus">uraeus</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Pharaoh" title="Pharaoh">pharaoh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>)</figcaption></figure> The Egyptian provinces of the Ptolemaic Kingdom remained wholly under Roman rule until the administrative reforms of the <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">augustus</a> <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 284–305).<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 57  In these first three centuries of Roman Egypt, the whole country came under the central Roman control of single governor, officially called in <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: praefectus Alexandreae et Aegypti, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'prefect of Alexandria and Egypt' and more usually referred to as the Latin: praefectus Aegypti, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'prefect of Egypt' or the <a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: ἔπαρχος Αἰγύπτου, romanized: eparchos Aigyptou, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> '<a href="/wiki/Eparch" class="mw-redirect" title="Eparch">Eparch</a> of Egypt'.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 57  The double title of the governor as prefect "of Alexandria and Egypt" reflects the distinctions between <a href="/wiki/Upper_and_Lower_Egypt" title="Upper and Lower Egypt">Upper and Lower Egypt</a> and Alexandria, since Alexandria, outside the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a>, was not within the then-prevailing traditional geographic boundaries of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 57  From the 1st century BC, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Roman governor</a> of Egypt was appointed by the emperor for a multi-year term and given the rank of <a href="/wiki/Prefect" title="Prefect">prefect</a> (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: praefectus).<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> Both the governor and the major officials were of <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_rank" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian rank">equestrian rank</a> (unlike other Roman provinces, which had governors of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">senatorial</a> rank).<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The prefect of Egypt had more or less equivalent civil and military powers (<a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>) to a <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsul</a>, since a <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> (a lex) granted him "proconsular imperium" (Latin: imperium ad similitudinem proconsulis).<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 57  Unlike in <a href="/wiki/Senatorial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Senatorial province">senatorial provinces</a>, the prefect was responsible for the collection of certain taxes and for the organization of the all-important grain shipments from Egypt (including the <a href="/wiki/Cura_Annonae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cura Annonae">annona</a>).<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  Because of these financial responsibilities, the governor's administration had to be closely controlled and organized.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  The governorship of Egypt was the second-highest office available to the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian class">equestrian class</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">cursus honorum</a> (after that of the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefect</a> (Latin: praefectus praetorio), the commander of the imperial <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>) and one of the highest-paid, receiving an annual salary of 200,000 <a href="/wiki/Sesterces" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesterces">sesterces</a> (a "ducenarian" post).<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  The prefect was appointed at the emperor's discretion; officially the governors' status and responsibilities mirrored those of the augustus himself: his fairness (aequitas, 'equality') and his foresight (<a href="/wiki/Providentia" title="Providentia">providentia</a>, 'providence').<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  From the early 2nd century, service as the governor of Egypt was frequently the penultimate stage in the career of a praetorian prefect.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_family_of_Septimius_Severus_-_Altes_Museum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Portrait_of_family_of_Septimius_Severus_-_Altes_Museum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_family_of_Septimius_Severus_-_Altes_Museum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Portrait_of_family_of_Septimius_Severus_-_Altes_Museum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_family_of_Septimius_Severus_-_Altes_Museum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Portrait_of_family_of_Septimius_Severus_-_Altes_Museum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_family_of_Septimius_Severus_-_Altes_Museum_-_Berlin_-_Germany_2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="3455" /></a><figcaption>The first generations of the imperial <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a> depicted on the "<a href="/wiki/Severan_Tondo" title="Severan Tondo">Severan Tondo</a>" from Egypt (<a href="/wiki/Antikensammlung_Berlin" title="Antikensammlung Berlin">Antikensammlung Berlin</a>)</figcaption></figure> The governor's powers as prefect, which included the rights to make <a href="/wiki/Edicts" class="mw-redirect" title="Edicts">edicts</a> (ius edicendi) and, as the supreme judicial authority, to order <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">capital punishment</a> (ius gladii, 'right of <a href="/wiki/Gladius" title="Gladius">swords</a>'), expired as soon as his successor arrived in the provincial capital at Alexandria, who then also took up overall command of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_legions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman legions">Roman legions</a> of the Egyptian garrison.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  (Initially, three legions were stationed in Egypt, with only two from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 14–37 AD).)<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  The official duties of the praefectus Aegypti are well known because enough records survive to reconstruct a mostly complete official calendar (<a href="/wiki/Fasti" title="Fasti">fasti</a>) of the governors' engagements.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 57  Yearly in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a>, and once every two years in <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a>, the praefectus Aegypti held a conventus (Koinē Greek: διαλογισμός, romanized: dialogismos, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'dialogue'), during which legal trials were conducted and administrative officials' practices were examined, usually between January (<a href="/wiki/Ianuarius" title="Ianuarius">Ianuarius</a>) and April (<a href="/wiki/Aprilis" title="Aprilis">Aprilis</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  Evidence exists of more than 60 edicts issued by the Roman governors of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  To the government at Alexandria besides the prefect of Egypt, the Roman emperors appointed several other subordinate <a href="/wiki/Procurator_(ancient_Rome)" title="Procurator (ancient Rome)">procurators</a> for the province, all of equestrian rank and, at least from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 176–192) of similar, "ducenarian" salary bracket.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  The administrator of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Idios_Logos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Idios Logos (page does not exist)">Idios Logos</a>, responsible for special revenues like the proceeds of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bona_caduca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bona caduca (page does not exist)">bona caduca</a> property, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Iuridicus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iuridicus (page does not exist)">iuridicus</a> (Koinē Greek: δικαιοδότης, romanized: dikaiodotes, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'giver of laws'), the senior legal official, were both imperially appointed.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  From the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 117–138), the financial powers of the prefect and the control of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian temples">Egyptian temples</a> and priesthoods was devolved to other procurators, a <a href="/wiki/Dioiketes" title="Dioiketes">dioiketes</a> (διοικητής), the chief financial officer, and an archiereus (ἀρχιερεύς, 'archpriest').<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  A procurator could deputize as the prefect's representative where necessary.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Himation_Statue_Greek_Orator_Roman-Egypt.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Himation_Statue_Greek_Orator_Roman-Egypt.png/220px-Himation_Statue_Greek_Orator_Roman-Egypt.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Himation_Statue_Greek_Orator_Roman-Egypt.png/330px-Himation_Statue_Greek_Orator_Roman-Egypt.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Himation_Statue_Greek_Orator_Roman-Egypt.png/440px-Himation_Statue_Greek_Orator_Roman-Egypt.png 2x" data-file-width="953" data-file-height="1184" /></a><figcaption>Statue of an orator, wearing a <a href="/wiki/Himation" title="Himation">himation</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Heracleopolis_Magna" title="Heracleopolis Magna">Heracleopolis Magna</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Egypt" title="Middle Egypt">Middle Egypt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Museum" title="Egyptian Museum">Egyptian Museum</a>, Cairo)</figcaption></figure> Procurators were also appointed from among the <a href="/wiki/Freedmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedmen">freedmen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Manumitted" class="mw-redirect" title="Manumitted">manumitted</a> slaves) of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_household" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial household">imperial household</a>, including the powerful <a href="/w/index.php?title=Procurator_usiacus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Procurator usiacus (page does not exist)">procurator usiacus</a>, responsible for state property in the province.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  Other procurators were responsible for <a href="/wiki/Farm_(revenue_leasing)" title="Farm (revenue leasing)">revenue farming</a> of <a href="/wiki/State_monopolies" class="mw-redirect" title="State monopolies">state monopolies</a> (the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Procurator_ad_Mercurium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Procurator ad Mercurium (page does not exist)">procurator ad Mercurium</a>), oversight of farm lands (the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Procurator_episkepseos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Procurator episkepseos (page does not exist)">procurator episkepseos</a>), of the warehouses of Alexandria (the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Procurator_Neaspoleos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Procurator Neaspoleos (page does not exist)">procurator Neaspoleos</a>), and of exports and emigration (the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Procurator_Phari&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Procurator Phari (page does not exist)">procurator Phari</a>, 'procurator of <a href="/wiki/Pharos_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharos of Alexandria">the Pharos</a>').<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  These roles are poorly attested, with often the only surviving information beyond the names of the offices is a few names of the incumbents. In general, the central provincial administration of Egypt is no better-known than the Roman governments of other provinces, since, unlike in the rest of Egypt, the conditions for the preservation of official <a href="/wiki/Papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyri">papyri</a> were very unfavourable at Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  Local government in the <a href="/wiki/Hinterland" title="Hinterland">hinterland</a> (Koinē Greek: χώρα, romanized: khṓrā, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'countryside') outside Alexandria was divided into traditional regions known as <a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">nomoi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  The mētropoleis were governed by magistrates drawn from the liturgy system; these magistrates, as in other Roman cities, practised <a href="/wiki/Euergetism" title="Euergetism">euergetism</a> and built public buildings. To each nome the prefect appointed a <a href="/wiki/Strategos" title="Strategos">strategos</a> (Koinē Greek: στρατηγός, romanized: stratēgós, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'general'); the strategoi were civilian administrators, without military functions, who performed much of the government of the country in the prefect's name and were themselves drawn from the Egyptian upper classes.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  The strategoi in each of the mētropoleis were the senior local officials, served as intermediaries between the prefect and the villages, and were legally responsible for the administration and their own conduct while in office for several years.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  Each strategos was supplemented by a royal <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribe</a> (βασιλικός γραμματεύς, basilikós grammateús, 'royal secretary').<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  These scribes were responsible for their nome's financial affairs, including administration of all property, land, land revenues, and temples, and what remains of their record-keeping is unparalleled in the ancient world for its completeness and complexity.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  The royal scribes could act as proxy for the strategoi, but each reported directly to Alexandria, where dedicated financial secretaries – appointed for each individual nome – oversaw the accounts: an eklogistes and a graphon ton nomon.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  The eklogistes was responsible for general financial affairs while the graphon ton nomon likely dealt with matters relating to the Idios Logos.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58–59  In 200/201, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 193–211) granted each metropolis, and the city of Alexandria, a <a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">boulē</a> (a Hellenistic town council).<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_youth_BM_Br828_n5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bronze_youth_BM_Br828_n5.jpg/220px-Bronze_youth_BM_Br828_n5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bronze_youth_BM_Br828_n5.jpg/330px-Bronze_youth_BM_Br828_n5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Bronze_youth_BM_Br828_n5.jpg/440px-Bronze_youth_BM_Br828_n5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="3300" /></a><figcaption>Bronze statue of a nude youth, from <a href="/wiki/Athribis" title="Athribis">Athribis</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> (<a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>, London)</figcaption></figure> The nomoi were grouped traditionally into those of Upper and Lower Egypt, the two divisions each being known as an "<a href="/wiki/Epistrategy" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistrategy">epistrategy</a>" after the chief officer, the epistrategos (ἐπιστράτηγος, epistratēgós, 'over-general'), each of whom was also a Roman procurator. Soon after the Roman annexation, a new epistrategy was formed, encompassing the area just south of <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Faiyum</a> region and named "the <a href="/wiki/Heptanomia" class="mw-redirect" title="Heptanomia">Heptanomia</a> and the Arsinoite nome".<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  In the Nile Delta however, power was wielded by two of the epistrategoi.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  The epistrategos's role was mainly to mediate between the prefect in Alexandria and the strategoi in the mētropoleis, and they had few specific administrative duties, performing a more general function.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  Their salary was sexagenarian – 60,000 sesterces annually.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 58  Each village or kome (κώμη, kṓmē) was served by a village scribe (κωμογραμματεύς, kōmogrammateús, 'secretary of the kome'), whose term, possibly paid, was usually held for three years.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 59  Each, to avoid conflicts of interest, was appointed to a community away from their home village, as they were required to inform the strategoi and epistrategoi of the names of persons due to perform unpaid public service as part of the <a href="/wiki/Liturgy_(ancient_Greece)" title="Liturgy (ancient Greece)">liturgy</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 59  They were required to be literate and had various duties as official clerks.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 59  Other local officials drawn from the liturgy system served for a year in their home kome; they included the practor (πράκτωρ, práktōr, 'executor'), who collected certain taxes, as well as security officers, granary officials (σιτολόγοι, sitologoi, 'grain collectors'), public cattle drivers (δημόσιοι kτηνοτρόφοι, dēmósioi ktēnotróphoi, 'cattleherds of the <a href="/wiki/Deme" title="Deme">demos</a>'), and cargo supervisors (ἐπίπλοοι, epiploöi).<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 59  Other liturgical officials were responsible for other specific aspects of the economy: a suite of officials was each responsible for arranging supplies of particular necessity in the course of the prefect's official tours.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 59  The liturgy system extended to most aspects of Roman administration by the reign of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 98–117), though constant efforts were made by people eligible for such duties to escape their imposition.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch4-10">[8]</a>: 59  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MC_-_Pharao.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/MC_-_Pharao.jpg/220px-MC_-_Pharao.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/MC_-_Pharao.jpg/330px-MC_-_Pharao.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/MC_-_Pharao.jpg/440px-MC_-_Pharao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption>A 2nd-century AD Roman emperor wearing nemes, as pharaoh (<a href="/wiki/Museum_Carnuntinum" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum Carnuntinum">Museum Carnuntinum</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_Carnuntinum" class="extiw" title="de:Museum Carnuntinum">de</a>], <a href="/wiki/Bad_Deutsch-Altenburg" title="Bad Deutsch-Altenburg">Bad Deutsch-Altenburg</a>)</figcaption></figure> The reforms of the early 4th century had established the basis for another 250 years of comparative prosperity in Aegyptus, at a cost of perhaps greater rigidity and more oppressive state control. Aegyptus was subdivided for administrative purposes into a number of smaller provinces, and separate civil and military officials were established; the <a href="/wiki/Praeses" title="Praeses">praeses</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">dux</a>. The province was under the supervision of the count of the Orient (i.e. the vicar) of the diocese headquartered in Antioch in Syria. <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Emperor Justinian</a> abolished the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Egypt" title="Diocese of Egypt">Diocese of Egypt</a> in 538 and re-combined civil and military power in the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">dux</a> with a civil deputy (<a href="/wiki/Praeses" title="Praeses">praeses</a>) as a counterweight to the power of the church authorities. All pretense of local <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> had by then vanished. The presence of the soldiery was more noticeable, its power and influence more pervasive in the routine of town and village life. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military">Military</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fayum_mummy_portrait_(160-170_AD)_-_British_museum,_EA65345.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Fayum_mummy_portrait_%28160-170_AD%29_-_British_museum%2C_EA65345.jpg/220px-Fayum_mummy_portrait_%28160-170_AD%29_-_British_museum%2C_EA65345.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="563" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Fayum_mummy_portrait_%28160-170_AD%29_-_British_museum%2C_EA65345.jpg/330px-Fayum_mummy_portrait_%28160-170_AD%29_-_British_museum%2C_EA65345.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Fayum_mummy_portrait_%28160-170_AD%29_-_British_museum%2C_EA65345.jpg/440px-Fayum_mummy_portrait_%28160-170_AD%29_-_British_museum%2C_EA65345.jpg 2x" data-file-width="505" data-file-height="1293" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Encaustic_painting" title="Encaustic painting">Encaustic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tempera" title="Tempera">tempera</a> painted <a href="/wiki/Fayum_mummy_portrait" class="mw-redirect" title="Fayum mummy portrait">Fayum mummy portrait</a> of a Roman officer <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 160 – c. 170, with a green <a href="/wiki/Sagum" title="Sagum">sagum</a>, gold <a href="/wiki/Fibula_(brooch)" title="Fibula (brooch)">fibula</a>, white tunic, and red leather <a href="/wiki/Balteus_(sword_belt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balteus (sword belt)">balteus</a> (<a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> was among the most homogenous Roman structures, and the organization of the army in Egypt differed little from its organization elsewhere in the Roman Empire. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_legions" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman legions">Roman legions</a> were recruited from <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizens" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman citizens">Roman citizens</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_auxilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman auxilia">Roman auxilia</a> recruited from the non-citizen subjects.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 69  Egypt was unique in that its garrison was commanded by the praefectus Aegypti, an official of the equestrian order, rather than, as in other provinces, a governor of the senatorial class.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 75  This distinction was stipulated in a law promulgated by Augustus, and, because it was unthinkable that an equestrian should command a senator, the commanders of the legions in Egypt were themselves, uniquely, of equestrian rank.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 75  As a result of these strictures, the governor was rendered unable to build up a rival power base (as Mark Antony had been able to do), while the military <a href="/wiki/Legati" class="mw-redirect" title="Legati">legati</a> commanding the legions were career soldiers, formerly <a href="/wiki/Centurion" title="Centurion">centurions</a> with the senior rank of <a href="/wiki/Primus_pilus" title="Primus pilus">primus pilus</a>, rather than politicians whose military experience was limited to youthful service as a <a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">military tribune</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 75  Beneath the praefectus Aegypti, the overall commander of legions and auxilia stationed in Egypt was styled in Latin: praefectus stratopedarches, from the Greek: στρατοπεδάρχης, romanized: <a href="/wiki/Stratopedarches" title="Stratopedarches">stratopedárchēs</a>, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'camp commander', or as Latin: praefectus exercitu qui est in Aegypto, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'prefect of the army in Egypt'.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 75–76  Collectively, these forces were known as the exercitus Aegyptiacus, 'Army of Egypt'.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 76  The Roman garrison was concentrated at Nicopolis, a district of Alexandria, rather than at the strategic heart of the country around <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Babylon" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Babylon">Egyptian Babylon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-12">[10]</a>: 37  Alexandria was the Mediterranean's second city in the early Roman empire, the cultural capital of the Greek East and rival to Rome under Antony and Cleopatra.<a href="#cite_note-:4-12">[10]</a>: 37  Because only a few papyri are preserved from the area, little more is known about the legionaries' everyday life than is known from other provinces of the empire, and little evidence exists of the military practices of the prefect and his officers.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 75  Most papyri have been found in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Egypt" title="Middle Egypt">Middle Egypt</a>'s villages, and the texts are primarily concerned with local affairs, rarely giving space to high politics and military matters.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 70  Not much is known about the military encampments of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_period_(chronology)" title="Roman imperial period (chronology)">Roman imperial period</a>, since many are underwater or have been built over and because <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian archaeology">Egyptian archaeology</a> has traditionally taken little interest in Roman sites.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 70  Because they supply a record of soldiers' service history, six bronze <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_diploma" title="Roman military diploma">Roman military diplomas</a> dating between 83 and 206 are the main source of documentary evidence for the <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxilia</a> in Egypt; these inscribed certificates rewarded 25 or 26 years of military service in the auxilia with Roman citizenship and the right of <a href="/wiki/Conubium" class="mw-redirect" title="Conubium">conubium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 70–71  That the army was more Greek-speaking than in other provinces is certain.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 75  The heart of the Army of Egypt was the Nicopolis garrison at Alexandria, with at least one legion permanently stationed there, along with a strong force of auxilia cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 71  These troops would both guard the residence of the praefectus Aegypti against uprisings among the Alexandrians and were poised to march quickly to any point at the prefect's command.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 71–72  At Alexandria too was the Classis Alexandrina, the provincial fleet of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Navy">Roman Navy</a> in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 71  In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, there were around 8,000 soldiers at Alexandria, a fraction of the <a href="/wiki/Megalopolis" title="Megalopolis">megalopolis</a>'s huge population.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 72  Initially, the legionary garrison of Roman Egypt consisted of three legions: the <a href="/wiki/Legio_III_Cyrenaica" title="Legio III Cyrenaica">Legio III Cyrenaica</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Legio_XXII_Deiotariana" title="Legio XXII Deiotariana">Legio XXII Deiotariana</a>, and one other legion.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 70  The station and identity of this third legion is not known for sure, and it is not known precisely when it was withdrawn from Egypt, though it was certainly before 23 AD, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 14–37).<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 70  In the reign of Tiberius's step-father and predecessor Augustus, the legions had been stationed at Nicopolis and at Egyptian Babylon, and perhaps at <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 70  After August 119, the III Cyrenaica was ordered out of Egypt; the XXII Deiotariana was transferred sometime afterwards, and before 127/8, the <a href="/wiki/Legio_II_Traiana_Fortis" title="Legio II Traiana Fortis">Legio II Traiana</a> arrived, to remain as the main component of the Army of Egypt for two centuries.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 70  After some fluctuations in the size and positions of the auxilia garrison in the early decades of Roman Egypt, relating to the conquest and pacification of the country, the auxilia contingent was mostly stable during the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a>, increasing somewhat towards the end of the 2nd century, and with some individual formations remaining in Egypt for centuries at a time.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 71  Three or four <a href="/wiki/Ala_(Roman_cavalry_unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ala (Roman cavalry unit)">alae</a> of cavalry were stationed in Egypt, each ala numbering around 500 horsemen.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 71  There were between seven and ten <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohortes</a> of auxilia infantry, each cohors about 500 hundred strong, although some were <a href="/wiki/Cohortes_equitatae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cohortes equitatae">cohortes equitatae</a> – mixed units of 600 men, with infantry and cavalry in a roughly 4:1 ratio.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 71  Besides the auxilia stationed at Alexandria, at least three detachments permanently garrisoned the southern border, on the Nile's <a href="/wiki/First_Cataract" class="mw-redirect" title="First Cataract">First Cataract</a> around <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a> and Syene (<a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a>), protecting Egypt from enemies to the south and guarding against rebellion in the <a href="/wiki/Thebaid" title="Thebaid">Thebaid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 72  Besides the main garrison at Alexandrian Nicopolis and the southern border force, the disposition of the rest of the Army of Egypt is not clear, though many soldiers are known to have been stationed at various outposts (praesidia), including those defending roads and remote natural resources from attack.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 72  Roman detachments, centuriones, and <a href="/wiki/Beneficiarius" class="mw-redirect" title="Beneficiarius">beneficiarii</a> maintained order in the Nile Valley, but about their duties little is known, as little evidence survives, though they were, in addition to the strategoi of the nomoi, the prime local representatives of the Roman state.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 73  Archaeological work led by <a href="/wiki/H%C3%A9l%C3%A8ne_Cuvigny" title="Hélène Cuvigny">Hélène Cuvigny</a> has revealed many <a href="/wiki/Ostraca" class="mw-redirect" title="Ostraca">ostraca</a> (inscribed ceramic fragments) which give unprecedently detailed information on the lives of soldiers stationed in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Desert" title="Eastern Desert">Eastern Desert</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Coptos" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptos">Coptos</a>–<a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a> road and at the imperial granite quarry at <a href="/wiki/Mons_Claudianus" title="Mons Claudianus">Mons Claudianus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 72  Another Roman outpost, known from an inscription, existed on <a href="/wiki/Farasan_Island" title="Farasan Island">Farasan</a>, the chief island of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Farasan_Islands" title="Farasan Islands">Farasan Islands</a> off the west coast of the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 72  As in other provinces, many of the Roman soldiers in Egypt were recruited locally, not only among the non-citizen auxilia, but among the legionaries as well, who were required to have Roman citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 73  An increasing proportion of the Army of Egypt was of local origin in the reign of the <a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a>, with an even higher proportion – as many as three quarters of legionaries – under the <a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 73  Of these, around one third were themselves the offspring (Latin: castrenses, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'camp-men') of soldiers, raised in the <a href="/wiki/Canabae" class="mw-redirect" title="Canabae">canabae</a> settlements surrounding the army's base at Nicopolis, while only about one eighth were Alexandrian citizens.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 73  Egyptians were given Roman-style Latin names on joining the army; unlike in other provinces, indigenous names are nearly unknown among the local soldiers of the Army of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 74  One of the surviving military diplomas lists the soldier's birthplace as <a href="/wiki/Coptos" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptos">Coptos</a>, while others demonstrate that soldiers and centurions from elsewhere retired to Egypt: auxilia veterans from <a href="/wiki/Chios" title="Chios">Chios</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hippo_Regius" title="Hippo Regius">Hippo Regius</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Hippos,_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippos, Israel">Hippos</a>) are named.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 73–74  Evidence from the 2nd century suggests most auxilia came from Egypt, with others drawn from the provinces of <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>, and from Roman <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 73–74  Auxilia from the Balkans, who served throughout the Roman army, also served in Egypt: many <a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a> names are known from ostraca in the Trajanic period, perhaps connected with the recruitment of <a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a> during and after <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Dacian_Wars" title="Trajan's Dacian Wars">Trajan's Dacian Wars</a>; they are predominantly cavalrymen's names, with some infantrymen's.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 74  <a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a>, common in the army in other Roman provinces, were also present, and an auxiliary diploma from the Egyptian garrison has been found in <a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 74  Two auxilia diplomas connect Army of Egypt veterans with Syria, including one naming <a href="/wiki/Apamea,_Syria" title="Apamea, Syria">Apamea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 74  Large numbers of recruits mustered in Asia Minor may have supplemented the garrison after the <a href="/wiki/Diaspora_Revolt" title="Diaspora Revolt">Diaspora Revolt</a>, a Jewish uprising in Egypt, Libya and Cyprus.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_ch5-11">[9]</a>: 74  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Society">edit</a>]</div> The social structure in Aegyptus under the Romans was both unique and complicated. On the one hand, the Romans continued to use many of the same organizational tactics that were in place under the leaders of the Ptolemaic period. At the same time, the Romans saw the Greeks in Aegyptus as "Egyptians", an idea that both the native Egyptians and Greeks would have rejected.<a href="#cite_note-Oxyrhynchus_and_Rome,_p.3-13">[11]</a> To further compound the whole situation, Jews, who themselves were very Hellenized overall, had their own communities, separate from both Greeks and native Egyptians.<a href="#cite_note-Oxyrhynchus_and_Rome,_p.3-13">[11]</a><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egyptian_-_Mummy_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_Walters_323.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Egyptian_-_Mummy_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_Walters_323.jpg/220px-Egyptian_-_Mummy_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_Walters_323.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="422" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Egyptian_-_Mummy_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_Walters_323.jpg/330px-Egyptian_-_Mummy_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_Walters_323.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Egyptian_-_Mummy_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_Walters_323.jpg/440px-Egyptian_-_Mummy_Portrait_of_a_Man_-_Walters_323.jpg 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="1379" /></a><figcaption>1st-century AD mummy excavated by <a href="/wiki/William_Flinders_Petrie" class="mw-redirect" title="William Flinders Petrie">William Flinders Petrie</a></figcaption></figure> Most inhabitants were peasants, many working as tenant-farmers for high rents in kind, cultivating sacred land belonging to temples or public land formerly belonging to the Egyptian monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The division between the rural life of the villages, where the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian language</a> was spoken, and the metropolis, where the citizens spoke <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> and frequented the Hellenistic <a href="/wiki/Gymnasium_(ancient_Greece)" title="Gymnasium (ancient Greece)">gymnasia</a>, was the most significant cultural division in Roman Egypt, and was not dissolved by the <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">Constitutio Antoniniana</a> of 212, which made all free Egyptians Roman citizens.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> There was considerable social mobility however, accompanying mass urbanization, and participation in the monetized economy and literacy in Greek by the peasant population was widespread.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The Romans began a system of social hierarchy that revolved around ethnicity and place of residence. Other than Roman citizens, a Greek citizen of one of the Greek cities had the highest status, and a rural Egyptian would be in the lowest class.<a href="#cite_note-14">[12]</a> In between those classes was the metropolite, who was almost certainly of Hellenic origin. Gaining citizenship and moving up in ranks was very difficult and there were not many available options for ascendancy.<a href="#cite_note-15">[13]</a> One of the routes that many followed to ascend to another caste was through enlistment in the army. Although only Roman citizens could serve in the legions, many Greeks found their way in. The native Egyptians could join the auxiliary forces and attain citizenship upon discharge.<a href="#cite_note-16">[14]</a> The different groups had different rates of taxation based on their social class. <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizens" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman citizens">Roman citizens</a> and citizens of Alexandria were exempted from the <a href="/wiki/Tax_per_head" class="mw-redirect" title="Tax per head">poll tax</a>. Hellenized inhabitants of the nome capitals paid a low rate of poll tax, while native Egyptians paid a higher rate.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> Native Egyptians were barred from serving in the army, and there were other defined legal distinctions between the classes.<a href="#cite_note-17">[15]</a> Within the mētropoleis there was a Hellenic socio-political élite, an urban land-owning aristocracy that dominated Egypt by the 2nd and throughout the 3rd centuries through their large private estates.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> The social structure in Aegyptus is very closely linked to the governing administration. Elements of centralized rule that were derived from the Ptolemaic period lasted into the 4th century. One element in particular was the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Strategoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategoi">strategoi</a> to govern the '<a href="/wiki/Nome_(Egypt)" title="Nome (Egypt)">nomes</a>', the traditional administrative divisions of Egypt. <a href="/wiki/Boulai" class="mw-redirect" title="Boulai">Boulai</a>, or town councils, in Egypt were only formally constituted by <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>. It was only under <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> later in the 3rd century that these boulai and their officers acquired important administrative responsibilities for their nomes. The Augustan takeover introduced a system of compulsory public service, which was based on poros (property or income qualification), which was wholly based on social status and power. The Romans also introduced the poll tax which was similar to tax rates that the Ptolemies levied, but the Romans gave special low rates to citizens of mētropoleis.<a href="#cite_note-18">[16]</a> The city of <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus" title="Oxyrhynchus">Oxyrhynchus</a> had many papyri remains that contain much information on the subject of social structure in these cities. This city, along with Alexandria, shows the diverse set-up of various institutions that the Romans continued to use after their takeover of Egypt. Just as under the Ptolemies, Alexandria and its citizens had their own special designations. The capital city enjoyed a higher status and more privileges than the rest of Egypt. Just as it was under the Ptolemies, the primary way of becoming a citizen of Roman Alexandria was through showing when registering for a <a href="/wiki/Deme" title="Deme">deme</a> that both parents were Alexandrian citizens. Alexandrians were the only Egyptians that could obtain Roman citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman,_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.,_54.51.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg/220px-Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg/330px-Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg/440px-Bust_of_Roman_Nobleman%2C_ca._30_B.C.E.%E2%80%93_50_C.E.%2C_54.51.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1195" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Bust of Roman Nobleman, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 30 BC–50 AD, <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> If a common Egyptian wanted to become a Roman citizen he would first have to become an Alexandrian citizen. The Augustan period in Egypt saw the creation of urban communities with "<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Hellenic</a>" landowning elites. These landowning elites were put in a position of privilege and power and had more self-administration than the Egyptian population. Within the citizenry, there were gymnasiums that Greek citizens could enter if they showed that both parents were members of the gymnasium based on a list that was compiled by the government in 4–5 AD.<a href="#cite_note-Roman_Oxyrhynchus,_p._84-20">[18]</a> The candidate for the gymnasium would then be let into the <a href="/wiki/Ephebus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephebus">ephebus</a>. There was also the council of elders known as the <a href="/wiki/Gerousia" title="Gerousia">gerousia</a>. This council of elders did not have a boulai to answer to. All of this Greek organization was a vital part of the metropolis and the Greek institutions provided an elite group of citizens. The Romans looked to these elites to provide municipal officers and well-educated administrators.<a href="#cite_note-Roman_Oxyrhynchus,_p._84-20">[18]</a> These elites also paid lower poll-taxes than the local native Egyptians, <a href="/wiki/Fellah" title="Fellah">fellahin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a> It is well documented that Alexandrians in particular were exempted from paying poll-taxes, and were able to enjoy lower tax-rates on land.<a href="#cite_note-:12-21">[19]</a> Egyptian landholders paid about 3 times more than the elites per aroura of land in tax-rates, and about 4–5 times more than Alexandrians per aroura of land in tax-rates.<a href="#cite_note-:12-21">[19]</a> These privileges even extended to corporal punishments. Romans were protected from this type of punishment while native Egyptians were whipped. Alexandrians, on the other hand, had the privilege of merely being beaten with a rod.<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> Although Alexandria enjoyed the greatest status of the Greek cities in Egypt, it is clear that the other Greek cities, such as Antinoöpolis, enjoyed privileges very similar to the ones seen in Alexandria; for instance, like Alexandrians, Antinoöpolites were exempted from paying poll-taxes.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> All of these changes amounted to the Greeks being treated as an ally in Egypt and the native Egyptians were treated as a conquered race.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Gnomon of the Idios Logos shows the connection between law and status. It lays out the revenues it deals with, mainly fines and confiscation of property, to which only a few groups were apt. The Gnomon also confirms that a freed slave takes his former master's social status. The Gnomon demonstrates the social controls that the Romans had in place through monetary means based on status and property. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Economy">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/450px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/675px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg/900px-Periplous_of_the_Erythraean_Sea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="903" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_and_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Roman trade and relations">Roman trade with India</a> started from Aegyptus according to the <a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a> (1st century).