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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_during_the_Late_Bronze_Age_(1479–1200_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_during_the_Late_Bronze_Age_(1479–1200_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_during_the_Late_Bronze_Age_(1479–1200_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ascendance_and_high_point_(1200–800_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ascendance_and_high_point_(1200–800_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ascendance_and_high_point_(1200–800_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundation_of_Carthage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundation_of_Carthage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Foundation of Carthage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundation_of_Carthage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vassalage_under_the_Assyrians_and_Babylonians_(858–538_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vassalage_under_the_Assyrians_and_Babylonians_(858–538_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vassalage_under_the_Assyrians_and_Babylonians_(858–538_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persian_period_(539–332_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_period_(539–332_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Persian period (539–332 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_period_(539–332_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_period_(332–152_BC)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_period_(332–152_BC)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_period_(332–152_BC)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demographics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demographics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Demographics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Demographics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Demographics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetic_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Genetic studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tyrian_purple" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tyrian_purple"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Tyrian purple</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tyrian_purple-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Mining</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viticulture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viticulture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Viticulture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viticulture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shipbuilding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shipbuilding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.4</span> <span>Shipbuilding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shipbuilding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Important_cities_and_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_cities_and_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Important cities and colonies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Important_cities_and_colonies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Important cities and colonies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Important_cities_and_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phoenician_colonization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phoenician_colonization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Phoenician colonization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phoenician_colonization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Society and culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society and culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Politics_and_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Politics and government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_and_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_and_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Law and administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_and_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alphabet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Alphabet</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphabet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Phoenicia</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 100 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-100" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">100 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenisi%C3%AB" title="Fenisië – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fenisië" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%8A%E1%8A%95%E1%89%84" title="ፊንቄ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፊንቄ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="فينيقيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فينيقيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A7" title="Փիւնիկէ – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Փիւնիկէ" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicia" title="Fenicia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fenicia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finikiya" title="Finikiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Finikiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%84%D8%B1" title="فنیقی‌لر – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فنیقی‌لر" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE" title="ফিনিশিয়া – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ফিনিশিয়া" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Phoenicia" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Финикия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Финикия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фінікія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фінікія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Финикия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Финикия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenikija" title="Fenikija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fenikija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenikia" title="Fenikia – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Fenikia" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Финики – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Финики" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%ADcia" title="Fenícia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fenícia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penisya" title="Penisya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Penisya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9nicie" title="Fénicie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fénicie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffenicia" title="Ffenicia – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffenicia" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B8nikien" title="Fønikien – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fønikien" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%B6nizien" title="Phönizien – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Phönizien" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foiniikia" title="Foiniikia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Foiniikia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicia" title="Fenicia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fenicia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicio" title="Fenicio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fenicio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenizia" title="Fenizia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fenizia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="فنیقی‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فنیقی‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nicie" title="Phénicie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Phénicie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenysje" title="Fenysje – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fenysje" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Fh%C3%A9in%C3%ADc" title="An Fhéiníc – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Fhéiníc" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicios" title="Fenicios – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fenicios" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8E%98%EB%8B%88%ED%82%A4%EC%95%84" title="페니키아 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="페니키아" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Phoenicia" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Փյունիկիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փյունիկիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="फ़ोनीशिया – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="फ़ोनीशिया" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicija" title="Fenicija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fenicija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangsa_Fenisia" title="Bangsa Fenisia – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bangsa Fenisia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6n%C3%ADka" title="Föníka – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Föníka" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicia" title="Fenicia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fenicia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%94" title="פיניקיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פיניקיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangsa_Fenisia" title="Bangsa Fenisia – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Bangsa Fenisia" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფინიკია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფინიკია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Финикия – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Финикия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finisia" title="Finisia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Finisia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%AEn%C3%AEkya" title="Fînîkya – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Fînîkya" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Финикия – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Финикия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenices" title="Phoenices – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Phoenices" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feni%C4%B7ija" title="Feniķija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Feniķija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finikija" title="Finikija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Finikija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenisia" title="Fenisia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Fenisia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6n%C3%ADcia" title="Fönícia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fönícia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Феникија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Феникија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenisia" title="Fenisia – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fenisia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%BB_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഫിനീഷ്യൻ സംസ്കാരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഫിനീഷ്യൻ സംസ്കാരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feni%C4%8Bi" title="Feniċi – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Feniċi" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE" title="फिनीशिया – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="फिनीशिया" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფინიკია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფინიკია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="فينيقيا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فينيقيا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%87" title="فینیقیه – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="فینیقیه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Phoenicia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%AD-n%C3%A0%CC%A4-g%C4%AD" title="Pĭ-nà̤-gĭ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Pĭ-nà̤-gĭ" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Финик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Финик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenici%C3%AB" title="Fenicië – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fenicië" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A7%E3%83%8B%E3%82%AD%E3%82%A2" title="フェニキア – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フェニキア" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B8nikia" title="Fønikia – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fønikia" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B8nikia" title="Fønikia – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fønikia" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicia" title="Fenicia – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fenicia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiinishiyaa" title="Fiinishiyaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Fiinishiyaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finikiya" title="Finikiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Finikiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86" title="ਫੋਨੀਸ਼ੀਆ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਫੋਨੀਸ਼ੀਆ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C" title="فونیقی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فونیقی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86" title="فینیکیان – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فینیکیان" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicja" title="Fenicja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fenicja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%ADcia" title="Fenícia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fenícia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicia" title="Fenicia – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fenicia" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Финикия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Финикия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fen%C3%ACtzios" title="Fenìtzios – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Fenìtzios" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicie" title="Phoenicie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Phoenicie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenikasit" title="Fenikasit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fenikasit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finici" title="Finici – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Finici" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="පීනිෂියාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පීනිෂියාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Phoenicia" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feni%C4%8Dania" title="Feničania – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Feničania" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicija" title="Fenicija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fenicija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Феникија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Феникија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenikija" title="Fenikija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fenikija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foinikia" title="Foinikia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Foinikia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenicien" title="Fenicien – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fenicien" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Phoenicia" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%80%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE" title="போனீசியா – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="போனீசியா" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifniqen" title="Ifniqen – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Ifniqen" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2" title="ฟินิเชีย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฟินิเชีย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenikeliler" title="Fenikeliler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fenikeliler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фінікія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фінікія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C" title="فونیقی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فونیقی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenici" title="Fenici – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fenici" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phoenicia" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenisya" title="Fenisya – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Fenisya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%93%E5%B0%BC%E5%9F%BA" title="腓尼基 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="腓尼基" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%93%E5%B0%BC%E5%9F%BA" title="腓尼基 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="腓尼基" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%85%93%E5%B0%BC%E5%9F%BA" title="腓尼基 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="腓尼基" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q41642#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li 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</nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><span id="coordinates"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Phoenicia&params=34_07_25_N_35_39_04_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">34°07′25″N</span> <span class="longitude">35°39′04″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">34.12361°N 35.65111°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">34.12361; 35.65111</span></span></span></a></span></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient Semitic maritime civilization</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Phoenicia</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">2500 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Bentley-2000_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bentley-2000-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–64 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data">None; dominant cities were <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAubet200118,_44_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAubet200118,_44-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite religion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-states</a> ruled by <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">kings</a>, with varying degrees of <a href="/wiki/Oligarchic" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligarchic">oligarchic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plutocratic" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutocratic">plutocratic</a> elements; oligarchic <a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">republic</a> in <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> after c. 480 BC<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Major kings of Phoenician cities</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1800 BC</span> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abishemu_of_Byblos" title="Abishemu of Byblos">Abishemu I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 969–936 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hiram_I" title="Hiram I">Hiram I</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 820–774 BC </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pygmalion_of_Tyre" title="Pygmalion of Tyre">Pygmalion of Tyre</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">2500 BC<sup id="cite_ref-Bentley-2000_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bentley-2000-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> becomes dominant city-state under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hiram_I" title="Hiram I">Hiram I</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">969 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> founded (in Roman accounts by <a href="/wiki/Dido" title="Dido">Dido</a>) </div></th><td class="infobox-data">814 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data">64 BC</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hittite_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Empire">Hittite Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian Empire">Egyptian Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria (Roman province)</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Phoenicians</b> were an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">ancient Semitic</a> group of people who lived in the Phoenician city-states along a coastal strip in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> region of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">eastern Mediterranean</a>, primarily modern <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They developed a <a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">maritime</a> civilization which expanded and contracted throughout history, with the core of their culture stretching from <a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mount_Carmel" title="Mount Carmel">Mount Carmel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phoenicians extended their cultural influence through trade and colonization throughout the Mediterranean, from <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>. </p><p>The Phoenicians directly succeeded the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a>, continuing their cultural traditions following the decline of most major cultures in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> and into the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> without interruption. It is believed that they self-identified as Canaanites and referred to their land as Canaan, indicating a continuous cultural and geographical association.<sup id="cite_ref-Gates-2011_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gates-2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name <i>Phoenicia</i> is an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Exonym_and_endonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym and endonym">exonym</a> that did not correspond precisely to a cohesive culture or society as it would have been understood natively.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuinn2017xviii_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuinn2017xviii-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the division between Canaanites and Phoenicians around 1200 BC is regarded as a modern and artificial division.<sup id="cite_ref-Gates-2011_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gates-2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuinn201716-24_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuinn201716-24-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Phoenicians, known for their prowess in trade, seafaring and navigation, dominated commerce across classical antiquity and developed an expansive maritime trade network lasting over a millennium. This network facilitated cultural exchanges among major <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">cradles of civilization</a>, such as Greece, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. The Phoenicians established colonies and trading posts across the Mediterranean; <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a>, a settlement in northwest Africa, became a major civilization in its own right in the seventh century BC. </p><p>The Phoenicians were organized in <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a>, similar to those of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, of which the most notable were <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAubet200117_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAubet200117-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each city-state was politically independent, and there is no evidence the Phoenicians viewed themselves as a single nationality.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuinn2017201–203_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuinn2017201–203-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While most city-states were governed by some form of <a href="/wiki/King" title="King">kingship</a>, merchant families probably exercised influence through <a href="/wiki/Oligarchies" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligarchies">oligarchies</a>. After reaching its zenith in the ninth century BC, the Phoenician civilization in the eastern Mediterranean gradually declined due to external influences and conquests. Yet, their presence persisted in the central and western Mediterranean until the <a href="/wiki/Destruction_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of Carthage">destruction of Carthage</a> in the mid-second century BC. </p><p>The Phoenicians were long considered a lost civilization due to the lack of indigenous written records, and only since the mid-20th century have historians and <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeologists</a> been able to reveal a complex and influential civilization.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkoe200010–12_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoe200010–12-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their best known legacy is the world's <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">oldest verified alphabet</a>, whose origin was connected to the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic script</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECoulmas1996_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoulmas1996-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and which was transmitted across the Mediterranean and used to develop the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> and in turn the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic alphabet">Cyrillic alphabets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000111_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000111-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fischer-2004_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-2004-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phoenicians are also credited with innovations in shipbuilding, navigation, industry, agriculture, and government. Their international trade network is believed to have fostered the economic, political, and cultural foundations of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Western civilization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hans_G._Niemeyer_2004_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hans_G._Niemeyer_2004-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Being a society of independent city states, the Phoenicians apparently did not have a term to denote the land of Phoenicia as a whole;<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> instead, demonyms were often derived from the name of the city an individual hailed from (e.g., <i>Sidonian</i> for <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, <i>Tyrian</i> for <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, etc.) If the Phoenicians had an endonym to denote the land overall, some scholars believe that they would have used "<a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>" and therefore referred to themselves as "Canaanites".<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Krahmalkov reconstructs the <a href="/wiki/Honeyman_inscription" title="Honeyman inscription">Honeyman inscription</a> (dated to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 900</span> BC by <a href="/wiki/William_F._Albright" title="William F. Albright">William F. Albright</a>) as containing a reference to the Phoenician homeland, calling it <i>Pūt</i> (<a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>: 𐤐𐤕).<sup id="cite_ref-Honeyman_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Honeyman-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Obelisks at <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a> contain references to a "land of <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fn%E1%B8%ABw" class="extiw" title="wikt:fnḫw">fnḫw</a></i>", <i>fnḫw</i> being the plural form of <i>fnḫ</i>, the Ancient Egyptian word for 'carpenter'. This "land of carpenters" is generally identified as Phoenicia, given that Phoenicia played a central role in the lumber trade of the Levant.