</figcaption></figure> The economic resources that this imperial government existed to exploit had not changed since the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic period">Ptolemaic period</a>, but the development of a much more complex and sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxation system</a> was a hallmark of Roman rule. Taxes in both cash and kind were assessed on land, and a bewildering variety of small taxes in cash, as well as customs dues and the like, was collected by appointed officials. A massive amount of Aegyptus' grain was shipped downriver (north) both to feed the population of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> and for export to the Roman capital. There were frequent complaints of oppression and extortion from the taxpayers. For land management and tenure, the Ptolemaic state had retained much of the categorization of land as under the earlier pharaohs, but the Roman Empire introduced a distinction between private and public lands – the earlier system had categorized little land as private property – and a complex arrangement was developed consisting of dozens of types of land-holding.<a href="#cite_note-:23-24">[22]</a>: 23–24  Land's status was determined by the hydrological, juridical, and function of the property, as well as by the three main categories of ownership held over from the Ptolemaic system: the sacred property belonging to the temples (Koinē Greek: Ἱερά γη, romanized: Hierā́ gē, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'holy land'); the royal land (Βασιλική γη, Basilikḗ gē, 'royal land') belonging to the state and forming most of its revenue; and the "gifted land" (Koinē Greek: γή εν δωρεά, romanized: gḗ en dōreá, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'land in gift'; Δωρεά, Dōreá, 'gifts') leased out under the <a href="/wiki/Cleruchy" title="Cleruchy">cleruchy</a> system.<a href="#cite_note-:23-24">[22]</a>: 23–24  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NMW_-_R%C3%B6misches_Mosaik_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/NMW_-_R%C3%B6misches_Mosaik_1.jpg/220px-NMW_-_R%C3%B6misches_Mosaik_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/NMW_-_R%C3%B6misches_Mosaik_1.jpg/330px-NMW_-_R%C3%B6misches_Mosaik_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/NMW_-_R%C3%B6misches_Mosaik_1.jpg/440px-NMW_-_R%C3%B6misches_Mosaik_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1712" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">Roman mosaic</a> showing a boat on river Nile, 1st century AD</figcaption></figure> The Roman government had actively encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> of land and the increase of private enterprise in manufacture, commerce, and trade, and low tax rates favored private owners and entrepreneurs. The poorer people gained their livelihood as tenants of state-owned land or of property belonging to the emperor or to wealthy private landlords, and they were relatively much more heavily burdened by rentals, which tended to remain at a fairly high level. Overall, the degree of monetization and complexity in the economy, even at the <a href="/wiki/Village" title="Village">village</a> level, was intense. Goods were moved around and exchanged through the medium of coin on a large scale and, in the towns and the larger villages, a high level of industrial and commercial activity developed in close conjunction with the exploitation of the predominant agricultural base. The volume of trade, both internal and external, reached its peak in the 1st and 2nd centuries. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huvishka_with_seated_god_Serapis_(%22Sarapo%22).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Huvishka_with_seated_god_Serapis_%28%22Sarapo%22%29.jpg/220px-Huvishka_with_seated_god_Serapis_%28%22Sarapo%22%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Huvishka_with_seated_god_Serapis_%28%22Sarapo%22%29.jpg/330px-Huvishka_with_seated_god_Serapis_%28%22Sarapo%22%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Huvishka_with_seated_god_Serapis_%28%22Sarapo%22%29.jpg/440px-Huvishka_with_seated_god_Serapis_%28%22Sarapo%22%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Huvishka" title="Huvishka">Huvishka</a> with seated Roman-Egyptian god <a href="/wiki/Serapis" title="Serapis">Serapis</a> (ϹΑΡΑΠΟ, "Sarapo") wearing the <a href="/wiki/Modius_(headdress)" title="Modius (headdress)">modius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AHH326-25">[23]</a></figcaption></figure> By the end of the 3rd century, major problems were evident. A series of debasements of the imperial currency had undermined confidence in the coinage,<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> and even the government itself was contributing to this by demanding more and more irregular tax payments in kind, which it channelled directly to the main consumers, the army personnel. Local administration by the <a href="/wiki/Committee" title="Committee">councils</a> was careless, recalcitrant, and inefficient; the evident need for firm and purposeful reform had to be squarely faced in the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>. There are numerous indications of <a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Roman trade with India</a> during the period, particularly between Roman Egypt and the Indian subcontinent. <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Huvishka" title="Huvishka">Huvishka</a> (150–180 CE) incorporated in his coins the Hellenistic-Egyptian god <a href="/wiki/Serapis" title="Serapis">Serapis</a> (under the name ϹΑΡΑΠΟ, "Sarapo").<a href="#cite_note-AHH326-25">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a> Since Serapis was the supreme deity of the pantheon of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, this coin suggests that Huvishka had as strong orientation towards Roman Egypt, which may have been an important market for the products coming from the Kushan Empire.<a href="#cite_note-AHH326-25">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Architecture">Architecture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Architecture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trajan_on_the_Roman_Mammisi_at_Dendera,_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Trajan_on_the_Roman_Mammisi_at_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg/220px-Trajan_on_the_Roman_Mammisi_at_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="443" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Trajan_on_the_Roman_Mammisi_at_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg/330px-Trajan_on_the_Roman_Mammisi_at_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Trajan_on_the_Roman_Mammisi_at_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg/440px-Trajan_on_the_Roman_Mammisi_at_Dendera%2C_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="1834" /></a><figcaption>Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> making offerings to Egyptian Gods, on the Roman <a href="/wiki/Mammisi" title="Mammisi">Mammisi</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Dendera_Temple_complex" title="Dendera Temple complex">Dendera Temple complex</a>, Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-PAS-28">[26]</a></figcaption></figure> In the administrative provincial capitals of the nomoi, the mētropoleis mostly inherited from the Pharaonic and Ptolemaic period, Roman public buildings were erected by the governing strategos and the local <a href="/wiki/Gymnasiarch" title="Gymnasiarch">gymnasiarch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  In most cases, these have not survived and evidence of them is rare, but it is probable that most were built in the <a href="/wiki/Classical_architecture" title="Classical architecture">classical architecture</a> of the Graeco-Roman world, employing the <a href="/wiki/Classical_orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical orders">classical orders</a> in stone buildings.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  Prominent remains include two <a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Roman theatres</a> at <a href="/wiki/Pelusium" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a>, a temple of Serapis and a <a href="/wiki/Tetrastyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrastyle">tetrastyle</a> at Diospolis Magna at <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes</a>, and, at <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_arch" title="Triumphal arch">triumphal arch</a> and temples dedicated to the worship of the emperor Augustus and the goddess <a href="/wiki/Roma_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma (mythology)">Roma</a>, the personification of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  Besides a few individual stone blocks in some mētropoleis, substantial remains of Roman architecture are known in particular from three of the mētropoleis – <a href="/wiki/Heracleopolis_Magna" title="Heracleopolis Magna">Heracleopolis Magna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus" title="Oxyrhynchus">Oxyrhynchus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hermopolis_Magna" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermopolis Magna">Hermopolis Magna</a> – as well as from <a href="/wiki/Antino%C3%B6polis" title="Antinoöpolis">Antinoöpolis</a>, a city founded <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 130 by the emperor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 117–138).<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  All these were sacred cities dedicated to particular deities.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  The ruins of these cities were first methodically surveyed and sketched by intellectuals attached to <a href="/wiki/Napoleon%27s_campaign_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon's campaign in Egypt">Napoleon's campaign in Egypt</a>, eventually published in the <a href="/wiki/Description_de_l%27%C3%89gypte" title="Description de l'Égypte">Description de l'Égypte</a> series.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  Illustrations produced by <a href="/wiki/Edme-Fran%C3%A7ois_Jomard" title="Edme-François Jomard">Edme-François Jomard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vivant_Denon" title="Vivant Denon">Vivant Denon</a> form much of the evidence of these remains, because since the 19th century many of the ruins have themselves disappeared.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  South of Thebes, the mētropoleis may have been largely without classical buildings, but near Antinoöpolis the classical influence may have been stronger.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  Most mētropoleis were probably built on the classical <a href="/wiki/Hippodamian_grid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippodamian grid">Hippodamian grid</a> employed by the Hellenistic polis, as at Alexandria, with the typical Roman pattern of the <a href="/wiki/Cardo" title="Cardo">Cardo</a> (north–south) and <a href="/wiki/Decumanus_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Decumanus Maximus">Decumanus Maximus</a> (east–west) thoroughfares meeting at their centres, as at <a href="/wiki/Athribis" title="Athribis">Athribis</a> and Antinoöpolis.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  Vivant Denon made sketches of ruins at Oxyrhynchus, and Edme-François Jomard wrote a description; together with some historical photographs and the few surviving remains, these are the best evidence for the classical architecture of the city, which was dedicated to the <a href="/wiki/Medjed_(fish)" title="Medjed (fish)">medjed</a>, a sacred species of <a href="/wiki/Mormyrus" title="Mormyrus">Mormyrus</a> fish.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  Two groups of buildings survive at Heracleopolis Magna, sacred to <a href="/wiki/Heracles" title="Heracles">Heracles</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a>, which is otherwise known from Jomard's work, which also forms the mainstay of knowledge about the architecture of Antinoöpolis, founded by Hadrian in honour of his deified lover <a href="/wiki/Antinous" title="Antinous">Antinous</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  The Napoleonic-era evidence is also important for documenting Hermopolis Magna, where more buildings survive and which was dedicated to the worship of <a href="/wiki/Thoth" title="Thoth">Thoth</a>, equated with <a href="/wiki/Hermes" title="Hermes">Hermes</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-29">[27]</a>: 189  The oldest known remains of <a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">church architecture</a> in Egypt are at the Roman village of <a href="/wiki/Kellis" title="Kellis">Kellis</a>; following the <a href="/wiki/House_church" title="House church">house church</a> of the early 4th century, a three-<a href="/wiki/Aisle" title="Aisle">aisled</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apse" title="Apse">apsed</a> <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a> church was built in the Constantinian period, with <a href="/wiki/Pastaphoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastaphoria">pastaphoria</a> on either side, while a third church was accompanied by a Christian cemetery.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 671  All these churches were built on an east-west axis, with the liturgical focus at the east, and the pastaphoria (side-rooms) were a common mark of churches in the country.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 671  Churches were built quickly after the victory of Constantine over Licinius, and in the 4th century even towns like <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E2%80%98Ain_el-Gedida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="‘Ain el-Gedida (page does not exist)">‘Ain el-Gedida</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Dakhla_Oasis" title="Dakhla Oasis">Dakhla Oasis</a> had their own churches.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 671  The earliest known monumental basilica of which remains survive is that at Antinoöpolis; a five-aisled, apsed basilica facing east and set in a cemetery is 60 metres (200 ft) long and 20 metres (66 ft) wide.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 671  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_Monastery_Sohag_Egypt_Sanctuary_North_apse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Red_Monastery_Sohag_Egypt_Sanctuary_North_apse.jpg/220px-Red_Monastery_Sohag_Egypt_Sanctuary_North_apse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Red_Monastery_Sohag_Egypt_Sanctuary_North_apse.jpg/330px-Red_Monastery_Sohag_Egypt_Sanctuary_North_apse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Red_Monastery_Sohag_Egypt_Sanctuary_North_apse.jpg/440px-Red_Monastery_Sohag_Egypt_Sanctuary_North_apse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption>North apse of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Monastery" title="Red Monastery">Red Monastery</a> of Sohag</figcaption></figure> In the late 4th century, monastic churches differed from the other churches by building rectangular sanctuaries – rather than semi-circular ones – at their east ends where the <a href="/wiki/Altar" title="Altar">altar</a> stood, and in place of the apse was an aedicula or niche embellished with an arch and columns in applied in plaster.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 671  In the 5th century, regional styles of monumental church basilica with pastaphoria emerged: on the coast of the Mediterranean and throughout the northern part of the country the churches were basilicas of three or five aisles, but in Middle Egypt and Upper Egypt the basilicas were often given a colonnade all the way around the structure, forming a continuous <a href="/wiki/Ambulatory" title="Ambulatory">ambulatory</a> by the addition of a transverse fourth aisle to the west of the other three.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 671–672  In eastern Egypt, the columns and colonnade were emphasized, and the sanctuary distinguished with a <a href="/wiki/Triumphal_arch" title="Triumphal arch">triumphal arch</a> in front of it.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 671–672  A transept plan was adopted only in urban environments like <a href="/wiki/Abu_Mena" title="Abu Mena">Abu Mena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marea_(ancient_city)" title="Marea (ancient city)">Marea</a> in the western Nile Delta.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 673  In the middle 5th century, the Great Basilica, one of the largest churches in Egypt, was built at Hermopolis Magna at the central crossroads of the city.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 673  Unusually, the three-aisled transept basilica had semicircular extensions on the north and south walls.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 673  At the Coptic <a href="/wiki/White_Monastery" title="White Monastery">White Monastery</a> at <a href="/wiki/Sohag" title="Sohag">Sohag</a>, the 5th-century church was built with a <a href="/wiki/Triconch" class="mw-redirect" title="Triconch">triconch</a> apse, an unusual design also found at Sohag's Dayr Anbā Bishoi; in the <a href="/wiki/Wadi_El_Natrun" title="Wadi El Natrun">Wadi El Natrun</a> at Dayr as-Suyrān; in the Dakhla Oasis in the Western Desert at Dayr Abū Mattā, and at Dendera.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 674  The tomb-chapel of the White Monastery's founder, <a href="/wiki/Shenoute" title="Shenoute">Shenoute</a>, was also built with this triconch plan and was the first instance of a monastic founder's tomb built in a monastery.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 673  Some of the White Monastery's limestone ashlars were spolia; the stones were likely taken from the pharaonic buildings at <a href="/wiki/Upper_Egyptian_Athribis" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Egyptian Athribis">Upper Egyptian Athribis</a> nearby.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 674  The main church's interior is a three-aisled basilica with an <a href="/wiki/Ambon_(liturgy)" title="Ambon (liturgy)">ambon</a> and seat, and the usual Egyptian western transverse aisle, but its exterior resembles an Egyptian temple, with <a href="/wiki/Cavetto_cornice" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavetto cornice">cavetto cornices</a> on the roof.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 674  Unusually for the Coptic churches, the White Monastery's church has two narthexes, perhaps to accommodate worshippers from outside the monastic community.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 674  The affiliated <a href="/wiki/Red_Monastery" title="Red Monastery">Red Monastery</a> nearby preserves the most extensive painted decoration from Late Antiquity anywhere and is probably representative of the period's Egyptian churches' interior decoration.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 674  Besides the main monumental basilica at Antinoöpolis, there were two other cruciform churches built there in the later 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 671  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperial_cult">Imperial cult</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Imperial cult">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Roman imperial cult</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egipto_Hadrianeum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Egipto_Hadrianeum.JPG/220px-Egipto_Hadrianeum.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Egipto_Hadrianeum.JPG/330px-Egipto_Hadrianeum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Egipto_Hadrianeum.JPG/440px-Egipto_Hadrianeum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="5184" /></a><figcaption>Possible personification of the province of Egypt from the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hadrian" title="Temple of Hadrian">Temple of Hadrian</a> in Rome (<a href="/wiki/National_Roman_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="National Roman Museum">National Roman Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> The worship of Egypt's rulers was interrupted entirely by the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a>, who together with their predecessor <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> had been worshipped with an Egypto-Hellenistic <a href="/wiki/Ruler_cult" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruler cult">ruler cult</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 98  After the Roman conquest of Egypt, Augustus instituted a new Roman imperial cult in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 98  Formally, the "Roman people" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: populus Romanus) were now collectively the ruler of Egypt; emperors were never crowned pharaoh in person in the traditional way, and there is no evidence that the emperors were systematically incorporated into the traditional pantheons worshipped by the traditional priesthoods.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 435  Instead, the image of Augustus was identified with <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> Eleutherios (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248666159">.mw-parser-output .tfd-dated{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .tfd-default{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);clear:both;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tfd-tiny{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .tfd-inline{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);text-align:center;position:relative}@media(min-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{clear:right;float:right;width:22em}}</style><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/2024_November_12#Template:Lang-grc-gre" title="Wikipedia:Templates for discussion/Log/2024 November 12">‹See Tfd›</a>Greek: Ἐλευθέριος, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> "liberator"), and modelled on the example of Alexander the Great, who was said to have "liberated" Egypt from the old pharaohs.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 435  Nevertheless, in 27 BC there was at Memphis, as was traditional, a high priest of Ptah appointed under Augustus's authority as the senior celebrant of the Egyptian ruler cult and referred to as a "priest of Caesar".<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 435  Augustus had been honoured with a cult in Egypt before his death, and there is evidence that Nero was worshipped while still living, as was Hadrian in particular.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 437  While alive however, the emperor was usually honoured with offerings to the various gods "for his health" (Latin: pro salute); usually, only after the emperor's death was he deified and worshipped as a god.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 437  A letter of Claudius written to the Alexandrians in 41 AD rejects the offer of a cult of himself, permitting only divine honours such as statues and reserving cult worship for the deified Augustus.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 438  For juridical purposes, the imperial oath recalling Ptolemaic precedent had to be sworn in the name or "fortune" (<a href="/wiki/Tyche" title="Tyche">tyche</a>) of the emperor: "I swear by Caesar Imperator, son of God, Zeus Eleutherios, Augustus".<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 437  The official cult was superintended by the <a href="/wiki/Archiereus" class="mw-redirect" title="Archiereus">archiereus</a> for Alexandria and All Egypt (ἀρχιερεὺς Ἀλεξανδρίας καὶ Αἰγύπτου πάσης, archiereùs Alexandrías kaì Aigyptou pásēs), who was procurator in charge of Egypt's temples and responsible for the worship of the imperial deities and of Serapis throughout the country.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 95, 98  As with the praefectus Aegypti, the archiereus of Alexandria and All Egypt was a Roman citizen and probably appointed from the <a href="/wiki/Equestrian_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Equestrian class">equestrian class</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 95  The official cult in Egypt differed from that in other provinces; the goddess <a href="/wiki/Roma_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma (mythology)">Roma</a>, closely associated with the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>, was not introduced by Augustus, since as an imperial province Egypt lay beyond the reach of the Senate's powers (<a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 98  The archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt was appointed by the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 95  The high priest's full title ("high priest of the gods Augusti and the Great Serapis and the one who is responsible for the temples of Egypt and the whole country") indicates that the cult of Serapis was closely connected with the worship of the emperors and that both were overseen by the same Roman official.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 94–95  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:New_Wing,_Vatican_Museums_(25497052238)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/New_Wing%2C_Vatican_Museums_%2825497052238%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-New_Wing%2C_Vatican_Museums_%2825497052238%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/New_Wing%2C_Vatican_Museums_%2825497052238%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-New_Wing%2C_Vatican_Museums_%2825497052238%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/New_Wing%2C_Vatican_Museums_%2825497052238%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-New_Wing%2C_Vatican_Museums_%2825497052238%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2247" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nilus_(mythology)" title="Nilus (mythology)">Nilus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Potamoi" title="Potamoi">river god</a> of Egypt's <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Cornucopia" title="Cornucopia">cornucopia</a>, wheatsheaf, <a href="/wiki/Sphinx" title="Sphinx">sphinx</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nile_crocodile" title="Nile crocodile">crocodile</a> (<a href="/wiki/Braccio_Nuovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Braccio Nuovo">Braccio Nuovo</a>). Sculpture from Rome's <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isis_and_Serapis" title="Temple of Isis and Serapis">Temple of Isis and Serapis</a>.</figcaption></figure> An archiereus existed in each of the nomoi; drawn from the local elite through the <a href="/wiki/Liturgy_(ancient_Greece)" title="Liturgy (ancient Greece)">liturgy</a> system, these high priests were responsible for the maintenance of the imperial temples and cults in their mētropoleis.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 98  These officials, in place since the mid-1st century AD at latest, was each known as the "high priest of the Lords Augusti and all the gods" (ἀρχιερεὺς τῶν κυρίων Σεβαστῶν καὶ θεῶν ἁπάντων, archiereùs tōn kuríōn Sebastōn kaì theōn apántōn) or the "high priest of the city" (ἀρχιερεὺς τῆς πόλεως, archiereùs tēs póleōs), and was responsible mainly for the organization of the imperial cult, since the traditional local cults already had their own priesthoods.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 92–93  Though imposed by the Roman state and overseen from the provincial capital, the imperial cult was locally organized, though direct imperial control is also attested for the cult at Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 98 <a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 438  Throughout Egypt, sacrificial <a href="/wiki/Altars" class="mw-redirect" title="Altars">altars</a> dedicated to the worship of the deified emperor Augustus (Koinē Greek: Σεβαστός, romanized: Sebastós, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'Venerable') were set up in dedicated temples (sebasteia or caesarea).<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 86, 98  Each sebasteion or caesareum had administrative functions as well as organizing the local cult of the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 86  Nevertheless, there is scant evidence that the worship of the emperors was common in private settings, and the Alexandrians were frequently hostile to the emperors themselves.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 98  The form of the imperial cult established in the reign of Augustus, which may have been largely focused on the deified first emperor himself, continued until the reign of Constantine the Great.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 437  The widow of the emperor Trajan, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Augustae" title="List of Augustae">augusta</a> <a href="/wiki/Plotina" class="mw-redirect" title="Plotina">Plotina</a>, was deified after her death by Hadrian.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  At Dendera, in a temple dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Aphrodite" title="Aphrodite">Aphrodite</a>, the late empress was identified with the Egyptian goddess <a href="/wiki/Hathor" title="Hathor">Hathor</a>, the first instance of a member of the imperial family – besides the emperor himself – being integrated into the Egyptian pantheon.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  Unlike the royal cult of the Ptolemaic dynasty, whose festivals were celebrated according to the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_calendar" title="Egyptian calendar">Egyptian calendar</a>, the imperial cult days, such as the emperors' birthdays (Koinē Greek: ἡμέραι σεβασταί, romanized: hēmérai sebastaí, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'venerable days'), fell according to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 438  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cult_of_Serapis_and_Isis">Cult of Serapis and Isis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cult of Serapis and Isis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Serapis_en_su_trono_(26865464995).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Serapis_en_su_trono_%2826865464995%29.jpg/220px-Serapis_en_su_trono_%2826865464995%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="381" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Serapis_en_su_trono_%2826865464995%29.jpg/330px-Serapis_en_su_trono_%2826865464995%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Serapis_en_su_trono_%2826865464995%29.jpg/440px-Serapis_en_su_trono_%2826865464995%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3468" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>Enthroned statue of the syncretic god <a href="/wiki/Serapis" title="Serapis">Serapis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Cerberus" title="Cerberus">Cerberus</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Pozzuoli" title="Pozzuoli">Pozzuoli</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Naples" title="National Archaeological Museum, Naples">National Archaeological Museum, Naples</a>)</figcaption></figure>Serapis was a <a href="/wiki/Syncretic" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncretic">syncretic</a> god of abundance and the afterlife which united Hellenistic and Egyptian features and which had been instituted by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 305/304–282 BC) at the beginning of the Ptolemaic period, possibly related to the cult of <a href="/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</a>-<a href="/wiki/Apis_(deity)" title="Apis (deity)">Apis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  Serapis assumed the role of Osiris in the Egyptian pantheon as god of the afterlife and regeneration, the husband of the fertility goddess Isis, and the father of the child Horus, known to the Hellenistic world as <a href="/wiki/Harpocrates" title="Harpocrates">Harpocrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  Emperors were sometimes depicted as Serapis, with their portraits bearing Serapis's distinguishing features, who, unlike most native Egyptian gods but in common with Osiris, was never depicted in animal or part-animal form.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  Caracalla took the title "Philosarapis" to indicate his devotion to the cult.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  Serapis was distinguished by his Greek-style clothes, long hair, and beard, as well as by his flat-topped crown, known as a <a href="/wiki/Calathus_(basket)" title="Calathus (basket)">calathus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  The <a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a>, a mystery cult developed outside Egypt and reimported to the country from Roman territories elsewhere, were increasingly celebrated, and Isis was the supreme female deity and creator-goddess in the pantheon, incorporating the Ptolemaic queen-worship tradition.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  As Isis lactans, 'suckling Isis', she was an image of motherhood, feeding her infant Harpocrates; as Isis myrionymos, 'the <a href="/wiki/Myriad" title="Myriad">myriad</a>-named', she was a goddess of magic and mysteries.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  In Roman Egypt, the cult was superintended by the archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 94–95  Temples of Serapis (<a href="/wiki/Serapeum" title="Serapeum">serapea</a>) were found throughout Egypt, with the oldest serapeum at <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis</a> and the greatest the <a href="/wiki/Serapeum_of_Alexandria" title="Serapeum of Alexandria">Serapeum of Alexandria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  The holy family of Serapis, Isis, and Harpocrates was worshipped throughout the empire; by the 4th century, the cult had become, behind Christianity, the most popular religion in the Roman world.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Temples">Temples</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Temples">edit</a>]</div> The imperially-appointed archiereus for Alexandria and All Egypt was responsible for the administrative management of the temples, beyond those of the imperial cult, dedicated to Graeco-Roman deities and the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian gods">ancient Egyptian gods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 95  He controlled access to the priesthoods of the Egyptian cults: the ritual <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a> of candidates was subject to his approval and he mediated disputes involving temples, wielding some judicial powers.<a href="#cite_note-:222-31">[29]</a>: 93  As sponsors of temple cults, emperors appeared in traditional pharaonic regalia on carved temple reliefs.<a href="#cite_note-:7-32">[30]</a>: 435  Similarly, Egyptian gods were sometimes shown wearing Roman military garb, particularly Anubis and Horus.<a href="#cite_note-:8-34">[32]</a>: 439  The history of Egyptian temples in Roman times can be studied particularly well in some settlements at the edges of the <a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Faiyum</a>: Archaeological evidence, along with lots of written sources on the daily life of the priests, are available from Bakchias, <a href="/wiki/Medinet_Madi" title="Medinet Madi">Narmouthis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soknopaiou_Nesos" title="Soknopaiou Nesos">Soknopaiou Nesos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tebtunis" title="Tebtunis">Tebtunis</a>, and Theadelphia. For instance, temples can be seen supporting each other by asking colleagues to assist when there was a shortage of staff, but also competing with each other for spheres of influence. When temples came into conflict with authorities, then mainly with lower administrative officials, who belonged to the local population themselves; the Roman procurators intervened in these conflicts, if at all, then in a moderating manner.<a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horus_horseman_Louvre_E4850.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Horus_horseman_Louvre_E4850.jpg/220px-Horus_horseman_Louvre_E4850.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Horus_horseman_Louvre_E4850.jpg/330px-Horus_horseman_Louvre_E4850.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Horus_horseman_Louvre_E4850.jpg/440px-Horus_horseman_Louvre_E4850.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5000" data-file-height="5000" /></a><figcaption>4th-century relief of the god <a href="/wiki/Horus" title="Horus">Horus</a> as a Roman cavalryman killing the crocodile, <a href="/wiki/Setekh" class="mw-redirect" title="Setekh">Setekh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Julio-Claudian emperors">Julio-Claudian emperors</a> Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero all sponsored religious monuments and institutions at Coptos and <a href="/wiki/Dendera_Temple_complex" title="Dendera Temple complex">Dendera</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  Tiberius is known to have patronized monuments at <a href="/wiki/Armant,_Egypt" title="Armant, Egypt">Armant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athribis" title="Athribis">Athribis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Debod" class="mw-redirect" title="Debod">Debod</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diospolis_Parva" class="mw-redirect" title="Diospolis Parva">Diospolis Parva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Edfu" title="Temple of Edfu">Edfu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Kom_Ombo" title="Temple of Kom Ombo">Kom Ombo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luxor" title="Luxor">Luxor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a> and at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Temple_of_Shenhur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Temple of Shenhur (page does not exist)">Temple of Shenhur</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  Claudius's patronage is recorded at Aswan, Athribis, <a href="/wiki/Esna" title="Esna">Esna</a>, Kom Ombo, and at Philae.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  Nero is recorded as having sponsored Egyptian elites at the <a href="/wiki/Dakhla_Oasis" title="Dakhla Oasis">Dakhla Oasis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Desert_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Desert (Egypt)">Western Desert</a>, and at <a href="/wiki/Karanis" title="Karanis">Karanis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akoris,_Egypt" title="Akoris, Egypt">Akoris</a>, as well as at Aswan and Kom Ombo.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  During the short reigns of <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a> and of the contestants in the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a> after the fall of Nero, images of both <a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a> and Galba were carved in reliefs at <a href="/wiki/Medinet_Habu_(temple)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medinet Habu (temple)">Medinet Habu</a>, a Pharaonic temple dating from the <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Eighteenth Dynasty">Eighteenth Dynasty</a>, but no monuments to <a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a> are known.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  The <a href="/wiki/Flavian_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavian emperors">Flavian emperors</a> Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian are all known to have been responsible for works at Esna.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  Both Vespasian and his older son Titus sponsored work at the Dakhla Oasis, with Vespasian also the sponsor of work at Medinet Habu.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  Vespasian and his younger son Domitian were both credited with patronage of works at Kom Ombo and <a href="/wiki/Gebel_el-Silsila" title="Gebel el-Silsila">Silsila</a>, and Domitian's sponsorship was also recorded at <a href="/wiki/Akhmim" title="Akhmim">Akhmim</a>, Armant, Dendera, and Philae.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  185 scenes in many temples show Domitian, concentrated in the oases and in Upper Egypt; his name was in some places removed as a result of his <a href="/wiki/Damnatio_memoriae" title="Damnatio memoriae">damnatio memoriae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[34]</a>: 413 <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:113KOM_EL_SHOQAFA_CATACOMBS_(anthropomorphic_Anubis_in_Roman_military_dress).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/113KOM_EL_SHOQAFA_CATACOMBS_%28anthropomorphic_Anubis_in_Roman_military_dress%29.jpg/220px-113KOM_EL_SHOQAFA_CATACOMBS_%28anthropomorphic_Anubis_in_Roman_military_dress%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/113KOM_EL_SHOQAFA_CATACOMBS_%28anthropomorphic_Anubis_in_Roman_military_dress%29.jpg/330px-113KOM_EL_SHOQAFA_CATACOMBS_%28anthropomorphic_Anubis_in_Roman_military_dress%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/113KOM_EL_SHOQAFA_CATACOMBS_%28anthropomorphic_Anubis_in_Roman_military_dress%29.jpg/440px-113KOM_EL_SHOQAFA_CATACOMBS_%28anthropomorphic_Anubis_in_Roman_military_dress%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1935" /></a><figcaption>2nd-century relief of Anubis as a Roman infantryman in the <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Kom_El_Shoqafa" title="Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa">Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa</a></figcaption></figure>After Domitian's assassination, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a>'s patronage of Egyptian temples is recorded only at Esna.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  Nerva's adoptive heir <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> continued to lend imperial sponsorship to Egyptian cults, with his patronage recorded at Dendera, Esna, <a href="/wiki/Gebelein" title="Gebelein">Gebelein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Kalabsha" title="Temple of Kalabsha">Kalabsha</a>, Kom Ombo, Medinet Habu, and Philae.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  During <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>'s tour of Egypt in 130–131, the emperor founded the new Hellenistic <a href="/wiki/Polis" title="Polis">polis</a> of Antinoöpolis at the point where <a href="/wiki/Antinous" title="Antinous">Antinous</a> drowned in the Nile and instituted a cult of Antinous as <a href="/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</a>, to whom a death by drowning was sacrosanct.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 15  Hadrian commissioned the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Barberini_obelisk&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Barberini obelisk (page does not exist)">Barberini obelisk</a> to commemorate his late lover's funeral rites, including the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Opening_of_the_mouth_ceremony" title="Opening of the mouth ceremony">opening of the mouth ceremony</a>; the obelisk was erected in Rome and the cult of Antinous was propagated throughout the provinces.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 15  Hadrian also sponsored building work at Philae, and both he and his successor <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> sponsored work at Armant, Dendera, and Esna.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 16  The reign of Antoninus Pius – also patron of building works at Coptos, <a href="/wiki/Medamud" title="Medamud">Medamud</a>, Medinet Habu, and <a href="/wiki/El-Tod" title="El-Tod">Tod</a> – saw the last substantial building work on Egyptian temples.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 16  After those of Antoninus Pius found at Medinet Habu, <a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Shelwit" title="Deir el-Shelwit">Deir el-Shelwit</a>, and Dendera, no further imperial cartouches are known from the regions of Thebes and the western oases.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[34]</a>: 413  From the reign of Marcus Aurelius, who is recorded as having rededicated an offering to Hathor originally made by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a>, the rate of new temple building and decoration slackened.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[34]</a>: 413  Commodus was recorded as Pharaonic sponsor of temples at Armant, Esna, Kom Ombo and Philae, the last emperor to be widely honoured in this way in surviving monuments; a general lack of resources and the political turbulence after Commodus's assassination was probably responsible.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 18  The name of his successor <a href="/wiki/Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 193) is recorded at the Temple of Tutu at <a href="/wiki/Kellis" title="Kellis">Kellis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a>: 182  After inscriptions of Commodus, Greek inscriptions are no longer found in the temples of the Faiyum.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[34]</a>: 413  It is possible that the reform of Septimius Severus at the turn of the 3rd century aggravated the decline of the Egyptian temples; the mētropoleis now given administrative control over the temples of their nomoi did not prioritize their upkeep.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[34]</a>: 413 <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Copper_alloy_statues.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Copper_alloy_statues.jpg/220px-Copper_alloy_statues.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Copper_alloy_statues.jpg/330px-Copper_alloy_statues.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Copper_alloy_statues.jpg/440px-Copper_alloy_statues.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3830" data-file-height="5745" /></a><figcaption>Copper-alloy statuettes of Egyptian gods Anubis (left) and Horus (centre) as Roman officers with <a href="/wiki/Contrapposto" title="Contrapposto">contrapposto</a> stances (<a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Athens" title="National Archaeological Museum, Athens">National Archaeological Museum, Athens</a>)</figcaption></figure> With a carved relief at Esna, Septimius Severus was commemorated, together with his son and co-augustus <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a>, his wife <a href="/wiki/Julia_Domna" title="Julia Domna">Julia Domna</a> the augusta, and their younger son <a href="/wiki/Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a>, on the occasion of the imperial tour of Egypt in 199–200.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 18  Caracalla's own titles are recorded at Philae, Ombos, in Middle Egypt, and in the Delta.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[34]</a>: 413  After he murdered his brother and co-augustus Geta, his image was removed from their father's monument relief at Esna as part of the damnatio memoriae imposed by Caracalla.