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an <a href="/wiki/Exonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym">exonym</a>, <i>fnḫw</i> was evidently borrowed into Greek as <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">φοῖνιξ</span></span>, <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">phoînix</i></span></i>, which meant variably 'Phoenician person', '<a href="/wiki/Tyrian_purple" title="Tyrian purple">Tyrian purple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimson" title="Crimson">crimson</a>' or '<a href="/wiki/Date_palm" title="Date palm">date palm</a>'. <a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a> used it with each of these meanings.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word is already attested in <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek">Mycenaean Greek</a> Linear B from the 2nd millennium BC, as <i>po-ni-ki-jo</i>. In those records, it means 'crimson' or 'palm tree' and does not denote a group of people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuinn201748_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuinn201748-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name <i>Phoenicians</i>, like <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Poenī</i></span></i> (adj. <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">poenicus</i></span></i>, later <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">pūnicus</i></span></i>), comes from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Φοινίκη</span></span>, <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">Phoiníkē</i></span></i>. <i><a href="/wiki/Poenulus" title="Poenulus">Poenulus</a></i>, a Latin comedic play written in the early 2nd century BC, appears to preserve a <a href="/wiki/Punic" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic">Punic</a> term for 'Phoenicians', which may be reconstructed as *<i>Pōnnīm</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_history" title="Phoenician history">Phoenician history</a></div> <p>Since little has survived of Phoenician records or <a href="/wiki/Phoenician-Punic_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician-Punic literature">literature</a>, most of what is known about their origins and history comes from the accounts of other civilizations and inferences from their material culture excavated throughout the Mediterranean. The scholarly consensus is that the Phoenicians' period of greatest prominence was 1200 BC to the end of the Persian period (332 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is debated whether Phoenicians were actually distinct from the broader group of Semitic-speaking peoples known as <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuinn201724,_204_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuinn201724,_204-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Robert Drews believes the term "Canaanites" corresponds to the ethnic group referred to as "Phoenicians" by the ancient Greeks;<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> archaeologist Jonathan N. Tubb argues that "<a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammonites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moabites" class="mw-redirect" title="Moabites">Moabites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a>, and Phoenicians undoubtedly achieved their own cultural identities, and yet ethnically they were all Canaanites", "the same people who settled in farming villages in the region in the 8th millennium BC".<sup id="cite_ref-JonTubb_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JonTubb-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13–14">: 13–14 </span></sup> Brian R. Doak states that scholars use "Phoenicians" as a short-hand for "Canaanites living in a set of cities along the northern Levantine coast who shared a language and material culture in the Iron I–II period and who also developed an organized system of colonies in the western Mediterranean world".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Phoenician <a href="/wiki/Early_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Bronze Age">Early Bronze Age</a> is largely unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-Jig2021_18_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jig2021_18-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two most important sites are <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a> and Sidon-Dakerman (near Sidon), although, as of 2021, well over a hundred sites remain to be excavated, while others that have been are yet to be fully analysed.<sup id="cite_ref-Jig2021_18_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jig2021_18-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Middle_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Bronze Age">Middle Bronze Age</a> was a generally peaceful time of increasing population, trade, and prosperity, though there was competition for natural resources.<sup id="cite_ref-Jig2021_20_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jig2021_20-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Bronze Age">Late Bronze Age</a>, rivalry between Egypt, the Mittani, the Hittites, and Assyria had a significant impact on Phoenician cities.<sup id="cite_ref-Jig2021_20_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jig2021_20-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Retjenu" title="Retjenu">Retjenu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_the_Levant" title="Prehistory of the Levant">Prehistory of the Levant</a></div> <p>The Canaanite culture that gave rise to the Phoenicians apparently developed <i>in situ</i> from the earlier <a href="/wiki/Ghassulian" title="Ghassulian">Ghassulian</a> <a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">chalcolithic</a> culture. Ghassulian itself developed from the <a href="/wiki/Nomadic_pastoralism" title="Nomadic pastoralism">Circum-Arabian Nomadic Pastoral Complex</a>, which in turn developed from a fusion of their ancestral <a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harifian" class="mw-redirect" title="Harifian">Harifian</a> cultures with <a href="/wiki/Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B</a> (PPNB) farming cultures, practicing the <a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestication of animals">domestication of animals</a> during the <a href="/wiki/8.2_kiloyear_event" class="mw-redirect" title="8.2 kiloyear event">8.2 kiloyear event</a>, which led to the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Late Bronze Age state of <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> is considered quintessentially Canaanite archaeologically,<sup id="cite_ref-tubb_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tubb-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even though the <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic language</a> does not belong to the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite languages</a> proper.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Naveh-1987_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naveh-1987-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fourth-century BC Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> claimed that the Phoenicians had migrated from the <a href="/wiki/Erythraean_Sea" title="Erythraean Sea">Erythraean Sea</a> around 2750 BC and the first-century AD geographer <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> reports a claim that they came from Tylos and Arad (<a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muharraq" title="Muharraq">Muharraq</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bowersock,_G.W.-1986_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowersock,_G.W.-1986-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rice,_Michael-1994_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice,_Michael-1994-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-R._A._Donkin-1998_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-R._A._Donkin-1998-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some archaeologists working on the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> have accepted these traditions and suggest a migration connected with the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Dilmun_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Dilmun civilization">Dilmun civilization</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1750</span> BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Bowersock,_G.W.-1986_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bowersock,_G.W.-1986-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rice,_Michael-1994_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rice,_Michael-1994-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-R._A._Donkin-1998_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-R._A._Donkin-1998-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, most scholars reject the idea of a migration; archaeological and historical evidence alike indicate millennia of population continuity in the region, and recent genetic research indicates that present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a Canaanite-related population.<sup id="cite_ref-Habercetera_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Habercetera-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_during_the_Late_Bronze_Age_(1479–1200_BC)"><span id="Emergence_during_the_Late_Bronze_Age_.281479.E2.80.931200_BC.29"></span>Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Emergence during the Late Bronze Age (1479–1200 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first known account of the Phoenicians relates to the conquests of Pharaoh <a href="/wiki/Thutmose_III" title="Thutmose III">Thutmose III</a> (1479–1425 BC). The Egyptians targeted coastal cities which they wrote belonged to the <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fn%E1%B8%ABw" class="extiw" title="wikt:fnḫw">Fenekhu</a></i>, 'carpenters', such as Byblos, Arwad, and Ullasa for their crucial geographic and commercial links with the interior (via the <a href="/wiki/Nahr_al-Kabir" title="Nahr al-Kabir">Nahr al-Kabir</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes rivers</a>). The cities provided Egypt with access to Mesopotamian trade and abundant stocks of the region's <a href="/wiki/Cedrus_libani" title="Cedrus libani">native cedarwood</a>. There was no equivalent in the Egyptian homeland.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkoe20001–19_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoe20001–19-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the mid-14th century BC, the Phoenician city-states were considered "favored cities" to the Egyptians. Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Byblos were regarded as the most important. The Phoenicians had considerable autonomy, and their cities were reasonably well developed and prosperous. Byblos was the leading city; it was a center for bronze-making and the primary terminus of precious goods such as <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">lapis lazuli</a> from as far east as <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. Sidon and Tyre also commanded interest among Egyptian officials, beginning a pattern of rivalry that would span the next millennium. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna letters</a> report that from 1350 to 1300 BC, neighboring <a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a> were capturing Phoenician cities, especially in the north. Egypt subsequently lost its coastal holdings from Ugarit in northern Syria to Byblos near central Lebanon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ascendance_and_high_point_(1200–800_BC)"><span id="Ascendance_and_high_point_.281200.E2.80.93800_BC.29"></span>Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ascendance and high point (1200–800 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sometime between 1200 and 1150 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a> severely weakened or destroyed most civilizations in the region, including the Egyptians and Hittites. The Phoenicians were able to survive and navigate the challenges of the crisis, and by 1230 BC city-states such as Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos, maintained political independence, asserted their maritime interests through overseas colonization, and enjoyed economic prosperity. The period is sometimes described as a "Phoenician renaissance".<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phoenician city-states filled the power vacuum caused by the Late Bronze Age collapse and created a vast mercantile network. The city-states during this time were Tyre, Sidon, Byblos, Aradus, Beirut, and Tripoli.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The recovery of the Mediterranean economy can be credited to Phoenician mariners and merchants, who re-established long-distance trade between Egypt and Mesopotamia in the 10th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Bentley-1999_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bentley-1999-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early into the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, the Phoenicians established ports, warehouses, markets, and settlement all across the Mediterranean and up to the southern Black Sea. Colonies were established on <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Balearic_Islands" title="Balearic Islands">Balearic Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, as well as the coasts of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phoenician <a href="/wiki/Hacksilver" title="Hacksilver">hacksilver</a> dated to this period bears lead isotope ratios matching ores in Sardinia and Spain, indicating the extent of Phoenician trade networks.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the tenth century BC, Tyre rose to become the richest and most powerful Phoenician city-state, particularly during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Hiram_I" title="Hiram I">Hiram I</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 969–936</span> BC).<sup id="cite_ref-History-2019_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-2019-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The expertise of Phoenician artisans sent by Hiram I of Tyre in significant construction projects during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a>, the King of Israel, is documented in the Bible.<sup id="cite_ref-Gates-2011_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gates-2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the rule of the priest <a href="/wiki/Ithobaal_I" title="Ithobaal I">Ithobaal</a> (887–856 BC), Tyre expanded its territory as far north as Beirut and into part of Cyprus; this unusual act of aggression was the closest the Phoenicians ever came to forming a unitary territorial state. Once his realm reached its largest territorial extent, Ithobaal declared himself "King of the Sidonians", a title that would be used by his successors and mentioned in both Greek and Jewish accounts.<sup id="cite_ref-History-2019_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-2019-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Late Iron Age saw the height of Phoenician shipping, mercantile, and cultural activity, particularly between 750 and 650 BC. The Phoenician influence was visible in the "orientalization" of Greek cultural and artistic conventions.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among their most popular goods were fine textiles, typically dyed with <a href="/wiki/Tyrian_purple" title="Tyrian purple">Tyrian purple</a>. Homer's <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i>, which was composed during this period, references the quality of Phoenician clothing and metal goods.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundation_of_Carthage">Foundation of Carthage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Foundation of Carthage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Carthage" title="History of Carthage">History of Carthage</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a></div> <p>Carthage was founded by Phoenicians coming from Tyre, probably initially as a station in the metal trade with the southern <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarmington1964_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarmington1964-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The city's name in <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a>, <span title="Phoenician-language text"><i lang="phn-Latn">Qart-Ḥadašt</i></span> <span class="nowrap">(<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1226385857">.mw-parser-output .script-phoenician{font-family:"Noto Sans Phoenician",sans-serif}</style><span dir="rtl" class="script-phoenician">𐤒𐤓𐤕 𐤇𐤃𐤔𐤕</span>‎)</span>, means 'New City'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECharles-PicardPicard196828–35_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharles-PicardPicard196828–35-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a tradition in some ancient sources, such as <a href="/wiki/Philistus" title="Philistus">Philistos of Syracuse</a>, for an "early" foundation date of around 1215 BC—before the <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">fall of Troy</a> in 1180 BC. However, <a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(historian)" title="Timaeus (historian)">Timaeus</a>, a Greek historian from Sicily <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 300</span> BC, places the foundation of Carthage in 814 BC, which is the date generally accepted by modern historians.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELancel199520–23_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELancel199520–23-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legend, including <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>, assigns the founding of the city to Queen <a href="/wiki/Dido" title="Dido">Dido</a>. Carthage would grow into a multi-ethnic empire spanning North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia, but would ultimately be destroyed by Rome in the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a> (264–146 BC) before being rebuilt as a Roman city.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vassalage_under_the_Assyrians_and_Babylonians_(858–538_BC)"><span id="Vassalage_under_the_Assyrians_and_Babylonians_.28858.E2.80.93538_BC.29"></span>Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vassalage under the Assyrians and Babylonians (858–538 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Assyrian_rule" title="Phoenicia under Assyrian rule">Phoenicia under Assyrian rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Babylonian_rule" title="Phoenicia under Babylonian rule">Phoenicia under Babylonian rule</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assyrian_-_Fragments_of_Bands_from_a_Gate_-_Walters_542335_-_View_A.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Assyrian_-_Fragments_of_Bands_from_a_Gate_-_Walters_542335_-_View_A.jpg/220px-Assyrian_-_Fragments_of_Bands_from_a_Gate_-_Walters_542335_-_View_A.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Assyrian_-_Fragments_of_Bands_from_a_Gate_-_Walters_542335_-_View_A.jpg/330px-Assyrian_-_Fragments_of_Bands_from_a_Gate_-_Walters_542335_-_View_A.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Assyrian_-_Fragments_of_Bands_from_a_Gate_-_Walters_542335_-_View_A.jpg/440px-Assyrian_-_Fragments_of_Bands_from_a_Gate_-_Walters_542335_-_View_A.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1251" /></a><figcaption>Two bronze fragments from an <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> palace gate depicting the collection of tribute from the Phoenician cities of <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a> (859–824 BC). British Museum.</figcaption></figure> <p>As mercantile city-states concentrated along a narrow coastal strip of land, the Phoenicians lacked the size and population to support a large military. Thus, as neighboring empires began to rise, the Phoenicians increasingly fell under the sway of foreign rulers, who to varying degrees circumscribed their autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-History-2019_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-2019-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (September 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Assyrian conquest of Phoenicia began with King <a href="/wiki/Shalmaneser_III" title="Shalmaneser III">Shalmaneser III</a>. He rose to power in 858 BC and began a series of campaigns against neighboring states. The Phoenician city-states fell under his rule, forced to pay heavy tribute in money, goods, and natural resources. Initially, they were not annexed outright—they remained in a state of vassalage, subordinate to the Assyrians but allowed a certain degree of freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-History-2019_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-2019-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (September 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This changed in 744 BC with the ascension of <a href="/wiki/Tiglath-Pileser_III" title="Tiglath-Pileser III">Tiglath-Pileser III</a>. By 738 BC, most of the Levant, including northern Phoenicia, were annexed; only Tyre and Byblos, the most powerful city-states, remained tributary states outside of direct Assyrian control.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Tyre, Byblos, and Sidon all rebelled against Assyrian rule. In 721 BC, <a href="/wiki/Sargon_II" title="Sargon II">Sargon II</a> besieged Tyre and crushed the rebellion. His successor <a href="/wiki/Sennacherib" title="Sennacherib">Sennacherib</a> suppressed further rebellions across the region. During the seventh century BC, Sidon rebelled and was destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Esarhaddon" title="Esarhaddon">Esarhaddon</a>, who enslaved its inhabitants and built a new city on its ruins. By the end of the century, the Assyrians had been weakened by successive revolts, which led to their destruction by the <a href="/wiki/Median_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Median empire">Median Empire</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Babylonians, formerly vassals of the Assyrians, took advantage of the empire's collapse and rebelled, quickly establishing the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> in its place. Phoenician cities revolted several times throughout the reigns of the first Babylonian King, <a href="/wiki/Nabopolassar" title="Nabopolassar">Nabopolassar</a> (626–605 BC), and his son <a href="/wiki/Nebuchadnezzar_II" title="Nebuchadnezzar II">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 605</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 562</span> BC). In 587 BC Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre, which resisted for thirteen years, but ultimately capitulated under "favorable terms".<sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (September 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persian_period_(539–332_BC)"><span id="Persian_period_.28539.E2.80.93332_BC.29"></span>Persian period (539–332 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Persian period (539–332 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Phoenicia" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid Phoenicia">Achaemenid Phoenicia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Construction_of_Xerxes_Bridge_of_boats_by_Phoenician_sailors.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Construction_of_Xerxes_Bridge_of_boats_by_Phoenician_sailors.jpg/220px-Construction_of_Xerxes_Bridge_of_boats_by_Phoenician_sailors.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Construction_of_Xerxes_Bridge_of_boats_by_Phoenician_sailors.jpg/330px-Construction_of_Xerxes_Bridge_of_boats_by_Phoenician_sailors.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Construction_of_Xerxes_Bridge_of_boats_by_Phoenician_sailors.jpg/440px-Construction_of_Xerxes_Bridge_of_boats_by_Phoenician_sailors.jpg 2x" data-file-width="763" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Phoenicians build <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">pontoon bridges</a> for <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerxes I of Persia">Xerxes I of Persia</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Persian_invasion_of_Greece" title="Second Persian invasion of Greece">second Persian invasion of Greece</a> in 480 BC (1915 drawing by A. C. Weatherstone).</figcaption></figure> <p>In 539 BC, <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>, king and founder of the Persian <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>, took Babylon.<sup id="cite_ref-Katzenstein-1979_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katzenstein-1979-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Cyrus began consolidating territories across the Near East, the Phoenicians apparently made the pragmatic calculation of "[yielding] themselves to the Persians".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of the Levant was consolidated by Cyrus into a single <a href="/wiki/Satrap" title="Satrap">satrapy</a> (province) and forced to pay a yearly tribute of 350 <a href="/wiki/Talent_(measurement)" title="Talent (measurement)">talents</a>, which was roughly half the tribute that was required of Egypt and Libya.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Phoenician area was later divided into four vassal kingdoms—Sidon, Tyre, Arwad, and Byblos—which were allowed considerable autonomy. Unlike in other empire areas, there is no record of Persian administrators governing the Phoenician city-states. Local Phoenician kings were allowed to remain in power and given the same rights as Persian satraps (governors), such as hereditary offices and minting their coins.<sup id="cite_ref-Katzenstein-1979_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katzenstein-1979-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_of_Abdashtart_I,_Achaemenid_Phoenicia_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Coin_of_Abdashtart_I%2C_Achaemenid_Phoenicia_%282%29.jpg/220px-Coin_of_Abdashtart_I%2C_Achaemenid_Phoenicia_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Coin_of_Abdashtart_I%2C_Achaemenid_Phoenicia_%282%29.jpg/330px-Coin_of_Abdashtart_I%2C_Achaemenid_Phoenicia_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Coin_of_Abdashtart_I%2C_Achaemenid_Phoenicia_%282%29.jpg/440px-Coin_of_Abdashtart_I%2C_Achaemenid_Phoenicia_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="350" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid" class="mw-redirect" title="Achaemenid">Achaemenid</a>-era coin of <a href="/wiki/Abdashtart_I" title="Abdashtart I">Abdashtart I</a> of Sidon, who is seen at the back of the chariot, behind the Persian King</figcaption></figure> <p>The Phoenicians remained a core asset to the Achaemenid Empire, particularly for their prowess in maritime technology and navigation;<sup id="cite_ref-Katzenstein-1979_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katzenstein-1979-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a> of the late fifth century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phoenicians under <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> built the <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_Canal" title="Xerxes Canal">Xerxes Canal</a> and the pontoon bridges that allowed his forces to cross into mainland Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by the Persian King following his defeat at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a>, which he blamed on Phoenician cowardice and incompetence.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-fourth century BC, King <a href="/wiki/Tennes" title="Tennes">Tennes</a> of Sidon led a failed rebellion against <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a>, enlisting the help of the Egyptians, who were subsequently drawn into a war with the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resulting destruction of Sidon led to the resurgence of Tyre, which remained the dominant Phoenician city for two decades until the arrival of Alexander the Great. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_period_(332–152_BC)"><span id="Hellenistic_period_.28332.E2.80.93152_BC.29"></span>Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Hellenistic period (332–152 BC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phoenicia was one of the first areas to be conquered by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> during his <a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">military campaigns across western Asia</a>. Alexander's main target in the Persian Levant was Tyre, now the region's largest and most important city. It capitulated after a roughly <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">seven month siege</a>, during which many of its citizens fled to Carthage.<sup id="cite_ref-Millar-2006_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millar-2006-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tyre's refusal to allow Alexander to visit its temple to <a href="/wiki/Melqart" title="Melqart">Melqart</a>, culminating in the killing of his envoys, led to a brutal reprisal: 2,000 of its leading citizens were <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion" title="Crucifixion">crucified</a> and a puppet ruler was installed.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rest of Phoenicia easily came under his control, with Sidon surrendering peacefully.<sup id="cite_ref-Stockwell-2010_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockwell-2010-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_naval_action_during_the_siege_of_Tyre_by_Andre_Castaigne_(1898-1899).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/A_naval_action_during_the_siege_of_Tyre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/220px-A_naval_action_during_the_siege_of_Tyre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/A_naval_action_during_the_siege_of_Tyre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/330px-A_naval_action_during_the_siege_of_Tyre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/A_naval_action_during_the_siege_of_Tyre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg/440px-A_naval_action_during_the_siege_of_Tyre_by_Andre_Castaigne_%281898-1899%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1539" data-file-height="2227" /></a><figcaption>A naval action during <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">Siege of Tyre</a> (332 BC). Drawing by <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Castaigne" title="André Castaigne">André Castaigne</a>, 1888–89.</figcaption></figure> <p>Alexander's empire had a <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a> policy, whereby Hellenic culture, religion, and sometimes language were spread or imposed across conquered peoples. However, Hellenisation was not enforced most of the time and was just a language of administration until his death. This was typically implemented through the founding of new cities, the settlement of a Macedonian or Greek urban elite, and the alteration of native place names to Greek.<sup id="cite_ref-Millar-2006_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millar-2006-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there was no organized Hellenization in Phoenicia, and with one or two minor exceptions, all Phoenician city-states retained their native names, while Greek settlement and administration appear to have been very limited.<sup id="cite_ref-Millar-2006_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millar-2006-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Phoenicians maintained cultural and commercial links with their western counterparts. <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> recounts how the Seleucid King <a href="/wiki/Demetrius_I_Soter" title="Demetrius I Soter">Demetrius I</a> escaped from Rome by boarding a Carthaginian ship that was delivering goods to Tyre.<sup id="cite_ref-Millar-2006_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millar-2006-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adaptation to Macedonian rule was probably aided by the Phoenicians' historical ties with the Greeks, with whom they shared some mythological stories and figures; the two peoples were even sometimes considered "relatives".<sup id="cite_ref-Millar-2006_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millar-2006-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Alexander's empire collapsed after his death in 323 BC, the Phoenicians came under the control of the largest of its successors, the <a href="/wiki/Seleucids" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucids">Seleucids</a>. The Phoenician homeland was repeatedly contested by the <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> of Egypt during the forty-year <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Wars" title="Syrian Wars">Syrian Wars</a>, coming under Ptolemaic rule in the third century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Seleucids reclaimed the area the following century, holding it until the mid-first 2nd century BC. Under their rule, the Phoenicians were allowed a considerable degree of autonomy and self-governance.<sup id="cite_ref-britannica.com_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-britannica.com-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Dynastic_Wars" title="Seleucid Dynastic Wars">Seleucid Dynastic Wars</a> (157–63 BC), the Phoenician cities were mainly self-governed. Many of them were fought for or over by the warring factions of the Seleucid royal family. Some Phoenician regions were under Jewish influence, after the Jews revolted and succeeded in defeating the Seleucids in 164 BC. A significant portion of the Phoenician diaspora in North Africa thus converted to Judaism in the late millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Selzer1984_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selzer1984-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Seleucid Kingdom was seized by <a href="/wiki/Tigranes_the_Great" title="Tigranes the Great">Tigranes the Great</a> of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> in 82 BC, ending the Hellenistic influence on the Levant. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demographics">Demographics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Demographics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The people now known as Phoenicians were a group of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic-speaking_peoples" title="Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples">ancient Semitic-speaking peoples</a> that emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> in at least the third millennium BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phoenicians did not refer themselves as "Phoenicians" but rather are thought to have broadly referred to themselves as "Kenaʿani", meaning '<a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phoenicians specifically identified themselves with the city they hailed from (e.g., <i>Sidonian</i> for <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, <i>Tyrian</i> for <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, etc.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_studies">Genetic studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Genetic studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Canaan#Genetic_studies" title="Canaan">Canaan § Genetic studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people#Genetics" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese people § Genetics</a></div> <p>A 2008 study led by <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Zalloua" title="Pierre Zalloua">Pierre Zalloua</a> found that six subclades of <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_J-M172" title="Haplogroup J-M172">Haplogroup J-M172</a> (J2)—thought to have originated between the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_Mountains" title="Caucasus Mountains">Caucasus Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>—were of a "Phoenician signature" and present amongst the male populations of coastal Lebanon as well as the wider Levant (the "Phoenician Periphery"), followed by other areas of historic Phoenician settlement, spanning Cyprus through to Morocco. This deliberate sequential sampling was an attempt to develop a methodology to link the documented historical expansion of a population with a particular geographic genetic pattern or patterns. The researchers suggested that the proposed genetic signature stemmed from "a common source of related lineages rooted in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Zalloua_2008_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zalloua_2008-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study in 2006 found evidence for the genetic persistence of Phoenicians in the Spanish island of <a href="/wiki/Ibiza" title="Ibiza">Ibiza</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2016, the rare <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_U_(mtDNA)" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup U (mtDNA)">U5b2c1</a> maternal haplogroup was identified in the DNA of a 2,500-year-old male skeleton excavated from a Punic tomb in Tunisia. The lineage of this "Young Man of Byrsa" is believed to represent early gene flow from <a href="/wiki/Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberia">Iberia</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a 2017 study published by the <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics" title="American Journal of Human Genetics">American Journal of Human Genetics</a>, present-day Lebanese derive most of their ancestry from a <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanite</a>-related population, which therefore implies substantial genetic continuity in the Levant since at least the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-latimes_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-latimes-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More specifically, the research of geneticist Chris Tyler-Smith and his team at the <a href="/wiki/Sanger_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanger Institute">Sanger Institute</a> in Britain, who compared "sampled ancient DNA from five <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite people">Canaanite people</a> who lived 3,750 and 3,650 years ago" to modern people, revealed that 93 percent of the genetic ancestry of people in Lebanon came from the <a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a> (the other 7 percent was of a <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_steppe" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian steppe">Eurasian steppe</a> population).<sup id="cite_ref-latimes_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-latimes-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One 2018 study of mitochondrial lineages in Sardinia concluded that the Phoenicians were "inclusive, multicultural and featured significant female mobility", with evidence of indigenous <a href="/wiki/Sardinians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sardinians">Sardinians</a> integrating "peacefully and permanently" with Semitic Phoenician settlers. The study also found evidence suggesting that south Europeans may have likewise settled in the area of modern Lebanon.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a 2020 study published in the <a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics" title="American Journal of Human Genetics">American Journal of Human Genetics</a>, researchers have shown that there is substantial genetic continuity in Lebanon since the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> interrupted by three significant admixture events during the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Hellenistic_rule" title="Phoenicia under Hellenistic rule">Hellenistic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> period. In particular, the Phoenicians can be modeled as a mixture of the local Bronze Age population (63–88%) and a population coming from the North, related to ancient <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolians</a> or ancient <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Europe" title="Southeast Europe">South-Eastern Europeans</a> (12–37%). The results show that a <a href="/wiki/Western_Steppe_Herders" title="Western Steppe Herders">Steppe-like ancestry</a>, typically found in Europeans, appears in the region starting from the Iron Age.<sup id="cite_ref-doi_10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi_10.1016/j.ajhg.2020.05.008-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Economy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade">Trade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Phoenicians_and_wine" title="Phoenicians and wine">Phoenicians and wine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phoenician_trade_routes_(eng).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Phoenician_trade_routes_%28eng%29.svg/220px-Phoenician_trade_routes_%28eng%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Phoenician_trade_routes_%28eng%29.svg/330px-Phoenician_trade_routes_%28eng%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Phoenician_trade_routes_%28eng%29.svg/440px-Phoenician_trade_routes_%28eng%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2042" data-file-height="917" /></a><figcaption>Major Phoenician trade networks (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1200–800</span> BC)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Phoenicians served as intermediaries between the disparate civilizations that spanned the Mediterranean and Near East, facilitating the exchange of goods and knowledge, culture, and religious traditions. Their expansive and enduring trade network is credited with laying the foundations of an economically and culturally cohesive Mediterranean, which would be continued by the Greeks and especially the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-Bentley-1999_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bentley-1999-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0675_-_Phoenician_glass_necklace_-_Museo_Archeologico,_Cagliari_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_November_11_2016.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/0675_-_Phoenician_glass_necklace_-_Museo_Archeologico%2C_Cagliari_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_November_11_2016.jpg/220px-0675_-_Phoenician_glass_necklace_-_Museo_Archeologico%2C_Cagliari_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_November_11_2016.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/0675_-_Phoenician_glass_necklace_-_Museo_Archeologico%2C_Cagliari_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_November_11_2016.jpg/330px-0675_-_Phoenician_glass_necklace_-_Museo_Archeologico%2C_Cagliari_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_November_11_2016.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/0675_-_Phoenician_glass_necklace_-_Museo_Archeologico%2C_Cagliari_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_November_11_2016.jpg/440px-0675_-_Phoenician_glass_necklace_-_Museo_Archeologico%2C_Cagliari_-_Photo_by_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto%2C_November_11_2016.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Phoenician faces. Glass from Olbia, 4th century BC. The bold pools of color and detailed hair give a Greek impression.</figcaption></figure> <p>Phoenician ties with the Greeks ran deep. The earliest verified relationship appears to have begun with the <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan civilization</a> on Crete (1950–1450 BC), which together with the <a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean civilization</a> (1600–1100 BC) is considered the progenitor of classical Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological research suggests that the Minoans gradually imported Near Eastern goods, artistic styles, and customs from other cultures via the Phoenicians. </p><p>To Egypt the Phoenicians sold logs of cedar for significant sums,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECunliffe2008241–2_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunliffe2008241–2-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a> beginning in the eighth century. The wine trade with Egypt is vividly documented by shipwrecks discovered in 1997 in the open sea 50 kilometres (30 mi) west of <a href="/wiki/Ashkelon" title="Ashkelon">Ascalon</a>, Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pottery kilns at <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sarepta" title="Sarepta">Sarepta</a> produced the large terracotta jars used for transporting wine. From Egypt, the Phoenicians bought <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubian</a> gold. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG/220px-MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG/330px-MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG/440px-MuseoArqueologicoCadiz-P1050192.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Phoenician <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus" title="Sarcophagus">sarcophagi</a> found in Cádiz, Spain, thought to have been imported from the Phoenician homeland around Sidon.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Archaeological Museum of Cádiz.</figcaption></figure> <p>From elsewhere, they obtained other materials, perhaps the most crucial being <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>, mostly from <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a>. Tin for making <a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">bronze</a> "may have been acquired from <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)" title="Galicia (Spain)">Galicia</a> by way of the Atlantic coast of southern Spain; alternatively, it may have come from northern Europe (<a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> or <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a>) via the <a href="/wiki/Rhone_valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhone valley">Rhone valley</a> and coastal <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Massalia</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000103_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000103-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> states that there was a highly lucrative Phoenician trade with Britain for tin via the <a href="/wiki/Cassiterides" title="Cassiterides">Cassiterides</a>, whose location is unknown but may have been off the northwest coast of the Iberian Peninsula.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry">Industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phoenician_-_Bowl_with_Hunting_Scene_-_Walters_57705.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Phoenician_-_Bowl_with_Hunting_Scene_-_Walters_57705.jpg/220px-Phoenician_-_Bowl_with_Hunting_Scene_-_Walters_57705.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Phoenician_-_Bowl_with_Hunting_Scene_-_Walters_57705.jpg/330px-Phoenician_-_Bowl_with_Hunting_Scene_-_Walters_57705.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Phoenician_-_Bowl_with_Hunting_Scene_-_Walters_57705.jpg/440px-Phoenician_-_Bowl_with_Hunting_Scene_-_Walters_57705.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1776" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_metal_bowls" title="Phoenician metal bowls">Phoenician metal bowl</a> with hunting scene (8th century BC). The clothing and hairstyle of the figures are Egyptian. At the same time, the subject matter of the central scene conforms with the <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> theme of combat between man and beast. Phoenician artisans frequently adapted the styles of neighboring cultures.</figcaption></figure> <p>Phoenicia lacked considerable natural resources other than its <a href="/wiki/Cedrus" title="Cedrus">cedar</a> wood. Timber was probably the earliest and most lucrative source of wealth; neither Egypt nor Mesopotamia had adequate wood sources. Unable to rely solely on this limited resource, the Phoenicians developed an industrial base manufacturing a variety of goods for both everyday and luxury use.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phoenicians developed or mastered techniques such as <a href="/wiki/Glass_production" title="Glass production">glass-making</a>, engraved and <a href="/wiki/Repouss%C3%A9_and_chasing" title="Repoussé and chasing">chased</a> metalwork (including bronze, iron, and gold), ivory carving, and woodwork.<sup id="cite_ref-Markoe-1990b_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markoe-1990b-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Phoenicians were early pioneers in mass production, and sold a variety of items in bulk. They became the leading source of glassware in antiquity, shipping thousands of flasks, beads, and other glass objects across the Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Excavations of colonies in Spain suggest they also used the <a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">potter's wheel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their exposure to a wide variety of cultures allowed them to manufacture goods for specific markets.<sup id="cite_ref-Markoe-1990b_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markoe-1990b-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Iliad</i> suggests Phoenician clothing and metal goods were highly prized by the Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specialized goods were designed specifically for wealthier clientele, including ivory reliefs and plaques, carved <a href="/wiki/Tridacna" title="Tridacna">clam</a> shells, sculpted amber, and finely detailed and painted ostrich eggs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tyrian_purple">Tyrian purple</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Tyrian purple"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg/150px-Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg/225px-Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg/300px-Contemporary_portrayal_of_a_toga_picta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> tomb (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 350</span> BC) depicting a man wearing an all-purple <i><a href="/wiki/Toga_picta" class="mw-redirect" title="Toga picta">toga picta</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The most prized Phoenician goods were fabrics dyed with <a href="/wiki/Tyrian_purple" title="Tyrian purple">Tyrian purple</a>, which formed a major part of Phoenician wealth. The violet-purple dye derived from the <a href="/wiki/Hypobranchial_gland" title="Hypobranchial gland">hypobranchial gland</a> of the <i><a href="/wiki/Murex" title="Murex">Murex</a></i> marine snail, once profusely available in coastal waters of the eastern Mediterranean Sea but exploited to local extinction. Phoenicians may have discovered the dye as early as 1750 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phoenicians established a second production center for the dye in <a href="/wiki/Mogador" class="mw-redirect" title="Mogador">Mogador</a>, in present-day <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Phoenicians' exclusive command over the production and trade of the dye, combined with the labor-intensive extraction process, made it very expensive. Tyrian purple subsequently became associated with the upper classes. It soon became a <a href="/wiki/Status_symbol" title="Status symbol">status symbol</a> in several civilizations, most notably among the Romans. Assyrian tribute records from the Phoenicians include "garments of brightly colored stuff" that most likely included Tyrian purple. While the designs, ornamentation, and embroidery used in Phoenician textiles were well-regarded, the techniques and specific descriptions are unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-Markoe-1990b_83-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markoe-1990b-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mining">Mining</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Mining"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mining operations in the Phoenician homeland were limited; iron was the only metal of any worth. The first large-scale mining operations probably occurred in Cyprus, principally for copper. Sardinia may have been colonized almost exclusively for its mineral resources; Phoenician settlements were concentrated in the southern parts of the island, close to sources of copper and lead. Piles of <a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">scoria</a> and copper ingots, which appear to predate Roman occupation, suggest the Phoenicians mined and processed metals on the island. The Iberian Peninsula was the richest source of numerous metals in antiquity, including gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, and lead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawlinson1889_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlinson1889-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The significant output of these metals during the Phoenician and Carthaginian occupation strongly implied large scale mining operations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawlinson1889_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlinson1889-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Carthaginians are documented to have relied on slave labor for mining, though it is unknown if the Phoenicians as a whole did so.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERawlinson1889_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlinson1889-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (October 2020)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Viticulture">Viticulture</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Viticulture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The most notable agricultural product was wine, which the Phoenicians helped propagate across the Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-History_&_Culture-2020_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_&_Culture-2020-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Vitis_vinifera" title="Vitis vinifera">common grape vine</a> may have been domesticated by the Phoenicians or Canaanites, although it most likely arrived from <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</a> via trade routes across <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>. Vines grew readily in the coastal Levant, and wine was exported to Egypt as early as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a> period (2686–2134 BC). Wine played an important part in <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenician religion">Phoenician religion</a>, serving as the principal beverage for offerings and sacrifice.<sup id="cite_ref-History_&_Culture-2020_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_&_Culture-2020-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An excavation of a small Phoenician town south of Sidon uncovered a wine factory used from at least the seventh century BC, which is believed to have been aimed for an overseas market.<sup id="cite_ref-History_&_Culture-2020_89-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_&_Culture-2020-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To prevent <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a>, vessels were sealed with a layer of olive oil, pinewood, and resin.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Phoenicians established vineyards and wineries in their colonies in North Africa, Sicily, France, and Spain,<sup id="cite_ref-History_&_Culture-2020_89-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_&_Culture-2020-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and may have taught <a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">winemaking</a> to some of their trading partners. The ancient Iberians began producing wine from local grape varieties following their encounter with the Phoenicians. Iberian cultivars subsequently formed the basis of most western European wine.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Shipbuilding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:AssyrianWarship.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/AssyrianWarship.jpg/200px-AssyrianWarship.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/AssyrianWarship.jpg/300px-AssyrianWarship.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/AssyrianWarship.jpg/400px-AssyrianWarship.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1197" data-file-height="874" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Warship with two rows of oars, in relief from <a href="/wiki/Nineveh" title="Nineveh">Nineveh</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 700</span> BC)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern_Antiquities_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_4,_05.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Eastern_Antiquities_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_4%2C_05.JPG/200px-Eastern_Antiquities_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_4%2C_05.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Eastern_Antiquities_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_4%2C_05.JPG/300px-Eastern_Antiquities_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_4%2C_05.