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 19  Caracalla's successor was <a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a>, whose patronage is recorded only at Kom Ombo; evidence of his successor <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a> in Egypt has not survived, and neither is the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a> recorded.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 19  Monumental temple-building and decoration among the Egyptian cults ceased altogether in the early 3rd century.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[34]</a>: 413  After <a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip the Arab</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Cartouche" title="Cartouche">cartouche</a> was added to the temple wall at Esna, his successor <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a>'s cartouche was carved into it, the last known instance of this long-established practice of usurping pharaohs' erasure of their predecessors' dynastic legacy.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 21  Philip the Arab's reign saw the last Roman inscription found in the Temple of Kalabsha; at some time thereafter the site was abandoned by the Romans.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 22  At <a href="/wiki/Tahta" title="Tahta">Tahta</a> in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Egypt" title="Middle Egypt">Middle Egypt</a>, the cartouche of <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Daza" title="Maximinus Daza">Maximinus Daza</a> was added to a since-ruined temple, along with other additions; he is the last Roman emperor known to have been recorded in official hieroglyphic script.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 25–26  The last <a href="/wiki/Buchis_bull" class="mw-redirect" title="Buchis bull">Buchis bull</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hermonthis" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermonthis">Hermonthis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Armant,_Egypt" title="Armant, Egypt">Armant</a>) was born in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> and died in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a>; the cartouche on its funerary stela, dedicated in 340, is the last of all.<a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[34]</a>: 413 <a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 28  Under the <a href="/wiki/Theodosian_dynasty" title="Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian dynasty</a>, during the joint reigns of <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosius the Great">Theodosius the Great</a> and his sons <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a>, an inscription at Philae's Temple of <a href="/wiki/Harendotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Harendotes">Harendotes</a> commemorated the birthday of Osiris in the 110th <a href="/wiki/Anno_Diocletiani" class="mw-redirect" title="Anno Diocletiani">anno Diocletiani</a> (24 August 394), the latest hieroglyphic inscription to be dated securely.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 30 <a href="#cite_note-:6-36">[34]</a>: 413  Caligula allowed the worship of Egyptian gods in Rome, which had been formally forbidden since Augustus's reign.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 12  In Rome, and at Beneventum (<a href="/wiki/Benevento" title="Benevento">Benevento</a>), Domitian established new temples to the Egyptian gods Isis and Serapis.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  A general "<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt_in_the_Western_imagination" title="Ancient Egypt in the Western imagination">Egyptomania</a>" followed Hadrian's tour of the country, and <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Villa" title="Hadrian's Villa">Hadrian's Villa</a> at Tibur (<a href="/wiki/Tivoli,_Lazio" title="Tivoli, Lazio">Tivoli</a>) included an Egyptian-themed area known as the Canopus.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 16  Hadrian may have been advised on religious matters by Pancrates, a poet and priest of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 15  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coptic_Relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coptic_Relief.jpg/220px-Coptic_Relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coptic_Relief.jpg/330px-Coptic_Relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Coptic_Relief.jpg/440px-Coptic_Relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2194" data-file-height="1924" /></a><figcaption>5th-century Christian <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> (<a href="/wiki/Staatliche_Sammlung_f%C3%BCr_%C3%84gyptische_Kunst" title="Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst">Staatliche Sammlung für Ägyptische Kunst</a>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity">Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in Egypt">History of Christianity in Egypt</a></div> The authors of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> do not record any missions of the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">apostles</a> to Alexandria or any <a href="/wiki/Epistles" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistles">epistles</a> to the Egyptians, though Egyptian and Alexandrian Jews in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> are mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Acts">Book of Acts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 665 <a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 475–476  (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Acts#2:10" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Acts">Acts 2:10</a> and <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Acts#6:9" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Acts">6:9</a>.) An Alexandrian Jew, <a href="/wiki/Apollos" title="Apollos">Apollos</a>, is recorded in the Book of Acts as speaking in the synagogue at <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, and because of an interpolation to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Acts#18:24" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Acts">Acts 18:24</a> current by the 5th-century – e.g. in the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Bezae" title="Codex Bezae">Codex Bezae</a> – which suggested Apollos had been converted to Christianity in Egypt (<a href="/wiki/Biblical_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Greek language">Biblical Greek</a>: ἐν τῇ πατρίδι, romanized: en tēi patrídi, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'in his country'), Christianity's arrival has been dated to the 1st century, but there is no sure evidence of this, as Apollos may have been converted elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 475  The <a href="/wiki/Pseudepigraphical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudepigraphical">pseudepigraphical</a> <a href="/wiki/Secret_Gospel_of_Mark" title="Secret Gospel of Mark">Secret Gospel of Mark</a>, of dubious authenticity, is the first text to claim <a href="/wiki/Mark_the_Apostle" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark the Apostle">Mark the Apostle</a> visited Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 475  The 3rd-century <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Julius_Africanus" title="Sextus Julius Africanus">Sextus Julius Africanus</a>'s chronology was probably the source of the 4th-century bishop <a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusebius of Caesarea">Eusebius of Caesarea</a>'s narrative of Mark's arrival in Egypt, which conflicts with that of the Secret Gospel of Mark and is the earliest history of Alexandrian Christianity, including the names of the ten bishops who supposedly succeeded Mark before the late 2nd-century episcopate of <a href="/wiki/Julian_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian of Alexandria">Julian of Alexandria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 475  The drive to connect Alexandria with the lives of New Testament characters was part of a desire to establish continuity and <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">apostolic succession</a> with the churches supposed to have been founded by <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a> and the other apostles.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 475  Christianity probably arrived in Egypt among the Hellenized Alexandrian Jews, from Palestine's communities of Jewish Christians.<a href="#cite_note-:10-30">[28]</a>: 665  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P._Oxy._LX_4009.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/P._Oxy._LX_4009.jpg/220px-P._Oxy._LX_4009.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="464" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/P._Oxy._LX_4009.jpg/330px-P._Oxy._LX_4009.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/P._Oxy._LX_4009.jpg/440px-P._Oxy._LX_4009.jpg 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="1062" /></a><figcaption>A possible 2nd-century papyrus fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Peter" title="Gospel of Peter">Gospel of Peter</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus_Papyri" title="Oxyrhynchus Papyri">Oxyrhynchus Papyri</a> (P. Oxy. LX 4009, <a href="/wiki/Sackler_Library" class="mw-redirect" title="Sackler Library">Sackler Library</a>)</figcaption></figure> The earliest evidence of Christianity in Egypt is a letter written in the first half of the 3rd century and mentioning the gymnasiarch and the <a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">boulē</a> (thereby indicating the author and recipient were of the upper class) uses the Christian <a href="/wiki/Nomina_sacra" title="Nomina sacra">nomina sacra</a> and the Biblical Greek: ἐν κυρίῳ, romanized: en kyrίōi, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'in the Lord', drawn from the <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 480  Another papyrus from the same period records the names of candidates for liturgy service "supervision of the water-tower and fountains of the metropolis" of Arsinoë (<a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Faiyum</a>); among the names is one "Antonios Dioscoros son of Origen, Alexandrian", against whose name is noted in Koinē Greek: ἔστ(ι) ∆ιόσκορος χρηστιανός, romanized: ésti Dióskoros chrēstianós, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'he is the Dioscoros (who is a) Christian'.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 480  With Alexandrian citizenship and a Roman <a href="/wiki/Nomen_gentilicium" title="Nomen gentilicium">nomen</a>, Antonios (Latin: Antonius) was likely of higher social status than the other candidates on the list, and is the first named Egyptian Christian for which evidence exists.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 480  In the Chora beyond Alexandria, there is no evidence at all for Christianity in the 2nd century, excepting some ambiguous letters, besides some papyrus fragments of scriptures among the <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus_Papyri" title="Oxyrhynchus Papyri">Oxyrhynchus Papyri</a> and among the papyri found at <a href="/wiki/Antino%C3%B6polis" title="Antinoöpolis">Antinoöpolis</a> and Hipponon (Qarara) in the Heracleopolite nome around <a href="/wiki/Heracleopolis_Magna" title="Heracleopolis Magna">Heracleopolis Magna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 480  Many of these are in the form of <a href="/wiki/Codices" class="mw-redirect" title="Codices">codices</a> rather than scrolls, the codex being preferred by Christian scribes.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 478  Among the 2nd-century New Testament papyri are <a href="/wiki/Rylands_Library_Papyrus_P52" title="Rylands Library Papyrus P52">Rylands Library Papyrus P52</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_90" title="Papyrus 90">Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 3523</a> – fragments of the Gospel of John –, and <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_104" title="Papyrus 104">Oxyrhynchus Papyrus LXIV 4404</a> a fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_Matthew" title="Gospel of Matthew">Gospel of Matthew</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 478  It is not known whether these indicate a Christian presence outside the capital in the 2nd century, whether these papyri, dated subjectively by <a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">palaeography</a>, are as old as has been proposed, or whether they were in Egypt when newly made or arrived in later times as already old books.<a href="#cite_note-:11-38">[36]</a>: 478–479  <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Roman_Egypt" title="Special:EditPage/Roman Egypt">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Bishops often named their successors (e.g. Peter, his brother, by Athanasius in 373) or the succession was effected by imposing the hands of a deceased bishop on the one chosen to follow him. By 200 it is clear that Alexandria was one of the great Christian centres. The Christian <a href="/wiki/Apologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Apologist">apologists</a> <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> both lived part or all of their lives in that city, where they wrote, taught, and debated. With the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> in 313, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I_(emperor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I (emperor)">Constantine I</a> ended the persecution of Christians. Over the course of the 5th century, paganism was suppressed and lost its following, as the poet <a href="/wiki/Palladas" title="Palladas">Palladas</a> pointedly noted. It lingered underground for many decades: the final edict against paganism was issued in 435, but graffiti at <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a> in Upper Egypt proves worship of <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a> persisted at its temples into the 6th century. Many Egyptian Jews also became Christians, but many others refused to do so, leaving them as the only sizable religious minority in a Christian country. No sooner had the Egyptian Church achieved freedom and supremacy than it became subject to a <a href="/wiki/Schism_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Schism (religion)">schism</a> and prolonged conflict which at times descended into civil war. Alexandria became the centre of the first great split in the Christian world, between the <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arians</a>, named for the Alexandrian priest <a href="/wiki/Arius" title="Arius">Arius</a>, and their opponents, represented by <a href="/wiki/Athanasius" class="mw-redirect" title="Athanasius">Athanasius</a>, who became Archbishop of Alexandria in 326 after the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> rejected Arius's views. The Arian controversy caused years of riots and rebellions throughout most of the 4th century. In the course of one of these, the great <a href="/wiki/Serapeum#Destruction_of_the_Alexandrian_Serapeum" title="Serapeum">temple of Serapis</a>, the stronghold of paganism, was destroyed. Athanasius was alternately expelled from Alexandria and reinstated as its Archbishop between five and seven times.<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Philae_Temple_of_Isis_coptic_cross_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Philae_Temple_of_Isis_coptic_cross_1.JPG/220px-Philae_Temple_of_Isis_coptic_cross_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Philae_Temple_of_Isis_coptic_cross_1.JPG/330px-Philae_Temple_of_Isis_coptic_cross_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Philae_Temple_of_Isis_coptic_cross_1.JPG/440px-Philae_Temple_of_Isis_coptic_cross_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coptic_cross" title="Coptic cross">Coptic cross</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chi-rho" class="mw-redirect" title="Chi-rho">chi-rho</a> carved into older reliefs at the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isis_at_Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple of Isis at Philae">Temple of Isis at Philae</a></figcaption></figure> Patristic authorship was dominated by Egyptian contributions: Athanasius, Didymus the Blind and Cyril, and the power of the Alexandrian see embodied in Athanasius, Theophilus, his nephew, Cyril and shortly by Dioscuros. Egypt had an ancient tradition of religious speculation, enabling a variety of controversial religious views to thrive there. Not only did Arianism flourish, but other doctrines, such as <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a>, either native or imported, found many followers. Another religious development in Egypt was the <a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">monasticism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Desert_Fathers" title="Desert Fathers">Desert Fathers</a>, who renounced the material world in order to live a life of poverty in devotion to the Church. Egyptian Christians took up monasticism with such enthusiasm that the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a> had to restrict the number of men who could become monks. Egypt exported monasticism to the rest of the Christian world. Another development of this period was the development of <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a>, a form of the Ancient Egyptian language written with the Greek alphabet supplemented by several signs to represent sounds present in Egyptian which were not present in Greek. It was invented to ensure the correct pronunciation of magical words and names in pagan texts, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Greek_Magical_Papyri" title="Greek Magical Papyri">Greek Magical Papyri</a>. Coptic was soon adopted by early Christians to spread the word of the gospel to native Egyptians and it became the liturgical language of Egyptian Christianity and remains so to this day. Christianity eventually spread out west to the Berbers. The Coptic Church was established in Egypt. Since Christianity blended with local traditions, it never truly united the people against Arabian forces in the seventh and eight centuries.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Later on in the seventh and eighth centuries, Christianity spread out to Nubia.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Rome">fall of the Western Empire</a> in the 5th century further isolated the Egyptian Romans from Rome's culture and hastened the growth of Christianity. The success of Christianity led to a virtual abandonment of pharaonic traditions: with the disappearance of the Egyptian priests and priestesses who officiated at the temples, no-one could read the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">hieroglyphs</a> of Pharaonic Egypt, and its temples were converted to churches or abandoned to the desert. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Egitto,_epoca_romana_o_bizantina,_frammento_di_drappo_da_appendere_a_tema_cristiano,_lino_e_lana.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Egitto%2C_epoca_romana_o_bizantina%2C_frammento_di_drappo_da_appendere_a_tema_cristiano%2C_lino_e_lana.JPG/220px-Egitto%2C_epoca_romana_o_bizantina%2C_frammento_di_drappo_da_appendere_a_tema_cristiano%2C_lino_e_lana.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="444" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Egitto%2C_epoca_romana_o_bizantina%2C_frammento_di_drappo_da_appendere_a_tema_cristiano%2C_lino_e_lana.JPG/330px-Egitto%2C_epoca_romana_o_bizantina%2C_frammento_di_drappo_da_appendere_a_tema_cristiano%2C_lino_e_lana.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Egitto%2C_epoca_romana_o_bizantina%2C_frammento_di_drappo_da_appendere_a_tema_cristiano%2C_lino_e_lana.JPG/440px-Egitto%2C_epoca_romana_o_bizantina%2C_frammento_di_drappo_da_appendere_a_tema_cristiano%2C_lino_e_lana.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1460" data-file-height="2948" /></a><figcaption>Roman-era Christian-themed wool-and-linen Egyptian textile (<a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>)</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Alexandria" title="Patriarch of Alexandria">patriarch of Alexandria</a>, convinced the city's governor to expel the Jews from the city in 415 with the aid of the mob, in response to the Jews' alleged night-time massacre of many Christians. [<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The murder of the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a> in March 415 marked a dramatic turn in classical Hellenic culture in Egypt but philosophy thrived in sixth century Alexandria.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Another schism in the Church produced prolonged disturbances and may have alienated Egypt from the Empire. The countless <a href="/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a> finds mark the continuance of Greek culture and institutions at various levels. The new religious controversy was over the <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>'s human and divine nature. The issue was whether he had two natures, human and divine, or a combined one (<a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">hypostatic union</a> from his humanity and divinity). In an intensely religious age, it was enough to divide an empire. The <a href="/wiki/Miaphysite" class="mw-redirect" title="Miaphysite">Miaphysite</a> controversy arose after the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a> in 381 and continued until well after the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a> in 451, which ruled in favour of the position that Christ was "one person in two natures" as opposed to Monophysitism (a single nature). Monophysite belief was not held by the 'miaphysites' as they stated that Jesus was out of two natures in one nature called, the "Incarnate Logos of God". Many of the 'miaphysites' claimed that they were misunderstood, that there was really no difference between their position be the Chalcedonian position, and that the Council of Chalcedon ruled against them because of political motivations alone. The Church of Alexandria split from the Churches of Rome and Constantinople over this issue, creating what would become the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, which remains a major force in Egyptian religious life today.<a href="#cite_note-georgetown1-40">[38]</a> Egypt and Syria remained hotbeds of Miaphysite sentiment, and organised resistance to the Chalcedonian view was not suppressed until the 570s. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Roman_Egypt_(30_BC–4th_century)">Early Roman Egypt (30 BC–4th century)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early Roman Egypt (30 BC–4th century)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Roman_Egypt" title="Special:EditPage/Roman Egypt">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2021) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The province was established in 30 BC after Octavian (the future <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>) defeated his rival <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>, deposed Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a>, and annexed the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:354px;max-width:354px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Maps of Roman Egypt</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Africa.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Roman_Africa.JPG/350px-Roman_Africa.JPG" decoding="async" width="350" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Roman_Africa.JPG/525px-Roman_Africa.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Roman_Africa.JPG/700px-Roman_Africa.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3057" data-file-height="2439" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Northern Africa under Roman rule</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_125.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/350px-Roman_Empire_125.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/525px-Roman_Empire_125.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Roman_Empire_125.png/700px-Roman_Empire_125.png 2x" data-file-width="2186" data-file-height="1817" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The Roman Empire during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (117–138). Two <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legions</a> were deployed in the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial province">imperial province</a> of Aegyptus (Egypt) in the year 125.</div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_di_philae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Stele_di_philae.jpg/220px-Stele_di_philae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Stele_di_philae.jpg/330px-Stele_di_philae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Stele_di_philae.jpg/440px-Stele_di_philae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="726" /></a><figcaption>Trilingual stela of G. Cornelius Gallus from Philae (<a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Museum" title="Egyptian Museum">Egyptian Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> The first prefect of Aegyptus, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cornelius_Gallus" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaius Cornelius Gallus">Gaius Cornelius Gallus</a>, brought Upper Egypt under Roman control by force of arms, and established a <a href="/wiki/Protectorate" title="Protectorate">protectorate</a> over the southern frontier district, which had been abandoned by the later Ptolemies. The second prefect, <a href="/wiki/Aelius_Gallus" title="Aelius Gallus">Aelius Gallus</a>, made an unsuccessful expedition to conquer <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a> and even <a href="/wiki/Arabia_Felix" title="Arabia Felix">Arabia Felix</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> coast of Aegyptus was not brought under Roman control until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a>. The third prefect, <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Petronius" title="Gaius Petronius">Gaius Petronius</a>, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation, stimulating a revival of agriculture. Petronius even led a campaign into present-day central <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kingdom of Kush</a> at <a href="/wiki/Meroe" class="mw-redirect" title="Meroe">Meroe</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Kandake" title="Kandake">queen</a> <a href="/wiki/Amanirenas" title="Amanirenas">Imanarenat</a> had previously attacked Roman Egypt. Failing to acquire permanent gains, in 22 BC he razed the city of <a href="/wiki/Napata" title="Napata">Napata</a> to the ground and retreated to the north. The reigns of <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> were mainly peaceful in Egypt, with intermittent civil strife between Greeks and Jews in Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 12  According to the Latin historian <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germanicus" title="Germanicus">Germanicus</a> visited Egypt without the permission of Tiberius and caused a rift with his uncle, the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 12  Claudius refused Alexandrian demands for self-government under their own senate, and attempted to quell the unrest between Alexandrian Greek and Jews.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 12  Under Nero, perhaps influenced by <a href="/wiki/Chaeremon_of_Alexandria" title="Chaeremon of Alexandria">Chaeremon of Alexandria</a> – an Egyptian priest and the emperor's <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> tutor – an expedition to <a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a> was undertaken, though possible plans for an invasion of the southern kingdom was forestalled by the military demands of the <a href="/wiki/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War" title="First Jewish–Roman War">First Jewish–Roman War</a>, a revolt in <a href="/wiki/Judaea" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaea">Judaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  The first praefectus Aegypti of Alexandrian origin was <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Julius_Alexander" title="Tiberius Julius Alexander">Tiberius Julius Alexander</a>, who was governor through the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a> and who eventually proclaimed the general <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, victor in the Jewish War, emperor at Alexandria in July 69 AD.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  This prefect was himself of Hellenized Jewish descent and related to <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Philo of Alexandria">Philo of Alexandria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  The importance of the Egyptian grain harvest (Latin: claustra annonae, <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'key to the grain supply') to Rome helped Vespasian assert control over the whole empire.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  From the reign of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> onward, Aegyptus enjoyed an era of prosperity which lasted a century. Much trouble was caused by religious conflicts between the Greeks and the <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jews</a>, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, which after the destruction of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> in 70 became the world centre of Jewish religion and culture.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Vespasian was the first emperor since Augustus to appear in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13  At Alexandria he was hailed as pharaoh; recalling the welcome of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Oracle_of_Zeus-Ammon" class="mw-redirect" title="Oracle of Zeus-Ammon">Oracle of Zeus-Ammon</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Siwa_Oasis" title="Siwa Oasis">Siwa Oasis</a>, Vespasian was proclaimed the son of the creator-deity <a href="/wiki/Amun" title="Amun">Amun</a> (Zeus-Ammon), in the style of the ancient pharaohs, and an incarnation of Serapis in the manner of the Ptolemies.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 13–14  As Pharaonic precedent demanded, Vespasian demonstrated his divine election by the traditional methods of spitting on and trampling a blind and crippled man, thereby miraculously healing him.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  (This Egyptian tradition of healing is related to the <a href="/wiki/Healing_the_man_blind_from_birth" title="Healing the man blind from birth">healing the man blind from birth</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">miracles</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus of Nazareth">Jesus of Nazareth</a>.)<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  In 114, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 98–117), unrest among the Jews of Alexandria broke out after the coming of a <a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a> was announced at <a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  The uprising that year was defeated, but between 115 and 117 a revolt continued in the countryside in the absence of the armies away on <a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Parthian_campaign" title="Trajan's Parthian campaign">Trajan's Parthian campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14  This <a href="/wiki/Diaspora_Revolt" title="Diaspora Revolt">Diaspora Revolt</a> meant that the Greeks and the Egyptian peasants took up arms in the fight against the Jews, which culminated in their defeat and the effective destruction of the Alexandrian Jewish community, which did not recover until the 3rd century.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 14–15  The city of Oxyrhynchus, by contrast, celebrated their survival of the rebellion with annual festivals for at least eighty years.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 15  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="theader">Hadrian and Antinous (<a href="/wiki/Graeco-Roman_Museum" title="Graeco-Roman Museum">Graeco-Roman Museum</a>)</div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:171px;max-width:171px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:258px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_bust_of_the_Roman_Emperor_Hadrian_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bronze_bust_of_the_Roman_Emperor_Hadrian_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg/169px-Bronze_bust_of_the_Roman_Emperor_Hadrian_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bronze_bust_of_the_Roman_Emperor_Hadrian_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg/254px-Bronze_bust_of_the_Roman_Emperor_Hadrian_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Bronze_bust_of_the_Roman_Emperor_Hadrian_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg/338px-Bronze_bust_of_the_Roman_Emperor_Hadrian_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3616" data-file-height="5536" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Bronze portrait head of Hadrian</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:258px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Osiris-Antinous_in_marble_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Osiris-Antinous_in_marble_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg/165px-Osiris-Antinous_in_marble_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Osiris-Antinous_in_marble_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg/248px-Osiris-Antinous_in_marble_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Osiris-Antinous_in_marble_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg/330px-Osiris-Antinous_in_marble_2nd_century_CE_at_the_Greco-Roman_Museum_in_Alexandria_Egypt_AG.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2912" data-file-height="4544" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Marble statue of Osiris-Antinous</div></div></div></div></div> In the reign of Trajan's successor <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 117–138), an Egyptian revolt was instigated on the occasion of a new Apis bull's identification in 122; this rebellion was soon suppressed.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 15  Hadrian himself toured Egypt with his court for eight to ten months in 130–131, embarking on a Nile cruise, hunting lions in the desert, and making the dawn visit to the <a href="/wiki/Colossi_of_Memnon" title="Colossi of Memnon">Colossi of Memnon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 15  Hadrian founded the city of <a href="/wiki/Antino%C3%B6polis" title="Antinoöpolis">Antinoöpolis</a> where his lover <a href="/wiki/Antinous" title="Antinous">Antinous</a> drowned in the river; the polis joined the other three poleis as a city with Hellenic citizenship rights, and he commissioned the <a href="/wiki/Via_Hadriana" title="Via Hadriana">Via Hadriana</a>, connecting Antinoöpolis with <a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a>, on the Red Sea.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 15  In 139, at the start of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 138–161), the <a href="/wiki/Sothic_cycle" title="Sothic cycle">Sothic cycle</a> came to its end, meaning that for the first time in 1,460 years, the <a href="/wiki/Heliacal_rising" title="Heliacal rising">heliacal rising</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sirius" title="Sirius">Sirius</a> coincided with the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_calendar" title="Egyptian calendar">Egyptian calendar</a>'s New Year.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 16  The emperor's coinage commemorated the good fortune this was expected to portend with images of the millennial <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_(mythology)" title="Phoenix (mythology)">phoenix</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 16  At some time during his reign, Antoninus Pius visited Alexandria and had new gates and a new hippodrome built, but in 153, a riot in Alexandria killed the praefectus Aegypti.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 16  The destructive <a href="/wiki/Antonine_Plague" title="Antonine Plague">Antonine Plague</a> epidemic affected Egypt from 165 to 180; evidence of mass graves from that time has been discovered by archaeological excavation in the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Queens" title="Valley of the Queens">Valley of the Queens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 17  A revolt of the native <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptians">Egyptians</a> from 171 was suppressed only in 175, after much fighting.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 17  This "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Bucolic_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bucolic War (page does not exist)">Bucolic War</a>", named for the native "herdsmen" (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1248666159"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/2024_November_12#Template:Lang-grc-gre" title="Wikipedia:Templates for discussion/Log/2024 November 12">‹See Tfd›</a>Greek: Βουκόλοι, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek" title="Romanization of Greek">translit.</a> Boukóloi, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> "cattlemen") was led by one <a href="/wiki/Isidorus" title="Isidorus">Isidorus</a> and had defeated the Roman garrison of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 17  Control was re-established by <a href="/wiki/Avidius_Cassius" title="Avidius Cassius">Avidius Cassius</a>, the governor of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a> and son of an erstwhile praefectus Aegypti, who then declared himself emperor in 175, being acknowledged by his own armies and the Army of Egypt amid rumours that the emperor <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 161–180) was dead.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 17  On the emperor's approach, Cassius was deposed and killed after three months' rule, and the clemency of Marcus Aurelius restored peace as he visited Alexandria in 176.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 17  Marcus Aurelius's successor <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 176–192) overturned his adoptive father's pardon of Avidius Cassius's family by having them all murdered at the beginning of his reign.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 17  After Commodus's own murder, <a href="/wiki/Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a> was appointed emperor on 1 January 193, but this was only officially noticed in Egypt in early March, shortly before Pertinax's murder; news of this did not become known in parts of Egypt until late May.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 18  <a href="/wiki/Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 193–194), who had commanded a garrison at Aswan and the army in Syria, was recognized as the reigning emperor of Egypt by June 193, with Egypt ignoring the claims made in the brief reign of <a href="/wiki/Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a> at Rome.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 18  <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Upper_part_of_an_Egyptian_statue_of_Caracalla_as_a_pharaoh,_Alexandria_National_Museum,_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Upper_part_of_an_Egyptian_statue_of_Caracalla_as_a_pharaoh%2C_Alexandria_National_Museum%2C_Egypt.jpg/220px-Upper_part_of_an_Egyptian_statue_of_Caracalla_as_a_pharaoh%2C_Alexandria_National_Museum%2C_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="328" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Upper_part_of_an_Egyptian_statue_of_Caracalla_as_a_pharaoh%2C_Alexandria_National_Museum%2C_Egypt.jpg/330px-Upper_part_of_an_Egyptian_statue_of_Caracalla_as_a_pharaoh%2C_Alexandria_National_Museum%2C_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Upper_part_of_an_Egyptian_statue_of_Caracalla_as_a_pharaoh%2C_Alexandria_National_Museum%2C_Egypt.jpg/440px-Upper_part_of_an_Egyptian_statue_of_Caracalla_as_a_pharaoh%2C_Alexandria_National_Museum%2C_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2643" data-file-height="3946" /></a><figcaption>Granite statue of Caracalla wearing <a href="/wiki/Nemes" title="Nemes">nemes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uraeus" title="Uraeus">uraeus</a> cobra headdress (<a href="/wiki/Alexandria_National_Museum" title="Alexandria National Museum">Alexandria National Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure> Following Hadrian's route, Septimius Severus made a tour of Egypt in 199–200, visiting the <a href="/wiki/Colossi_of_Memnon" title="Colossi of Memnon">Colossi of Memnon</a> and ordering the statues repaired, which resulted in the natural "singing" phenomenon reported by visitors to the Colossi for centuries ceasing to be heard.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 18  A series of administrative reforms, probably intended to improve revenue collection, included a new <a href="/wiki/Boule_(ancient_Greece)" title="Boule (ancient Greece)">boulē</a> (a local council or senate) for Alexandria, and for the mētropolis of each nome, instituted in 200/201.<a href="#cite_note-:0-7">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 18  <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 198–217) granted <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a> to all Egyptians, in common with the other provincials, with the 212 <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">Constitutio Antoniniana</a>. As a consequence, many Egyptians adopted the emperor's <a href="/wiki/Nomen_gentilicium" title="Nomen gentilicium">nomen gentilicium</a>, "Aurelius" (after his imperial predecessor Marcus Aurelius) as their name according to <a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Roman naming conventions</a>, though citizenship's entitlements were less valuable than in past centuries and carried a tax burden.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 19  Caracalla murdered his brother and co-augustus Geta not long after their father's death, claiming self-defence and imposing a damnatio memoriae; this excuse and other defects of the emperor's character were mocked by the Alexandrians as he approached Egypt in 215, angering Caracalla.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 19  The emperor massacred Alexandria's welcoming delegation and allowed his army to sack the city; afterwards, he barred Egyptians from entering the place (except where for religious or trade reasons) and increased its security.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 19  <a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 217–218), having assassinated Caracalla, assumed power and dispatched a new praefectus Aegypti and, breaking precedent, a senator to govern Egypt. When the deaths of Macrinus and his co-augustus <a href="/wiki/Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 218) after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antioch_(218)" title="Battle of Antioch (218)">Battle of Antioch</a> were announced in Alexandria, the Alexandrians rose up, killed the senator, and forced out the prefect.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 20  The victor in the civil war was <a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 218–222), himself succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 218–222) after the former's murder, but even though Severus Alexander may have visited Alexandria, neither emperor is much recorded in Egyptian sources.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 20  After Decius died, <a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 251–253) was recognized as emperor; in 253 an embassy from <a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a> to the Romans is attested from a graffito carved at Philae.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 22  Both Trebonianus Gallus and <a href="/wiki/Aemilianus" title="Aemilianus">Aemilianus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 253) had coins issued in their names at Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 22  During the reigns of <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 253–260) and his son <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 253–268), the empire's instability was compounded by the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Valerianic_Persecution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Valerianic Persecution (page does not exist)">Valerianic Persecution</a> and the unprecedented total defeat and capture of Valerian by the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 240–270) at the 260 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Battle of Edessa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 22  After this humiliation, the army <a href="/wiki/Acclamatio" title="Acclamatio">acclaimed</a> the brothers <a href="/wiki/Quietus" title="Quietus">Quietus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macrianus_Minor" title="Macrianus Minor">Macrianus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 260–261) augusti; they were the acknowledged emperors in Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 22–23  When they were overthrown, the Alexandrians acclaimed <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Mussius_Aemilianus" title="Lucius Mussius Aemilianus">Lucius Mussius Aemilianus</a>, the praefectus Aegypti as their new emperor.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23  He enjoyed successes against the <a href="/wiki/Blemmyes" title="Blemmyes">Blemmyes</a> attacking the Thebaid, but by August 262 Alexandria was devastated and had lost two thirds of its inhabitants amid street fighting between the loyalists of Aemilianus and Gallienus; Aemilianus was defeated.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23  There was a series of revolts, both military and civilian, through the 3rd century. Under <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a>, in 250, the Christians again suffered from persecution, but their religion continued to spread. The prefect of Aegyptus in 260, <a href="/wiki/Mussius_Aemilianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Mussius Aemilianus">Mussius Aemilianus</a>, first supported the <a href="/wiki/Macriani_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macriani (disambiguation)">Macriani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallienus_usurpers" title="Gallienus usurpers">usurpers during the rule of Gallienus</a>, and later, in 261, became a <a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">usurper</a> himself, but was defeated by Gallienus. During the existence of the break-away <a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a>, Egypt came under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23  Under her control, the Palmyrene state went to war with Rome, holding Egypt against <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 270–275); his forces, led by his eventual successor <a href="/wiki/Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 276–282), captured Egypt by the end of 271.