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Eastern_Antiquities_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_4%2C_05.JPG/400px-Eastern_Antiquities_in_the_Louvre_-_Room_4%2C_05.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">The <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Timber_Transportation_relief" title="Assyrian Timber Transportation relief">Timber Transportation relief</a> at the Louvre</div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Two Assyrian representations of ships, which could represent Phoenician vessels</div></div></div></div> <p>As early as 1200 BC, the Phoenicians built large merchant ships.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> During the Bronze Age, they developed the <a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">keel</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Pegged <a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">mortise-and-tenon</a> joints proved effective enough to serve as a standard until late into the Roman Empire.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Phoenicians were possibly the first to introduce the <a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">bireme</a>, around 700 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An Assyrian account describes Phoenicians evading capture with these ships.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Phoenicians are also credited with inventing the <a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">trireme</a>, which was regarded as the most advanced and powerful vessel in the ancient Mediterranean world, and was eventually adopted by the Greeks.<sup id="cite_ref-History-2019_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-2019-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Phoenicians developed several other maritime inventions. The <a href="/wiki/Amphora" title="Amphora">amphora</a>, a type of container used for both dry and liquid goods, was an ancient Phoenician invention that became a standardized measurement of volume for close to two thousand years. The remnants of self-cleaning artificial harbors have been discovered in Sidon, Tyre, Atlit, and Acre.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first example of <a href="/wiki/Admiralty_law" title="Admiralty law">admiralty law</a> also appears in the Levant.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phoenicians continued to contribute to cartography into the Iron Age.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2014, a 12 metres (39 ft) long <a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Phoenician trading ship</a> was found near <a href="/wiki/Gozo" title="Gozo">Gozo</a> island in Malta. Dated 700 BC, it is one of the oldest wrecks found in the Mediterranean. Fifty amphorae, used to contain wine and oil, were scattered nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Important_cities_and_colonies">Important cities and colonies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Important cities and colonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Phoenician_cities" title="List of Phoenician cities">List of Phoenician cities</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Griechischen_und_ph%C3%B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Griechischen_und_ph%C3%B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg/220px-Griechischen_und_ph%C3%B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Griechischen_und_ph%C3%B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg/330px-Griechischen_und_ph%C3%B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Griechischen_und_ph%C3%B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg/440px-Griechischen_und_ph%C3%B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2836" data-file-height="1616" /></a><figcaption>Map of Phoenician (yellow labels) and Greek (red labels) colonies around 8th to 6th century BC (with German legend)</figcaption></figure> <p>The Phoenicians were not a nation in the political sense. However, they were organized into independent city-states that shared a common language and culture. The leading city-states were Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos. Rivalries were expected, but armed conflict was rare. </p><p>Numerous other cities existed in the Levant alone, many probably unknown, including Beiruta (modern <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>) Ampi, Amia, Arqa, <a href="/wiki/Baalbek" title="Baalbek">Baalbek</a>, Botrys, Sarepta, and <a href="/wiki/Tripolis_(region_of_Phoenicia)" title="Tripolis (region of Phoenicia)">Tripolis</a>. From the late tenth century BC, the Phoenicians established commercial outposts throughout the Mediterranean, with Tyre founding colonies in Cyprus, Sardinia, Iberia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, Malta, and North Africa. Later colonies were established beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, particularly on the Atlantic coast of Iberia. The Phoenicians may have explored the Canary Islands and the British Isles.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phoenician settlement was primarily concentrated in Cyprus, Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, northwest Africa, the Balearic Islands, and southern Iberia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phoenician_colonization">Phoenician colonization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Phoenician colonization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Murs_Mozia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Murs_Mozia.jpg/220px-Murs_Mozia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Murs_Mozia.jpg/330px-Murs_Mozia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Murs_Mozia.jpg/440px-Murs_Mozia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2496" data-file-height="1664" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the ancient Phoenician city of <a href="/wiki/Motya" title="Motya">Motya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, present-day <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></figcaption></figure> <p>To facilitate their commercial ventures, the Phoenicians established numerous colonies and trading posts along the coasts of the Mediterranean. Phoenician city states generally lacked the numbers or even the desire to expand their territory overseas. Few colonies had more than 1,000 inhabitants; only Carthage and some nearby settlements in the western Mediterranean would grow larger.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major motivating factor was competition with the Greeks, who began expanding across the Mediterranean during the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-ClineGraham2011_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ClineGraham2011-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though largely peaceful rivals, their respective settlements in Crete and Sicily did clash intermittently.<sup id="cite_ref-SacksMurray2009_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SacksMurray2009-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest Phoenician settlements outside the Levant were on <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, gradually moving westward towards <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Balearic_Islands" title="Balearic Islands">Balearic Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, as well as on the European mainland in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a> and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-WaldmanMason2006_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaldmanMason2006-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean were along the northwest African coast and on <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Balearic_Islands" title="Balearic Islands">Balearic Islands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith2008_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith2008-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tyre led the way in settling or controlling coastal areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Naylor2009_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naylor2009-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phoenician colonies were fairly autonomous. At most, they were expected to send annual tribute to their mother city, usually in the context of a religious offering. However, in the seventh century BC the western colonies came under the control of Carthage,<sup id="cite_ref-SwartzDumett1980_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SwartzDumett1980-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GarnseyWhittaker2007_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GarnseyWhittaker2007-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which was exercised directly through appointed magistrates.<sup id="cite_ref-Roberts20042_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roberts20042-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carthage continued to send annual tribute to Tyre for some time after its independence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Society and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since very little of the Phoenicians' writings have survived, much of what is known about their culture and society comes from accounts by contemporary civilizations or inferences from archaeological discoveries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Phoenicians had much in common with other Canaanites, including language, religion, social customs, and a monarchical political system centered around city-states. Their culture, economy, and daily life were heavily centered on commerce and maritime trade. Their propensity for seafaring brought them into contact with many other civilizations.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (September 2024)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics_and_government">Politics and government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Politics and government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:King_Hiram_Of_Tyre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/King_Hiram_Of_Tyre.jpg/220px-King_Hiram_Of_Tyre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/King_Hiram_Of_Tyre.jpg/330px-King_Hiram_Of_Tyre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/King_Hiram_Of_Tyre.jpg/440px-King_Hiram_Of_Tyre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2434" data-file-height="1622" /></a><figcaption>Tomb of <a href="/wiki/Hiram_I" title="Hiram I">King Hiram I of Tyre</a>, located in the village of <a href="/wiki/Hanaouay" title="Hanaouay">Hanaouay</a>, in southern Lebanon</figcaption></figure> <p>The Phoenician city-states were highly independent, competing with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Formal alliances between city-states were rare. The relative power and influence of city-states varied over time. <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a> was dominant between the 12th and 11th centuries BC and influenced its neighbors. However, by the tenth century BC, <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> rose to become the most powerful city. </p><p>At least in its earlier stages, Phoenician society was highly stratified and predominantly <a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">monarchical</a>. Hereditary kings usually governed with absolute power over civic, commercial, and religious affairs. They often relied upon senior officials from the noble and merchant classes; the <a href="/wiki/Priesthood" class="mw-redirect" title="Priesthood">priesthood</a> was a distinct class, usually of royal lineage or leading merchant families. The King was considered a representative of the gods and carried many obligations and duties concerning religious processions and rituals. Priests were thus highly influential and often became intertwined with the royal family. </p><p>Phoenician kings did not commemorate their reign through sculptures or monuments. Their wealth, power, and accomplishments were usually conveyed through ornate sarcophagi, like that of <a href="/wiki/Ahiram_sarcophagus" title="Ahiram sarcophagus">Ahiram</a> of <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a>. The Phoenicians kept records of their rulers in tomb inscriptions, which are among the few primary sources still available. Historians have determined a clear line of succession over centuries for some city-states, notably Byblos and Tyre. </p><p>Starting as early as 15th century BC, Phoenician leaders were "advised by councils or assemblies which gradually took greater power".<sup id="cite_ref-Stockwell-2010_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockwell-2010-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the sixth century BC, during the period of <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Babylonian_rule" title="Phoenicia under Babylonian rule">Babylonian rule</a>, Tyre briefly adopted a system of government consisting of a pair of judges with authority roughly equivalent to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Roman consul</a>, known as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sufetes</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Shophet" title="Shophet">shophets</a>), who were chosen from the most powerful noble families and served short terms.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stockwell-2010_64-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockwell-2010-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phoenician_Merchants_and_Traders.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Phoenician_Merchants_and_Traders.jpg/220px-Phoenician_Merchants_and_Traders.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Phoenician_Merchants_and_Traders.jpg/330px-Phoenician_Merchants_and_Traders.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Phoenician_Merchants_and_Traders.jpg/440px-Phoenician_Merchants_and_Traders.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1954" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption>19th-century depiction of Phoenician sailors and merchants. The importance of trade to the Phoenician economy led to a gradual sharing of power between the King and assemblies of merchant families.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the fourth century BC, when the armies of Alexander the Great approached Tyre, they were met not by its King but by representatives of the commonwealth of the city. Similarly, historians at the time describe the "inhabitants" or "the people" of Sidon making peace with Alexander.<sup id="cite_ref-Stockwell-2010_64-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockwell-2010-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Macedonians sought to appoint a new king over Sidon, the citizens nominated their candidate.<sup id="cite_ref-Stockwell-2010_64-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stockwell-2010-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_and_administration">Law and administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Law and administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the King and council, the two most important political positions in virtually every Phoenician city-state were governor and commander of the army. Details regarding the duties of these offices are sparse. However, it is known that the governor was responsible for collecting taxes, implementing decrees, supervising judges, and ensuring the administration of law and justice.<sup id="cite_ref-History-2019_49-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-2019-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As warfare was rare among the most mercantile Phoenicians, the army's commander was generally responsible for ensuring the defense and security of the city-state and its hinterlands. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut_03102019RomanDeckert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut_03102019RomanDeckert.jpg/220px-PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut_03102019RomanDeckert.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut_03102019RomanDeckert.jpg/330px-PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut_03102019RomanDeckert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut_03102019RomanDeckert.jpg/440px-PhoenicianStela-4cBC-Tyre-NationalMuseumOfBeirut_03102019RomanDeckert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3641" data-file-height="2349" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stela" class="mw-redirect" title="Stela">Stela</a> from Tyre with Phoenician inscriptions (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 4th century BC). National Museum of Beirut.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Phoenicians had a system of courts and judges that resolved disputes and punished crimes based on a semi-codified body of laws and traditions. Laws were implemented by the state and were the responsibility of the ruler and certain designated officials. Like other Levantine societies, laws were harsh and biased, reflecting the social stratification of society. The murder of a commoner was treated as less severe than that of a nobleman, and the upper classes had the most rights; the wealthy often escaped punishment by paying a fine. Free men of any class could represent themselves in court and had more rights than women and children, while slaves had no rights. Men could often deflect punishment to their wives, children, or slaves, even having them serve their sentence in their place. Lawyers eventually emerged as a profession for those who could not plead their case. </p><p>As in neighboring societies at the time, penalties for crimes were often severe, usually reflecting the principle of reciprocity; for example, the killing of a slave would be punished by having the offender's slave killed. Imprisonment was rare, with fines, exile, punishment, and execution the main remedies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Military"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As with most aspects of Phoenician civilization, there are few records of their military or approach to warfare. Compared to most of their neighbors, the Phoenicians generally had little interest in conquest and were relatively peaceful.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wealth and prosperity of all their city-states rested on foreign trade, which required good relations and a certain degree of mutual trust. They also lacked the territory and agricultural base to support a population large enough to raise an army of conquest.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Instead, each city had an army commander in charge of a defensive garrison. However, the specifics of the role, or city defense, are unknown.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Punic" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic">Punic</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician language</a> was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic languages</a>. Its descendant language spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian Empire</a> is termed <a href="/wiki/Punic_language" title="Punic language">Punic</a>. Punic was still spoken in the fifth century AD and known to St. <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alphabet">Alphabet</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Alphabet"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ahiram_sarcophag_from_Biblos_XIII-XBC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ahiram_sarcophag_from_Biblos_XIII-XBC.jpg/220px-Ahiram_sarcophag_from_Biblos_XIII-XBC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ahiram_sarcophag_from_Biblos_XIII-XBC.jpg/330px-Ahiram_sarcophag_from_Biblos_XIII-XBC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Ahiram_sarcophag_from_Biblos_XIII-XBC.jpg/440px-Ahiram_sarcophag_from_Biblos_XIII-XBC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5299" data-file-height="3656" /></a><figcaption>Sarcophagus of <a href="/wiki/Ahiram" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahiram">Ahiram</a>, which bears the oldest inscription of the Phoenician alphabet. <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Beirut" title="National Museum of Beirut">National Museum of Beirut</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Around 1050 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-Naveh-1987_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naveh-1987-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Phoenicians developed a script for writing <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">their own language</a>. The Canaanite-Phoenician alphabet consists of 22 letters, all <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonants</a> (and is thus strictly an <a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">abjad</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Fischer-2004_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fischer-2004-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is believed to be a continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic (or Proto-Canaanite) script</a> attested in the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a> and in Canaan in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Bronze Age">Late Bronze Age</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cross1980_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cross1980-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through their maritime trade, the Phoenicians spread the use of the alphabet to <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, North Africa, and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name <i>Phoenician</i> is by convention given to inscriptions beginning around 1050 BC, because <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, and other <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_languages" title="Canaanite languages">Canaanite dialects</a> were largely indistinguishable before that time.<sup id="cite_ref-Naveh-1987_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Naveh-1987-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000111_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000111-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phoenician inscriptions are found in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestine, Cyprus and other locations, as late as the early centuries of the Christian era. </p><p>The alphabet was adopted and modified by the Greeks probably in the eighth century BC. This most likely did not occur in a single instance but the process of commercial exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoscati1965_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoscati1965-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legendary Phoenician hero <a href="/wiki/Cadmus" title="Cadmus">Cadmus</a> is credited with bringing the alphabet to Greece. However, it is more plausible that Phoenician immigrants brought it to <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whence it gradually diffused northwards. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_metal_bowls" title="Phoenician metal bowls">Phoenician metal bowls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nimrud_ivories" title="Nimrud ivories">Nimrud ivories</a></div> <p>Phoenician art was largely centered on ornamental objects, particularly jewelry, pottery, glassware, and reliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Phoenician_Art_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phoenician_Art-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large sculptures were rare; figurines were more common. Phoenician goods have been found from Spain and Morocco to Russia and Iraq; much of what is known about Phoenician art is based on excavations outside Phoenicia proper. Phoenician art was highly influenced by many cultures, primarily Egypt, Greece, and Assyria. Greek inspiration was particularly pronounced in pottery, while Egyptian styles were most reflected in ivory work.<sup id="cite_ref-Phoenician_Art_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phoenician_Art-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phoenician art also differed from its contemporaries in its continuance of <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> conventions well into the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, such as terracotta masks.<sup id="cite_ref-Markoe-1990a_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markoe-1990a-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phoenician artisans were known for their skill with wood, ivory, bronze, and textiles.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>, a craftsman from Tyre is commissioned to build and decorate the legendary <a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">Solomon's Temple</a> in Jerusalem, which "presupposes a well-developed and highly respected craft industry in Phoenicia by the mid-tenth century BC".<sup id="cite_ref-Markoe-1990a_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markoe-1990a-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i><a href="/wiki/Iliad" title="Iliad">Iliad</a></i> mentions the embroidered robes of <a href="/wiki/Priam" title="Priam">Priam</a>'s wife, Hecabe, as "the work of Sidonian women" and describes a mixing bowl of <a href="/wiki/Repouss%C3%A9_and_chasing" title="Repoussé and chasing">chased silver</a> as "a masterpiece of Sidonian craftsmanship".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The Assyrians appeared to have valued Phoenician ivory work in particular, collecting vast quantities in their palaces.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Phoenician art appears to have been indelibly tied to Phoenician commercial interests.<sup id="cite_ref-Markoe-1990b_83-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markoe-1990b-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have crafted goods to appeal to particular trading partners, distinguishing not only different cultures but even socioeconomic status classes.<sup id="cite_ref-Markoe-1990b_83-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markoe-1990b-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phoenician,_Iraq,_Nimrud,_9th-8th_Century_BC_-_Decorative_Plaque-_Man;_and_Griffin_in_Combat_-_1968.45_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and griffin; 900–800 BC; Nimrud ivories; Cleveland Museum of Art (Ohio, US)"><img alt="Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and griffin; 900–800 BC; Nimrud ivories; Cleveland Museum of Art (Ohio, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Phoenician%2C_Iraq%2C_Nimrud%2C_9th-8th_Century_BC_-_Decorative_Plaque-_Man%3B_and_Griffin_in_Combat_-_1968.45_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-151px-Phoenician%2C_Iraq%2C_Nimrud%2C_9th-8th_Century_BC_-_Decorative_Plaque-_Man%3B_and_Griffin_in_Combat_-_1968.45_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="151" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Phoenician%2C_Iraq%2C_Nimrud%2C_9th-8th_Century_BC_-_Decorative_Plaque-_Man%3B_and_Griffin_in_Combat_-_1968.45_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-227px-Phoenician%2C_Iraq%2C_Nimrud%2C_9th-8th_Century_BC_-_Decorative_Plaque-_Man%3B_and_Griffin_in_Combat_-_1968.45_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Phoenician%2C_Iraq%2C_Nimrud%2C_9th-8th_Century_BC_-_Decorative_Plaque-_Man%3B_and_Griffin_in_Combat_-_1968.45_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif/lossy-page1-302px-Phoenician%2C_Iraq%2C_Nimrud%2C_9th-8th_Century_BC_-_Decorative_Plaque-_Man%3B_and_Griffin_in_Combat_-_1968.45_-_Cleveland_Museum_of_Art.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3463" data-file-height="3896" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Decorative plaque which depicts a fighting of man and <a href="/wiki/Griffin" title="Griffin">griffin</a>; 900–800 BC; <a href="/wiki/Nimrud_ivories" title="Nimrud ivories">Nimrud ivories</a>; <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Museum_of_Art" title="Cleveland Museum of Art">Cleveland Museum of Art</a> (Ohio, US)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oinochoe_MET_DP279075.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City, US)"><img alt="Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City, US)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Oinochoe_MET_DP279075.jpg/127px-Oinochoe_MET_DP279075.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Oinochoe_MET_DP279075.jpg/191px-Oinochoe_MET_DP279075.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Oinochoe_MET_DP279075.jpg/255px-Oinochoe_MET_DP279075.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Oinochoe; 800–700 BC; terracotta; height: 24.1 cm; <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> (New York City, US)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glass_face_bead_MET_DP121044.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7  cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7  cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Glass_face_bead_MET_DP121044.jpg/127px-Glass_face_bead_MET_DP121044.jpg" decoding="async" width="127" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Glass_face_bead_MET_DP121044.jpg/191px-Glass_face_bead_MET_DP121044.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Glass_face_bead_MET_DP121044.jpg/255px-Glass_face_bead_MET_DP121044.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2882" data-file-height="3842" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Face bead; mid-4th–3rd century BC; glass; height: 2.7  cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 200px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pair_of_gold_earrings_with_four_relief_faces_MET_sf19992896ab2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Earring from a pair, each with four relief faces; late fourth–3rd century BC; gold; overall: 3.5 x 0.6  cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art"><img alt="Earring from a pair, each with four relief faces; late fourth–3rd century BC; gold; overall: 3.5 x 0.6  cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Pair_of_gold_earrings_with_four_relief_faces_MET_sf19992896ab2.jpg/121px-Pair_of_gold_earrings_with_four_relief_faces_MET_sf19992896ab2.jpg" decoding="async" width="121" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Pair_of_gold_earrings_with_four_relief_faces_MET_sf19992896ab2.jpg/182px-Pair_of_gold_earrings_with_four_relief_faces_MET_sf19992896ab2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Pair_of_gold_earrings_with_four_relief_faces_MET_sf19992896ab2.jpg/243px-Pair_of_gold_earrings_with_four_relief_faces_MET_sf19992896ab2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="643" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Earring from a pair, each with four relief faces; late fourth–3rd century BC; gold; overall: 3.5 x 0.6  cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women">Women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FemaleFigurines-Tyre-IronAge-II_NationalMuseumOfBeirut_06102019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/FemaleFigurines-Tyre-IronAge-II_NationalMuseumOfBeirut_06102019.jpg/220px-FemaleFigurines-Tyre-IronAge-II_NationalMuseumOfBeirut_06102019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/FemaleFigurines-Tyre-IronAge-II_NationalMuseumOfBeirut_06102019.jpg/330px-FemaleFigurines-Tyre-IronAge-II_NationalMuseumOfBeirut_06102019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/FemaleFigurines-Tyre-IronAge-II_NationalMuseumOfBeirut_06102019.jpg/440px-FemaleFigurines-Tyre-IronAge-II_NationalMuseumOfBeirut_06102019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3207" data-file-height="2299" /></a><figcaption>Female figurines from Tyre (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1000–550</span> BC). National Museum of Beirut.</figcaption></figure> <p>Women in Phoenicia took part in public events and religious processions, with depictions of banquets showing them casually sitting or reclining with men, dancing, and playing music.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolst201131_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolst201131-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In most contexts, women were expected to dress and behave more modestly than men; female figures are almost always portrayed as clothed from head to feet, with the arms sometimes covered as well. </p><p>Although they rarely had political power, women took part in community affairs, including in the popular assemblies that emerged in some city-states.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolst201144_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolst201144-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At least one woman, Unmiashtart, is recorded to have ruled Sidon in the fifth century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-History-2019_49-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History-2019-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The two most famous Phoenician women are political figures: <a href="/wiki/Jezebel" title="Jezebel">Jezebel</a>, portrayed in the Bible as the wicked princess of Sidon, and <a href="/wiki/Dido" title="Dido">Dido</a>, the semi-legendary founder and first queen of Carthage. In <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s epic poem, the <i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i>, Dido is described as having been the co-ruler of Tyre, using cleverness to escape the tyranny of her brother Pygmalion and to secure an ideal site for Carthage. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Religion">Religion</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite religion</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sanchuniathon" title="Sanchuniathon">Sanchuniathon</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg/220px-Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="405" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg/330px-Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg/440px-Baal_Ugarit_Louvre_AO17329.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1658" /></a><figcaption>Figure of <a href="/wiki/Ba%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'al">Ba'al</a> with raised arm, 14th–12th century BC, found at ancient <a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> (<i>Ras Shamra</i> site), a city at the far north of the Phoenician coast. <a href="/wiki/Louvre" title="Louvre">Musée du Louvre</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The religious practices and beliefs of Phoenicians were generally common to those of their neighbors in <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaan</a>, which in turn shared characteristics common throughout the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Semitic religions">ancient Semitic world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoscati1957e.g.,_p._40_&_113_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoscati1957e.g.,_p._40_&_113-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith19561–15_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith19561–15-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Religious rites were primarily for city-state purposes; payment of taxes by citizens was considered in the category of religious sacrifices.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaster1965113–143,_114–5_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaster1965113–143,_114–5-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Phoenician sacred writings known to the ancients have been lost.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarden196283–4_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarden196283–4-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several Canaanite practices are alleged in ancient sources and mentioned by scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Temple_prostitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Temple prostitution">temple prostitution</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970512–513_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970512–513-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Child_sacrifice" title="Child sacrifice">child sacrifice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970448_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970448-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Special sites known as "<a href="/wiki/Tophet" title="Tophet">Tophets</a>" were allegedly used by the Phoenicians "to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire", and are condemned in the Hebrew Bible, particularly in <i><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah" title="Jeremiah">Jeremiah</a></i> 7:30–32, and in <i><a href="/wiki/Books_of_Kings" title="Books of Kings">2nd Kings</a></i> 23:10 and 17:17. Notwithstanding differences, cultural and religious similarities persisted between the ancient Hebrews and the Phoenicians. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970173_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970173-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biblical traditions state that the <a href="/wiki/Tribe_of_Asher" title="Tribe of Asher">Tribe of Asher</a> lived amongst local Phoenicians,<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that <a href="/wiki/David" title="David">David</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a> gave Phoenicia full political autonomy due to their supremacy in shipping and trade.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite religious mythology</a> does not appear as elaborate as their Semitic cousins in Mesopotamia. In Canaan the supreme god was called <a href="/wiki/El_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="El (god)">El</a> (𐤀𐤋, 'god').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970258_("El")_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970258_("El")-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The son of El was <a href="/wiki/Baal" title="Baal">Baal</a> (𐤁𐤏𐤋, 'master', 'lord'), a powerful <a href="/wiki/Dying-and-rising_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Dying-and-rising deity">dying-and-rising</a> <a href="/wiki/Storm_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm god">storm god</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other gods were called by royal titles, such as <a href="/wiki/Melqart" title="Melqart">Melqart</a>, meaning 'king of the city',<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoscati1957113–4_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoscati1957113–4-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Adonis" title="Adonis">Adonis</a> for 'lord'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon197029–30_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon197029–30-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such epithets may often have been merely local titles for the same deities. </p><p>The Semitic pantheon was well-populated; which god became primary evidently depended on the exigencies of a particular city-state.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970173,_501_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970173,_501-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Melqart was prominent throughout Phoenicia and overseas, as was <a href="/wiki/Astarte" title="Astarte">Astarte</a>, a fertility goddess with regal and matronly aspects. </p><p>Religious institutions in Tyre called <span title="Phoenician-language text"><i lang="phn">marzeh</i></span> (𐤌𐤓𐤆𐤄, 'place of reunion'), did much to foster social bonding and "kin" loyalty. <span title="Phoenician-language text"><i lang="phn">Marzeh</i></span> held banquets for their membership on festival days, and many developed into elite <a href="/wiki/Fraternity" title="Fraternity">fraternities</a>. Each <span title="Phoenician-language text"><i lang="phn">marzeh</i></span> nurtured congeniality and community through a series of ritual meals shared among trusted kin in honor of deified ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000120_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000120-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Carthage, which had developed a complex republican system of government, the <span title="Phoenician-language text"><i lang="phn">marzeh</i></span> may have played a role in forging social and political ties among citizens; Carthaginians were divided into different institutions that were solidified through communal feasts and banquets. Such festival groups may also have composed the voting cohort for selecting members of the city-state's <a href="/wiki/History_of_Punic_era_Tunisia#Constitution_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Punic era Tunisia">Assembly</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarmington1964148_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarmington1964148-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith195633–43_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith195633–43-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Phoenicians made votive offerings to their gods, namely in the form of figurines and pottery vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Jerusalem_Post_|_JPost.com-2020_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Jerusalem_Post_|_JPost.com-2020-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hundreds of figurines and fragments have been recovered from the Mediterranean, often spanning centuries between them, suggesting they were cast into the sea to ensure safe travels.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Jerusalem_Post_|_JPost.com-2020_141-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Jerusalem_Post_|_JPost.com-2020-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the Phoenicians were predominantly a seafaring people, some sources have speculated that many of their rituals were performed at sea or aboard ships. However, the specific nature of these practices is unknown. On land they were renowned temple builders, perhaps inspiring elements of the architecture of the First Temple, the Temple of Solomon. 'The plan of the building, the chisel-dressed masonry, and the various decorative motifs are all clearly of Phoenician inspiration, as we now know.'<sup id="cite_ref-Dever-2008_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dever-2008-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Levant" title="Names of the Levant">Names of the Levant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicianism" title="Phoenicianism">Phoenicianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_people" title="Punic people">Punic people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Bentley-2000-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bentley-2000_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBentleyZiegler2000" class="citation book cs1">Bentley, Jerry H.; Ziegler, Herbert F. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1qtiYjVlmDgC"><i>Traditions & Encounters: From the Beginnings to 1500</i></a>. McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-004949-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-004949-9"><bdi>978-0-07-004949-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traditions+%26+Encounters%3A+From+the+Beginnings+to+1500&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-07-004949-9&rft.aulast=Bentley&rft.aufirst=Jerry+H.&rft.au=Ziegler%2C+Herbert+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1qtiYjVlmDgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAubet200118,_44-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAubet200118,_44_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAubet2001">Aubet 2001</a>, pp. 18, 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Carthage and the Carthaginians</i>, <a href="/wiki/R._Bosworth_Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="R. 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Bosworth Smith</a>, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Phoenicia">"Phoenicia | Definition, Location, History, Religion, & Language | Britannica"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Phoenicia+%26%23124%3B+Definition%2C+Location%2C+History%2C+Religion%2C+%26+Language+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FPhoenicia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalaspina2009" class="citation book cs1">Malaspina, Ann (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pfop0v79y7gC&q=phoenicia+lebanon&pg=PA19"><i>Lebanon</i></a>. Infobase Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0579-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4381-0579-6"><bdi>978-1-4381-0579-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lebanon&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-0579-6&rft.aulast=Malaspina&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPfop0v79y7gC%26q%3Dphoenicia%2Blebanon%26pg%3DPA19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeir_Edrey2019" class="citation book cs1">Meir Edrey (2019). <i>Phoenician Identity in Context: Material Cultural Koiné in the Iron Age Levant</i>. Alter Orient und Altes Testament. Vol. 469. 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Accessed 27 Aug. 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJigoulov2021">Jigoulov 2021</a>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott-2018-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Scott-2018_28-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2018" class="citation journal cs1">Scott, John C (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/ccr/vol78/iss78/4">"The Phoenicians and the Formation of the Western World"</a>. <i>Comparative Civilizations Review</i>. <b>78</b> (78).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Civilizations+Review&rft.atitle=The+Phoenicians+and+the+Formation+of+the+Western+World&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=78&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=John+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarsarchive.byu.edu%2Fccr%2Fvol78%2Fiss78%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEQuinn201724,_204-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEQuinn201724,_204_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFQuinn2017">Quinn (2017)</a>, pp. 24, 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrews1998" class="citation journal cs1">Drews, Robert (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030908929802308104">"Canaanites and Philistines"</a>. <i>Journal for the Study of the Old Testament</i>. <b>23</b> (81): 39–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030908929802308104">10.1177/030908929802308104</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144074940">144074940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+Study+of+the+Old+Testament&rft.atitle=Canaanites+and+Philistines&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=81&rft.pages=39-61&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F030908929802308104&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144074940%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Drews&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F030908929802308104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JonTubb-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-JonTubb_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTubb1998" class="citation book cs1">Tubb, Johnathan N. (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/canaanites00tubb"><i>Canaanites</i></a></span>. British Museum People of the Past. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806131085" title="Special:BookSources/9780806131085"><bdi>9780806131085</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canaanites&rft.series=British+Museum+People+of+the+Past&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780806131085&rft.aulast=Tubb&rft.aufirst=Johnathan+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcanaanites00tubb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoak2020" class="citation book cs1">Doak, Brian R. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/33589/chapter/288065678"><i>Ancient Israel's Neighbors</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190690632" title="Special:BookSources/9780190690632"><bdi>9780190690632</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Israel%27s+Neighbors&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780190690632&rft.aulast=Doak&rft.aufirst=Brian+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F33589%2Fchapter%2F288065678&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jig2021_18-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jig2021_18_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jig2021_18_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJigoulov2021">Jigoulov 2021</a>, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jig2021_20-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jig2021_20_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jig2021_20_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJigoulov2021">Jigoulov 2021</a>, pp. 18–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZarins1992" class="citation book cs1">Zarins, Juris (1992). "Pastoral Nomadism in Arabia: Ethnoarchaeology and the Archaeological Record—A Case Study". In Bar-Yosef, O.; Khazanov, A. (eds.). <i>Pastoralism in the Levant</i>. Madison: Prehistory Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9629110-8-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9629110-8-9"><bdi>0-9629110-8-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pastoral+Nomadism+in+Arabia%3A+Ethnoarchaeology+and+the+Archaeological+Record%E2%80%94A+Case+Study&rft.btitle=Pastoralism+in+the+Levant&rft.place=Madison&rft.pub=Prehistory+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-9629110-8-9&rft.aulast=Zarins&rft.aufirst=Juris&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tubb-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tubb_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tubb, Jonathan N. (1998), "Canaanites" (British Museum People of the Past)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodard2008" class="citation book cs1">Woodard, Roger (2008). <i>The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68498-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-68498-9"><bdi>978-0-521-68498-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Syria-Palestine+and+Arabia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-521-68498-9&rft.aulast=Woodard&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Naveh-1987-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Naveh-1987_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naveh-1987_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Naveh-1987_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaveh1987" class="citation book cs1">Naveh, Joseph (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientisraelite00unse">"Proto-Canaanite, Archaic Greek, and the Script of the Aramaic Text on the Tell Fakhariyah Statue"</a></span>. 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(August 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357205">"The Emergence of Phoenician Art"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research</i> (279): 13–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1357205">10.2307/1357205</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357205">1357205</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163353156">163353156</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Schools+of+Oriental+Research&rft.atitle=The+Emergence+of+Phoenician+Art&rft.issue=279&rft.pages=13-26&rft.date=1990-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163353156%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1357205%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1357205&rft.aulast=Markoe&rft.aufirst=Glenn+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1357205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/phoe/hd_phoe.htm">"The Phoenicians (1500–300 B.C.)"</a>. <i>www.metmuseum.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-04-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.metmuseum.org&rft.atitle=The+Phoenicians+%281500%E2%80%93300+B.C.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fphoe%2Fhd_phoe.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/325564">"Furniture plaque carved in high relief with two Egyptianizing figures flanking a volute tree, c. 9th–8th century B.C."</a> <i>www.metmuseum.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-04-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.metmuseum.org&rft.atitle=Furniture+plaque+carved+in+high+relief+with+two+Egyptianizing+figures+flanking+a+volute+tree%2C+c.+9th%E2%80%938th+century+B.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fcollection%2Fsearch%2F325564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolst201131-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolst201131_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolst2011">Holst (2011)</a>, p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolst201144-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolst201144_121-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolst2011">Holst (2011)</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoscati1957e.g.,_p._40_&_113-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoscati1957e.g.,_p._40_&_113_122-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoscati1957">Moscati (1957)</a>, e.g., p. 40 & 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith19561–15-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith19561–15_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1956">Smith (1956)</a>, pp. 1–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaster1965113–143,_114–5-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaster1965113–143,_114–5_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGaster1965">Gaster (1965)</a>, pp. 113–143, 114–5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarden196283–4-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarden196283–4_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarden1962">Harden (1962)</a>, pp. 83–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970512–513-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970512–513_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrandon1970">Brandon (1970)</a>, pp. 512–513.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970448-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970448_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrandon1970">Brandon (1970)</a>, p. 448.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970173-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970173_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrandon1970">Brandon (1970)</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Asher-Hebrew-tribe">"Asher"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica&rft.atitle=Asher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FAsher-Hebrew-tribe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNisan2015" class="citation journal cs1">Nisan, Mordechai (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ejournals.bc.edu/index.php/levantine/article/view/9158/8253">"Identities and Peoples in History: Speculating on Ancient Mediterranean Mysteries"</a>. <i>The Levantine Review</i>. <b>4</b> (2) – via Boston College.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Levantine+Review&rft.atitle=Identities+and+Peoples+in+History%3A+Speculating+on+Ancient+Mediterranean+Mysteries&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Nisan&rft.aufirst=Mordechai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fejournals.bc.edu%2Findex.php%2Flevantine%2Farticle%2Fview%2F9158%2F8253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStern1990" class="citation journal cs1">Stern, E. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357206">"New Evidence from Dor for the First Appearance of the Phoenicians along the Northern Coast of Israel"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research</i> (279): 27–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1357206">10.2307/1357206</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1357206">1357206</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Schools+of+Oriental+Research&rft.atitle=New+Evidence+from+Dor+for+the+First+Appearance+of+the+Phoenicians+along+the+Northern+Coast+of+Israel&rft.issue=279&rft.pages=27-34&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1357206&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1357206%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1357206&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970258_("El")-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970258_("El")_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrandon1970">Brandon (1970)</a>, p. 258 ("El").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Here, Baal was used instead of the storm god's name <a href="/wiki/Hadad" title="Hadad">Hadad</a>. <a href="#CITEREFBrandon1970">Brandon (1970)</a>, pp. 315, 28, 124</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoscati1957113–4-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoscati1957113–4_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoscati1957">Moscati (1957)</a>, pp. 113–4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon197029–30-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon197029–30_135-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrandon1970">Brandon (1970)</a>, pp. 29–30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970173,_501-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrandon1970173,_501_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrandon1970">Brandon (1970)</a>, pp. 173, 501.