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23  In 272 however, both Alexandria and Palmyra were again in revolt, at the instigation of <a href="/wiki/Firmus" title="Firmus">Firmus</a>, an Alexandrian with connections to the Blemmyes.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23  Aurelian besieged Alexandria and Firmus killed himself.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23  The reign of Aurelian's successor <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Tacitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Claudius Tacitus">Marcus Claudius Tacitus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 275–276) left no known surviving mark on Egypt, and his brother <a href="/wiki/Florianus" title="Florianus">Florianus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 276) was overthrown by Probus with the support of the Army of Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23  The Blemmyes attacked Coptos and Ptolemais with incursions into Upper Egypt; Probus defeated them.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PikiWiki_Israel_44432_Zipori.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/PikiWiki_Israel_44432_Zipori.jpg/220px-PikiWiki_Israel_44432_Zipori.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/PikiWiki_Israel_44432_Zipori.jpg/330px-PikiWiki_Israel_44432_Zipori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/PikiWiki_Israel_44432_Zipori.jpg/440px-PikiWiki_Israel_44432_Zipori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_Pillar_(column)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompey's Pillar (column)">Pompey's Pillar</a>", a monument erected by <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 284–305) in the <a href="/wiki/Serapeum_of_Alexandria" title="Serapeum of Alexandria">Serapeum of Alexandria</a>, represented in a <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> from <a href="/wiki/Sepphoris" title="Sepphoris">Sepphoris</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Palestine" title="Roman Palestine">Roman Palestine</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_Roman_Egypt_(4th–7th_centuries)">Later Roman Egypt (4th–7th centuries)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Later Roman Egypt (4th–7th centuries)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Egypt" title="Diocese of Egypt">Diocese of Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustamnica" title="Augustamnica">Augustamnica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arcadia_Aegypti" title="Arcadia Aegypti">Arcadia Aegypti</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thebaid" title="Thebaid">Thebaid</a></div> Coptos revolted in 293 and was destroyed by the augustus <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">caesar</a> (junior co-emperor) and future successor, <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 293–311).<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24  Diocletian's reforms subdivided the empire into more numerous <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Roman province">late Roman provinces</a>; these were grouped into thirteen <a href="/wiki/Roman_dioceses" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman dioceses">Roman dioceses</a>, and these into four <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Praetorian prefectures">praetorian prefectures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23  The old province of Aegyptus was divided, with the <a href="/wiki/Thebaid" title="Thebaid">Thebaid</a> becoming its own province. Financial and tax reforms were implemented in Egypt in 297, and Egyptian currency was brought into line with the rest of the empire's monetary reforms.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 23–24  The role of the praefectus Aegypti was divided between a <a href="/wiki/Praeses" title="Praeses">praeses</a> – a civilian governor – and a military <a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">dux</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24  In 297, <a href="/wiki/Domitius_Domitianus" title="Domitius Domitianus">Domitius Domitianus</a> led a revolt and made himself emperor, assisted by <a href="/wiki/Achilleus_(Roman_usurper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achilleus (Roman usurper)">Achilleus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24  <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> captured Alexandria from them after an eight-month siege and "<a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_Pillar_(column)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompey's Pillar (column)">Pompey's Pillar</a>" was erected in his honour in the Serapeum of Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24  Diocletian then travelled through Egypt as far as <a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a>, where new gates were constructed for the occasion.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24  Diocletian is also known to have visited Panopolis in 298.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24  He ceded the <a href="/wiki/Dodekaschoinos" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodekaschoinos">Dodekaschoinos</a>, upstream of the <a href="/wiki/First_Cataract" class="mw-redirect" title="First Cataract">First Cataract</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lower_Nubia" title="Lower Nubia">Lower Nubia</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Noba" title="Noba">Noba</a> people, who were subsidized by the Romans to defend the frontier, now at Syene (Aswan), from attack by the Blemmyes.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24  Diocletian's second visit to Egypt, in 302, involved distributions of bread to the Alexandrians and actions taken against adherents of <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a>; the following year, Diocletian instituted the <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">Diocletianic Persecution</a> against Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24  The persecution was remembered as particularly intense under <a href="/w/index.php?title=Satrius_Arrianus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Satrius Arrianus (page does not exist)">Satrius Arrianus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sossianus_Hierocles" title="Sossianus Hierocles">Sossianus Hierocles</a>, the praefecti between 304 and 307 and in 310 respectively.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24  The <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Serdica" title="Edict of Serdica">Edict of Serdica</a> published by Galerius, the senior emperor in 311, ended the Diocletianic Persecution.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 24 <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_-_Pendant_with_Portrait_of_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_57526.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Roman_-_Pendant_with_Portrait_of_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_57526.jpg/220px-Roman_-_Pendant_with_Portrait_of_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_57526.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Roman_-_Pendant_with_Portrait_of_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_57526.jpg/330px-Roman_-_Pendant_with_Portrait_of_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_57526.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Roman_-_Pendant_with_Portrait_of_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_57526.jpg/440px-Roman_-_Pendant_with_Portrait_of_Alexander_the_Great_-_Walters_57526.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="1283" /></a><figcaption>4th-century pendant with portrait of Alexander the Great as Zeus-Ammon with <a href="/wiki/Repouss%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Repoussé">repoussé</a> border (<a href="/wiki/Walters_Art_Museum" title="Walters Art Museum">Walters Art Museum</a>)</figcaption></figure>In 313, having defeated their rivals, the co-augusti <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 308–324) and <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 306–337) issued their <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a>, giving Christianity official recognition among the Romans' other religions.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 26  The tax system was reformed, and new fifteen-year cycles (back-dated to 312) of <a href="/wiki/Indiction" title="Indiction">indictions</a> were instituted for revenue purposes.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 26  The former soldier <a href="/wiki/Pachomius_the_Great" title="Pachomius the Great">Pachomius the Great</a> was baptized into Christianity in 313.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 26  Constantine may have planned a visit to Egypt in 325, since preparations were made for an imperial reception at Oxyrhynchus, but these plans would have been forestalled by the convocation of the Christian <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 27  The <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a> united most of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a> promoted by the Egyptian bishop <a href="/wiki/Arius" title="Arius">Arius</a> and in favour of the doctrines of another Egyptian bishop, <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius of Alexandria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 27  In 330, the Christian monastic <a href="/wiki/Macarius_of_Egypt" title="Macarius of Egypt">Macarius of Egypt</a> established his monastery at <a href="/wiki/Scetis" class="mw-redirect" title="Scetis">Scetis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wadi_El_Natrun" title="Wadi El Natrun">Wadi El Natrun</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Nitrian_Desert" title="Nitrian Desert">Nitrian Desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 27  On 24 February 391, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosius the Great">Theodosius the Great</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 379–395), in the names of himself and his co-augusti (his brother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 375–392) and his own son <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 383–408)) banned sacrifices and worship at temples throughout the empire in a decree addressed to Rome's <a href="/wiki/Praefectus_urbi" title="Praefectus urbi">praefectus urbi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:9-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 29  On 16 June, writing to the praefectus augustalis and the comes Aegypti, Theodosius and his imperial colleagues reissued the ban on temple worship and sacrifices for Alexandria and Egypt specifically.<a href="#cite_note-:9-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 29  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg/220px-Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg/330px-Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg/440px-Alexandrian_World_Chronicle_-_6v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="843" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Folio" title="Folio">Folio</a> 6 <a href="/wiki/Verso" class="mw-redirect" title="Verso">verso</a> from the Golenischev papyrus of the <a href="/wiki/Alexandrian_World_Chronicle" title="Alexandrian World Chronicle">Alexandrian World Chronicle</a>, showing <a href="/wiki/Pope_Theophilus_I_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Theophilus I of Alexandria">Theophilus of Alexandria</a> standing triumphantly on top of the Serapeum with its bust of Serapis</figcaption></figure> Unrest was fomented against the pagan inhabitants by the bishop, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Theophilus_I_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Theophilus I of Alexandria">Theophilus of Alexandria</a>, who provoked riots by attempting to convert a temple into a church and staging the discovery of Christian relics.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 29  These were processed through the streets and the pagans were forced to take refuge in the <a href="/wiki/Serapeum_of_Alexandria" title="Serapeum of Alexandria">Serapeum</a>, with the philosopher Olympius at their head.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 29  The Christian mob loyal to Theophilus sacked the Serapeum, and ultimately it was rededicated as a church to <a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 29  The Serapeum of <a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abu_Qir" title="Abu Qir">Abu Qir</a>) was looted at the same time, becoming first a monastery and then a church dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_and_John" title="Cyrus and John">Cyrus and John</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 29  <a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Grammaticus" title="Ammonius Grammaticus">Ammonius Grammaticus</a> – a priest of Thoth – and the Alexandrian poet <a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a> both subsequently fled Egypt, for Constantinople and Rome respectively.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 30  Arcadius' son and successor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a>'s long reign (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 402–450) saw the unrest generated by the bishop <a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril of Alexandria</a>; he was opposed to the doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Nestorius" title="Nestorius">Nestorius</a>, bishop of Constantinople, in relation to the title Mother of God (<a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a>).<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 30  The faction of Cyril, aided by <a href="/wiki/Shenoute" title="Shenoute">Shenoute</a>, prevailed, and Nestorius, having been denounced at the 431 <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Council of Ephesus</a>, was banished in 435 to the <a href="/wiki/Kharga_Oasis" title="Kharga Oasis">Kharga Oasis</a> in the Western Desert.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 30  The see of Alexandria's bishop reached the zenith of its influence in 449, when under <a href="/wiki/Dioscorus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioscorus I">Dioscorus I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 444–454/458) it successfully defended the doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Eutyches" title="Eutyches">Eutyches</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Ephesus" title="Second Council of Ephesus">Second Council of Ephesus</a> against the positions of Dioscorus' rival bishops, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_I" title="Pope Leo I">Leo I</a> of Rome and <a href="/wiki/Flavian_of_Constantinople" title="Flavian of Constantinople">Flavian of Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 30  The Blemmyes continued to attack Roman Egypt, though they were romanticized by pagans for their resistance to the Christians. <a href="/wiki/Olympiodorus_of_Thebes" title="Olympiodorus of Thebes">Olympiodorus of Thebes</a> wrote a positive account of them after a visit in <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 425.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 31  In 451, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Marcian" title="Marcian">Marcian</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 450–457) arrived at a peace treaty with the Blemmyes which allowed them the use of the temple at Philae annually and permitted them to use (and return) the temples' cult statues for oracular purposes.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 31  Marcian however, convened the 451 <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a>, overturning the conclusions of the Second Council of Ephesus, condemning Dioscorus and sending him into exile.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 31  The resultant, and lasting, <a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">schism</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Church">Coptic Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">state church of the Roman Empire</a> dates from this time.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 31  <a href="/wiki/Proterius_of_Alexandria" title="Proterius of Alexandria">Proterius</a> was appointed bishop in Dioscorus' stead.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 32  When the Alexandrians heard of the accession of Marcian's successor <a href="/wiki/Leo_I_the_Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo I the Thracian">Leo I</a>, they tore apart the hated Proterius and replaced him with their own nomination, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Timothy_II_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Timothy II of Alexandria">Timothy II</a>, whose election was not recognized by either Leo or his successor and son-in-law <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 32  When Leo's brother-in-law <a href="/wiki/Basiliscus" title="Basiliscus">Basiliscus</a> seized Zeno's throne in 475, his <a href="/wiki/Monophysitism" title="Monophysitism">monophysitism</a> enabled a thaw in relations between Alexandria and the eastern imperial capital, but Zeno's recovery of Constantinople the following year resumed the hostility.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 32  Zeno's attempt to repair relations between Rome, Constantinople and Alexandria resulted in his own excommunication by the bishop of Rome, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Felix_III" title="Pope Felix III">Felix III</a>, and beginning the <a href="/wiki/Acacian_schism" title="Acacian schism">Acacian schism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 32  <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carmagnola_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carmagnola_1.jpg/220px-Carmagnola_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carmagnola_1.jpg/330px-Carmagnola_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Carmagnola_1.jpg/440px-Carmagnola_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Carmagnola_(Venice)" title="Carmagnola (Venice)">Carmagnola</a>, an Egyptian porphyry head on Venice's <a href="/wiki/St_Mark%27s_Basilica" title="St Mark's Basilica">St Mark's Basilica</a> thought to represent Justinian I<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a></figcaption></figure> The Sasanian Empire invaded the Nile Delta in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 491–518), though the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanian army">Sasanian army</a> retreated after they failed to capture Alexandria or make significant gains.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 32  In the early 6th century and in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Justin_I" title="Justin I">Justin I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 518–527), the Blemmyes again made attacks on Upper Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 32  Justin's successor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 527–565) and his wife, the augusta <a href="/wiki/Theodora_(wife_of_Justinian_I)" title="Theodora (wife of Justinian I)">Theodora</a>, both sought to convert the <a href="/wiki/Noba" title="Noba">Noba</a> to Christianity; envoys of Justinian promoted <a href="/wiki/Dyophysitism" title="Dyophysitism">dyophysitism</a> but the Noba were persuaded to adopt the monophysitism of the Coptic Church by emissaries of the empress.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 32  Newly converted, they assisted the Roman army in its conquest of the pagan Blemmyes, and the general <a href="/wiki/Narses" title="Narses">Narses</a> was in 543 sent to confiscate the cult statues of Philae (which were sent to Constantinople), close the temple, and suppress its priesthood by imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 32  In 577, during the retirement of Justinian's successor <a href="/wiki/Justin_II" title="Justin II">Justin II</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 565–574) and the start of <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_II_Constantine" title="Tiberius II Constantine">Tiberius II Constantine</a>'s reign (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 574–582), the defences at Philae had to be rebuilt to repel attacks by the Blemmyes.<a href="#cite_note-cambridge_ch1-33">[31]</a>: 33 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Roman_Egypt" title="Special:EditPage/Roman Egypt">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (December 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NE_565ad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/NE_565ad.jpg/450px-NE_565ad.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/NE_565ad.jpg/675px-NE_565ad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/NE_565ad.jpg/900px-NE_565ad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1477" data-file-height="973" /></a><figcaption>A map of the Near East in 565, showing Byzantine Egypt and its neighbors.</figcaption></figure>The reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> also saw the founding of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> as a new capital for the Roman Empire, and in the course of the 4th century, the Empire was divided in two, with Egypt finding itself in the Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople. Latin, never well established in Egypt, would play a declining role with Greek continuing to be the dominant language of government and scholarship. During the 5th and 6th centuries the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, known historiographically as the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, gradually transformed itself into a thoroughly Christian state whose culture differed significantly from its pagan past. The Eastern Empire became increasingly "oriental" in style as its links with the old Græco-Roman world faded. The Greek system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared. Offices, with new Greek-Byzantine names, were almost hereditary in the wealthy land-owning families. Alexandria, the second city of the empire, continued to be a centre of religious controversy and violence. Egypt nevertheless continued to be an important economic center for the Empire supplying much of its agriculture and manufacturing needs as well as continuing to be an important center of scholarship. It would supply the needs of the Byzantine Empire and the Mediterranean as a whole. The reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian</a> (527–565) saw the Empire recapture Rome and much of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italy</a> from the barbarians, but these successes left the empire's eastern flank exposed. The Empire's "<a href="/wiki/Breadbasket" title="Breadbasket">bread basket</a>" now lacked protection.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cr%C3%A1tera_en_alabastro_(HR)_(26772805492).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cr%C3%A1tera_en_alabastro_%28HR%29_%2826772805492%29.jpg/220px-Cr%C3%A1tera_en_alabastro_%28HR%29_%2826772805492%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cr%C3%A1tera_en_alabastro_%28HR%29_%2826772805492%29.jpg/330px-Cr%C3%A1tera_en_alabastro_%28HR%29_%2826772805492%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Cr%C3%A1tera_en_alabastro_%28HR%29_%2826772805492%29.jpg/440px-Cr%C3%A1tera_en_alabastro_%28HR%29_%2826772805492%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Augustan-era <a href="/wiki/Krater" title="Krater">krater</a> in Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Alabaster" title="Alabaster">alabaster</a>, found in a Roman necropolis at <a href="/wiki/San_Prisco" title="San Prisco">San Prisco</a> in 1897 (<a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Naples" title="National Archaeological Museum, Naples">National Archaeological Museum, Naples</a>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Episcopal_sees">Episcopal sees</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Episcopal sees">edit</a>]</div> Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Aegyptus Primus (I) listed in the <a href="/wiki/Annuario_Pontificio" title="Annuario Pontificio">Annuario Pontificio</a> as <a href="/wiki/Titular_see" title="Titular see">titular sees</a>,<a href="#cite_note-AP-44">[42]</a> suffragans of the Patriarchate of Alexandria are enumerated in the following. The list here, however, does not cover other provinces such as Augustamnica, Arcadia and Thebais. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnus_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Agnus (Egypt)">Agnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andropolis,_Egypt" title="Andropolis, Egypt">Andropolis</a> (Khirbita)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butus" class="mw-redirect" title="Butus">Butus</a> (near Desuq? Com-Casir?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleopatris" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatris">Cleopatris</a> (Seresna)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coprithis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Coprithis (page does not exist)">Coprithis</a> (Qabrit)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damanhur" title="Damanhur">Hermopolis Parva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letopolis" title="Letopolis">Letopolis</a> (Ausim)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phatanus" title="Phatanus">Phatanus</a> (El-Batanu, El-Batnu)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mariotes">Mariotes</a> (Lake Mariout)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Menelaite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Menelaite (page does not exist)">Menelaite</a> (Idku)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metelis" class="mw-redirect" title="Metelis">Metelis</a> (Fuwwah)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naucratis" title="Naucratis">Naucratis</a> (An Nuqrash)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicius" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicius">Nicius</a> (Zawyat Razin)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Onouphis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Onouphis (page does not exist)">Onouphis</a> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onouphis" class="extiw" title="de:Onouphis">de</a>] (Minuf)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petra_in_Aegypto" title="Petra in Aegypto">Petra in Aegypto</a> (Hagar-En-Nauatiyeh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sais,_Egypt" title="Sais, Egypt">Sais</a> (San Al Hajar)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Taua_(Egypt)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taua (Egypt) (page does not exist)">Taua</a> (Thaouah? near Ebiar?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terenuthis" class="mw-redirect" title="Terenuthis">Terenuthis</a> (Al Tarranah)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thois&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thois (page does not exist)">Thois</a> (Tideh)</li></ul></div> Ancient episcopal sees of the Roman province of Aegyptus Secundus (II) listed in the <a href="/wiki/Annuario_Pontificio" title="Annuario Pontificio">Annuario Pontificio</a> as <a href="/wiki/Titular_see" title="Titular see">titular sees</a> :<a href="#cite_note-AP-44">[42]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Busiris_(Lower_Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Busiris (Lower Egypt)">Busiris</a> (Abu-Sir)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabasa" title="Cabasa">Cabasa</a> (Chahbas-Esch-Choada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynopolis_in_Aegypto" class="mw-redirect" title="Cynopolis in Aegypto">Cynopolis in Aegypto</a> (Banâm Benâ)</li> <li>*<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tell_el-Balamun" class="extiw" title="de:Tell el-Balamun">Diospolis Inferior</a> (*Tell el-Balamun)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pachnemunis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pachnemunis (page does not exist)">Pachnemunis</a> (Kom el-Khanziri)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phragonis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phragonis (page does not exist)">Phragonis</a> (Tell-El-Faraïn, Côm-Faraïn)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Schedia">Schedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebennytus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebennytus">Sebennytus</a> (Sebennytos)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xois" class="mw-redirect" title="Xois">Xois</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sassanian_Persian_invasion_(619_AD)">Sassanian Persian invasion (619 AD)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Sassanian Persian invasion (619 AD)">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:626Byzantium.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/626Byzantium.JPG/450px-626Byzantium.JPG" decoding="async" width="450" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/626Byzantium.JPG/675px-626Byzantium.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/626Byzantium.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="370" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> in 629 after <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> had reconquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt from the <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Sasanian Egypt</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Sasanian conquest of Egypt">Sasanian conquest of Egypt</a>, beginning in AD 618 or 619, was one of the last <a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid</a> triumphs in the Roman-Persian Wars against <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Roman Empire</a>. From 619 to 628, <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">they incorporated Egypt once again within their territories</a>, the previous longer time being under the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Achaemenids</a>. <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> Parvêz had begun <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">this war</a> on the pretext of retaliation for the assassination of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> (582–602) and had achieved a series of early successes, culminating in the conquests of <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(614)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Jerusalem (614)">Jerusalem</a> (614) and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alexandria_(619)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Alexandria (619)">Alexandria</a> (619). A Byzantine counteroffensive launched by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> in the spring of 622 shifted the advantage, and the war was brought to an end by the fall of Khosrow on 25 February 628.<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> The Egyptians had no love of the emperor in Constantinople and put up little resistance. Khosrow's son and successor, <a href="/wiki/Kavadh_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Kavadh II">Kavadh II</a> Šêrôe (Šêrôy), who reigned until September, concluded a peace treaty returning territories conquered by the Sassanids to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>. The Sassanian conquest allowed <a href="/wiki/Miaphysitism" title="Miaphysitism">Miaphysitism</a> to resurface in the open in Egypt, and when imperial rule was restored by Emperor Heraclius in 629, the Miaphysites were persecuted and their patriarch expelled. Egypt was thus in a state of both religious and political alienation from the Empire when a new invader appeared. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_Islamic_conquest_(639–646_AD)">Arab Islamic conquest (639–646 AD)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Arab Islamic conquest (639–646 AD)">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Byzantiumby650AD.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/450px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/675px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Byzantiumby650AD.svg/900px-Byzantiumby650AD.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="879" /></a><figcaption>The Mediterranean world in 650, after the Arabs had conquered Egypt and Syria from the Byzantines.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a></div> An army of 4,000 <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Amr_Ibn_Al-Aas" class="mw-redirect" title="Amr Ibn Al-Aas">Amr Ibn Al-Aas</a> was sent by the <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar</a>, successor to <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, to spread Islamic rule to the west. Arabs crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639,<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> and advanced rapidly into the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a>. The Imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. The Arabs sent for reinforcements, and in April 641 they <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alexandria_(641)" title="Siege of Alexandria (641)">besieged and captured Alexandria</a>. The Byzantines assembled a fleet with the aim of recapturing Egypt, and won back <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a> in 645. The Muslims retook the city in 646, completing the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a>. 40,000 civilians were evacuated to Constantinople with the imperial fleet, thus ending 975 years of <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman">Greco-Roman</a> rule over Egypt. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mummy_Mask_of_a_Man,_early_1st_century_C.E.,72.57.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Mummy Mask of a Man, early 1st century AD, 72.57, Brooklyn Museum"><img alt="Mummy Mask of a Man, early 1st century AD, 72.57, Brooklyn Museum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mummy_Mask_of_a_Man%2C_early_1st_century_C.E.%2C72.57.jpg/93px-Mummy_Mask_of_a_Man%2C_early_1st_century_C.E.%2C72.57.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mummy_Mask_of_a_Man%2C_early_1st_century_C.E.%2C72.57.jpg/139px-Mummy_Mask_of_a_Man%2C_early_1st_century_C.E.%2C72.57.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mummy_Mask_of_a_Man%2C_early_1st_century_C.E.%2C72.57.jpg/186px-Mummy_Mask_of_a_Man%2C_early_1st_century_C.E.%2C72.57.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1188" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Mummy Mask of a Man, early 1st century AD, 72.57, <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Vaso_canopo_(26797992031).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Canopic jar from the 3rd or 4th century (National Archaeological Museum, Florence)"><img alt="Canopic jar from the 3rd or 4th century (National Archaeological Museum, Florence)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Vaso_canopo_%2826797992031%29.jpg/80px-Vaso_canopo_%2826797992031%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Vaso_canopo_%2826797992031%29.jpg/120px-Vaso_canopo_%2826797992031%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Vaso_canopo_%2826797992031%29.jpg/160px-Vaso_canopo_%2826797992031%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2334" data-file-height="3500" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Canopic_jar" title="Canopic jar">Canopic jar</a> from the 3rd or 4th century (<a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Florence" title="National Archaeological Museum, Florence">National Archaeological Museum, Florence</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:FuneraryMasksRomanEgypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Funerary masks uncovered in Faiyum, 1st century."><img alt="Funerary masks uncovered in Faiyum, 1st century." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/FuneraryMasksRomanEgypt.jpg/120px-FuneraryMasksRomanEgypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/FuneraryMasksRomanEgypt.jpg/180px-FuneraryMasksRomanEgypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/FuneraryMasksRomanEgypt.jpg/240px-FuneraryMasksRomanEgypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2404" data-file-height="1942" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Death_mask" title="Death mask">Funerary masks</a> uncovered in <a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Faiyum</a>, 1st century.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Egitto,_horus_imperatore,_II_sec_dc..JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="2nd-century statuette of Horus as Roman general (Louvre)"><img alt="2nd-century statuette of Horus as Roman general (Louvre)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Egitto%2C_horus_imperatore%2C_II_sec_dc..JPG/37px-Egitto%2C_horus_imperatore%2C_II_sec_dc..JPG" decoding="async" width="37" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Egitto%2C_horus_imperatore%2C_II_sec_dc..JPG/56px-Egitto%2C_horus_imperatore%2C_II_sec_dc..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Egitto%2C_horus_imperatore%2C_II_sec_dc..JPG/75px-Egitto%2C_horus_imperatore%2C_II_sec_dc..JPG 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="2868" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">2nd-century statuette of Horus as Roman general (<a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Egitto,_horus_legionario,_I_sec._ac-IV_dc_ca..JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="1st–4th-century statuette of Horus as a Roman soldier (Louvre)"><img alt="1st–4th-century statuette of Horus as a Roman soldier (Louvre)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Egitto%2C_horus_legionario%2C_I_sec._ac-IV_dc_ca..JPG/52px-Egitto%2C_horus_legionario%2C_I_sec._ac-IV_dc_ca..JPG" decoding="async" width="52" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Egitto%2C_horus_legionario%2C_I_sec._ac-IV_dc_ca..JPG/78px-Egitto%2C_horus_legionario%2C_I_sec._ac-IV_dc_ca..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Egitto%2C_horus_legionario%2C_I_sec._ac-IV_dc_ca..JPG/104px-Egitto%2C_horus_legionario%2C_I_sec._ac-IV_dc_ca..JPG 2x" data-file-width="1436" data-file-height="3320" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">1st–4th-century statuette of Horus as a Roman soldier (<a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Figure_of_Isis-Aphrodite_MET_DT6643.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite (Metropolitan Museum of Art)"><img alt="2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite (Metropolitan Museum of Art)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Figure_of_Isis-Aphrodite_MET_DT6643.jpg/71px-Figure_of_Isis-Aphrodite_MET_DT6643.jpg" decoding="async" width="71" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Figure_of_Isis-Aphrodite_MET_DT6643.jpg/107px-Figure_of_Isis-Aphrodite_MET_DT6643.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Figure_of_Isis-Aphrodite_MET_DT6643.jpg/143px-Figure_of_Isis-Aphrodite_MET_DT6643.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2218" data-file-height="3722" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite (<a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Basso_egitto,_iside-afrodite,_II_sec_dc_ca..JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite from Lower Egypt (Louvre)"><img alt="2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite from Lower Egypt (Louvre)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Basso_egitto%2C_iside-afrodite%2C_II_sec_dc_ca..JPG/50px-Basso_egitto%2C_iside-afrodite%2C_II_sec_dc_ca..JPG" decoding="async" width="50" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Basso_egitto%2C_iside-afrodite%2C_II_sec_dc_ca..JPG/75px-Basso_egitto%2C_iside-afrodite%2C_II_sec_dc_ca..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Basso_egitto%2C_iside-afrodite%2C_II_sec_dc_ca..JPG/101px-Basso_egitto%2C_iside-afrodite%2C_II_sec_dc_ca..JPG 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="2912" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">2nd-century statuette of Isis–Aphrodite from Lower Egypt (<a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Egitto,_iside_che_allatta_arpocrate,_I_sec_ac.-IV_dc_ca..JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="1st–4th-century statuette of Isis lactans (Louvre)"><img alt="1st–4th-century statuette of Isis lactans (Louvre)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Egitto%2C_iside_che_allatta_arpocrate%2C_I_sec_ac.-IV_dc_ca..JPG/69px-Egitto%2C_iside_che_allatta_arpocrate%2C_I_sec_ac.-IV_dc_ca..JPG" decoding="async" width="69" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Egitto%2C_iside_che_allatta_arpocrate%2C_I_sec_ac.-IV_dc_ca..JPG/103px-Egitto%2C_iside_che_allatta_arpocrate%2C_I_sec_ac.-IV_dc_ca..JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Egitto%2C_iside_che_allatta_arpocrate%2C_I_sec_ac.-IV_dc_ca..JPG/138px-Egitto%2C_iside_che_allatta_arpocrate%2C_I_sec_ac.-IV_dc_ca..JPG 2x" data-file-width="1560" data-file-height="2708" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">1st–4th-century statuette of Isis lactans (<a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Louvre</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Musee_Pio_Clementino-Isis_lactans.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Isis lactans: the mother goddess suckles Harpocrates (Pio-Clementino Museum)"><img alt="Isis lactans: the mother goddess suckles Harpocrates (Pio-Clementino Museum)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Musee_Pio_Clementino-Isis_lactans.jpg/73px-Musee_Pio_Clementino-Isis_lactans.jpg" decoding="async" width="73" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Musee_Pio_Clementino-Isis_lactans.jpg/109px-Musee_Pio_Clementino-Isis_lactans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Musee_Pio_Clementino-Isis_lactans.jpg/146px-Musee_Pio_Clementino-Isis_lactans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1747" data-file-height="2871" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Isis lactans: the mother goddess suckles <a href="/wiki/Harpocrates" title="Harpocrates">Harpocrates</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pio-Clementino_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pio-Clementino Museum">Pio-Clementino Museum</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Anubis,_Anzio,_Villa_Pamphili,_1st-2nd_century_AD,_Pario_marble_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Egizio_-_Vatican_Museums_-_DSC00818.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="1st/2nd-century Parian marble statue of Anubis (Gregorian Egyptian Museum)"><img alt="1st/2nd-century Parian marble statue of Anubis (Gregorian Egyptian Museum)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Anubis%2C_Anzio%2C_Villa_Pamphili%2C_1st-2nd_century_AD%2C_Pario_marble_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Egizio_-_Vatican_Museums_-_DSC00818.jpg/80px-Anubis%2C_Anzio%2C_Villa_Pamphili%2C_1st-2nd_century_AD%2C_Pario_marble_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Egizio_-_Vatican_Museums_-_DSC00818.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Anubis%2C_Anzio%2C_Villa_Pamphili%2C_1st-2nd_century_AD%2C_Pario_marble_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Egizio_-_Vatican_Museums_-_DSC00818.jpg/120px-Anubis%2C_Anzio%2C_Villa_Pamphili%2C_1st-2nd_century_AD%2C_Pario_marble_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Egizio_-_Vatican_Museums_-_DSC00818.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Anubis%2C_Anzio%2C_Villa_Pamphili%2C_1st-2nd_century_AD%2C_Pario_marble_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Egizio_-_Vatican_Museums_-_DSC00818.jpg/160px-Anubis%2C_Anzio%2C_Villa_Pamphili%2C_1st-2nd_century_AD%2C_Pario_marble_-_Museo_Gregoriano_Egizio_-_Vatican_Museums_-_DSC00818.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">1st/2nd-century <a href="/wiki/Parian_marble" title="Parian marble">Parian marble</a> statue of Anubis (<a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Egyptian_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregorian Egyptian Museum">Gregorian Egyptian Museum</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Berenike_Buddha_(drawing).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Berenike Buddha, discovered in Berenice, Egypt, 2nd century CE."><img alt="The Berenike Buddha, discovered in Berenice, Egypt, 2nd century CE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg/61px-Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="61" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg/92px-Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg/122px-Berenike_Buddha_%28drawing%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="839" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Berenike_Buddha" title="Berenike Buddha">Berenike Buddha</a>, discovered in <a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice</a>, Egypt, 2nd century CE.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Floor_mosaic_with_Anubis,_from_a_domus_in_Ariminum_(Rimini),_end_2nd_-_early_3rd_century,_Museo_della_Citt%C3%A0,_Rimini,_Italy_(19716812562).