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlyon1981" class="citation book cs1">Carlyon, Richard (1981). <i>A Guide to the Gods</i>. New York: Quill Books. pp. 311–333.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+the+Gods&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=311-333&rft.pub=Quill+Books&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Carlyon&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000120-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarkoe2000120_138-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarkoe2000">Markoe (2000)</a>, p. 120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWarmington1964148-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWarmington1964148_139-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWarmington1964">Warmington (1964)</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith195633–43-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmith195633–43_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSmith1956">Smith (1956)</a>, pp. 33–43.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Jerusalem_Post_|_JPost.com-2020-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Jerusalem_Post_|_JPost.com-2020_141-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Jerusalem_Post_|_JPost.com-2020_141-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/figurines-forgotten-in-haifa-for-decades-tell-tale-of-phoenician-cult-641482">"Long-lost Phoenician figurines could reveal secrets to ancient cult"</a>. <i>The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com</i>. 8 September 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-09-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post+%7C+JPost.com&rft.atitle=Long-lost+Phoenician+figurines+could+reveal+secrets+to+ancient+cult&rft.date=2020-09-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2Fisrael-news%2Ffigurines-forgotten-in-haifa-for-decades-tell-tale-of-phoenician-cult-641482&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dever-2008-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dever-2008_142-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDever2008" class="citation book cs1">Dever, William (2008). <i>Did God Have a Wife?</i>. United States of America: Eerdmans Publishing Co. p. 97.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Did+God+Have+a+Wife%3F&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Eerdmans+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Dever&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAubet2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mar%C3%ADa_Eugenia_Aubet" title="María Eugenia Aubet">Aubet, Maria Eugenia</a> (2001). <i>The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, Colonies and Trade</i>. Translated by Turton, Mary. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79543-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-79543-2"><bdi>978-0-521-79543-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phoenicians+and+the+West%3A+Politics%2C+Colonies+and+Trade&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-521-79543-2&rft.aulast=Aubet&rft.aufirst=Maria+Eugenia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180522021430/http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2003/2003-12-17.html">Review by Roger Wright</a>, University of Liverpool.</li> <li>Bondi, S. F. 1988. "The Course of History". In <i>The Phoenicians</i>, edited by Sabatino Moscati, 38–45. Milan: Gruppo Editoriale Fabbri.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandon1970" class="citation book cs1">Brandon, S.G.F., ed. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcomp00bran/page/n5"><i>Dictionary of Comparative Religion</i></a>. New York City: Charles Scribner's Son. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780684310091" title="Special:BookSources/9780684310091"><bdi>9780684310091</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Comparative+Religion&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Son&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=9780684310091&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdictionaryofcomp00bran%2Fpage%2Fn5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles-PicardPicard1968" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Charles-Picard" title="Gilbert Charles-Picard">Charles-Picard, Gilbert</a>; <a href="/wiki/Colette_Picard" title="Colette Picard">Picard, Colette</a> (1968). <i>(Original French ed.: </i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Vie et mort de Carthage</i></span><i> Paris: Hatchette 1968)</i> [<i>The Life and Death of Carthage</i>]. New York City: Taplinger.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%28Original+French+ed.%3A+%3Cspan+title%3D%22French-language+text%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22fr%22%3EVie+et+mort+de+Carthage%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+French-language+text+Paris%3A+Hatchette+1968%29&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Taplinger&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Charles-Picard&rft.aufirst=Gilbert&rft.au=Picard%2C+Colette&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoulmas1996" class="citation book cs1">Coulmas, Florian (1996). <i>The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21481-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21481-6"><bdi>978-0-631-21481-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Writing+Systems&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21481-6&rft.aulast=Coulmas&rft.aufirst=Florian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunliffe2008" class="citation book cs1">Cunliffe, Barry (2008). <i>Europe Between the Oceans; 9000 BC-AD 1000</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Europe+Between+the+Oceans%3B+9000+BC-AD+1000&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Cunliffe&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Elayi, J. 2013. <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Histoire de la Phénicie</i></span></i>. Paris: Perrin</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGaster1965" class="citation book cs1">Gaster, Theodor H. (1965). "The Religion of the Canaanites". In Ferm, Vergilius (ed.). <i>(Original ed.: Philosophical Library 1950)</i> [<i>Ancient Religions</i>]. New York City: Citadel Pres.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Religion+of+the+Canaanites&rft.btitle=%28Original+ed.%3A+Philosophical+Library+1950%29&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.pub=Citadel+Pres&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Gaster&rft.aufirst=Theodor+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarden1962" class="citation book cs1">Harden, Donald (1962). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/phoenicians00hard"><i>The Phoenicians</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phoenicians&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Frederick+A.+Praeger&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=Harden&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphoenicians00hard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolst2011" class="citation book cs1">Holst, Sanford (30 April 2011). <i>Phoenician Secrets: Exploring the Ancient Mediterranean</i>. Santorini Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0983327905" title="Special:BookSources/978-0983327905"><bdi>978-0983327905</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phoenician+Secrets%3A+Exploring+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.pub=Santorini+Books&rft.date=2011-04-30&rft.isbn=978-0983327905&rft.aulast=Holst&rft.aufirst=Sanford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJigoulov2021" class="citation book cs1">Jigoulov, Vadim S. (2021). <i>The Phoenicians: Lost Civilizations</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Reaktion_Books" title="Reaktion Books">Reaktion Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-789-14478-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-789-14478-9"><bdi>978-1-789-14478-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Phoenicians%3A+Lost+Civilizations&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-789-14478-9&rft.aulast=Jigoulov&rft.aufirst=Vadim+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLancel1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Serge_Lancel" title="Serge Lancel">Lancel, Serge</a> (1995). <i>(Original ed. in French: </i>Carthage<i>. Paris: Librairie Artheme Fayard 1992)</i> [<i>Carthage. A History</i>]. Oxford: Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%28Original+ed.+in+French%3A+Carthage.+Paris%3A+Librairie+Artheme+Fayard+1992%29&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Lancel&rft.aufirst=Serge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkoe2000" class="citation book cs1">Markoe, Glenn E. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=smPZ-ou74EwC&pg=PA13"><i>Peoples of the Past: Phoenicians</i></a>. Berkeley, CA: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22614-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22614-2"><bdi>978-0-520-22614-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peoples+of+the+Past%3A+Phoenicians&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22614-2&rft.aulast=Markoe&rft.aufirst=Glenn+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsmPZ-ou74EwC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoscati1957" class="citation book cs1">Moscati, Sabatino (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.6873"><i>Ancient Semitic Civilizations</i></a>. London, England: Elek Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Semitic+Civilizations&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Elek+Books&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Moscati&rft.aufirst=Sabatino&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.gov.ignca.6873&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoscati1965" class="citation book cs1">Moscati, Sabatino (1965). <i>The World of the Phoenicians</i>. New York, NY: Frederick A. Praeger.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+the+Phoenicians&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Frederick+A.+Praeger&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Moscati&rft.aufirst=Sabatino&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuinn2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Crawley_Quinn" title="Josephine Crawley Quinn">Quinn, Josephine Crawley</a> (2017). <i>In Search of the Phoenicians</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8911-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-8911-2"><bdi>978-1-4008-8911-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+the+Phoenicians&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-8911-2&rft.aulast=Quinn&rft.aufirst=Josephine+Crawley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRawlinson1889" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Rawlinson" title="George Rawlinson">Rawlinson, George</a> (1889). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2331"><i>The History of Phoenicia</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Phoenicia&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Rawlinson&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.library.upenn.edu%2Fwebbin%2Fgutbook%2Flookup%3Fnum%3D2331&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Röllig, W. (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/volltexte/2011/1102">Phoenician and the Phoenicians in the context of the Ancient Near East</a>, in S. Moscati (ed.), I Fenici ieri oggi domani : ricerche, scoperte, progetti, Roma, p. 203–214</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1956" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Robertson_Smith" title="William Robertson Smith">Smith, W. Robertson</a> (1956) [A. & C. Black, Edinburgh, 1889]. <i>Lectures on the Religion of the Semites</i>. New York: Meridian Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+the+Religion+of+the+Semites&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Meridian+Library&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=W.+Robertson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarmington1964" class="citation book cs1">Warmington, Brian H. (1964). <i>Carthage</i>. Penguin (original ed.:Robert Hale 1960).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage&rft.pub=Penguin+%28original+ed.%3ARobert+Hale+1960%29&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Warmington&rft.aufirst=Brian+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Carayon, Nicolas, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/28/32/10/PDF/3vol.pdf">Les ports phéniciens et puniques</a></i>, PhD Thesis, 2008, Strasbourg, France.</li> <li>Cioffi, Robert L., "A Palm Tree, a Colour and a Mythical Bird" (review of Josephine Quinn, <i>In Search of the Phoenicians</i>, Princeton, 2017, 360 pp., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978%2B0%2B691%2B17527%2B0" title="Special:BookSources/978+0+691+17527+0">978 0 691 17527 0</a>), <i><a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_Books" title="London Review of Books">London Review of Books</a></i>, vol. 41, no. 1 (3 January 2019), pp. 15–16.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross1973" class="citation book cs1">Cross, Frank M. (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-eOycxXAoHMC"><i>Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic</i></a>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674091764" title="Special:BookSources/9780674091764"><bdi>9780674091764</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Canaanite+Myth+and+Hebrew+Epic&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=9780674091764&rft.aulast=Cross&rft.aufirst=Frank+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-eOycxXAoHMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Thiollet" title="Jean-Pierre Thiollet">Thiollet, Jean-Pierre</a>, <i><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Je m'appelle Byblos</i></span></i>, foreword by Guy Gay-Para, H & D, Paris, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-914266-04-9" title="Special:BookSources/2-914266-04-9">2-914266-04-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToddAndrew_Fleming1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Todd" title="Malcolm Todd">Todd, Malcolm</a>; Andrew Fleming (1987). <i>The South West to AD 1,000 (Regional history of England series No.:8)</i>. Harlow, Essex: Longman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-49274-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-49274-5"><bdi>978-0-582-49274-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+South+West+to+AD+1%2C000+%28Regional+history+of+England+series+No.%3A8%29&rft.place=Harlow%2C+Essex&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-582-49274-5&rft.aulast=Todd&rft.aufirst=Malcolm&rft.au=Andrew+Fleming&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span>, for a critical examination of the evidence of Phoenician trade with the South West of the U.K.</li> <li>Silva, Diógenes. "La literatura sobre fenicios en el territorio brasileño: orígenes y razones", PhD Thesis, Madrid - 2016. Available in <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://eprints.ucm.es/39468/">https://eprints.ucm.es/39468/</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSorenKhaderSlim1990" class="citation book cs1">Soren, David; Khader, Aicha B.; Slim, Hedi (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/carthageuncoveri00sore"><i>Carthage</i></a></span>. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780671669027" title="Special:BookSources/9780671669027"><bdi>9780671669027</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carthage&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780671669027&rft.aulast=Soren&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Khader%2C+Aicha+B.&rft.au=Slim%2C+Hedi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcarthageuncoveri00sore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Phoenicia</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Phoenicia&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Phoenicia">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Phoenicia&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03szw8l">BBC Radio4 – <i>In Our Time</i>: The Phoenicians (audio archive)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090110073346/http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArticleDetails.aspx?ID=69741&MID=123&PID=2">The quest for the Phoenicians in South Lebanon</a> (archived 10 January 2009)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.omniglot.com/writing/phoenician.htm">Phoenician Alphabet</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSam_Haselby" class="citation web cs1">Sam Haselby (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aeon.co/essays/phoenicia-an-imaginary-friend-to-nations-in-need-of-ancestors">"Phoenicia: An imaginary friend to nations in need of ancestors"</a>. <i>Josephine Quinn, associate professor in ancient history at Worcester College, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">University of Oxford</a></i>. Aeon.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Josephine+Quinn%2C+associate+professor+in+ancient+history+at+Worcester+College%2C+University+of+Oxford&rft.atitle=Phoenicia%3A+An+imaginary+friend+to+nations+in+need+of+ancestors&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faeon.co%2Fessays%2Fphoenicia-an-imaginary-friend-to-nations-in-need-of-ancestors&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhoenicia" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output 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title="Template talk:Ancient states and regions of the Levant"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_states_and_regions_of_the_Levant" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient states and regions of the Levant"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_states_and_regions_in_the_history_of_the_Levant" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ancient states and regions in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant" title="History of the ancient Levant">history</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Copper_Age_state_societies" title="Copper Age state societies">Copper Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Halaf" title="Tell Halaf">Tell Halaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagar_Bazar" title="Chagar Bazar">Chagar Bazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamoukar" title="Hamoukar">Hamoukar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkesh" title="Urkesh">Urkesh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alashiya" title="Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorite states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Alalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amurru_kingdom" title="Amurru kingdom">Amurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andarig" title="Andarig">Andarig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apum" title="Apum">Apum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">First Babylon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla#Third_kingdom" title="Ebla">Third Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekallatum" title="Ekallatum">Ekallatum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurda" title="Kurda">Kurda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria#The_third_kingdom" title="Mari, Syria">Third Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Mukish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_eth-Thadeyn" title="Tell eth-Thadeyn">Shaddai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Taban" title="Tell Taban">Ṭābetu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Leilan#Shubat-Enlil" title="Tell Leilan">Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zahiran" title="Zahiran">Zahiran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amqu" title="Amqu">Amqu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram_(region)" title="Aram (region)">Aram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barga_(kingdom)" title="Barga (kingdom)">Barga</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanite city-states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amalek" title="Amalek">Amalek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arqa" title="Arqa">Arqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Ashtara" title="Tell Ashtara">Aštartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Gaza#Bronze_Age" title="History of Gaza">Azzati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashan" title="Bashan">Bashan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beirut#History" title="Beirut">Beruta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Gebal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus#Late_Bronze" title="Damascus">Dimasqu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gezer" title="Gezer">Gezer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibeon_(ancient_city)" title="Gibeon (ancient city)">Gibeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Hazor" title="Tel Hazor">Hazor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jerusalem" title="History of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenites" title="Kenites">Kenites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamid_el-Loz" title="Kamid el-Loz">Kumidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Lachish" title="Tel Lachish">Lakisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Megiddo" title="Tel Megiddo">Megiddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midian" title="Midian">Midian</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadesh_(Syria)" title="Kadesh (Syria)">Qadesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shechem#Bronze_Age" title="Shechem">Shechem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite Empire</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urshu" title="Urshu">Urshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuha%C5%A1%C5%A1e" title="Nuhašše">Nuhašše</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Hadidi" title="Tell Hadidi">Tell Hadidi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naziba" title="Naziba">Naziba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niya_Kingdom" title="Niya Kingdom">Niya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ib%27al" title="Ib'al">Ib'al Confederacy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Paleo-Syrian states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armi_(Syria)" title="Armi (Syria)">Armi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Aleppo" title="Ancient Aleppo">Aleppo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armanum" title="Armanum">Armanum</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tall_Bazi" title="Tall Bazi">Tall Bazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Khana" title="Kingdom of Khana">Khana</a>/<a href="/wiki/Terqa" title="Terqa">Terqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Brak" title="Tell Brak">Nagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuttul" title="Tuttul">Tuttul</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BFApiru" title="ʿApiru">ʿApiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahlamu" title="Ahlamu">Aḫlamū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suteans" title="Suteans">Suteans</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Amqu" title="Amqu">Amqu</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BFApiru" title="ʿApiru">ʿApiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shasu" title="Shasu">Shasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutu" title="Shutu">Shutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyra" title="Palmyra">Tadmor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunip" title="Tunip">Tunip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upu" title="Upu">Upu</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Nuha%C5%A1%C5%A1e" title="Nuhašše">Nuhašše</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Niya_Kingdom" title="Niya Kingdom">Niya</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Aramaean states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram_Rehob" title="Aram Rehob">Aram Rehob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit-Adini" class="mw-redirect" title="Bit-Adini">Bit-Adini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit_Agusi" title="Bit Agusi">Bit Agusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bit_Bahiani" title="Bit Bahiani">Bit Bahiani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshur" title="Geshur">Geshur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama,_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Hama, Syria">Hamath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam'al">Sam'al</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zobah" title="Zobah">Zobah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammon" title="Ammon">Ammon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edom" title="Edom">Edom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Israel (Samaria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(united_monarchy)" title="Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)">Israel (united)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_es-Sultan" title="Tell es-Sultan">Jericho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moab" title="Moab">Moab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philistia" title="Philistia">Philistia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashdod_(ancient_city)" title="Ashdod (ancient city)">Ashdod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascalon" title="Ascalon">Ascalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekron" title="Ekron">Ekron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gath_(city)" title="Gath (city)">Gath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaza_City" title="Gaza City">Gaza</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Phoenicia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Amrit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Gebal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartus" title="Tartus">Tartus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs" title="History of the Arabs">Arabs</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Itureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Itureans">Itureans</a>?