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="2nd/3rd-century mosaic of Anubis from Ariminum (Museo della Città, Rimini)"><img alt="2nd/3rd-century mosaic of Anubis from Ariminum (Museo della Città, Rimini)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Floor_mosaic_with_Anubis%2C_from_a_domus_in_Ariminum_%28Rimini%29%2C_end_2nd_-_early_3rd_century%2C_Museo_della_Citt%C3%A0%2C_Rimini%2C_Italy_%2819716812562%29.jpg/75px-Floor_mosaic_with_Anubis%2C_from_a_domus_in_Ariminum_%28Rimini%29%2C_end_2nd_-_early_3rd_century%2C_Museo_della_Citt%C3%A0%2C_Rimini%2C_Italy_%2819716812562%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Floor_mosaic_with_Anubis%2C_from_a_domus_in_Ariminum_%28Rimini%29%2C_end_2nd_-_early_3rd_century%2C_Museo_della_Citt%C3%A0%2C_Rimini%2C_Italy_%2819716812562%29.jpg/112px-Floor_mosaic_with_Anubis%2C_from_a_domus_in_Ariminum_%28Rimini%29%2C_end_2nd_-_early_3rd_century%2C_Museo_della_Citt%C3%A0%2C_Rimini%2C_Italy_%2819716812562%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Floor_mosaic_with_Anubis%2C_from_a_domus_in_Ariminum_%28Rimini%29%2C_end_2nd_-_early_3rd_century%2C_Museo_della_Citt%C3%A0%2C_Rimini%2C_Italy_%2819716812562%29.jpg/150px-Floor_mosaic_with_Anubis%2C_from_a_domus_in_Ariminum_%28Rimini%29%2C_end_2nd_-_early_3rd_century%2C_Museo_della_Citt%C3%A0%2C_Rimini%2C_Italy_%2819716812562%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3085" data-file-height="4928" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">2nd/3rd-century <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> of Anubis from <a href="/wiki/Ariminum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ariminum">Ariminum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Museo_della_Citt%C3%A0,_Rimini" title="Museo della Città, Rimini">Museo della Città, Rimini</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Luxor_Museum_Koptischer_Grabstein_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone grave stela (Luxor Museum)"><img alt="6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone grave stela (Luxor Museum)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Luxor_Museum_Koptischer_Grabstein_01.jpg/90px-Luxor_Museum_Koptischer_Grabstein_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Luxor_Museum_Koptischer_Grabstein_01.jpg/135px-Luxor_Museum_Koptischer_Grabstein_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Luxor_Museum_Koptischer_Grabstein_01.jpg/180px-Luxor_Museum_Koptischer_Grabstein_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3417" data-file-height="4555" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone grave <a href="/wiki/Stela" class="mw-redirect" title="Stela">stela</a> (<a href="/wiki/Luxor_Museum" title="Luxor Museum">Luxor Museum</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Luxor_Museum_Fr%C3%BChchristliche_Stele_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone stela (Luxor Museum)"><img alt="6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone stela (Luxor Museum)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Luxor_Museum_Fr%C3%BChchristliche_Stele_01.jpg/90px-Luxor_Museum_Fr%C3%BChchristliche_Stele_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Luxor_Museum_Fr%C3%BChchristliche_Stele_01.jpg/135px-Luxor_Museum_Fr%C3%BChchristliche_Stele_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Luxor_Museum_Fr%C3%BChchristliche_Stele_01.jpg/180px-Luxor_Museum_Fr%C3%BChchristliche_Stele_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3465" data-file-height="4609" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone <a href="/wiki/Stela" class="mw-redirect" title="Stela">stela</a> (<a href="/wiki/Luxor_Museum" title="Luxor Museum">Luxor Museum</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Luxor_Museum_Relief_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone relief (Luxor Museum)"><img alt="6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone relief (Luxor Museum)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Luxor_Museum_Relief_01.jpg/90px-Luxor_Museum_Relief_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Luxor_Museum_Relief_01.jpg/134px-Luxor_Museum_Relief_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Luxor_Museum_Relief_01.jpg/179px-Luxor_Museum_Relief_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2553" data-file-height="3414" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">6th- or 7th-century Christian sandstone <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> (<a href="/wiki/Luxor_Museum" title="Luxor Museum">Luxor Museum</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:As-Hadrian-Aegyptus-RIC_0839,As.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Hadrian coin celebrating Aegyptus Province, struck c. 135. In the obverse, Egypt is personified as a reclining woman holding the sistrum of Hathor. Her left elbow rests on a basket of grain, while an ibis stands on the column at her feet."><img alt="Hadrian coin celebrating Aegyptus Province, struck c. 135. In the obverse, Egypt is personified as a reclining woman holding the sistrum of Hathor. Her left elbow rests on a basket of grain, while an ibis stands on the column at her feet." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/As-Hadrian-Aegyptus-RIC_0839%2CAs.jpg/120px-As-Hadrian-Aegyptus-RIC_0839%2CAs.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/As-Hadrian-Aegyptus-RIC_0839%2CAs.jpg/180px-As-Hadrian-Aegyptus-RIC_0839%2CAs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/As-Hadrian-Aegyptus-RIC_0839%2CAs.jpg/240px-As-Hadrian-Aegyptus-RIC_0839%2CAs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="271" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a> coin celebrating Aegyptus Province, struck <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 135. In the obverse, Egypt is personified as a reclining woman holding the <a href="/wiki/Sistrum" title="Sistrum">sistrum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hathor" title="Hathor">Hathor</a>. Her left elbow rests on a basket of grain, while an <a href="/wiki/Ibis" title="Ibis">ibis</a> stands on the column at her feet.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Zenobia coin reporting her title as queen of Egypt (Augusta), and showing her diademed and draped bust on a crescent. The obverse shows a standing figure of Ivno Regina (Juno) holding a patera in her right hand and a sceptre in her left hand, with a peacock at her feet and a brilliant star on the left."><img alt="Zenobia coin reporting her title as queen of Egypt (Augusta), and showing her diademed and draped bust on a crescent. The obverse shows a standing figure of Ivno Regina (Juno) holding a patera in her right hand and a sceptre in her left hand, with a peacock at her feet and a brilliant star on the left." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg/120px-Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="63" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg/180px-Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg/240px-Denarius-Zenobia-s3290.jpg 2x" data-file-width="325" data-file-height="171" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a> coin reporting her title as queen of Egypt (<a href="/wiki/Augusta_(honorific)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusta (honorific)">Augusta</a>), and showing her diademed and draped bust on a crescent. The obverse shows a standing figure of Ivno Regina (<a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a>) holding a <a href="/wiki/Patera" title="Patera">patera</a> in her right hand and a sceptre in her left hand, with a peacock at her feet and a brilliant star on the left. </div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_pharaoh" title="Roman pharaoh">Roman pharaoh</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: Aegyptus <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Latin" title="Help:IPA/Latin">[ae̯ˈɡʏptʊs]</a>; <a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: Αἴγυπτος Aígyptos <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ɛ́ːɡyptos]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: μητρόπολις, romanized: mētropolis, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'mother city' </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-pop-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pop_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pop_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJanzen2017" class="citation web cs1">Janzen, Mark (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thetorah.com/ancient-egypt-population-estimates-slaves-and-citizens/">"Ancient Egypt Population Estimates: Slaves and Citizens"</a>. 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"Hellenic Culture in Egypt". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Egyptian_Archaeology" title="Journal of Egyptian Archaeology">Journal of Egyptian Archaeology</a>. 8 (3/4): 139–155 [p. 148]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3853691">10.2307/3853691</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3853691">3853691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Hellenic+Culture+in+Egypt&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=139-155+p.+148&rft.date=1922&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3853691&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3853691%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=Idris+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Bell, p.148 </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Lewis, p.141 </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherwin-White1973" class="citation book cs1">Sherwin-White, A. N. (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romancitizenship0000sher">The Roman Citizenship</a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romancitizenship0000sher/page/391">391</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814813-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814813-5"><bdi>978-0-19-814813-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Citizenship&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=391&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814813-5&rft.aulast=Sherwin-White&rft.aufirst=A.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromancitizenship0000sher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Roman_Oxyrhynchus,_p._84-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_Oxyrhynchus,_p._84_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_Oxyrhynchus,_p._84_20-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurner1952" class="citation journal cs1">Turner, E. G. (1952). "Roman Oxyrhynchus". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Egyptian_Archaeology" title="Journal of Egyptian Archaeology">Journal of Egyptian Archaeology</a>. 38: 78–93 [p. 84]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030751335203800110">10.1177/030751335203800110</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3855498">3855498</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220269251">220269251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=Roman+Oxyrhynchus&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=78-93+p.+84&rft.date=1952&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220269251%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3855498%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F030751335203800110&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=E.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_21-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelia1991" class="citation book cs1">Delia, Diana (1991). Alexandrian Citizenship During the Roman Principate. Atlanta: Scholars Press. pp. 30–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alexandrian+Citizenship+During+the+Roman+Principate&rft.place=Atlanta&rft.pages=30-31&rft.pub=Scholars+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Delia&rft.aufirst=Diana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Delia, pp.31–32 </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Delia, p.33 </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlouin2012" class="citation book cs1">Blouin, Katherine (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199571451-e-3">"Between Water and Sand: Agriculture and Husbandry"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Christina_Riggs" title="Christina Riggs">Riggs, Christina</a> (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt (online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199571451.013.0003">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.013.0003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199571451" title="Special:BookSources/9780199571451"><bdi>9780199571451</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2021-02-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Between+Water+and+Sand%3A+Agriculture+and+Husbandry&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Roman+Egypt&rft.edition=online&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199571451.013.0003&rft.isbn=9780199571451&rft.aulast=Blouin&rft.aufirst=Katherine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199571451.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199571451-e-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AHH326-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AHH326_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHH326_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AHH326_25-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniHarmatta1999" class="citation book cs1">Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Harmatta, János (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DguGWP0vGY8C&pg=PA326">History of Civilizations of Central Asia</a>. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 326. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1408-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1408-0"><bdi>978-81-208-1408-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia&rft.pages=326&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1408-0&rft.aulast=Dani&rft.aufirst=Ahmad+Hasan&rft.au=Harmatta%2C+J%C3%A1nos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDguGWP0vGY8C%26pg%3DPA326&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristiansen2004" class="citation book cs1">Christiansen, Erik (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VkVmAAAAMAAJ">Coinage in Roman Egypt: The Hoard Evidence</a>. Aarhus University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coinage+in+Roman+Egypt%3A+The+Hoard+Evidence&rft.pub=Aarhus+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Christiansen&rft.aufirst=Erik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVkVmAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coinarchives.com/a/lotviewer.php?LotID=134885&AucID=160&Lot=1146">Serapis coin</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-PAS-28"><a href="#cite_ref-PAS_28-0">^</a> "Trajan was, in fact, quite active in Egypt. Separate scenes of Domitian and Trajan making offerings to the gods appear on reliefs on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. There are cartouches of Domitian and Trajan on the column shafts of the Temple of Knum at Esna, and on the exterior a frieze text mentions Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStadterStockt2002" class="citation book cs1">Stadter, Philip A.; Stockt, L. Van der (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jJjiYdxHmPMC&pg=PA75">Sage and Emperor: Plutarch, Greek Intellectuals, and Roman Power in the Time of Trajan (98-117 A.D.)</a>. Leuven University Press. p. 75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-239-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5867-239-1"><bdi>978-90-5867-239-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sage+and+Emperor%3A+Plutarch%2C+Greek+Intellectuals%2C+and+Roman+Power+in+the+Time+of+Trajan+%2898-117+A.D.%29&rft.pages=75&rft.pub=Leuven+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-90-5867-239-1&rft.aulast=Stadter&rft.aufirst=Philip+A.&rft.au=Stockt%2C+L.+Van+der&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjJjiYdxHmPMC%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_29-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey2012" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, Donald M. (2012). "Classical Architecture". In <a href="/wiki/Christina_Riggs" title="Christina Riggs">Riggs, Christina</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199571451-e-13">The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt</a> (online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199571451.001.0001">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199571451" title="Special:BookSources/9780199571451"><bdi>9780199571451</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2021-01-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Classical+Architecture&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Roman+Egypt&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199571451.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780199571451&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199571451.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199571451-e-13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_30-18">s</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks_Hedstrom2019" class="citation cs2">Brooks Hedstrom, Darlene L. 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Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. pp. 52–58, 208–227. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-11485-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-11485-1"><bdi>978-3-447-11485-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gottesdiener+und+Kamelz%C3%BCchter%3A+Das+Alltags-+und+Sozialleben+der+Sobek-Priester+im+kaiserzeitlichen+Fayum&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=52-58%2C+208-227&rft.pub=Harrassowitz&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-3-447-11485-1&rft.aulast=Sippel&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_36-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVandorpeClarysse2019" class="citation cs2">Vandorpe, Katelijn; Clarysse, Willy (2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118428429.ch26">"Cults, Creeds, and Clergy in a Multicultural Context"</a>, in Vandorpe, Katelijn (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lirias.kuleuven.be/handle/123456789/637681">A Companion to Greco-Roman and Late Antique Egypt</a> (1st ed.), Wiley, pp. 405–427, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118428429.ch26">10.1002/9781118428429.ch26</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-42847-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-42847-4"><bdi>978-1-118-42847-4</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151245168">151245168</a>, retrieved 2021-01-31</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cults%2C+Creeds%2C+and+Clergy+in+a+Multicultural+Context&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Greco-Roman+and+Late+Antique+Egypt&rft.pages=405-427&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151245168%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118428429.ch26&rft.isbn=978-1-118-42847-4&rft.aulast=Vandorpe&rft.aufirst=Katelijn&rft.au=Clarysse%2C+Willy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2F9781118428429.ch26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaper2010" class="citation cs2">Kaper, Olaf E. (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004189591/Bej.9789004183353.i-508_010.xml">"9. Galba's Cartouches at Ain Birbiyeh"</a>, in Lembke, Katja; Minas-Nerpel, Martina; Pfeiffer, Stefan (eds.), Tradition and Transformation. Egypt under Roman Rule. Proceedings of the International Conference, Hildesheim, Roemer- and Pelizaeus-Museum, 3–6 July 2008, BRILL, pp. 181–201, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2Fej.9789004183353.i-508.38">10.1163/ej.9789004183353.i-508.38</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18335-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18335-3"><bdi>978-90-04-18335-3</bdi></a>, retrieved 2021-02-11</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=9.+Galba%27s+Cartouches+at+Ain+Birbiyeh&rft.btitle=Tradition+and+Transformation.+Egypt+under+Roman+Rule.+Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference%2C+Hildesheim%2C+Roemer-+and+Pelizaeus-Museum%2C+3%E2%80%936+July+2008&rft.pages=181-201&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2Fej.9789004183353.i-508.38&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18335-3&rft.aulast=Kaper&rft.aufirst=Olaf+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004189591%2FBej.9789004183353.i-508_010.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:11_38-11">l</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoat2012" class="citation book cs1">Choat, Malcolm (2012). "Christianity". In Riggs, Christina (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199571451-e-29">The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 475–490. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199571451.013.0029">10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199571451.013.0029</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christianity&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Roman+Egypt&rft.pages=475-490&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199571451.013.0029&rft.aulast=Choat&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foxfordhandbooks.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foxfordhb%2F9780199571451.001.0001%2Foxfordhb-9780199571451-e-29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Kevin Shillington, History of Africa </li> <li id="cite_note-georgetown1-40"><a href="#cite_ref-georgetown1_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111220145046/http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt">"Egypt"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Berkley_Center_for_Religion,_Peace,_and_World_Affairs" title="Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs">Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/egypt">the original</a> on 2011-12-20. Retrieved 2011-12-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Egypt&rft.pub=Berkley+Center+for+Religion%2C+Peace%2C+and+World+Affairs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fberkleycenter.georgetown.edu%2Fresources%2Fcountries%2Fegypt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire" </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGwynn2015" class="citation book cs1">Gwynn, David M. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oqeyBwAAQBAJ">Christianity in the Later Roman Empire: A Sourcebook</a>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-0626-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-0626-1"><bdi>978-1-4411-0626-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+the+Later+Roman+Empire%3A+A+Sourcebook&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-0626-1&rft.aulast=Gwynn&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoqeyBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowden1993" class="citation book cs1">Fowden, Garth (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5-JKsMTEUaQC">The Egyptian Hermes: A Historical Approach to the Late Pagan Mind</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02498-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02498-1"><bdi>978-0-691-02498-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Egyptian+Hermes%3A+A+Historical+Approach+to+the+Late+Pagan+Mind&rft.pages=183&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02498-1&rft.aulast=Fowden&rft.aufirst=Garth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5-JKsMTEUaQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuri_Marano2012" class="citation web cs1">Yuri Marano (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=826">"Discussion: Porphyry head of emperor ('Justinian'). From Constantinople (now in Venice). Early sixth century"</a>. Last Statues of Antiquity (LSA Database), University of Oxford.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Last+Statues+of+Antiquity+%28LSA+Database%29%2C+University+of+Oxford&rft.atitle=Discussion%3A+Porphyry+head+of+emperor+%28%27Justinian%27%29.+From+Constantinople+%28now+in+Venice%29.+Early+sixth+century.&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Yuri+Marano&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flaststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk%2Fdatabase%2Fdiscussion.php%3Fid%3D826&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-AP-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AP_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AP_44-1">b</a> Annuario Pontificio 2013 (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-209-9070-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-209-9070-1">978-88-209-9070-1</a>), "Sedi titolari", pp. 819-1013 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> Frye, pp. 167–70[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalter1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Kaegi" title="Walter Kaegi">Walter, Kaegi</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IvPVEb17uzkC&pg=PA67">Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521411721" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521411721"><bdi>978-0521411721</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+and+the+Early+Islamic+Conquests&rft.pages=67&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0521411721&rft.aulast=Walter&rft.aufirst=Kaegi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIvPVEb17uzkC%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngold2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Angold" title="Michael Angold">Angold, Michael</a> (2001). Byzantium: the bridge from antiquity to the Middle Ages. New York: <a href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Press" title="St. Martin's Press">St. Martin's Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-28429-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-28429-9"><bdi>978-0-312-28429-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium%3A+the+bridge+from+antiquity+to+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-312-28429-9&rft.aulast=Angold&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowman1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Bowman_(classicist)" title="Alan Bowman (classicist)">Bowman, Alan K.</a> (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vePG331dopIC">Egypt after the pharaohs: 332 BC-AD 642 ; from Alexander to the Arab conquest</a> (2. ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20531-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-20531-4"><bdi>978-0-520-20531-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+after+the+pharaohs%3A+332+BC-AD+642+%3B+from+Alexander+to+the+Arab+conquest&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif.&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-520-20531-4&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Alan+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvePG331dopIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowmanRathbone1992" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Bowman_(classicist)" title="Alan Bowman (classicist)">Bowman, Alan K.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dominic_Rathbone" title="Dominic Rathbone">Rathbone, Dominic</a> (November 1992). "Cities and Administration in Roman Egypt". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Roman_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Roman Studies">Journal of Roman Studies</a>. 82: 107–127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F301287">10.2307/301287</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0075-4358">0075-4358</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/301287">301287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Cities+and+Administration+in+Roman+Egypt&rft.volume=82&rft.pages=107-127&rft.date=1992-11&rft.issn=0075-4358&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F301287%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F301287&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=Alan+K.&rft.au=Rathbone%2C+Dominic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChauveau2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michel_Chauveau" title="Michel Chauveau">Chauveau, Michel</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a5U-8b-fVNgC">Egypt in the age of Cleopatra: history and society under the Ptolemies</a>. Cornell paperbacks. Translated by <a href="/wiki/David_Lorton" title="David Lorton">Lorton, David</a>. Ithaca ; London: <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8576-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8576-3"><bdi>978-0-8014-8576-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Egypt+in+the+age+of+Cleopatra%3A+history+and+society+under+the+Ptolemies&rft.place=Ithaca+%3B+London&rft.series=Cornell+paperbacks&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8576-3&rft.aulast=Chauveau&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da5U-8b-fVNgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Abbadi1964" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mostafa_El-Abbadi" title="Mostafa El-Abbadi">El-Abbadi, M. A. H.</a> (December 1964). "The Gerousia in Roman Egypt". <a href="/wiki/The_Journal_of_Egyptian_Archaeology" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology">The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology</a>. 50: 164–169. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3855750">10.2307/3855750</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0307-5133">0307-5133</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3855750">3855750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Egyptian+Archaeology&rft.atitle=The+Gerousia+in+Roman+Egypt&rft.volume=50&rft.pages=164-169&rft.date=1964-12&rft.issn=0307-5133&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3855750%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3855750&rft.aulast=El-Abbadi&rft.aufirst=M.+A.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis1992" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Simon (1992). Adams, Barbara G. (ed.). Graeco-Roman Egypt. Shire Egyptology. Princes Risborough: <a href="/wiki/Shire_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="Shire Publications">Shire Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0158-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0158-0"><bdi>978-0-7478-0158-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Graeco-Roman+Egypt&rft.place=Princes+Risborough&rft.series=Shire+Egyptology&rft.pub=Shire+Publications&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7478-0158-0&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html">Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu</a>. Translated by Hill, John E. (2nd ed.). September 2003.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annotated+Translation+of+the+Chapter+on+the+Western+Regions+according+to+the+Hou+Hanshu&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=2003-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Fhhshu%2Fhou_han_shu.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html">The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE</a>. Translated by Hill, John E. (Draft translation ed.). September 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Peoples+of+the+West+from+the+Weilue+%E9%AD%8F%E7%95%A5+by+Yu+Huan+%E9%AD%9A%E8%B1%A2%3A+A+Third+Century+Chinese+Account+Composed+between+239+and+265+CE&rft.edition=Draft+translation&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Fweilue%2Fweilue.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2023" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Paul V. (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tKuiEAAAQBAJ">The financial markets of Roman Egypt: risk and return</a>. Liverpool: <a href="/wiki/Liverpool_University_Press" title="Liverpool University Press">Liverpool University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-837-64718-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-837-64718-7"><bdi>978-1-837-64718-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+financial+markets+of+Roman+Egypt%3A+risk+and+return&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.pub=Liverpool+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-837-64718-7&rft.aulast=Kelly&rft.aufirst=Paul+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtKuiEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeacock2003" class="citation book cs1">Peacock, David (2003). "The Roman Period (30 BC–AD 311)". In <a href="/wiki/Ian_Shaw_(Egyptologist)" title="Ian Shaw (Egyptologist)">Shaw, Ian</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yugRDAAAQBAJ">The Oxford history of ancient Egypt</a> (New ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 422–445. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280458-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280458-7"><bdi>978-0-19-280458-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Roman+Period+%2830+BC%E2%80%93AD+311%29&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+history+of+ancient+Egypt&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=422-445&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-280458-7&rft.aulast=Peacock&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyugRDAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiggs2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christina_Riggs" title="Christina Riggs">Riggs, Christina</a>, ed. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZOLuaRusoCgC">The Oxford handbook of Roman Egypt</a>. Oxford handbooks in archaeology (1st ed.). Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957145-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957145-1"><bdi>978-0-19-957145-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+handbook+of+Roman+Egypt&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+handbooks+in+archaeology&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-19-957145-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZOLuaRusoCgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowlandson2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_Rowlandson" title="Jane Rowlandson">Rowlandson, Jane</a> (2002). Landowners and tenants in Roman Egypt: the social relations of agriculture in the Oxyrhynchite nome. Oxford classical monographs (Repr ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814735-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-814735-0"><bdi>978-0-19-814735-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landowners+and+tenants+in+Roman+Egypt%3A+the+social+relations+of+agriculture+in+the+Oxyrhynchite+nome&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Oxford+classical+monographs&rft.edition=Repr&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-814735-0&rft.aulast=Rowlandson&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowlandson1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jane_Rowlandson" title="Jane Rowlandson">Rowlandson, Jane</a>, ed. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-M9TnEYKXIC">Women and society in Greek and Roman Egypt: a sourcebook</a>. Cambridge, U.K. ; New York: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58212-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58212-4"><bdi>978-0-521-58212-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+society+in+Greek+and+Roman+Egypt%3A+a+sourcebook&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+U.K.+%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-521-58212-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8-M9TnEYKXIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSippel2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sippel, Benjamin (2020). Gottesdiener und Kamelzüchter: das Alltags- und Sozialleben der Sobek-Priester im kaiserzeitlichen Fayum. Philippika (in German). Wiesbaden: <a href="/wiki/Harrassowitz_Verlag" title="Harrassowitz Verlag">Harrassowitz Verlag</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-11485-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-11485-1"><bdi>978-3-447-11485-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224479323">1224479323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gottesdiener+und+Kamelz%C3%BCchter%3A+das+Alltags-+und+Sozialleben+der+Sobek-Priester+im+kaiserzeitlichen+Fayum&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.series=Philippika&rft.pub=Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1224479323&rft.isbn=978-3-447-11485-1&rft.aulast=Sippel&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Egypt&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_agriculture" title="Ancient Egyptian agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture" title="Ancient Egyptian architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Revival_architecture" title="Egyptian Revival architecture">Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_obelisks" title="List of Egyptian obelisks">Obelisks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pylon_(architecture)" title="Pylon (architecture)">Pylon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portraiture_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Portraiture in ancient Egypt">Portraiture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Urban planning in ancient Egypt">Cities</a> <ul><li><a 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href="/wiki/Category:Geography_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Category:Geography of ancient Egypt">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Royal_Wife" title="Great Royal Wife">Great Royal Wives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_royal_consorts" title="List of ancient Egyptian royal consorts">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_hieroglyphs" title="Cursive hieroglyphs">Cursive hieroglyphs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_literature" title="Ancient Egyptian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a 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template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_provinces_AD_117" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman provinces AD 117"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Provinces_of_the_early_Roman_Empire_(117_AD)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Roman_province#The_Roman_provinces_in_117" title="Roman province">Provinces of the early Roman Empire (117 AD)</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaia_(Roman_province)" title="Achaia (Roman province)">Achaia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Aegyptus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa proconsularis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Cottiae" title="Alpes Cottiae">Alpes Cottiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Maritimae" title="Alpes Maritimae">Alpes Maritimae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Graiae_et_Poeninae" title="Alpes Graiae et Poeninae">Alpes Graiae et Poeninae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia Petraea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Armenia" title="Roman Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria_(Roman_province)" title="Assyria (Roman province)">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bithynia_and_Pontus" title="Bithynia and Pontus">Bithynia and Pontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_(Roman_province)" title="Cappadocia (Roman province)">Cappadocia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_(Roman_province)" title="Cilicia (Roman province)">Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsica_and_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Corsica and Sardinia">Corsica and Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crete_and_Cyrenaica" title="Crete and Cyrenaica">Crete and Cyrenaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Cyprus" title="Roman Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Dacia" title="Roman Dacia">Dacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_(Roman_province)" title="Epirus (Roman province)">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia_(Roman_province)" title="Galatia (Roman province)">Galatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Aquitania" title="Gallia Aquitania">Gallia Aquitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Belgica" title="Gallia Belgica">Gallia Belgica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Lugdunensis" title="Gallia Lugdunensis">Gallia Lugdunensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania Inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_Superior" title="Germania Superior">Germania Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Baetica" title="Hispania Baetica">Hispania Baetica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">Hispania Lusitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis" title="Hispania Tarraconensis">Hispania Tarraconensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Italia</a> †</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Iudaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycia_et_Pamphylia" title="Lycia et Pamphylia">Lycia et Pamphylia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(Roman_province)" title="Macedonia (Roman province)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Mauretania Caesariensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Tingitana" title="Mauretania Tingitana">Mauretania Tingitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia Inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesia Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Inferior" title="Pannonia Inferior">Pannonia Inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Superior" title="Pannonia Superior">Pannonia Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thracia (Roman province)">Thracia</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:RomanEmpire_117.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, at the death of Trajan (117 AD)"><img alt="The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, at the death of Trajan (117 AD)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/150px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/225px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/RomanEmpire_117.svg/300px-RomanEmpire_117.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="376" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>† Italy was never constituted as a province, instead retaining a special juridical status until <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>'s reforms.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Late_Roman_and_early_Byzantine_provinces_(4th–7th_centuries_AD)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Late_Roman_and_Byzantine_provinces" title="Template:Late Roman and Byzantine provinces"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Late_Roman_and_Byzantine_provinces" title="Template talk:Late Roman and Byzantine provinces"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Late_Roman_and_Byzantine_provinces" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Late Roman and Byzantine provinces"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Late_Roman_and_early_Byzantine_provinces_(4th–7th_centuries_AD)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Late_Roman_provinces" title="List of Late Roman provinces">Late Roman and early Byzantine provinces</a> (4th–7th centuries AD)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">As found in the <a href="/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">Notitia Dignitatum</a>. Provincial administration reformed and <a href="/wiki/Roman_diocese" title="Roman diocese">dioceses</a> established by <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 293. Permanent <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">praetorian prefectures</a> established after the death of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">Ravenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Africa</a> established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Theme_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Theme system">theme system</a> in c. 640–660, although in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a> and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Western_Roman_Empire_(395–476)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> (395–476)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Gaul" title="Praetorian prefecture of Gaul">Praetorian prefecture of Gaul</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Gaul" title="Diocese of Gaul">Diocese of Gaul</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Poeninae_et_Graiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpes Poeninae et Graiae">Alpes Poeninae et Graiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgica_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgica Prima">Belgica I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgica_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Belgica Secunda">Belgica II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_Superior" title="Germania Superior">Germania I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_Inferior" title="Germania Inferior">Germania II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunensis_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugdunensis I">Lugdunensis I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunensis_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugdunensis II">Lugdunensis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunensis_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugdunensis III">Lugdunensis III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunensis_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugdunensis IV">Lugdunensis IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxima_Sequanorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxima Sequanorum">Maxima Sequanorum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Septem_Provinciae" title="Septem Provinciae">Diocese of Vienne</a>1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Maritimae" title="Alpes Maritimae">Alpes Maritimae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquitanica_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquitanica I">Aquitanica I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquitanica_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquitanica II">Aquitanica II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narbonensis_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Narbonensis I">Narbonensis I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narbonensis_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Narbonensis II">Narbonensis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novempopulania" title="Novempopulania">Novempopulania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viennensis" title="Viennensis">Viennensis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Spain">Diocese of Spain</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Baetica" title="Hispania Baetica">Baetica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Balearica" title="Hispania Balearica">Balearica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Carthaginensis" title="Hispania Carthaginensis">Carthaginensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitania" title="Lusitania">Lusitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Tingitana" title="Mauretania Tingitana">Mauretania Tingitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispania_Tarraconensis" title="Hispania Tarraconensis">Tarraconensis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_Britains" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of the Britains">Diocese of the Britains</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Prima" title="Britannia Prima">Britannia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britannia_Secunda" title="Britannia Secunda">Britannia II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Caesariensis" title="Flavia Caesariensis">Flavia Caesariensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxima_Caesariensis" title="Maxima Caesariensis">Maxima Caesariensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentia_(Roman_Britain)" title="Valentia (Roman Britain)">Valentia (?)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Italy" title="Praetorian prefecture of Italy">Praetorian prefecture of Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Suburbicarian_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy">Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Apulia_and_Calabria" title="Province of Apulia and Calabria">Apulia et Calabria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campania_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Campania (Roman province)">Campania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucania_et_Bruttium" title="Lucania et Bruttium">Lucania et Bruttium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picenum" title="Picenum">Picenum Suburbicarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnium" title="Samnium">Samnium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilia_(Roman_province)" title="Sicilia (Roman province)">Sicilia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tuscia_et_Umbria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuscia et Umbria (page does not exist)">Tuscia et Umbria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Valeria_Suburbicaria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Valeria Suburbicaria (page does not exist)">Valeria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Annonarian_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Annonarian Italy">Diocese of Annonarian Italy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpes_Cottiae" title="Alpes Cottiae">Alpes Cottiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flaminia_et_Picenum_Annonarium" class="mw-redirect" title="Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium">Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liguria_(Roman_province)" title="Liguria (Roman province)">Liguria</a> et <a href="/wiki/Aemilia_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aemilia (Roman province)">Aemilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetia_Prima" title="Raetia Prima">Raetia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Raetia Secunda">Raetia II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetia_et_Histria" title="Venetia et Histria">Venetia et Histria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Africa" title="Diocese of Africa">Diocese of Africa</a>2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzacena" title="Byzacena">Byzacena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Caesariensis" title="Mauretania Caesariensis">Mauretania Caesariensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mauretania_Sitifensis" title="Mauretania Sitifensis">Mauretania Sitifensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numidia_(Roman_province)" title="Numidia (Roman province)">Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripolitania_(Roman_province)" title="Tripolitania (Roman province)">Tripolitania (Roman province)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Eastern_Roman_Empire_(395–c._640)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a> (395–c. 640)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Illyricum" title="Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum">Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Pannonia" title="Diocese of Pannonia">Diocese of Pannonia</a>3</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dalmatia_(Roman_province)" title="Dalmatia (Roman province)">Dalmatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum_mediterraneum" class="mw-redirect" title="Noricum mediterraneum">Noricum mediterraneum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum_ripense" class="mw-redirect" title="Noricum ripense">Noricum ripense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Prima" title="Pannonia Prima">Pannonia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Secunda" title="Pannonia Secunda">Pannonia II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pannonia_Savia" title="Pannonia Savia">Savia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valeria_ripensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Valeria ripensis">Valeria ripensis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Dacia" title="Diocese of Dacia">Diocese of Dacia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacia_Mediterranea" title="Dacia Mediterranea">Dacia Mediterranea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacia_Ripensis" title="Dacia Ripensis">Dacia Ripensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dardania_(Roman_province)" title="Dardania (Roman province)">Dardania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesia_Prima" title="Moesia Prima">Moesia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praevalitana" title="Praevalitana">Praevalitana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Macedonia" title="Diocese of Macedonia">Diocese of Macedonia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaea (Roman province)">Achaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Crete" title="Byzantine Crete">Creta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_Nova" class="mw-redirect" title="Epirus Nova">Epirus Nova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epirus_Vetus" class="mw-redirect" title="Epirus Vetus">Epirus Vetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonia Prima">Macedonia Prima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonia Secunda">Macedonia II Salutaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thessalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Thessalia">Thessalia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_the_East" title="Praetorian prefecture of the East">Praetorian prefecture of the East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Thrace" title="Diocese of Thrace">Diocese of Thrace</a>5</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europa_(Roman_province)" title="Europa (Roman province)">Europa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haemimontus" title="Haemimontus">Haemimontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moesia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Moesia Secunda">Moesia II</a>4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhodope_(province)" title="Rhodope (province)">Rhodope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythia_Minor" title="Scythia Minor">Scythia</a>4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracia" title="Thracia">Thracia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Asia" title="Diocese of Asia">Diocese of Asia</a>5</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caria" title="Caria">Caria</a>4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellespontus_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellespontus (province)">Hellespontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islands_(Roman_province)" title="Islands (Roman province)">Islands</a>4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycaonia" title="Lycaonia">Lycaonia (370)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pamphylia" title="Pamphylia">Pamphylia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisidia" title="Pisidia">Pisidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygia_Pacatiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrygia Pacatiana">Phrygia Pacatiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygia_Salutaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrygia Salutaris">Phrygia Salutaris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Pontus" title="Diocese of Pontus">Diocese of Pontus</a>5</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenia_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenia Prima">Armenia I</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenia Secunda">Armenia II</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia_Maior" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenia Maior">Armenia Maior</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Satrapies" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenian Satrapies">Armenian Satrapies</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenia III">Armenia III (536)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenia_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Armenia IV">Armenia IV (536)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bithynia" title="Bithynia">Bithynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Cappadocia Prima">Cappadocia I</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cappadocia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Cappadocia Secunda">Cappadocia II</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Galatia Prima">Galatia I</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Galatia Secunda">Galatia II Salutaris</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helenopontus" class="mw-redirect" title="Helenopontus">Helenopontus</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorias" title="Honorias">Honorias</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paphlagonia" title="Paphlagonia">Paphlagonia</a>5</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontus_Polemoniacus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontus Polemoniacus">Pontus Polemoniacus</a>5</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East" title="Diocese of the East">Diocese of the East</a>5</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabia_Petraea" title="Arabia Petraea">Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilicia Prima">Cilicia I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilicia_Secunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilicia Secunda">Cilicia II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Cyprus" title="Roman Cyprus">Cyprus</a>4</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphratensis" title="Euphratensis">Euphratensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isauria" title="Isauria">Isauria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroene_(Roman_province)" title="Osroene (Roman province)">Osroene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_III_Salutaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaestina III Salutaris">Palaestina III Salutaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenice_Prima" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenice Prima">Phoenice I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenice_II_Libanensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenice II Libanensis">Phoenice II Libanensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_Prima" title="Syria Prima">Syria I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_II_Salutaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria II Salutaris">Syria II Salutaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorias_(province)" title="Theodorias (province)">Theodorias (528)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Egypt" title="Diocese of Egypt">Diocese of Egypt</a>5</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegyptus I">Aegyptus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aegyptus_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Aegyptus II">Aegyptus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcadia_Aegypti" title="Arcadia Aegypti">Arcadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustamnica_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustamnica I">Augustamnica I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustamnica_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustamnica II">Augustamnica II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_Superior" class="mw-redirect" title="Libya Superior">Libya Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_Inferior" class="mw-redirect" title="Libya Inferior">Libya Inferior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebais_Superior" class="mw-redirect" title="Thebais Superior">Thebais Superior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebais_Inferior" class="mw-redirect" title="Thebais Inferior">Thebais Inferior</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other_territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taurica" class="mw-redirect" title="Taurica">Taurica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestura_exercitus" title="Quaestura exercitus">Quaestura exercitus (536)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spania" title="Spania">Spania (552)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div> <ul><li>1 Later the <a href="/wiki/Septem_Provinciae" title="Septem Provinciae">Septem Provinciae</a></li> <li>2 Re-established after <a href="/wiki/Vandalic_War" title="Vandalic War">reconquest</a> by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture_of_Africa" title="Praetorian prefecture of Africa">Prefecture of Africa</a></li> <li>3 Later the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Illyricum" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Illyricum">Diocese of Illyricum</a></li> <li>4 Placed under the <a href="/wiki/Quaestura_exercitus" title="Quaestura exercitus">Quaestura exercitus</a> in 536</li> <li>5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>'s administrative reorganization in 534–536</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Egypt_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Egypt_topics" title="Template:Egypt topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Egypt_topics" title="Template talk:Egypt topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Egypt_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Egypt topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Egypt_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Egypt" title="List of years in Egypt">Chronology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">Ancient</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Egypt_topics" title="Template:Ancient Egypt topics">topics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">27th Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">31st Dynasty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Battle of Actium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Lighthouse of Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Egypt" title="Diocese of Egypt">Diocese of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Christian_Egypt">Christian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Sassanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Muslim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fustat" title="Fustat">Fustat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Egypt" title="Islamization of Egypt">Islamization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_invasions_of_Egypt" title="Crusader invasions of Egypt">Crusader invasions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk Sultanate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali%27s_seizure_of_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Ali's seizure of power">Khedivate and Kingdom of Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_Muhammad_Ali_dynasty" title="History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty">Muhammad Ali dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khedivate_of_Egypt" title="Khedivate of Egypt">Khedivate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Ethiopian_War" title="Egyptian–Ethiopian War">Egyptian–Ethiopian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urabi_revolt" title="Urabi revolt">Urabi revolt</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_modern_Egypt" title="History of modern Egypt">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">French occupation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_Cairo" title="Revolt of Cairo">Revolt of Cairo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British" title="History of Egypt under the British">British occupation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution" title="1919 Egyptian revolution">1919 revolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Egypt" title="Sultanate of Egypt">Sultanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_World_War_II" title="Egypt in World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_republican_Egypt" title="History of republican Egypt">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="History of Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reform_in_Egypt" title="Land reform in Egypt">Land reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Anwar_Sadat" title="History of Egypt under Anwar Sadat">Sadat era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Libyan_War" title="Egyptian–Libyan War">Egyptian–Libyan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Anwar_Sadat" title="Assassination of Anwar Sadat">Assassination of Anwar Sadat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_Hosni_Mubarak" title="History of Egypt under Hosni Mubarak">Mubarak era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Crisis_(2011%E2%80%932014)" title="Egyptian Crisis (2011–2014)">2010s Crisis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2011_Egyptian_revolution" title="2011 Egyptian revolution">2011 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_2013_Rabaa_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="August 2013 Rabaa massacre">2013 Rabaa massacre</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Egypt" title="Anarchism in Egypt">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_capitals_of_Egypt" title="List of historical capitals of Egypt">Capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cigarette_industry" title="Egyptian cigarette industry">Cigarette industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Egyptian_Constitution" title="History of the Egyptian Constitution">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Copts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Egypt" title="Genetic history of Egypt">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Egypt" title="Healthcare in Egypt">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt">Muslim Brotherhood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt_(1928%E2%80%931938)" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1928–1938)">1928–1938</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt_(1939%E2%80%931954)" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1939–1954)">1939–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Muslim_Brotherhood_in_Egypt_(1954%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt (1954–present)">1954–present</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Egyptian_parliament" title="History of the Egyptian parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_Egypt" title="Population history of Egypt">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Egypt" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Egypt">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saladin_in_Egypt" title="Saladin in Egypt">Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_timekeeping_devices_in_Egypt" title="History of timekeeping devices in Egypt">Timekeeping devices</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Alexandria" title="History of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cairo" title="Timeline of Cairo">Cairo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Port_Said" title="Timeline of Port Said">Port Said</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Egypt" title="Geography of Egypt">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_biota_of_Egypt" title="Category:Lists of biota of Egypt">Biota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Egypt" title="Template:Borders of Egypt">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Egypt" title="List of cities and towns in Egypt">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Egypt" title="Climate of Egypt">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deserts_of_Egypt" title="Category:Deserts of Egypt">Deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Egypt" title="List of earthquakes in Egypt">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Egypt" title="Environmental issues in Egypt">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossils_of_Egypt" title="Fossils of Egypt">Fossils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Egypt" title="Geology of Egypt">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfaya_Pass" title="Halfaya Pass">Halfaya Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islands_of_Egypt" title="Category:Islands of Egypt">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Egypt" title="List of lakes of Egypt">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountains_of_Egypt" title="Category:Mountains of Egypt">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Sinai" title="Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_coast_of_Egypt" title="Northern coast of Egypt">Northern coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Oases_of_Egypt" title="Category:Oases of Egypt">Oases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qattara_Depression" title="Qattara Depression">Qattara Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_Riviera" title="Red Sea Riviera">Red Sea Riviera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Egypt" title="List of rivers of Egypt">Rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_towns_and_villages_in_Egypt" title="List of towns and villages in Egypt">Towns and villages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wadis_of_Egypt" title="Category:Wadis of Egypt">Wadis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Egypt" title="Wildlife of Egypt">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Egypt" title="Politics of Egypt">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subdivisions_of_Egypt" title="Subdivisions of Egypt">Administrative divisions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_Government_in_Egypt#List_of_Governorates_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Local Government in Egypt">Governorates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Civil_Code" title="Egyptian Civil Code">Civil Code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Egypt" title="Corruption in Egypt">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_Egypt" title="Conscription in Egypt">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Egypt" title="Constitution of Egypt">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Egypt" title="Elections in Egypt">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Egypt" title="Foreign relations of Egypt">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diplomatic_missions_of_Egypt" title="List of diplomatic missions of Egypt">Missions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism_in_20th-century_Egypt" title="Islamic extremism in 20th-century Egypt">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Egypt" title="Judiciary of Egypt">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_National_Police" title="Egyptian National Police">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_Egypt" title="List of massacres in Egypt">Massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Armed_Forces" title="Egyptian Armed Forces">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Council_of_the_Armed_Forces" title="Supreme Council of the Armed Forces">Supreme Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationality_law" title="Egyptian nationality law">Nationality law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Egypt" title="Parliament of Egypt">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_passport" title="Egyptian passport">Passport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Egypt" title="List of political parties in Egypt">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Egypt" title="President of Egypt">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Egypt" title="List of presidents of Egypt">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Egypt" title="Prime Minister of Egypt">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Egypt" title="List of prime ministers of Egypt">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Administrative_Capital" title="New Administrative Capital">Proposed new capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war_in_Egypt" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war in Egypt">Refugees of the Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Egypt" title="Terrorism in Egypt">Terrorism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_and_tourism_in_Egypt" title="Terrorism and tourism in Egypt">Terrorism and tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Egypt" title="List of twin towns and sister cities in Egypt">Twin towns and sister cities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt" title="Economy of Egypt">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt#Land,_agriculture_and_crops" title="Economy of Egypt">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Egypt" title="List of banks in Egypt">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Bank_of_Egypt" title="National Bank of Egypt">National Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Egypt" title="List of companies of Egypt">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_regions_of_Egypt" title="Economic regions of Egypt">Economic regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Exchange" title="Egyptian Exchange">Egyptian stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pound" title="Egyptian pound">Egyptian pound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Egypt" title="Energy in Egypt">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship_policies_in_Egypt" title="Entrepreneurship policies in Egypt">Entrepreneurship policies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishing in Egypt">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Egypt_and_the_environment" title="Economy of Egypt and the environment">Impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lighthouses_in_Egypt" title="List of lighthouses in Egypt">Lighthouses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_industry_of_Egypt" title="Military industry of Egypt">Military industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_industry_of_Egypt" title="Mining industry of Egypt">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mines_in_Egypt" title="List of mines in Egypt">Mines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Egypt" title="Nuclear program of Egypt">Nuclear program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Egypt" title="List of power stations in Egypt">Power stations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Egyptian_Armed_Forces" title="Economy of the Egyptian Armed Forces">Role of the Egyptian Armed Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_and_structures_in_Egypt" title="List of tallest buildings and structures in Egypt">Tallest buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Egypt" title="Telecommunications in Egypt">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Egypt" title="Internet in Egypt">Internet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Egypt" title="Tourism in Egypt">Tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_tourism_in_Egypt" title="Cultural tourism in Egypt">Cultural tourism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Egypt" title="Transport in Egypt">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Egypt" title="List of airlines of Egypt">Airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Egypt" title="List of airports in Egypt">Airports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_railway_stations_in_Egypt" title="List of railway stations in Egypt">Railway stations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Egypt" title="Water supply and sanitation in Egypt">Water supply and sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources_management_in_Egypt" title="Water resources management in Egypt">Water resources management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Egypt" title="Category:Society of Egypt">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Egypt" title="Abortion in Egypt">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare_in_Egypt" title="Animal welfare in Egypt">Animal welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptians_by_net_worth" title="List of Egyptians by net worth">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Egypt" title="Cannabis in Egypt">Cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Egypt" title="Capital punishment in Egypt">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Census_in_Egypt" title="Census in Egypt">Censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Egypt" title="Corruption in Egypt">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Egypt" title="Crime in Egypt">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Egypt" title="Human trafficking in Egypt">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_sexual_assault_in_Egypt" title="Mass sexual assault in Egypt">Mass sexual assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_in_Egypt" title="Rape in Egypt">Rape</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Egypt" title="Demographics of Egypt">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_diaspora" title="Egyptian diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Egypt" title="Education in Egypt">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_grading_in_Egypt" title="Academic grading in Egypt">Academic grading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_law_schools_in_Egypt" title="List of law schools in Egypt">Law schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_schools_in_Egypt" title="List of medical schools in Egypt">Medical schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_in_Egypt" title="List of schools in Egypt">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Egypt" title="List of universities in Egypt">Universities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Egyptian_families" title="Category:Egyptian families">Families</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaza_family" title="Abaza family">Abaza family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Egypt" title="Feminism in Egypt">Feminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality_in_Egypt" title="Gender inequality in Egypt">Gender inequality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Egypt" title="Health in Egypt">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Egypt" title="Healthcare in Egypt">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hospitals_in_Egypt" title="List of hospitals in Egypt">Hospitals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_Egypt" title="Housing in Egypt">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Egypt" title="Human rights in Egypt">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt#Freedom_of_religion_and_human_rights" title="Religion in Egypt">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Egypt">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Egypt" title="International rankings of Egypt">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Egypt" title="Languages of Egypt">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Sign_Language" title="Egyptian Sign Language">Sign Language</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Egypt" title="Liberalism in Egypt">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_literature" title="Egyptian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Egypt" title="Prostitution in Egypt">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Egypt" title="Baháʼí Faith in Egypt">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blasphemy_law_in_Egypt" title="Blasphemy law in Egypt">Blasphemy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Egypt" title="Christianity in Egypt">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Catholic_dioceses_in_Egypt" title="List of Catholic dioceses in Egypt">Catholic dioceses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Coptic_Orthodox_churches_in_Egypt" title="List of Coptic Orthodox churches in Egypt">Coptic Churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Arab_states#Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism in Arab states">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_identification_card_controversy" title="Egyptian identification card controversy">Identification card controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Egypt" title="Irreligion in Egypt">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Egypt" title="Islam in Egypt">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya_in_Egypt" title="Ahmadiyya in Egypt">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mosques_in_Egypt" title="List of mosques in Egypt">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niq%C4%81b_in_Egypt" title="Niqāb in Egypt">Niqāb</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_synagogues_in_Egypt" title="List of synagogues in Egypt">Synagogues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology_in_Egypt" title="Scientology in Egypt">Scientology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Egypt" title="Smoking in Egypt">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_units_of_measurement" title="Egyptian units of measurement">Units of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Egypt" title="Vehicle registration plates of Egypt">Vehicle registration plates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management_in_Egypt" title="Waste management in Egypt">Waste management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Egypt" title="Women in Egypt">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Egypt" title="Culture of Egypt">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Egypt" title="Architecture of Egypt">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Art of ancient Egypt">Art (ancient)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_art_in_Egypt" title="Contemporary art in Egypt">Art (contemporary)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanical_gardens_in_Egypt" title="List of botanical gardens in Egypt">Botanical gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_castles,_forts,_fortifications_and_city_walls" title="List of Egyptian castles, forts, fortifications and city walls">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Egypt" title="Cinema of Egypt">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Egypt" title="Coat of arms of Egypt">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_cuisine" title="Egyptian cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_Egypt" title="Beer in Egypt">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_wine" title="Egyptian wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Egyptian_films" title="Lists of Egyptian films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Egypt" title="Flag of Egypt">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_flags" title="List of Egyptian flags">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flags_of_regions_of_Egypt" title="Flags of regions of Egypt">regions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Football_in_Egypt" title="Football in Egypt">Football</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_football_clubs_in_Egypt" title="List of football clubs in Egypt">Football clubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_football_stadiums_in_Egypt" title="List of football stadiums in Egypt">Football stadiums</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptians" title="Egyptians">Egyptians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Egypt" title="Mass media in Egypt">Mass media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_magazines_in_Egypt" title="List of magazines in Egypt">Magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Egypt" title="List of newspapers in Egypt">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_radio_stations_in_Egypt" title="List of radio stations in Egypt">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Egypt" title="Television in Egypt">TV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Egypt" title="List of museums in Egypt">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Egypt" title="Music of Egypt">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilady,_Bilady,_Bilady" title="Bilady, Bilady, Bilady">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_at_the_Olympics" title="Egypt at the Olympics">Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Egypt" title="Public holidays in Egypt">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Egypt" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Egypt">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Egypt" title="Category:Egypt">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Egypt" title="Portal:Egypt">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Egypt" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Egypt">WikiProject</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Egypt" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Egypt">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Template talk:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers of the Ancient Near East"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Near_East" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"><div style="overflow:auto"> <table style="width:100%" class="wraplinks"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <table class="wikitable" style="width:100%; margin:0; font-size:96.6%;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Territories/ dates <a href="#cite_note-47">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[5]</a></th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Assur" title="Assur">Assur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a> </th></tr> <tr style="vertical-align:top;"> <td rowspan="2">4000–3200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqada I">Naqada I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Naqada II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_(front_top_part_detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Gebel el-Arak Knife"><img alt="Gebel el-Arak Knife" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/50px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/75px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg/100px-Gebel_el-Arak_Knife_ivory_handle_%28front_top_part_detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="1100" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td> <td colspan="9" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Pre-Dynastic period</a> (4000–2900 BCE) </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> <a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> (4000–3100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/100px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/150px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg/200px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1952" data-file-height="1158" /></a> (<a href="/wiki/Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Anu Ziggurat</a>, 4000 BCE) <a href="/wiki/File:Rolzegel.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/100px-Rolzegel.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/150px-Rolzegel.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Rolzegel.JPG/200px-Rolzegel.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1726" data-file-height="714" /></a> (Anonymous "King-priests") </td> <td colspan="1" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa II</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows"><img alt="Susa II Priest-King with bow and arrows" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/35px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/53px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg/70px-Susa_II_King-Priest_with_bow_and_arrow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1283" data-file-height="1663" /></a> (Uruk influence or control) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">3200–3100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Proto-Dynastic period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a>) Early or legendary kings: </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Upper_Egypt" title="Upper Egypt">Upper Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Finger_Snail" title="Finger Snail">Finger Snail</a> <a href="/wiki/Fish_(pharaoh)" title="Fish (pharaoh)">Fish</a> <a href="/wiki/Elephant_(pharaoh)" title="Elephant (pharaoh)">Pen-Abu</a> Animal <a href="/wiki/Stork_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stork (Pharaoh)">Stork</a> <a href="/wiki/Canide_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Canide (Pharaoh)">Canide</a> <a href="/wiki/Bull_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bull (Pharaoh)">Bull</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_I" title="Scorpion I">Scorpion I</a> <a href="/wiki/Crocodile_(pharaoh)" title="Crocodile (pharaoh)">Shendjw</a> <a href="/wiki/Iry-Hor" title="Iry-Hor">Iry-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ka_(pharaoh)" title="Ka (pharaoh)">Ka</a> <a href="/wiki/Scorpion_II" title="Scorpion II">Scorpion II</a> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lower_Egypt" title="Lower Egypt">Lower Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hedju_Hor" title="Hedju Hor">Hedju Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ny-Hor" title="Ny-Hor">Ny-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Hsekiu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hsekiu">Hsekiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khayu" class="mw-redirect" title="Khayu">Khayu</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiu_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiu (pharaoh)">Tiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Thesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesh">Thesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Neheb" class="mw-redirect" title="Neheb">Neheb</a> <a href="/wiki/Wazner" class="mw-redirect" title="Wazner">Wazner</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nat-Hor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nat-Hor (page does not exist)">Nat-Hor</a> <a href="/wiki/Mekh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mekh">Mekh</a> <a href="/wiki/Double_Falcon" title="Double Falcon">Double Falcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Wash_(pharaoh)" title="Wash (pharaoh)">Wash</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">3100–2900 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Egypt)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)">Early Dynastic Period</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="First Dynasty of Egypt">First Dynasty of Egypt</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Narmer Palette"><img alt="Narmer Palette" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/40px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="60" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/60px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg/80px-Narmer_Palette_verso.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1611" data-file-height="2404" /></a><figcaption>Narmer Palette</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Narmer" title="Narmer">Narmer</a> <a href="/wiki/Menes" title="Menes">Menes</a> <a href="/wiki/Neithhotep" title="Neithhotep">Neithhotep</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Hor-Aha" title="Hor-Aha">Hor-Aha</a> <a href="/wiki/Djer" title="Djer">Djer</a> <a href="/wiki/Djet" title="Djet">Djet</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneith" title="Merneith">Merneith</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Den_(pharaoh)" title="Den (pharaoh)">Den</a> <a href="/wiki/Anedjib" title="Anedjib">Anedjib</a> <a href="/wiki/Semerkhet" title="Semerkhet">Semerkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Qa%27a" title="Qa'a">Qa'a</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferka" title="Sneferka">Sneferka</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Bird_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Horus Bird (Pharaoh)">Horus Bird</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="1" rowspan="13"><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> (3100–2900 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Susa" title="Susa">Susa III</a>) (3100–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2900 BCE </td> <td rowspan="8" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Second Dynasty of Egypt">Second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Hotepsekhemwy" title="Hotepsekhemwy">Hotepsekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebra_(Pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebra (Pharaoh)">Nebra/Raneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Nynetjer" title="Nynetjer">Nynetjer</a> <a href="/wiki/Ba_(pharaoh)" title="Ba (pharaoh)">Ba</a> <a href="/wiki/Nubnefer" title="Nubnefer">Nubnefer</a> <a href="/wiki/Horus_Sa" title="Horus Sa">Horus Sa</a> <a href="/wiki/Weneg_(pharaoh)" title="Weneg (pharaoh)">Weneg-Nebty</a> <a href="/wiki/Wadjenes" title="Wadjenes">Wadjenes</a> <a href="/wiki/Senedj" title="Senedj">Senedj</a> <a href="/wiki/Seth-Peribsen" title="Seth-Peribsen">Seth-Peribsen</a> <a href="/wiki/Sekhemib-Perenmaat" title="Sekhemib-Perenmaat">Sekhemib-Perenmaat</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkara_I" title="Neferkara I">Neferkara I</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkasokar" title="Neferkasokar">Neferkasokar</a> <a href="/wiki/Hudjefa_I" title="Hudjefa I">Hudjefa I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khasekhemwy" title="Khasekhemwy">Khasekhemwy</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Khasekhemwy"><img alt="Khasekhemwy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/30px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/45px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG/60px-Khasekhemwy_statue_Ashmolean.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4103" data-file-height="5203" /></a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period I</a> (2900–2700 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">First Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">First kingdom of Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Jushur" title="Jushur">Jushur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kullassina-bel" title="Kullassina-bel">Kullassina-bel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nangishlishma" title="Nangishlishma">Nangishlishma</a>, <a href="/wiki/En-tarah-ana" title="En-tarah-ana">En-tarah-ana</a> <a href="/wiki/Babum" title="Babum">Babum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puannum" title="Puannum">Puannum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kalibum" title="Kalibum">Kalibum</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2800 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kalumum" title="Kalumum">Kalumum</a> <a href="/wiki/Zuqaqip" title="Zuqaqip">Zuqaqip</a> <a href="/wiki/Atab" title="Atab">Atab</a> <a href="/wiki/Mashda" title="Mashda">Mashda</a> <a href="/wiki/Arwium" title="Arwium">Arwium</a> <a href="/wiki/Etana" title="Etana">Etana</a> <a href="/wiki/Balih" title="Balih">Balih</a> <a href="/wiki/En-me-nuna" title="En-me-nuna">En-me-nuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Melem-Kish" title="Melem-Kish">Melem-Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/Barsal-nuna" title="Barsal-nuna">Barsal-nuna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Mesh-ki-ang-gasher" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesh-ki-ang-gasher">Mesh-ki-ang-gasher</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmerkar" title="Enmerkar">Enmerkar</a> ("conqueror of <a href="/wiki/Aratta" title="Aratta">Aratta</a>") </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2700 BCE </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period II</a> (2700–2600 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Zamug" title="Zamug">Zamug</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tizqar" title="Tizqar">Tizqar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilku" title="Ilku">Ilku</a> <a href="/wiki/Iltasadum" title="Iltasadum">Iltasadum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Lugalbanda" title="Lugalbanda">Lugalbanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Dumuzid,_the_Fisherman" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumuzid, the Fisherman">Dumuzid, the Fisherman</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Enmebaragesi" title="Enmebaragesi">Enmebaragesi</a> ("made the land of Elam submit")<a href="#cite_note-SKL-52">[6]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Aga_of_Kish" title="Aga of Kish">Aga of Kish</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ak_gal-ukkin_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Aga of Kish"><img alt="Aga of Kish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/22px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="22" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/33px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg/44px-Ak_gal-ukkin_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="559" data-file-height="826" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh" title="Gilgamesh">Gilgamesh</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/15px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/20px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda,_2600_BCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/30px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/45px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg/60px-Gilgamesh_on_a_seal_of_Mesannapeda%2C_2600_BCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="612" data-file-height="595" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Old Elamite period</a> (2700–1500 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2600 BCE </td> <td rowspan="3" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Third Dynasty of Egypt">Third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Djoser" title="Djoser">Djoser</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Saqqara,_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2,_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid"><img alt="Saqqarah Djeser pyramid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/50px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/75px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg/100px-Saqqara%2C_Pyramid_of_Djoser_2%2C_Ancient_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a> (First <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sekhemkhet" title="Sekhemkhet">Sekhemkhet</a> <a href="/wiki/Sanakht" title="Sanakht">Sanakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebka" title="Nebka">Nebka</a> <a href="/wiki/Khaba" title="Khaba">Khaba</a> <a href="/wiki/Qahedjet" title="Qahedjet">Qahedjet</a> <a href="/wiki/Huni" title="Huni">Huni</a> </td> <td colspan="9" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic Period III</a> (2600–2340 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sagisu" title="Sagisu">Sagisu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abur-lim (page does not exist)">Abur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agur-lim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agur-lim (page does not exist)">Agur-lim</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibbi-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibbi-Damu (page does not exist)">Ibbi-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baba-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baba-Damu (page does not exist)">Baba-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> II dynasty (5 kings) <a href="/wiki/Uhub" title="Uhub">Uhub</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesilim" title="Mesilim">Mesilim</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Nungal" title="Ur-Nungal">Ur-Nungal</a> <a href="/wiki/Udul-kalama" title="Udul-kalama">Udulkalama</a> <a href="/wiki/La-ba%27shum" title="La-ba'shum">Labashum</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> <a href="/wiki/En-hegal" title="En-hegal">En-hegal</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugalshaengur" title="Lugalshaengur">Lugal- shaengur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ur I">Ur</a> <a href="/wiki/A-Imdugud" title="A-Imdugud">A-Imdugud</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Pabilsag" title="Ur-Pabilsag">Ur-Pabilsag</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Palbisag.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/30px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/45px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Ur-Palbisag.jpg/60px-Ur-Palbisag.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1385" data-file-height="2201" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Meskalamdug" title="Meskalamdug">Meskalamdug</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Puabi" title="Puabi">Puabi</a>) <a href="/wiki/Akalamdug" title="Akalamdug">Akalamdug</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/En-nun-tarah-ana" title="En-nun-tarah-ana">Enun-dara-anna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mes-he" class="mw-redirect" title="Mes-he">Mes-he</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamanna" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamanna">Melamanna</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kitun" title="Lugal-kitun">Lugal-kitun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> <a href="/wiki/Nin-kisalsi" title="Nin-kisalsi">Nin-kisalsi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Me-durba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Me-durba (page does not exist)">Me-durba</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-dalu" title="Lugal-dalu">Lugal-dalu</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2575 BCE </td> <td rowspan="2" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Sneferu" title="Sneferu">Snefru</a> <a href="/wiki/Khufu" title="Khufu">Khufu</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/50px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/75px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Kheops-Pyramid.jpg/100px-Kheops-Pyramid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1581" data-file-height="971" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Djedefre" title="Djedefre">Djedefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Khafre" title="Khafre">Khafre</a> <a href="/wiki/Bikheris" title="Bikheris">Bikheris</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkaure" title="Menkaure">Menkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskaf" title="Shepseskaf">Shepseskaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Thamphthis" title="Thamphthis">Thamphthis</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/First_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="First Dynasty of Ur">Ur I dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesannepada" title="Mesannepada">Mesannepada</a> "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk </td></tr> <tr> <td>2500 BCE </td> <td rowspan="22" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> (2500-539 BCE) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/The_second_kingdom_of_Mari" class="mw-redirect" title="The second kingdom of Mari">Second kingdom of Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Shamash" title="Ikun-Shamash">Ikun-Shamash</a> <a href="/wiki/Iku-Shamagan" title="Iku-Shamagan">Iku-Shamagan</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Iku-Shamagan"><img alt="Iku-Shamagan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/30px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="52" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/45px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg/60px-Iku-Shamagan_-_Mari_-_Temple_of_Ninni-Zaza_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="2102" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ansud" title="Ansud">Ansud</a> <a href="/wiki/Sa%27umu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'umu">Sa'umu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ishar" title="Ishtup-Ishar">Ishtup-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikun-Mari" title="Ikun-Mari">Ikun-Mari</a> <a href="/wiki/Iblul-Il" title="Iblul-Il">Iblul-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nizi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nizi (page does not exist)">Nizi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3">Kish III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ku-Baba" class="mw-redirect" title="Ku-Baba">Ku-Baba</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Akshak" title="Akshak">Akshak dynasty</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Unzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unzi (page does not exist)">Unzi</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Undalulu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Undalulu (page does not exist)">Undalulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Enshakushanna" title="Enshakushanna">Ensha- kushanna</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Mug-si" title="Mug-si">Mug-si</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Pabilgagaltuku" title="Pabilgagaltuku">Pabilgagaltuku</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> I dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nanshe" title="Ur-Nanshe">Ur-Nanshe</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ur-Nanshe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/30px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/45px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Ur-Nanshe.jpg/60px-Ur-Nanshe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="663" data-file-height="918" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Akurgal" title="Akurgal">Akurgal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/A%27annepada" title="A'annepada">A'annepada</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskiagnun" title="Meskiagnun">Meskiagnun</a> <a href="/wiki/Elulu" title="Elulu">Elulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Balulu" title="Balulu">Balulu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Awan_dynasty" title="Awan dynasty">Awan dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Peli_(king_of_Awan)" title="Peli (king of Awan)">Peli</a> <a href="/wiki/Tata_(king_of_Awan)" title="Tata (king of Awan)">Tata</a> <a href="/wiki/Ukku-Tanhish" title="Ukku-Tanhish">Ukkutahesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hishutash" title="Hishutash">Hishur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2450 BCE </td> <td rowspan="4" colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkaf" title="Userkaf">Userkaf</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahure" title="Sahure">Sahure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare_Kakai" title="Neferirkare Kakai">Neferirkare Kakai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferefre" title="Neferefre">Neferefre</a> <a href="/wiki/Shepseskare" title="Shepseskare">Shepseskare</a> <a href="/wiki/Nyuserre_Ini" title="Nyuserre Ini">Nyuserre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkauhor_Kaiu" title="Menkauhor Kaiu">Menkauhor Kaiu</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Isesi" title="Djedkare Isesi">Djedkare Isesi</a> <a href="/wiki/Unas" title="Unas">Unas</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enar-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enar-Damu (page does not exist)">Enar-Damu</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishar-Malik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishar-Malik (page does not exist)">Ishar-Malik</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ush,_king_of_Umma" title="Ush, king of Umma">Ush</a> <a href="/wiki/Enakalle" title="Enakalle">Enakalle</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite</a> invasions (3 kings)<a href="#cite_note-SKL-52">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Shushun-Tarana" title="Shushun-Tarana">Shushun- tarana</a> <a href="/wiki/Napi-Ilhush" title="Napi-Ilhush">Napilhush</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2425 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/wiki/Kun-Damu" title="Kun-Damu">Kun-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="8"><a href="/wiki/Eannatum" title="Eannatum">Eannatum</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/30px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/45px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG/60px-P1130735_Louvre_st%C3%A8le_des_Vautours_rwk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="2595" /></a> (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) </td></tr> <tr> <td>2400 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Adub-Damu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adub-Damu (page does not exist)">Adub-Damu</a> <a href="/wiki/Igrish-Halam" title="Igrish-Halam">Igrish-Halam</a> <a href="/wiki/Irkab-Damu" title="Irkab-Damu">Irkab-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)" title="Kish (Sumer)">Kish</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Suen" title="Puzur-Suen">Puzur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Zababa" title="Ur-Zababa">Ur-Zababa</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Urur&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Urur (page does not exist)">Urur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-kinishe-dudu" title="Lugal-kinishe-dudu">Lugal-kinishe-dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Lugal-kisalsi" title="Lugal-kisalsi">Lugal-kisalsi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;"><a href="/wiki/E-iginimpa%27e" title="E-iginimpa'e">E-iginimpa'e</a> <a href="/wiki/Meskigal" title="Meskigal">Meskigal</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Lumma" title="Ur-Lumma">Ur-Lumma</a> <a href="/wiki/Il,_king_of_Umma" title="Il, king of Umma">Il</a> <a href="/wiki/Gishakidu" title="Gishakidu">Gishakidu</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Bara-irnun" title="Bara-irnun">Bara-irnun</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;"><a href="/wiki/Enannatum_I" title="Enannatum I">Enannatum</a> <a href="/wiki/Entemena" title="Entemena">Entemena</a> <a href="/wiki/Enannatum_II" title="Enannatum II">Enannatum II</a> <a href="/wiki/Enentarzi" title="Enentarzi">Enentarzi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;"><a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> II dynasty Nanni <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II (page does not exist)">Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;"><a href="/wiki/Kikku-Siwe-Temti" title="Kikku-Siwe-Temti">Kiku-siwe-tempti</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2380 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Teti" title="Teti">Teti</a> <a href="/wiki/Userkare" title="Userkare">Userkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_I_Meryre" title="Pepi I Meryre">Pepi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_I" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf I">Merenre Nemtyemsaf I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pepi_II_Neferkare" title="Pepi II Neferkare">Pepi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenre_Nemtyemsaf_II" title="Merenre Nemtyemsaf II">Merenre Nemtyemsaf II</a> <a href="/wiki/Netjerkare_Siptah" title="Netjerkare Siptah">Netjerkare Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I,_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.,_39.121.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I"><img alt="Kneeling statuette of Pepy I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/30px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/45px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg/60px-Kneeling_Statuette_of_Pepy_I%2C_ca._2338-2298_B.C.E.%2C_39.121.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1148" data-file-height="1536" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DCDCDC;" colspan="10" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Adab_(city)" title="Adab (city)">Adab</a> dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugalannemundu" class="mw-redirect" title="Lugalannemundu">Lugalannemundu</a> "King of the four quarters of the world" </td></tr> <tr> <td>2370 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isar-Damu" title="Isar-Damu">Isar-Damu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Enna-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Enna-Dagan (page does not exist)">Enna-Dagan</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ikun-Ishar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ikun-Ishar (page does not exist)">Ikun-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishqi-Mari" title="Ishqi-Mari">Ishqi-Mari</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="4" rowspan="1">Invasion by <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter<a href="#cite_note-SKL-52">[6]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ukush" title="Ukush">Ukush</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugalanda" title="Lugalanda">Lugalanda</a> <a href="/wiki/Urukagina" title="Urukagina">Urukagina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Luh-ishan" title="Luh-ishan">Luh-ishan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2350 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-Nirah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-Nirah (page does not exist)">Puzur-Nirah</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ishu-Il&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ishu-Il (page does not exist)">Ishu-Il</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Sin_(Akshak)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Sin (Akshak) (page does not exist)">Shu-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> III dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugal-zage-si" title="Lugal-zage-si">Lugalzagesi</a> (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2340 BCE </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="10" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Period</a> (2340–2150 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_of_Akkad" title="Sargon of Akkad">Sargon of Akkad</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush" title="Rimush">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Manishtushu" title="Manishtushu">Manishtushu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="1" rowspan="3">Akkadian Governors: <a href="/wiki/Eshpum" title="Eshpum">Eshpum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilshu-rabi" title="Ilshu-rabi">Ilshu-rabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Epirmupi" title="Epirmupi">Epirmupi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-ishmani" title="Ili-ishmani">Ili-ishmani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2250 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Akkad" title="Naram-Sin of Akkad">Naram-Sin</a><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:Relief_of_Naram-Sin_(portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/25px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/38px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg/50px-Relief_of_Naram-Sin_%28portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1567" data-file-height="2300" /></a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lugal-ushumgal" title="Lugal-ushumgal">Lugal-ushumgal</a> (vassal of the Akkadians) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">2200 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/First_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt" title="First Intermediate Period of Egypt">First Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Menkare" title="Menkare">Menkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_II" title="Neferkare II">Neferkare II</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Neby" title="Neferkare Neby">Neferkare Neby</a> <a href="/wiki/Djedkare_Shemai" title="Djedkare Shemai">Djedkare Shemai</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Khendu" title="Neferkare Khendu">Neferkare Khendu</a> <a href="/wiki/Merenhor" title="Merenhor">Merenhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin" title="Neferkamin">Neferkamin</a> <a href="/wiki/Nikare" title="Nikare">Nikare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Tereru" title="Neferkare Tereru">Neferkare Tereru</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkahor" title="Neferkahor">Neferkahor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_Pepiseneb" title="Neferkare Pepiseneb">Neferkare Pepiseneb</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkamin_Anu" title="Neferkamin Anu">Neferkamin Anu</a> <a href="/wiki/Qakare_Ibi" title="Qakare Ibi">Qakare Ibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkaure" title="Neferkaure">Neferkaure</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkauhor" title="Neferkauhor">Neferkauhor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferirkare" title="Neferirkare">Neferirkare</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="6">Second <a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Eblaite</a> Kingdom </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Third kingdom of Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakku</a> dynasty) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ididish&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ididish (page does not exist)">Ididish</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shu-Dagan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shu-Dagan (page does not exist)">Shu-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishma-Dagan" title="Ishma-Dagan">Ishma-Dagan</a> (Vassals of the Akkadians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="5"> <a href="/wiki/Shar-Kali-Sharri" title="Shar-Kali-Sharri">Shar-Kali-Sharri</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Igigi_of_Akkad" title="Igigi of Akkad">Igigi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imi" title="Imi">Imi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nanum_of_Akkad" title="Nanum of Akkad">Nanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ilulu" title="Ilulu">Ilulu</a> (3 years) <a href="/wiki/Dudu_of_Akkad" title="Dudu of Akkad">Dudu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-turul" title="Shu-turul">Shu-turul</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> IV dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ur-nigin" title="Ur-nigin">Ur-nigin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gigir" title="Ur-gigir">Ur-gigir</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#C0C0C0;" colspan="2"> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="1" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lagash" title="Lagash">Lagash</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Puzer-Mama" title="Puzer-Mama">Puzer-Mama</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu_I" title="Ur-Ningirsu I">Ur-Ningirsu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Pirig-me" title="Pirig-me">Pirig-me</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-Baba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-Baba (page does not exist)">Lu-Baba</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lu-gula&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lu-gula (page does not exist)">Lu-gula</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kaku_of_Lagash&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kaku of Lagash (page does not exist)">Ka-ku</a> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Hishep-Ratep" class="mw-redirect" title="Hishep-Ratep">Hishep-Ratep</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Helu_(Awan)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Helu (Awan) (page does not exist)">Helu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khita" title="Khita">Khita</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Inshushinak" title="Puzur-Inshushinak">Puzur-Inshushinak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">2150 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryibre_Khety" title="Meryibre Khety">Meryibre Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare,_ninth_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Neferkare, ninth dynasty">Neferkare VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebkaure_Khety" title="Nebkaure Khety">Nebkaure Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Setut" title="Setut">Setut</a> </td> <td colspan="8" rowspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#F5F5F5;"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Ur III period</a> (2150–2000 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BBr-M%C3%AAr" title="Nûr-Mêr">Nûr-Mêr</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishtup-Ilum" title="Ishtup-Ilum">Ishtup-Ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ishtup-Ilum_statue_(head).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/25px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/38px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg/50px-Ishtup-Ilum_statue_%28head%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="568" data-file-height="810" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ishgum-Addu" title="Ishgum-Addu">Ishgum-Addu</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-kin" title="Apil-kin">Apil-kin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Gutian_dynasty_of_Sumer" class="mw-redirect" title="Gutian dynasty of Sumer">Gutian dynasty</a> (21 kings) <a href="/wiki/La-erabum" title="La-erabum">La-erabum</a> <a href="/wiki/Si%27um" title="Si'um">Si'um</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" rowspan="1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kuda_(Uruk)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kuda (Uruk) (page does not exist)">Kuda (Uruk)</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Puzur-ili&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Puzur-ili (page does not exist)">Puzur-ili</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ur-Utu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ur-Utu (page does not exist)">Ur-Utu</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> </td> <td colspan="1" style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE; rowspan=2"><a href="/wiki/Umma" title="Umma">Umma</a> II dynasty <a href="/wiki/Lugalannatum" title="Lugalannatum">Lugalannatum</a> (vassal of the Gutians) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FAEBD7;" rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ur-Baba" title="Ur-Baba">Ur-Baba</a> <a href="/wiki/Gudea" title="Gudea">Gudea</a><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/30px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/45px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg/60px-Gudea_of_Lagash_Girsu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2600" data-file-height="3900" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ningirsu" title="Ur-Ningirsu">Ur-Ningirsu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-gar" title="Ur-gar">Ur-gar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nam-mahani" title="Nam-mahani">Nam-mahani</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#A9A9A9;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Tirigan" title="Tirigan">Tirigan</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2125 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Tenth Dynasty of Egypt">Tenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Meryhathor" title="Meryhathor">Meryhathor</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferkare_VIII" title="Neferkare VIII">Neferkare VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Wahkare_Khety" title="Wahkare Khety">Wahkare Khety</a> <a href="/wiki/Merikare" title="Merikare">Merykare</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> V dynasty <a href="/wiki/Utu-hengal" title="Utu-hengal">Utu-hengal</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2100 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1">(Vassals of UR III) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Iddi-ilum" title="Iddi-ilum">Iddi-ilum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ili-Ishar" title="Ili-Ishar">Ili-Ishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Tura-Dagan" title="Tura-Dagan">Tura-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ishtar" title="Puzur-Ishtar">Puzur-Ishtar</a> (Vassals of Ur III)<a href="#cite_note-53">[7]</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Third_dynasty_of_Ur" class="mw-redirect" title="Third dynasty of Ur">Ur III dynasty</a> "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"<a href="/wiki/File:Blank_space.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/5px-Blank_space.png" decoding="async" width="5" height="5" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/8px-Blank_space.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Blank_space.png/10px-Blank_space.png 2x" data-file-width="50" data-file-height="50" /></a><a href="/wiki/File:King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/35px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/53px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/King_Ur-Nammu.jpg/70px-King_Ur-Nammu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="632" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Nammu" title="Ur-Nammu">Ur-Nammu</a> <a href="/wiki/Shulgi" title="Shulgi">Shulgi</a> <a href="/wiki/Amar-Sin" title="Amar-Sin">Amar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Sin" title="Shu-Sin">Shu-Sin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">2025-1763 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> invasions </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#ADD8E6;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Ibbi-Sin" title="Ibbi-Sin">Ibbi-Sin</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Elamite</a> invasions <a href="/wiki/Kindattu" title="Kindattu">Kindattu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shimashki_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shimashki Dynasty">Shimashki Dynasty</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt">Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_I" title="Mentuhotep I">Mentuhotep I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_I" title="Intef I">Intef I</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_II" title="Intef II">Intef II</a> <a href="/wiki/Intef_III" title="Intef III">Intef III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_II" title="Mentuhotep II">Mentuhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_III" title="Mentuhotep III">Mentuhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mentuhotep_IV" title="Mentuhotep IV">Mentuhotep IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Third Eblaite</a> Kingdom (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Ibbit-Lim" title="Ibbit-Lim">Ibbit-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Ibbit-Lim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/30px-Ibbit-Lim.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/45px-Ibbit-Lim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Ibbit-Lim.png/60px-Ibbit-Lim.png 2x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="345" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Immeya" title="Immeya">Immeya</a> <a href="/wiki/Indilimma" title="Indilimma">Indilimma</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" rowspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite</a> <a href="/wiki/Shakkanakku" title="Shakkanakku">Shakkanakkus</a>) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hitial-Erra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hitial-Erra (page does not exist)">Hitial-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Hanun-Dagan" title="Hanun-Dagan">Hanun-Dagan</a> (...) Lim Dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Yaggid-Lim" title="Yaggid-Lim">Yaggid-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yahdun-Lim" title="Yahdun-Lim">Yahdun-Lim</a> <a href="/wiki/Yasmah-Adad" title="Yasmah-Adad">Yasmah-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Zimri-Lim" title="Zimri-Lim">Zimri-Lim</a> (Queen <a href="/wiki/Shibtu" title="Shibtu">Shibtu</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_I" title="Puzur-Ashur I">Puzur-Ashur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalim-ahum" title="Shalim-ahum">Shalim-ahum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilu-shuma" title="Ilu-shuma">Ilu-shuma</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_I" title="Erishum I">Erishum I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ikunum" title="Ikunum">Ikunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_I" title="Sargon I">Sargon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_II" title="Puzur-Ashur II">Puzur-Ashur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Naram-Sin_of_Assyria" title="Naram-Sin of Assyria">Naram-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_II" title="Erishum II">Erishum II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="6" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_(1940).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/30px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/45px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg/60px-Image_from_page_25_of_%22Ancient_seals_of_the_Near_East%22_%281940%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1072" data-file-height="1558" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Dynasty_of_Isin" title="Dynasty of Isin">Dynasty of Isin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ishbi-Erra" title="Ishbi-Erra">Ishbi-Erra</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ilishu" title="Shu-Ilishu">Shu-Ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Iddin-Dagan" title="Iddin-Dagan">Iddin-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan" title="Ishme-Dagan">Ishme-Dagan</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Eshtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipit-Eshtar">Lipit-Eshtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-Ninurta" title="Ur-Ninurta">Ur-Ninurta</a> <a href="/wiki/Bur-Suen" title="Bur-Suen">Bur-Suen</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipit-Enlil" title="Lipit-Enlil">Lipit-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Erra-imitti" title="Erra-imitti">Erra-imitti</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-bani" title="Enlil-bani">Enlil-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Zambiya" title="Zambiya">Zambiya</a> <a href="/wiki/Iter-pisha" title="Iter-pisha">Iter-pisha</a> <a href="/wiki/Ur-du-kuga" title="Ur-du-kuga">Ur-du-kuga</a> <a href="/wiki/Suen-magir" title="Suen-magir">Suen-magir</a> <a href="/wiki/Damiq-ilishu" title="Damiq-ilishu">Damiq-ilishu</a> Dynasty of Larsa: <a href="/wiki/Naplanum" title="Naplanum">Naplanum</a> <a href="/wiki/Emisum" title="Emisum">Emisum</a> <a href="/wiki/Samium" title="Samium">Samium</a> <a href="/wiki/Zabaia" title="Zabaia">Zabaia</a> <a href="/wiki/Gungunum" title="Gungunum">Gungunum</a> <a href="/wiki/Abisare" title="Abisare">Abisare</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumuel" title="Sumuel">Sumuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-Adad" title="Nur-Adad">Nur-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iddinam" title="Sin-Iddinam">Sin-Iddinam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Eribam" title="Sin-Eribam">Sin-Eribam</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-Iqisham" title="Sin-Iqisham">Sin-Iqisham</a> <a href="/wiki/Silli-Adad" title="Silli-Adad">Silli-Adad</a> <a href="/wiki/Warad-Sin" title="Warad-Sin">Warad-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin I">Rim-Sin I</a> (...) <a href="/wiki/Rim-Sin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Rim-Sin II">Rim-Sin II</a> Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-k%C4%81%C5%A1id" title="Sîn-kāšid">Sîn-kāšid</a> Sîn-iribam <a href="/wiki/S%C3%AEn-g%C4%81mil" title="Sîn-gāmil">Sîn-gāmil</a> Ilum-gamil <a href="/wiki/An-am" title="An-am">An-am</a> <a href="/wiki/Irdanene" title="Irdanene">Irdanene</a> <a href="/wiki/R%C3%AEm-Anum" title="Rîm-Anum">Rîm-Anum</a> Nabi-ilišu </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Sukkalmah_dynasty" title="Sukkalmah dynasty">Sukkalmah dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Siwe-Palar-Khuppak" title="Siwe-Palar-Khuppak">Siwe-Palar-Khuppak</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_I" title="Amenemhat I">Amenemhat I</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_I" title="Senusret I">Senusret I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_II" title="Amenemhat II">Amenemhat II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_II" title="Senusret II">Senusret II</a> <a href="/wiki/Senusret_III" title="Senusret III">Senusret III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_III" title="Amenemhat III">Amenemhat III</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemhat_IV" title="Amenemhat IV">Amenemhat IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Sobekneferu" title="Sobekneferu">Sobekneferu</a>♀ </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">1800–1595 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Biblical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical">Biblical</a>) <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yamhad_dynasty" title="Yamhad dynasty">Yamhad dynasty</a>) (Amorites) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyria</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Assyrian_kings" title="List of Assyrian kings">Shamshi-Adad</a> dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_I" title="Shamshi-Adad I">Shamshi-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_I" title="Ishme-Dagan I">Ishme-Dagan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Mut-Ashkur" title="Mut-Ashkur">Mut-Ashkur</a> <a href="/wiki/Rimush_of_Assyria" title="Rimush of Assyria">Rimush</a> <a href="/wiki/Asinum" title="Asinum">Asinum</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Sin" title="Puzur-Sin">Puzur-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dugul" title="Ashur-dugul">Ashur-dugul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-apla-idi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-apla-idi">Ashur-apla-idi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nasir-Sin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasir-Sin">Nasir-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-namir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-namir">Sin-namir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ipqi-Ishtar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ipqi-Ishtar">Ipqi-Ishtar</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-salulu" class="mw-redirect" title="Adad-salulu">Adad-salulu</a> <a href="/wiki/Adasi_(Assyria)" title="Adasi (Assyria)">Adasi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adaside_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaside dynasty">Adaside dynasty</a> 1700–722 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Bel-bani" title="Bel-bani">Bel-bani</a> <a href="/wiki/Libaya" title="Libaya">Libaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad I">Sharma-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Iptar-Sin" title="Iptar-Sin">Iptar-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Bazaya" title="Bazaya">Bazaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Lullaya" title="Lullaya">Lullaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Shu-Ninua" title="Shu-Ninua">Shu-Ninua</a> <a href="/wiki/Sharma-Adad_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Sharma-Adad II">Sharma-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Erishum_III" class="mw-redirect" title="Erishum III">Erishum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_II" title="Shamshi-Adad II">Shamshi-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishme-Dagan_II" title="Ishme-Dagan II">Ishme-Dagan II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_III" title="Shamshi-Adad III">Shamshi-Adad III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_I" title="Ashur-nirari I">Ashur-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Puzur-Ashur_III" title="Puzur-Ashur III">Puzur-Ashur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nasir_I" title="Enlil-nasir I">Enlil-nasir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nur-ili" title="Nur-ili">Nur-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-shaduni" title="Ashur-shaduni">Ashur-shaduni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_I" title="Ashur-rabi I">Ashur-rabi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_I" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe I">Ashur-nadin-ahhe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-Nasir_II" title="Enlil-Nasir II">Enlil-Nasir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_II" title="Ashur-nirari II">Ashur-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-nisheshu" title="Ashur-bel-nisheshu">Ashur-bel-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rim-nisheshu" title="Ashur-rim-nisheshu">Ashur-rim-nisheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-ahhe_II" title="Ashur-nadin-ahhe II">Ashur-nadin-ahhe II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#D2B48C;" colspan="4" rowspan="2"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/40px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/60px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg/80px-F0182_Louvre_Code_Hammourabi_Bas-relief_Sb8_rwk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3170" data-file-height="3500" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">First Babylonian dynasty</a> ("Old Babylonian Period") (<a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sumu-abum" title="Sumu-abum">Sumu-abum</a> <a href="/wiki/Sumu-la-El" title="Sumu-la-El">Sumu-la-El</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-muballit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-muballit">Sin-muballit</a><a href="/wiki/Sabium" title="Sabium">Sabium</a> <a href="/wiki/Apil-Sin" title="Apil-Sin">Apil-Sin</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-muballit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-muballit">Sin-muballit</a> <a href="/wiki/Hammurabi" title="Hammurabi">Hammurabi</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-iluna" title="Samsu-iluna">Samsu-iluna</a> <a href="/wiki/Abi-eshuh" class="mw-redirect" title="Abi-eshuh">Abi-eshuh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-ditana" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammi-ditana">Ammi-ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammi-saduqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammi-saduqa">Ammi-saduqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Samsu-Ditana" title="Samsu-Ditana">Samsu-Ditana</a> <a href="/wiki/Early_Kassite_rulers" title="Early Kassite rulers">Early Kassite rulers</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"> Second Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">Sealand Dynasty</a>") <a href="/wiki/Ilum-ma-ili" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilum-ma-ili">Ilum-ma-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-ili-nibi" class="mw-redirect" title="Itti-ili-nibi">Itti-ili-nibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Damqi-ilishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Damqi-ilishu">Damqi-ilishu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ishkibal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishkibal">Ishkibal</a> <a href="/wiki/Shushushi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shushushi">Shushushi</a> <a href="/wiki/Gulkishar" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulkishar">Gulkishar</a> <a href="/wiki/Sealand_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Sealand Dynasty">mDIŠ+U-EN</a> <a href="/wiki/Peshgaldaramesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Peshgaldaramesh">Peshgaldaramesh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ayadaragalama" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayadaragalama">Ayadaragalama</a> <a href="/wiki/Akurduana" class="mw-redirect" title="Akurduana">Akurduana</a> <a href="/wiki/Melamkurkurra" class="mw-redirect" title="Melamkurkurra">Melamkurkurra</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-gamil" class="mw-redirect" title="Ea-gamil">Ea-gamil</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Intermediate Period">Second Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixteenth</a> Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Abydos_Dynasty" title="Abydos Dynasty">Abydos</a> Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt">Seventeenth</a> Dynasty </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> ("<a href="/wiki/Hyksos" title="Hyksos">Hyksos</a>") <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_(axe_of_Ahmose_I,_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II)_Colorized_per_source.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos"><img alt="Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/35px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg" decoding="async" width="35" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/53px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg/70px-Pharaoh_Ahmose_I_slaying_a_Hyksos_%28axe_of_Ahmose_I%2C_from_the_Treasure_of_Queen_Aahhotep_II%29_Colorized_per_source.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Semqen" title="Semqen">Semqen</a> <a href="/wiki/Aperanat" title="Aperanat">'Aper-'Anati</a> <a href="/wiki/Sakir-Har" title="Sakir-Har">Sakir-Har</a> <a href="/wiki/Khyan" title="Khyan">Khyan</a> <a href="/wiki/Apepi_(pharaoh)" class="mw-redirect" title="Apepi (pharaoh)">Apepi</a> <a href="/wiki/Khamudi" title="Khamudi">Khamudi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (1600–1260 BCE) <a href="/wiki/Kirta" title="Kirta">Kirta</a> <a href="/wiki/Shuttarna_I" title="Shuttarna I">Shuttarna I</a> <a href="/wiki/Parshatatar" class="mw-redirect" title="Parshatatar">Parshatatar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="4">1531–1155 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tutankhamun"><img alt="Tutankhamun" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/30px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="38" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/45px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg/60px-CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Tutankhamun</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmose_I" title="Ahmose I">Ahmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_I" title="Amenhotep I">Amenhotep I</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/30px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/45px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg/60px-Kudurru_Louvre_Sb31.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2639" data-file-height="3973" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Third Babylonian dynasty (<a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a>) <a href="/wiki/Agum-Kakrime" class="mw-redirect" title="Agum-Kakrime">Agum-Kakrime</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_I" title="Burnaburiash I">Burnaburiash I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliash_III" title="Kashtiliash III">Kashtiliash III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulamburiash" title="Ulamburiash">Ulamburiash</a> <a href="/wiki/Agum_III" title="Agum III">Agum III</a> <a href="/wiki/Karaindash" title="Karaindash">Karaindash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-harbe_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Kadashman-harbe I">Kadashman-harbe I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_I" title="Kurigalzu I">Kurigalzu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_I" title="Kadashman-Enlil I">Kadashman-Enlil I</a> <a href="/wiki/Burnaburiash_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Burnaburiash II">Burnaburiash II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kara-hardash" title="Kara-hardash">Kara-hardash</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Bugash" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi-Bugash">Nazi-Bugash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kurigalzu_II" title="Kurigalzu II">Kurigalzu II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Maruttash" title="Nazi-Maruttash">Nazi-Maruttash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Turgu" title="Kadashman-Turgu">Kadashman-Turgu</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Enlil_II" title="Kadashman-Enlil II">Kadashman-Enlil II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kudur-Enlil" title="Kudur-Enlil">Kudur-Enlil</a> <a href="/wiki/Shagarakti-Shuriash" title="Shagarakti-Shuriash">Shagarakti-Shuriash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashtiliashu_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashtiliashu IV">Kashtiliashu IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-shumi" title="Enlil-nadin-shumi">Enlil-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Kadashman-Harbe_II" title="Kadashman-Harbe II">Kadashman-Harbe II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-iddina" title="Adad-shuma-iddina">Adad-shuma-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-shuma-usur" title="Adad-shuma-usur">Adad-shuma-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Meli-Shipak_II" title="Meli-Shipak II">Meli-Shipak II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_I" title="Marduk-apla-iddina I">Marduk-apla-iddina I</a> <a href="/wiki/Zababa-shuma-iddin" title="Zababa-shuma-iddin">Zababa-shuma-iddin</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-ahi" title="Enlil-nadin-ahi">Enlil-nadin-ahi</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Middle Elamite period</a> (1500–1100 BCE) <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Kidinuid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Igehalkid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Untash-Napirisha" title="Untash-Napirisha">Untash-Napirisha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Thutmose_I" title="Thutmose I">Thutmose I</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_II" title="Thutmose II">Thutmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hatshepsut" title="Hatshepsut">Hatshepsut</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_II" title="Amenhotep II">Amenhotep II</a> <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_IV" title="Thutmose IV">Thutmose IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a> <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> <a href="/wiki/Smenkhkare" title="Smenkhkare">Smenkhkare</a> <a href="/wiki/Neferneferuaten" title="Neferneferuaten">Neferneferuaten</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamun" title="Tutankhamun">Tutankhamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ay_(pharaoh)" title="Ay (pharaoh)">Ay</a> <a href="/wiki/Horemheb" title="Horemheb">Horemheb</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt">Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_I" title="Ramesses I">Ramesses I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_I" title="Seti I">Seti I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_II" title="Ramesses II">Ramesses II</a> <a href="/wiki/Merneptah" title="Merneptah">Merneptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenmesse" title="Amenmesse">Amenmesses</a> <a href="/wiki/Seti_II" title="Seti II">Seti II</a> <a href="/wiki/Siptah" title="Siptah">Siptah</a> <a href="/wiki/Twosret" class="mw-redirect" title="Twosret">Twosret</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="7" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Elamite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Elamite Empire">Elamite Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutrukid_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutrukid Dynasty">Shutrukid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Shutruk-Nakhunte" title="Shutruk-Nakhunte">Shutruk-Nakhunte</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1155–1025 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt">Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Setnakhte" title="Setnakhte">Setnakhte</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IV" title="Ramesses IV">Ramesses IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_V" title="Ramesses V">Ramesses V</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VI" title="Ramesses VI">Ramesses VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VII" title="Ramesses VII">Ramesses VII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_VIII" title="Ramesses VIII">Ramesses VIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_IX" title="Ramesses IX">Ramesses IX</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_X" title="Ramesses X">Ramesses X</a> <a href="/wiki/Ramesses_XI" title="Ramesses XI">Ramesses XI</a> <a href="/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Intermediate Period">Third Intermediate Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Smendes" title="Smendes">Smendes</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemnisu" title="Amenemnisu">Amenemnisu</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_I" title="Psusennes I">Psusennes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Amenemope_(pharaoh)" title="Amenemope (pharaoh)">Amenemope</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_the_Elder" title="Osorkon the Elder">Osorkon the Elder</a> <a href="/wiki/Siamun" title="Siamun">Siamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Psusennes_II" title="Psusennes II">Psusennes II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Kingdom of Israel</a> <a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a> <a href="/wiki/Ish-bosheth" title="Ish-bosheth">Ish-bosheth</a> <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyria</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_I" title="Eriba-Adad I">Eriba-Adad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_I" title="Ashur-uballit I">Ashur-uballit I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nirari" title="Enlil-nirari">Enlil-nirari</a> <a href="/wiki/Arik-den-ili" title="Arik-den-ili">Arik-den-ili</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_I" title="Adad-nirari I">Adad-nirari I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_I" title="Shalmaneser I">Shalmaneser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_I" title="Tukulti-Ninurta I">Tukulti-Ninurta I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-apli" title="Ashur-nadin-apli">Ashur-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_III" title="Ashur-nirari III">Ashur-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-kudurri-usur" title="Enlil-kudurri-usur">Enlil-kudurri-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apal-Ekur" title="Ninurta-apal-Ekur">Ninurta-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_I" title="Ashur-dan I">Ashur-dan I</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur" title="Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur">Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur</a> <a href="/wiki/Mutakkil-Nusku" title="Mutakkil-Nusku">Mutakkil-Nusku</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_I" title="Ashur-resh-ishi I">Ashur-resh-ishi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_I" title="Tiglath-Pileser I">Tiglath-Pileser I</a> <a href="/wiki/Asharid-apal-Ekur" title="Asharid-apal-Ekur">Asharid-apal-Ekur</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-bel-kala" title="Ashur-bel-kala">Ashur-bel-kala</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Adad_II" title="Eriba-Adad II">Eriba-Adad II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_IV" title="Shamshi-Adad IV">Shamshi-Adad IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_I" title="Ashurnasirpal I">Ashurnasirpal I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_II" title="Shalmaneser II">Shalmaneser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_IV" title="Ashur-nirari IV">Ashur-nirari IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-rabi_II" title="Ashur-rabi II">Ashur-rabi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-resh-ishi_II" title="Ashur-resh-ishi II">Ashur-resh-ishi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_II" title="Tiglath-Pileser II">Tiglath-Pileser II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_II" title="Ashur-dan II">Ashur-dan II</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("<a href="/wiki/Second_Dynasty_of_Isin" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Dynasty of Isin">Second Dynasty of Isin</a>") <a href="/wiki/Marduk-kabit-ahheshu" title="Marduk-kabit-ahheshu">Marduk-kabit-ahheshu</a> <a href="/wiki/Itti-Marduk-balatu_(king)" title="Itti-Marduk-balatu (king)">Itti-Marduk-balatu</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-nadin-shumi" title="Ninurta-nadin-shumi">Ninurta-nadin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_I" title="Nebuchadnezzar I">Nebuchadnezzar I</a> <a href="/wiki/Enlil-nadin-apli" title="Enlil-nadin-apli">Enlil-nadin-apli</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-nadin-ahhe" title="Marduk-nadin-ahhe">Marduk-nadin-ahhe</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-shapik-zeri" title="Marduk-shapik-zeri">Marduk-shapik-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-apla-iddina" title="Adad-apla-iddina">Adad-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-ahhe-eriba" title="Marduk-ahhe-eriba">Marduk-ahhe-eriba</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zer-X" title="Marduk-zer-X">Marduk-zer-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shum-libur" title="Nabu-shum-libur">Nabu-shum-libur</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Neo-Elamite period</a> (1100–540 BCE) </td></tr> <tr> <td>1025–934 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6">Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") <a href="/wiki/Simbar-shipak" title="Simbar-shipak">Simbar-shipak</a> <a href="/wiki/Ea-mukin-zeri" title="Ea-mukin-zeri">Ea-mukin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Kashshu-nadin-ahi" title="Kashshu-nadin-ahi">Kashshu-nadin-ahi</a> <a href="/wiki/Eulmash-shakin-shumi" title="Eulmash-shakin-shumi">Eulmash-shakin-shumi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_I" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur I">Ninurta-kudurri-usur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shirikti-shuqamuna" title="Shirikti-shuqamuna">Shirikti-shuqamuna</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-apla-usur" title="Mar-biti-apla-usur">Mar-biti-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Nab%C3%BB-mukin-apli" title="Nabû-mukin-apli">Nabû-mukin-apli</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>911–745 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_I" title="Shoshenq I">Shoshenq I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_I" title="Osorkon I">Osorkon I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_II" title="Shoshenq II">Shoshenq II</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_I" title="Takelot I">Takelot I</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_II" title="Osorkon II">Osorkon II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_III" title="Shoshenq III">Shoshenq III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_IV" title="Shoshenq IV">Shoshenq IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Pami" title="Pami">Pami</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_V" title="Shoshenq V">Shoshenq V</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_II" title="Pedubast II">Pedubast II</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_IV" title="Osorkon IV">Osorkon IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Harsiese_A" title="Harsiese A">Harsiese A</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_II" title="Takelot II">Takelot II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pedubast_I" title="Pedubast I">Pedubast I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shoshenq_VI" title="Shoshenq VI">Shoshenq VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Osorkon_III" title="Osorkon III">Osorkon III</a> <a href="/wiki/Takelot_III" title="Takelot III">Takelot III</a> <a href="/wiki/Rudamun" title="Rudamun">Rudamun</a> <a href="/wiki/Ini_(pharaoh)" title="Ini (pharaoh)">Menkheperre Ini</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Tefnakht" title="Tefnakht">Tefnakht</a> <a href="/wiki/Bakenranef" title="Bakenranef">Bakenranef</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Samaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Samaria">Kingdom of Samaria</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_II" title="Adad-nirari II">Adad-nirari II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_II" title="Tukulti-Ninurta II">Tukulti-Ninurta II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashurnasirpal_II" title="Ashurnasirpal II">Ashurnasirpal II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamshi-Adad_V" title="Shamshi-Adad V">Shamshi-Adad V</a> <a href="/wiki/Shammuramat" title="Shammuramat">Shammuramat</a>♀ (regent) <a href="/wiki/Adad-nirari_III" title="Adad-nirari III">Adad-nirari III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_IV" title="Shalmaneser IV">Shalmaneser IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-dan_III" title="Ashur-dan III">Ashur-Dan III</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nirari_V" title="Ashur-nirari V">Ashur-nirari V</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="6"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/45px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg" decoding="async" width="45" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/68px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg/90px-Tablet_of_Shamash_relief.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="937" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure>Eight Babylonian Dynasty <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-kudurri-usur_II" title="Ninurta-kudurri-usur II">Ninurta-kudurri-usur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina" title="Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina">Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Shamash-mudammiq" title="Shamash-mudammiq">Shamash-mudammiq</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_I" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin I">Nabu-shuma-ukin I</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-apla-iddina" title="Nabu-apla-iddina">Nabu-apla-iddina</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_I" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi I">Marduk-zakir-shumi I</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-balassu-iqbi" title="Marduk-balassu-iqbi">Marduk-balassu-iqbi</a> <a href="/wiki/Baba-aha-iddina" title="Baba-aha-iddina">Baba-aha-iddina</a> (five kings) <a href="/wiki/Ninurta-apla-X" title="Ninurta-apla-X">Ninurta-apla-X</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-bel-zeri" title="Marduk-bel-zeri">Marduk-bel-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-usur" title="Marduk-apla-usur">Marduk-apla-usur</a> <a href="/wiki/Eriba-Marduk" title="Eriba-Marduk">Eriba-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ishkun" title="Nabu-shuma-ishkun">Nabu-shuma-ishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonassar" title="Nabonassar">Nabonassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-nadin-zeri" title="Nabu-nadin-zeri">Nabu-nadin-zeri</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-shuma-ukin_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabu-shuma-ukin II">Nabu-shuma-ukin II</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabu-mukin-zeri" title="Nabu-mukin-zeri">Nabu-mukin-zeri</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Elam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of rulers of Elam">Humban-Tahrid dynasty</a> <a href="/wiki/Urtak_(king_of_Elam)" title="Urtak (king of Elam)">Urtak</a> <a href="/wiki/Teumman" title="Teumman">Teumman</a> <a href="/wiki/Ummanigash_(son_of_Urtak)" title="Ummanigash (son of Urtak)">Ummanigash</a> <a href="/wiki/Tammaritu_(son_of_Urtak)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tammaritu (son of Urtak)">Tammaritu I</a> <a href="/wiki/Indabibi" title="Indabibi">Indabibi</a> <a href="/wiki/Humban-haltash_III" title="Humban-haltash III">Humban-haltash III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">745–609 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taharqa"><img alt="Taharqa" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/30px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/45px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg/60px-Taharqa_reconstructed_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Taharqa</figcaption></figure>("<a href="/wiki/Black_Pharaohs" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Pharaohs">Black Pharaohs</a>") <a href="/wiki/Piye" title="Piye">Piye</a> <a href="/wiki/Shebitku" title="Shebitku">Shebitku</a> <a href="/wiki/Shabaka" title="Shabaka">Shabaka</a> <a href="/wiki/Taharqa" title="Taharqa">Taharqa</a> <a href="/wiki/Tantamani" title="Tantamani">Tanutamun</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="10" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sargonid_dynasty" title="Sargonid dynasty">Sargonid dynasty</a>) <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_V" title="Shalmaneser V">Shalmaneser</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a>† <a href="/wiki/Marduk-zakir-shumi_II" title="Marduk-zakir-shumi II">Marduk-zakir-shumi II</a> <a href="/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_II" title="Marduk-apla-iddina II">Marduk-apla-iddina II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bel-ibni" title="Bel-ibni">Bel-ibni</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-nadin-shumi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-nadin-shumi">Ashur-nadin-shumi</a>† <a href="/wiki/Nergal-ushezib" title="Nergal-ushezib">Nergal-ushezib</a> <a href="/wiki/Mushezib-Marduk" title="Mushezib-Marduk">Mushezib-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a>† <a href="/wiki/Ashurbanipal" title="Ashurbanipal">Ashurbanipal</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-etil-ilani" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashur-etil-ilani">Ashur-etil-ilani</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinsharishkun" title="Sinsharishkun">Sinsharishkun</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin-shumu-lishir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sin-shumu-lishir">Sin-shumu-lishir</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashur-uballit_II" title="Ashur-uballit II">Ashur-uballit II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Assyrian conquest of Egypt">Assyrian conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#AFEEEE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_conquest_of_Elam" title="Assyrian conquest of Elam">Assyrian conquest of Elam</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>626–539 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Late_Period_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Late Period of ancient Egypt">Late Period</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_I" title="Necho I">Necho I</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_I" title="Psamtik I">Psamtik I</a> <a href="/wiki/Necho_II" title="Necho II">Necho II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_II" title="Psamtik II">Psamtik II</a> <a href="/wiki/Apries" title="Apries">Wahibre</a> <a href="/wiki/Amasis_II" title="Amasis II">Ahmose II</a> <a href="/wiki/Psamtik_III" title="Psamtik III">Psamtik III</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#F5DEB3;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a> <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> <a href="/wiki/Amel-Marduk" title="Amel-Marduk">Amel-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Neriglissar" title="Neriglissar">Neriglissar</a> <a href="/wiki/Labashi-Marduk" title="Labashi-Marduk">Labashi-Marduk</a> <a href="/wiki/Nabonidus" title="Nabonidus">Nabonidus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10"><a href="/wiki/Median_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median Empire">Median Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Deioces" title="Deioces">Deioces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraortes" title="Phraortes">Phraortes</a> <a href="/wiki/Madyes" title="Madyes">Madyes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyaxares" title="Cyaxares">Cyaxares</a> <a href="/wiki/Astyages" title="Astyages">Astyages</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">539–331 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt</a> (<a href="/wiki/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt">First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt</a>) </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="1" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Byblos" title="Kings of Byblos">Kings of Byblos</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Tyre" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Tyre">Kings of Tyre</a> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Sidon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Sidon">Kings of Sidon</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="10" rowspan="3"><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darius_In_Parse.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/30px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG" decoding="async" width="30" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/45px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Darius_In_Parse.JPG/60px-Darius_In_Parse.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="3130" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus</a> <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_II" title="Cambyses II">Cambyses</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Darius I">Darius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_I" title="Artaxerxes I">Artaxerxes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_II" title="Darius II">Darius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_II" title="Artaxerxes II">Artaxerxes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Artaxerxes IV">Artaxerxes IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Darius_III" title="Darius III">Darius III</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFF8DC;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-eighth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Twenty-ninth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt">Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Thirtieth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt">Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Thirty-first_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt">Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>331–141 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="2" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Egypt">Ptolemaic Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_I_Soter" title="Ptolemy I Soter">Ptolemy I Soter</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_Keraunos" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy Keraunos">Ptolemy Keraunos</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_II_Philadelphus" title="Ptolemy II Philadelphus">Ptolemy II Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_II" title="Arsinoe II">Arsinoe II</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_III_Euergetes" title="Ptolemy III Euergetes">Ptolemy III Euergetes</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice II">Berenice II Euergetis</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IV_Philopator" title="Ptolemy IV Philopator">Ptolemy IV Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_III_Philopator" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsinoe III Philopator">Arsinoe III Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_V_Epiphanes" title="Ptolemy V Epiphanes">Ptolemy V Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_I_Syra" title="Cleopatra I Syra">Cleopatra I Syra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VI_Philometor" title="Ptolemy VI Philometor">Ptolemy VI Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VII_Neos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator">Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_II_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra II of Egypt">Cleopatra II Philometor Soter</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_VIII_Physcon" title="Ptolemy VIII Physcon">Ptolemy VIII Physcon</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra III of Egypt">Cleopatra III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_IX_Lathyros" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy IX Lathyros">Ptolemy IX Lathyros</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra IV of Egypt">Cleopatra IV</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_X_Alexander_I" title="Ptolemy X Alexander I">Ptolemy X Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Berenice_III_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice III of Egypt">Berenice III</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XI_Alexander_II" title="Ptolemy XI Alexander II">Ptolemy XI Alexander</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XII_Auletes" title="Ptolemy XII Auletes">Ptolemy XII Auletes</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_V" title="Cleopatra V">Cleopatra V</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra_VI_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Cleopatra VI of Egypt">Cleopatra VI Tryphaena</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Berenice_IV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Berenice IV of Egypt">Berenice IV Epiphanea</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIII_Theos_Philopator" title="Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator">Ptolemy XIII</a> <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy_XIV_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemy XIV of Egypt">Ptolemy XIV</a> <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra VII Philopator</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Caesarion" title="Caesarion">Ptolemy XV Caesarion</a> <a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_IV" title="Arsinoe IV">Arsinoe IV</a>♀ </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="11">Hellenistic Period <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon"><img alt="Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/60px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/90px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg/120px-Seleukos_I_Nikator_Tetradrachm_from_Babylon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption>Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from Babylon</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Argead_dynasty" title="Argead dynasty">Argead dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Macedon" title="Philip III of Macedon">Philip III</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_IV_of_Macedon" title="Alexander IV of Macedon">Alexander IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonid_dynasty" title="Antigonid dynasty">Antigonid dynasty</a>: <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_I_Monophthalmus" title="Antigonus I Monophthalmus">Antigonus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a>: <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_I_Nicator" title="Seleucus I Nicator">Seleucus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_I_Soter" title="Antiochus I Soter">Antiochus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_II_Theos" title="Antiochus II Theos">Antiochus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_II_Callinicus" title="Seleucus II Callinicus">Seleucus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_III_Ceraunus" title="Seleucus III Ceraunus">Seleucus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_III_the_Great" title="Antiochus III the Great">Antiochus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_IV_Philopator" title="Seleucus IV Philopator">Seleucus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IV_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus IV Epiphanes">Antiochus IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_V_Eupator" title="Antiochus V Eupator">Antiochus V</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Balas" title="Alexander Balas">Alexander III</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_II_Nicator" title="Demetrius II Nicator">Demetrius II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VI_Dionysus" title="Antiochus VI Dionysus">Antiochus VI Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Diodotus_Tryphon" title="Diodotus Tryphon">Diodotus Tryphon</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VII_Sidetes" title="Antiochus VII Sidetes">Antiochus VII Sidetes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>141–30 BCE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Kingdom of Judea</a> <a href="/wiki/Simon_Thassi" title="Simon Thassi">Simon Thassi</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Hyrcanus" title="John Hyrcanus">John Hyrcanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_I" title="Aristobulus I">Aristobulus I</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Jannaeus" title="Alexander Jannaeus">Alexander Jannaeus</a> <a href="/wiki/Salome_Alexandra" title="Salome Alexandra">Salome Alexandra</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Hyrcanus_II" title="Hyrcanus II">Hyrcanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristobulus_II" title="Aristobulus II">Aristobulus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Antigonus_II_Mattathias" title="Antigonus II Mattathias">Antigonus II Mattathias</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDAB9;" colspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_Zabinas" title="Alexander II Zabinas">Alexander II Zabinas</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_V_Philometor" title="Seleucus V Philometor">Seleucus V Philometor</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_VIII_Grypus" title="Antiochus VIII Grypus">Antiochus VIII Grypus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_IX_Cyzicenus" title="Antiochus IX Cyzicenus">Antiochus IX Cyzicenus</a> <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_VI_Epiphanes" title="Seleucus VI Epiphanes">Seleucus VI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_X_Eusebes" title="Antiochus X Eusebes">Antiochus X Eusebes</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XI_Epiphanes" title="Antiochus XI Epiphanes">Antiochus XI Epiphanes</a> <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_III_Eucaerus" title="Demetrius III Eucaerus">Demetrius III Eucaerus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_Philadelphus" title="Philip I Philadelphus">Philip I Philadelphus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XII_Dionysus" title="Antiochus XII Dionysus">Antiochus XII Dionysus</a> <a href="/wiki/Antiochus_XIII_Asiaticus" title="Antiochus XIII Asiaticus">Antiochus XIII Asiaticus</a> <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_Philoromaeus" title="Philip II Philoromaeus">Philip II Philoromaeus</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="9" rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_I_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates I of Parthia">Mithridates I</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_II" title="Phraates II">Phraates</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyspaosines" title="Hyspaosines">Hyspaosines</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_I_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus I of Parthia">Artabanus</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates II of Parthia">Mithridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_I" title="Gotarzes I">Gotarzes</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates III of Parthia">Mithridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_I_of_Parthia" title="Orodes I of Parthia">Orodes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces of Parthia">Sinatruces</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_III" title="Phraates III">Phraates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_IV_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates IV of Parthia">Mithridates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_II" title="Orodes II">Orodes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_IV" title="Phraates IV">Phraates IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_II_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates II of Parthia">Tiridates II</a> <a href="/wiki/Musa_of_Parthia" title="Musa of Parthia">Musa</a> <a href="/wiki/Phraates_V" title="Phraates V">Phraates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Orodes_III_of_Parthia" title="Orodes III of Parthia">Orodes III</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_I" title="Vonones I">Vonones I</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_III_of_Parthia" title="Tiridates III of Parthia">Tiridates III</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_II_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus II of Parthia">Artabanus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_I" title="Vardanes I">Vardanes I</a> <a href="/wiki/Gotarzes_II_of_Parthia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gotarzes II of Parthia">Gotarzes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Meherdates" title="Meherdates">Meherdates</a> <a href="/wiki/Vonones_II" title="Vonones II">Vonones II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_I_of_Parthia" title="Vologases I of Parthia">Vologases I</a> <a href="/wiki/Vardanes_II" title="Vardanes II">Vardanes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Pacorus_II" title="Pacorus II">Pacorus II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_II_of_Parthia" title="Vologases II of Parthia">Vologases II</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_III_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus III of Parthia">Artabanus III</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_I" title="Osroes I">Osroes I</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">30 BCE–116 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="4" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="4">(<a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman conquest of Egypt">Roman conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="1">116–117 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="3" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> under <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="6" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Parthamaspates_of_Parthia" title="Parthamaspates of Parthia">Parthamaspates of Parthia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>117–224 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#FFDEAD;" colspan="8" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sinatruces_II_of_Parthia" title="Sinatruces II of Parthia">Sinatruces II</a> <a href="/wiki/Mithridates_V_of_Parthia" title="Mithridates V of Parthia">Mithridates V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_IV" title="Vologases IV">Vologases IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Osroes_II" title="Osroes II">Osroes II</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_V" title="Vologases V">Vologases V</a> <a href="/wiki/Vologases_VI" title="Vologases VI">Vologases VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Artabanus_IV_of_Parthia" title="Artabanus IV of Parthia">Artabanus IV</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>224–270 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Ardashir_I_(phase_3),_Hamadan_mint.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint."><img alt="Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/40px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/60px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg/80px-Coin_of_Ardashir_I_%28phase_3%29%2C_Hamadan_mint.jpg 2x" data-file-width="397" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_I" title="Ardashir I">Ardashir I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_I" title="Shapur I">Shapur I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_I" title="Hormizd I">Hormizd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_I" title="Bahram I">Bahram I</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_II" title="Bahram II">Bahram II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_III" title="Bahram III">Bahram III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narseh" title="Narseh">Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_II" title="Hormizd II">Hormizd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Adur_Narseh" title="Adur Narseh">Adur Narseh</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_IV" title="Bahram IV">Bahram IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_I" title="Yazdegerd I">Yazdegerd I</a> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_IV" title="Shapur IV">Shapur IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_(son_of_Bahram_IV)" title="Khosrow (son of Bahram IV)">Khosrow</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_V" title="Bahram V">Bahram V</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_II" title="Yazdegerd II">Yazdegerd II</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_III" title="Hormizd III">Hormizd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_I" title="Peroz I">Peroz I</a> <a href="/wiki/Balash" title="Balash">Balash</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Jamasp" title="Jamasp">Jamasp</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_I" title="Kavad I">Kavad I</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_I" title="Khosrow I">Khosrow I</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_IV" title="Hormizd IV">Hormizd IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Bahram_Chobin" title="Bahram Chobin">Bahram VI Chobin</a> <a href="/wiki/Vistahm" title="Vistahm">Vistahm</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>270–273 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#48D1CC;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Vaballathus" title="Vaballathus">Vaballathus</a> <a href="/wiki/Zenobia" title="Zenobia">Zenobia</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Antiochus" title="Septimius Antiochus">Antiochus</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">273–395 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Province of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_Palaestina" title="Syria Palaestina">Syria Palaestina</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Syria_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria (Roman province)">Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Province of Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">395–618 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>618–628 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="2">(<a href="/wiki/Sasanian_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Sasanian conquest of Egypt">Sasanian conquest of Egypt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Egypt" title="Sasanian Egypt">Province of Egypt</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Sahralanyozan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahralanyozan">Sahralanyozan</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="11" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a> <a href="/wiki/Asoristan" title="Asoristan">Province of Asoristan</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_II" title="Khosrow II">Khosrow II</a> <a href="/wiki/Kavad_II" title="Kavad II">Kavad II</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">628–641 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#DEB887;" colspan="8" rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_III" title="Ardashir III">Ardashir III</a> <a href="/wiki/Shahrbaraz" title="Shahrbaraz">Shahrbaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_III" title="Khosrow III">Khosrow III</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Shapur-i_Shahrvaraz" title="Shapur-i Shahrvaraz">Shapur-i Shahrvaraz</a> <a href="/wiki/Azarmidokht" title="Azarmidokht">Azarmidokht</a>♀ <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Hormizd" title="Farrukh Hormizd">Farrukh Hormizd</a> <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_VI" title="Hormizd VI">Hormizd VI</a> <a href="/wiki/Khosrow_IV" title="Khosrow IV">Khosrow IV</a> <a href="/wiki/Boran" title="Boran">Boran</a> <a href="/wiki/Yazdegerd_III" title="Yazdegerd III">Yazdegerd III</a> <a href="/wiki/Peroz_III" title="Peroz III">Peroz III</a> <a href="/wiki/Narsieh" title="Narsieh">Narsieh</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Egypt">Byzantine Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Prima" title="Palaestina Prima">Palaestina Prima</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaestina_Secunda" title="Palaestina Secunda">Palaestina Secunda</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#B0C4DE;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Mesopotamia">Byzantine Mesopotamia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>639–651 CE </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest of Egypt">Muslim conquest of Egypt</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a> </td> <td style="text-align:center; background:#8FBC8F;" colspan="9"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:left; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" rowspan="1" colspan="7"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/10px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/15px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg/20px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_arrow-up.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a><a href="/wiki/Template:Neolithic_Chronology" title="Template:Neolithic Chronology"> Chronology of the Neolithic period</a> </td> <td style="text-align:right; background:#F5F5F5; border:0px" colspan="7" align="right"><a href="/wiki/File:Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/12px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/18px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg/24px-Font_Awesome_5_solid_long-arrow-alt-right.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="585" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_Ancient_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Template:Rulers of the Ancient Central Asia">Rulers of Ancient Central Asia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalloSimpson1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_W._Hallo" title="William W. Hallo">Hallo, W.</a>; <a href="/wiki/William_Kelly_Simpson" title="William Kelly Simpson">Simpson, W.</a> (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Near+East&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Harcourt%2C+Brace%2C+Jovanovich&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Hallo&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Simpson%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdli.ox.ac.uk/wiki/rulers_of_mesopotamia">"Rulers of Mesopotamia"</a>. cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rulers+of+Mesopotamia&rft.pub=University+of+Oxford%2C+CNRS&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdli.ox.ac.uk%2Fwiki%2Frulers_of_mesopotamia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomasPotts2020" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Ariane; <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Potts" title="Timothy Potts">Potts, Timothy</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VsHEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14">Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins</a>. Getty Publications. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60606-649-2"><bdi>978-1-60606-649-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamia%3A+Civilization+Begins&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Getty+Publications&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-60606-649-2&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Ariane&rft.au=Potts%2C+Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVsHEDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoux1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georges_Roux" title="Georges Roux">Roux, Georges</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=klZX8B_RzzYC&pg=PT534">Ancient Iraq</a>. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-193825-7"><bdi>978-0-14-193825-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Iraq&rft.pages=532-534+%28Chronological+Tables%29&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+Limited&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-14-193825-7&rft.aulast=Roux&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DklZX8B_RzzYC%26pg%3DPT534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SKL-52">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_52-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_52-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SKL_52-2">c</a> Per <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_King_List" title="Sumerian King List">Sumerian King List</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnger2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Merrill_Unger" title="Merrill Unger">Unger, Merrill F.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qw6vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History</a>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62564-606-4"><bdi>978-1-62564-606-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel+and+the+Aramaeans+of+Damascus%3A+A+Study+in+Archaeological+Illumination+of+Bible+History&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62564-606-4&rft.aulast=Unger&rft.aufirst=Merrill+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqw6vCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+Egypt" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" 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