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataeans" title="Nabataeans">Nabataeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qedarites" title="Qedarites">Qedarites</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Luwian-Aramaean states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carchemish" title="Carchemish">Carchemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kummuh" title="Kummuh">Kummuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luhuti" title="Luhuti">Luhuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palistin" title="Palistin">Palistin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattin" title="Pattin">Pattin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical Age</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> - <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emesene_dynasty" title="Emesene dynasty">Emesene Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassanids" title="Ghassanids">Ghassanid Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Herodian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_Tetrarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodian Tetrarchy">Herodian Tetrarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iturea" title="Iturea">Iturea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabataean Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhid confederacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_and_Aramaic_inscriptions" title="Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions">Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Template talk:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Timeline of Mesopotamia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Timeline_of_Mesopotamia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"> <table style="width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;"> </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:white"><b>Northwestern Mesopotamia</b> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white"><b>Northern Mesopotamia</b> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:white"><b>Southern Mesopotamia</b> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 3500–2350 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:white">Late Chalcolithic 4-5 / Early Jezirah 1-3 </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD380"><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr period</a> / <a href="/wiki/Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic period</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2350–2200 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFB080"><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2200–2100 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#F8F3C6"><i><a href="/wiki/Gutian_people" title="Gutian people">Gutians</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2100–2000 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#FFA380"><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 2000–1800 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFD0BD"><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> <i>and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states</i> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:#FFFF80"><a href="/wiki/Old_Assyrian_period" title="Old Assyrian period">Old Assyrian period</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:palegoldenrod"><a href="/wiki/Isin" title="Isin">Isin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Larsa" title="Larsa">Larsa</a> <i>and other <a href="/wiki/Amorite" class="mw-redirect" title="Amorite">Amorite</a> city-states</i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1800–1600 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F7C1F7"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Old Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td colspan="7" style="background:#B2CAF6"><a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian Empire</a> (<i>Southern Akkadians</i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1600–1400 BCE </th> <td colspan="6" style="background:#E6C29F"><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hurrians" title="Hurrians">Hurrians</a></i>) </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="3" style="background:#88D0CC"><a href="/wiki/Kardunia%C5%A1" title="Karduniaš">Karduniaš</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1400–1200 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FFB4DA"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Middle Hittite Kingdom</a> </td> <td style="background:#FFEB80"> </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#FFEB80"><a href="/wiki/Assyria#Middle_Assyrian_Empire_—_Assyrian_resurgence" title="Assyria">Middle Assyria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1200–1150 BCE </th> <td colspan="2" style="background:#FF8080"><i><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Collapse">Bronze Age Collapse</a></i> (<i>"<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a>"</i>) </td> <td style="background:moccasin"><i><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">c. 1150–911 BCE </th> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#C590C5"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Phoenicia</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:#FF8CB9"><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Neo-Hittite</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">city-states</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" style="background:peachpuff"><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Damascus</a> </td> <td colspan="3" style="background:moccasin"><i><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></i> </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="background:#A0B4F0"><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Middle Babylonia</a> </td> <td rowspan="3" style="background:lightblue"><i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chal-</a></i><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">de-</a></i><br /><i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">ans</a></i> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">911–729 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">729–609 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#F6DB88"> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">626–539 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#8EC8FF"><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldeans</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">539–331 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:mediumspringgreen"><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="background:#e6e7e8;">336–301 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#BEFD80"><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonians</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">311–129 BCE </th> <td colspan="9" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">129–63 BCE </th> <td colspan="3" style="background:#99E699"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> </td> <td colspan="6" rowspan="2" style="background:#80C0C0"><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">63 BCE–224 CE </th> <td colspan="3" rowspan="4" style="background:#D29595"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> - <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Syria</a></i>) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="1" style="background:#e6e7e8;">224–mid 7C </th> <td colspan="6" rowspan="3" style="background:#90D9D5"><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanid Empire">Sassanid Empire</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="20px&#124;Phoenician_Hippos_ship_Phoenician_cities_and_colonies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Phoenician_cities_and_colonies" title="Template:Phoenician cities and colonies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Phoenician_cities_and_colonies" title="Template talk:Phoenician cities and colonies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Phoenician_cities_and_colonies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Phoenician cities and colonies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="20px&#124;Phoenician_Hippos_ship_Phoenician_cities_and_colonies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Phoenician Hippos ship"><img alt="Phoenician Hippos ship" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png/20px-Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png/30px-Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png/40px-Phoenician_Hippos_ship_logo.png 2x" data-file-width="714" data-file-height="525" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Phoenician_cities" title="List of Phoenician cities">Phoenician cities and colonies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Algeria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Camarata_(Mauretania)" title="Camarata (Mauretania)">Camarata</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cartennae" title="Cartennae">Cartennae</a> (<a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9n%C3%A8s" title="Ténès">Tenes</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hippo_Regius" title="Hippo Regius">Hippo Regius</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Icosium" title="Icosium">Icosium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Igilgili" title="Igilgili">Igilgili</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jijel" title="Jijel">Jijel</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cherchell" title="Cherchell">Iol (Cherchell)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Iomnium" title="Iomnium">Iomnium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tigzirt" title="Tigzirt">Tigzirt</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cirta" title="Cirta">Cirta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Djinet" title="Djinet">Kissi (Djinet)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Macomades" title="Macomades">Macomades</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Calama_(Numidia)" title="Calama (Numidia)">Malaca</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rachgoun" title="Rachgoun">Rachgoun</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusazus" title="Rusazus">Rusazus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Azeffoun" title="Azeffoun">Azeffoun</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tamentfoust" title="Tamentfoust">Rusguniae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tamentfoust" title="Tamentfoust">Tamentfoust</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Skikda" title="Skikda">Rusicade (Skikda)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusippisir" title="Rusippisir">Rusippisir (Taksebt)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusubbicari" title="Rusubbicari">Rusubbicari</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zemmouri" title="Zemmouri">Zemmouri</a> El Bahri)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dellys" title="Dellys">Rusuccuru (Dellys)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zara%C3%AF" title="Zaraï">Sarai</a> (<a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFn_Oulmene" title="Aïn Oulmene">Aïn Oulmene</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thagora" title="Thagora">Thagora</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taoura" title="Taoura">Taoura</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tipasa_in_Mauretania" class="mw-redirect" title="Tipasa in Mauretania">Tipasa in Mauretania</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tipasa_in_Numidia" title="Tipasa in Numidia">Tipasa in Numidia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Timici" title="Timici">Timici</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cyprus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Dali,_Cyprus" title="Dali, Cyprus">Dhali</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kition" title="Kition">Kition</a> (<a href="/wiki/Larnaca" title="Larnaca">Larnaca</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lapathus_(Cyprus)" title="Lapathus (Cyprus)">Lapathus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marion,_Cyprus" title="Marion, Cyprus">Marion</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Greece</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Santorini" title="Santorini">Callista (Santorini)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paxi" class="mw-redirect" title="Paxi">Paxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Delos" title="Delos">Delos</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Israel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Achziv" title="Achziv">Achzib</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Akka (Acre)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tel_Dor" title="Tel Dor">Dora</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tel_Michal" title="Tel Michal">Michal</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Apollonia-Arsuf" class="mw-redirect" title="Apollonia-Arsuf">Reshef</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tel_Shikmona" title="Tel Shikmona">Shikmona</a> (<a href="/wiki/Haifa" title="Haifa">Haifa</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Strato's Tower (Caesarea)</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Bithia,_Italy" title="Bithia, Italy">Bitan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chia_(Sardinia)" title="Chia (Sardinia)">Chia</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cefal%C3%B9" title="Cefalù">Cape Melqart (Cefalù)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Drepana" title="Drepana">Drepanum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trapani" title="Trapani">Trapani</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Eryx_(Sicily)" title="Eryx (Sicily)">Eryx</a> (<a href="/wiki/Erice" title="Erice">Erice</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Heraclea_Minoa" title="Heraclea Minoa">Heraclea Minoa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Soluntum" title="Soluntum">Kapara (Soluntum)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cagliari" title="History of Cagliari">Karaly</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cagliari" title="Cagliari">Cagliari</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Marsala" title="Marsala">Lilybaeum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Motya" title="Motya">Motya</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Neapolis,_Sardinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neapolis, Sardinia">Neapolis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Nora,_Italy" title="Nora, Italy">Nora</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Olbia" title="Olbia">Olbia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pantelleria" title="Pantelleria">Pantelleria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Selinunte" title="Selinunte">Selinunte</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sulci" title="Sulci">Sulci</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sant%27Antioco" title="Sant'Antioco">Sant'Antioco</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tharros" title="Tharros">Tharros</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Ṣiṣ (Palermo)</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lebanon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Amioun" title="Amioun">Amia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Enfeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Enfeh">Ampi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Arqa" title="Arqa">Arqa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon" title="Tripoli, Lebanon">Athar (Tripoli)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Baalbek" title="Baalbek">Baalbek</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Birut</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Batroun" title="Batroun">Botrys (Teros)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Gebal (Byblos)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tell_el-Burak" title="Tell el-Burak">Ornithon (Tell el-Burak)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Jieh" title="Jieh"> Porphyreon (Jieh)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sarepta" title="Sarepta">Sarepta</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Sur (Tyre)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ushu" title="Ushu">Ushu (Palaetyrus)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-Amad,_Lebanon" title="Umm al-Amad, Lebanon">Umm al-Amad</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Libya</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Lepcis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khoms,_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Khoms, Libya">Khoms</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oea" title="Oea">Oyat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sabratha" title="Sabratha">Tsabratan</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Malta</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd>Maleth (<a href="/wiki/Cospicua" title="Cospicua">Cospicua</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melite_(ancient_city)" title="Melite (ancient city)">Ann</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mdina" title="Mdina">Mdina</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gozo" title="Gozo">Gaulos (Gozo)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=G%C4%A7ajn_Qajjet&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Għajn Qajjet (page does not exist)">Għajn Qajjet</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mtarfa" title="Mtarfa">Mtarfa</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ras_il-Wardija" title="Ras il-Wardija">Ras il-Wardija</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tas-Sil%C4%A1" title="Tas-Silġ">Tas-Silġ</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Morocco</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Azemmour" title="Azemmour">Azama (Azemmour)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Essaouira" title="Essaouira">Arambys (Mogador)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/w/index.php?title=Caricus_Murus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Caricus Murus (page does not exist)">Caricus Murus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ksar_es-Seghir" title="Ksar es-Seghir">Heq she Elisha (Ksar es-Seghir)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lixus_(ancient_city)" title="Lixus (ancient city)">Likush</a> (<a href="/wiki/Larache" title="Larache">Larache</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chellah" title="Chellah">Shalat (Chellah)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tamusida" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamusida">Tamusida</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tingis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tingis">Tinga</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tangier" title="Tangier">Tangier</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anfa" title="Anfa">Anfa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Casablanca" title="Casablanca">Casablanca</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a> <sup><small>1</small></sup></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mogador_Island" title="Mogador Island">Mogador</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusadir" title="Rusadir">Rusadir</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Oualidia" title="Oualidia">Oualidia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Iulia_Constantia_Zilil" title="Iulia Constantia Zilil">Zilil</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Agadir" title="Agadir">Gadir</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chellah" title="Chellah">Sala</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thymiaterium" title="Thymiaterium">Thymiaterium</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/El_Jadida" title="El Jadida">Rusibis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Portugal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Portim%C3%A3o" title="Portimão">Portus Hannibalis</a></dd> <dd>Portus Magonis (Portimão)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Olissipona (Lisbon)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Faro,_Portugal" title="Faro, Portugal">Ossonoba (Faro)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Balsa_(Roman_town)" title="Balsa (Roman town)">Balsa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tavira" title="Tavira">Tavira</a>)</dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Abdera,_Spain" title="Abdera, Spain">Abdera</a> (<a href="/wiki/Adra,_Spain" title="Adra, Spain">Adra</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Abyla" title="Abyla">Abyla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ceuta" title="Ceuta">Ceuta</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lucentum" title="Lucentum">Akra Leuka</a> (<a href="/wiki/Alicante" title="Alicante">Alicante</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Gadir (Cadiz)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guardamar_del_Segura" title="Guardamar del Segura">Herna</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sa_Caleta_Phoenician_Settlement" title="Sa Caleta Phoenician Settlement">Iboshim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ibiza" title="Ibiza">Ibiza</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Mah%C3%B3n" title="Mahón">Mahón</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/History_of_M%C3%A1laga" title="History of Málaga">Malake</a> (<a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Huelva" title="Huelva">Onoba</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Spain" title="Cartagena, Spain">Carthage (Cartagena)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Rusadir" title="Rusadir">Rushadir</a> (<a href="/wiki/Melilla" title="Melilla">Melilla</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Saguntum" class="mw-redirect" title="Saguntum">Saguntum</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sexi_(Phoenician_colony)" title="Sexi (Phoenician colony)">Sexi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Almunecar" class="mw-redirect" title="Almunecar">Almunecar</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/T%C3%ADjola" title="Tíjola">Tagilit (Tíjola)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Los_Toscanos" title="Los Toscanos">Toscanos</a> (<a href="/wiki/V%C3%A9lez-M%C3%A1laga" title="Vélez-Málaga">Velez</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Peniscola" title="Peniscola">Tyreche</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Arwad" title="Arwad">Arwad</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Amrit" title="Amrit">Marat (Amrit)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Baniyas" title="Baniyas">Balanaea (Baniyas)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Carne,_Phoenicia" title="Carne, Phoenicia">Carne</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Paltus" title="Paltus">Paltus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Safita" title="Safita">Safita</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tell_Sukas" title="Tell Sukas">Shuksi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tell_Kazel" title="Tell Kazel">Sumur</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tunisia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Kelibia" title="Kelibia">Aspis (Kelibia)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bulla_Regia" title="Bulla Regia">Bulla Regia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthage</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hadrumetum" title="Hadrumetum">Hadrumetum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sousse" title="Sousse">Sousse</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Bizerte" title="Bizerte">Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kerkouane" title="Kerkouane">Kerkouane</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Parva" title="Leptis Parva">Lepcis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Monastir,_Tunisia" title="Monastir, Tunisia">Monastir</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Maqom_Hadesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Maqom Hadesh">Maqom Hadesh (Ounga)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Meninx_(town)" title="Meninx (town)">Meninx</a> (<a href="/wiki/Djerba" title="Djerba">Djerba</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ruspe" title="Ruspe">Ruspe</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ruspina" title="Ruspina">Ruspina</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/El_Kef" title="El Kef">Sicca (El Kef)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tabarka" title="Tabarka">Tabarka</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thenae" title="Thenae">Tayinat</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thyna" title="Thyna">Thyna</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thapsus" title="Thapsus">Thapsus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Thysdrus" title="Thysdrus">Thysdrus</a> (<a href="/wiki/El_Djem" title="El Djem">El Djem</a>)</dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Utica,_Tunisia" title="Utica, Tunisia">Utica</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Myriandus" title="Myriandus">Myriandus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Finike" title="Finike">Phoenicus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Tahpanhes" title="Tahpanhes">Tahpanhes</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_seafaring" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_seafaring" title="Template talk:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_seafaring" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient seafaring"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_seafaring" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_seafaring" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient seafaring">Ancient seafaring</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Vessels" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Vessels</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">Balangay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangka_(boat)" title="Bangka (boat)">Bangka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beden" title="Beden">Beden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coracle" title="Coracle">Coracle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_boat" title="Dragon boat">Dragon boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dugout_canoe" title="Dugout canoe">Dugout canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">Galley</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penteconter" title="Penteconter">Penteconter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%27unlun_po" class="mw-redirect" title="K'unlun po">Kunlun ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburna" title="Liburna">Liburna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longship" title="Longship">Longship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multihull" title="Multihull">Multihull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria" title="Navis lusoria">Navis lusoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obelisk_ship" title="Obelisk ship">Obelisk ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outrigger_boat" title="Outrigger boat">Outriggers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single-outrigger" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-outrigger">Single-outrigger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catamaran" title="Catamaran">Catamaran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimaran" title="Trimaran">Trimaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Polyremes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bireme" title="Bireme">Bireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic-era_warships" title="Hellenistic-era warships">Oared warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trireme" title="Trireme">Trireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrireme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadrireme">Quadrireme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinquereme" class="mw-redirect" title="Quinquereme">Quinquereme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexareme" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexareme">Hexareme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tessarakonteres" title="Tessarakonteres">Tessarakonteres</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raft" title="Raft">Raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reed_boat" title="Reed boat">Reed boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship" title="Sailing ship">Sailing ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomol" title="Tomol">Tomol</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/T%C4%81kitimu" title="Tākitimu">Tākitimu</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Propulsion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paddling" title="Paddling">Paddling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towpath" title="Towpath">Towing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poling_(watercraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Poling (watercraft)">Poling </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchor" title="Anchor">Anchor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_(watercraft)" title="Bow (watercraft)">Bow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabin_(ship)" title="Cabin (ship)">Cabin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deck_(ship)" title="Deck (ship)">Deck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figurehead_(object)" title="Figurehead (object)">Figurehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">Hull</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building#Construction_materials_and_methods" title="Boat building">Planking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">Keel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_(sailing)" title="Mast (sailing)">Mast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oar" title="Oar">Oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddle" title="Paddle">Paddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rope" title="Rope">Rope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder#History_of_the_rudder" title="Rudder">Steering oar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail_components" title="Sail components">Sail components</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_(ship)" title="Stem (ship)">Stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternpost" title="Sternpost">Sternpost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strake" title="Strake">Strake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile_boat#Boat_design_/_steering" title="Nile boat">Tiller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_shipbuilding_techniques" title="Ancient shipbuilding techniques">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boat_building" title="Boat building">Boat building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Careening" title="Careening">Careening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carvel_(boat_building)" title="Carvel (boat building)">Carvel built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinker_(boat_building)" title="Clinker (boat building)">Clinker built</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortise_and_tenon" title="Mortise and tenon">Mortise and tenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lashed-lug_boat" title="Lashed-lug boat">Lashed-lug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewn_boat" title="Sewn boat">Sewn-plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology#Navigation_and_ship_building" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Egypt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigging" title="Rigging">Rigging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crab_claw_sail" title="Crab claw sail">Crab claw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fore-and-aft_rig" title="Fore-and-aft rig">Fore-and-aft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">Lateen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settee_(sail)" title="Settee (sail)">Settee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanja_sail" title="Tanja sail">Tanja</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Triangular_sail_rig&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Triangular sail rig (page does not exist)">Triangular sail</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junk_rig" title="Junk rig">Junk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast-aft_rig" title="Mast-aft rig">Mast-aft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spritsail" title="Spritsail">Spritsail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Square_rig" title="Square rig">Square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Armaments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ballista" title="Ballista">Ballista</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(boarding_device)" title="Corvus (boarding device)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_(weapon)" title="Dolphin (weapon)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harpax" title="Harpax">Harpax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_ram" title="Naval ram">Ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca_(siege_engine)" title="Sambuca (siege engine)">Sambuca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Navigation,_and_ports_and_harbors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Navigation, and ports and harbors</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Navigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_navigation" title="Celestial navigation">Celestial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">Charts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portolan_chart" title="Portolan chart">Portolan chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rutter_(nautical)" title="Rutter (nautical)">Rutter (nautical)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal navigation">Coastal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouses" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighthouses">Lighthouses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piloting" title="Piloting">Piloting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pilot_boat" title="Pilot boat">Pilot boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_pilot" title="Maritime pilot">Maritime pilot</a></li></ul></li> <li>By region: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_navigation" title="Inuit navigation">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_navigation" title="Micronesian navigation">Micronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_navigation" title="Polynesian navigation">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Port#Historical_ports" title="Port">Ports</a> and<br />harbors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aden" title="Aden">Aden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adulis" title="Adulis">Adulis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikamedu" title="Arikamedu">Arikamedu</a> (Podouke)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsinoe_(Gulf_of_Suez)" title="Arsinoe (Gulf of Suez)">Arsinoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalites" title="Avalites">Avalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarikon" title="Barbarikon">Barbarikon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharuch" title="Bharuch">Barygaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittagong" title="Chittagong">Chittagong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essina" title="Essina">Essina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaozhi" title="Jiaozhi">Giao Chỉ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godavaya" title="Godavaya">Godavaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Guangzhou" title="Port of Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a> (Canton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_of_Jambukola" title="Port of Jambukola">Jambukola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puhar,_Mayiladuthurai" title="Puhar, Mayiladuthurai">Kaveri Poompattinam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a> (Kadaram)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korkai" title="Korkai">Korkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothal#Dockyard" title="Lothal">Lothal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manthai" title="Manthai">Manthai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madurai" title="Madurai">Madurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malao" title="Malao">Malao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mersa_Gawasis" title="Mersa Gawasis">Mersa Gawasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mottama" title="Mottama">Martaban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chonburi_province" title="Chonburi province">Mueang Phra Rot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscat" title="Muscat">Muscat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muziris" title="Muziris">Muziris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%93c_Eo" title="Óc Eo">Óc Eo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cattigara" title="Cattigara">Cattigara</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opone" title="Opone">Opone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piraeus#Ancient_and_medieval_times" title="Piraeus">Piraeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosphorion_Harbour" title="Prosphorion Harbour">Prosphorion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais_Theron" title="Ptolemais Theron">Ptolemais Theron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qandala" title="Qandala">Qandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kollam" title="Kollam">Quilon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarapion" title="Sarapion">Sarapion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sathing_Phra_district" title="Sathing Phra district">Satingpra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socotra" title="Socotra">Socotra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonargaon" title="Sonargaon">Sounagoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trincomalee" title="Trincomalee">Trincomalee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulum" title="Tulum">Tulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyndis" title="Tyndis">Tyndis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zanzibar" title="History of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="History" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_maritime_history" title="Ancient maritime history">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maritime_prehistory" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime prehistory">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_timeline#Prehistory" title="Maritime timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceania#Prehistory_of_Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Oceania" title="Remote Oceania">Remote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near_Oceania" title="Near Oceania">Near</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Civilizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Hu%E1%BB%B3nh_culture" title="Sa Huỳnh culture">Sa Huỳnh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapita_culture" title="Lapita culture">Lapita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesians" title="Micronesians">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langkasuka" title="Langkasuka">Langkasuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kedah" title="Kedah">Kedah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutai" title="Kutai">Kutai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarumanagara" title="Tarumanagara">Tarumanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalingga_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalingga kingdom">Kalingga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Kingdom" title="Sunda Kingdom">Sunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesians" title="Polynesians">Polynesia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_Civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Minoan Civilization">Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamilakam" title="Tamilakam">Tamilakam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chola_dynasty" title="Chola dynasty">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chera_dynasty" title="Chera dynasty">Chera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandya_dynasty" title="Pandya dynasty">Pandya</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Somalia" title="Maritime history of Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmecs" title="Olmecs">Olmecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthaginian_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginian civilization">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_city-states" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek city-states">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greece" title="Archaic Greece">Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Rome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Migration and<br />exploration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Australia">Peopling of Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peopling_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Peopling of Micronesia">Peopling of Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples#Migration_from_Taiwan" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesian Expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks_in_pre-Roman_Gaul" title="Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul">Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Ocean exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phoenician_maritime_expansion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phoenician maritime expansion (page does not exist)">Phoenician maritime expansion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician%E2%80%93Punic_Sardinia" title="Phoenician–Punic Sardinia">Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necho_II#Phoenician_expedition" title="Necho II">Circumnavigation of Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas#Voyage_to_Britain" title="Pytheas">Pytheas' voyage to Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Julius_Agricola" title="Gnaeus Julius Agricola">Roman circumnavigation of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_maritime_migration_and_exploration" title="Timeline of maritime migration and exploration">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mariners and<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henenu_(high_steward)" title="Henenu (high steward)">Henenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthymenes" title="Euthymenes">Euthymenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanno_the_Navigator" title="Hanno the Navigator">Hanno the Navigator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himilco" title="Himilco">Himilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sataspes" title="Sataspes">Sataspes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Androsthenes_of_Thasos" title="Androsthenes of Thasos">Androsthenes of Thasos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archias_of_Pella" title="Archias of Pella">Archias of Pella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearchus" title="Nearchus">Nearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megasthenes" title="Megasthenes">Megasthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fu" title="Xu Fu">Xu Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippalus" title="Hippalus">Hippalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cyzicus" title="Eudoxus of Cyzicus">Eudoxus of Cyzicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maes_Titianus" title="Maes Titianus">Maes Titianus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_navies_and_vessels" title="Ancient navies and vessels">Navies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_navy" title="Ancient Egyptian navy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_navy" title="Achaemenid navy">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles" title="List of naval battles">Battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>Mediterranean:</b>   <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Alashiya" title="Battles of Alashiya">Alashiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Delta" title="Battle of the Delta">Nile Delta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Salamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Artemisium" title="Battle of Artemisium">Artemisium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Eurymedon" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Eurymedon">Eurymedon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naupactus" title="Battle of Naupactus">Naupactus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Olpae" title="Battle of Olpae">Olpae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_Expedition" title="Sicilian Expedition">Syracuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynossema" title="Battle of Cynossema">Cynossema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Arginusae" title="Battle of Arginusae">Arginusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mytilene_(406_BC)" title="Battle of Mytilene (406 BC)">Mytilene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hellespont" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Hellespont">Hellespont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Echinades_(322_BC)" title="Battle of the Echinades (322 BC)">Echinades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis_(306_BC)" title="Battle of Salamis (306 BC)">Salamis II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mylae" title="Battle of Mylae">Mylae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Hermaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Cape Hermaeum">Cape Hermaeum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ecnomus" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ecnomus">Ecnomus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Drepana" title="Battle of Drepana">Drepana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Aegates" title="Battle of the Aegates">Aegates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Trasimene" title="Battle of Lake Trasimene">Lake Trasimene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chios_(201_BC)" title="Battle of Chios (201 BC)">Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Myonessus" title="Battle of Myonessus">Myonessus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nile" title="Battle of the Nile">Nile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Naulochus" title="Battle of Naulochus">Naulochus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mycale" title="Battle of Mycale">Mycale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">Actium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_boarding" title="Naval boarding">Boarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappling_hook" title="Grappling hook">Grappling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oared_vessel_tactics" title="Oared vessel tactics">Oared vessels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailing_ship_tactics" title="Sailing ship tactics">Sailing ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_warfare#Naval_tactics" title="Ancient Greek warfare">Greek navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramming" title="Ramming">Ramming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_maritime_history" title="Indian maritime history">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Odisha" title="Maritime history of Odisha">Odisha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Japan" title="Naval history of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Maritime_history_of_South_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maritime history of South America (page does not exist)">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_rafts" title="Pre-Columbian rafts">Rafts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Economy_and_trade" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy and <a href="/wiki/Trade#Ancient_history" title="Trade">trade</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_whaling" title="History of whaling">Whaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_fishing" title="History of fishing">Fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_trade" title="Ancient Egyptian trade">Egypt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Punt" title="Land of Punt">Land of Punt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus%E2%80%93Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus–Mesopotamia relations">Indus–Mesopotamia relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meluhha" title="Meluhha">Meluhha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_jade_culture" title="Philippine jade culture">Maritime Jade Route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tin_sources_and_trade_in_ancient_times#Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Tin sources and trade in ancient times">Tin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spice_trade" title="Spice trade">Spice trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age#Economy_of_Iron_Age_Britain" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa_Huynh-Kalanay_Interaction_Sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere">Sa Huynh-Kalanay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incense_trade_route" title="Incense trade route">Incense trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Silk_Road" title="Maritime Silk Road">Maritime Silk Road</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Periplus_of_the_Erythraean_Sea" title="Periplus of the Erythraean Sea">Periplus of the Erythraean Sea</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_trade_in_the_Maya_civilization" title="Maritime trade in the Maya civilization">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_ancient_Greece#Trade" title="Economy of ancient Greece">Greece</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_shipping" title="Greek shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce#Sea_routes" title="Roman commerce">Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Roman_trade_relations" title="Indo-Roman trade relations">Indo-Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Piracy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Piracy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piracy#History" title="Piracy">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mediterranean_piracy" title="Ancient Mediterranean piracy">Mediterranean piracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameinias_the_Phocian" title="Ameinias the Phocian">Ameinias the Phocian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_pirates" title="Cilician pirates">Cilician pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_pirates#Piracy_in_the_ancient_world:_pirates_of_Joppa" title="Jewish pirates">Jewish pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_life_and_career_of_Julius_Caesar#Kidnapping_by_pirates" title="Early life and career of Julius Caesar">Kidnapping of Julius Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompey%27s_campaign_against_the_pirates" title="Pompey's campaign against the pirates">Pompey's campaign against the pirates</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Research_and_education" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Research and education</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Blackman" title="David Blackman">David Blackman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Casson" title="Lionel Casson">Lionel Casson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fik_Meijer" title="Fik Meijer">Fik Meijer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sinclair_Morrison" title="John Sinclair Morrison">John Sinclair Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ledyard_Rodgers" title="William Ledyard Rodgers">William L. Rodgers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_G._Starr" title="Chester G. Starr">Chester G. Starr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Yves_Empereur" title="Jean-Yves Empereur">Jean-Yves Empereur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boris_Rankov" title="Boris Rankov">Boris Rankov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Richard_Steffy" title="J. Richard Steffy">J. Richard Steffy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shelley_Wachsmann&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shelley Wachsmann (page does not exist)">Shelley Wachsmann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br />and theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grave_goods" title="Grave goods">Grave goods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse" title="Lighthouse">Lighthouses</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lighthouse_of_Alexandria" title="Lighthouse of Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_art" title="Marine art">Marine art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_navigation" title="Marine navigation">Marine navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare#Mediterranean_Sea" title="Naval warfare">Naval warfare</a></li> <li>Maritime temples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Isthmia" title="Temple of Isthmia">Temple of Isthmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Poseidon,_Sounion" title="Temple of Poseidon, Sounion">Temple of Poseidon, Sounion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samothrace_temple_complex" title="Samothrace temple complex">Samothrace temple complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusantao_Maritime_Trading_and_Communication_Network" title="Nusantao Maritime Trading and Communication Network">Nusantao network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Phoenician_discovery_of_the_Americas" title="Theory of Phoenician discovery of the Americas">Phoenician discovery of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Pre-Columbian theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shipbuilding" title="Shipbuilding">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden#Shells" title="Midden">Shell middens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_burial" title="Ship burial">Ship burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacking_(sailing)" title="Tacking (sailing)">Tacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalassocracy" title="Thalassocracy">Thalassocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Wrecks<br />and relics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shipwrecks_before_Anno_Domini" title="List of shipwrecks before Anno Domini">Earliest</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pesse_canoe" title="Pesse canoe">Pesse canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufuna_canoe" title="Dufuna canoe">Dufuna canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos_boats" title="Abydos boats">Abydos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moor_Sand_site" title="Moor Sand site">Moor Sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokos_shipwreck" title="Dokos shipwreck">Dokos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khufu_ship" title="Khufu ship">Khufu ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dover_Bronze_Age_Boat" title="Dover Bronze Age Boat">Dover Bronze Age Boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uluburun_shipwreck" title="Uluburun shipwreck">Uluburun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_shipwreck" title="Canaanite shipwreck">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Gelidonya#Bronze_Age_shipwreck" title="Cape Gelidonya">Cape Gelidonya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_of_Rochelongue" title="Wreck of Rochelongue">Rochelongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjortspring_boat" title="Hjortspring boat">Hjortspring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_peoples" title="Austronesian peoples">Austronesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontian_boat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pontian boat (page does not exist)">Pontian boat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Butuan_boats" title="Balangay">Butuan boats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Black_Sea_shipwrecks" title="Ancient Black Sea shipwrecks">Black Sea‎</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinop_D" title="Sinop D">Sinop D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala</a></li> <li>Greek: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkelon_shipwrecks" title="Ashkelon shipwrecks">Ashkelon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_ship" class="mw-redirect" title="Kyrenia ship">Kyrenia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leontophoros" title="Leontophoros">Leontophoros</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Syracusia" title="Syracusia">Syracusia</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Phoenician: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gozo_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Gozo Phoenician shipwreck">Gozo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bajo_de_la_Campana_Phoenician_shipwreck" title="Bajo de la Campana Phoenician shipwreck">Bajo de la Campana</a></li></ul></li> <li>Punic: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_Punic_shipwreck" title="Marsala Punic shipwreck">Marsala Punic shipwreck</a></li></ul></li> <li>Roman: <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Alkedo" title="Alkedo">Alkedo</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arles_Rh%C3%B4ne_3" title="Arles Rhône 3">Arles Rhône 3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfriars_shipwrecks" title="Blackfriars shipwrecks">Blackfriars I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula%27s_Giant_Ship" title="Caligula's Giant Ship">Caligula's Giant Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Ships_of_De_Meern" title="The Ships of De Meern">De Meern ships</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Isis_(ship)" title="Isis (ship)">Isis</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Madrague_de_Giens_(shipwreck)" title="Madrague de Giens (shipwreck)">Madrague de Giens</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemi_ships" title="Nemi ships">Nemi ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_ship_of_Marausa" title="Roman ship of Marausa">Marausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yassi_Ada" title="Yassi Ada">Yassi Ada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lists: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oldest_surviving_ships" title="List of oldest surviving ships">Oldest surviving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museum_ships" title="List of museum ships">Museum ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_surviving_ancient_ships" title="List of surviving ancient ships">Surviving ancient ships</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H3_(Kuwait)" title="H3 (Kuwait)">H3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Experimental<br />archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl" title="Thor Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl expeditions</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Kon-Tiki_expedition" title="Kon-Tiki expedition">Kon-Tiki</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thor_Heyerdahl#Boats_Ra_and_Ra_II" title="Thor Heyerdahl"><i>Ra</i> and <i>Ra II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_vessels" title="Austronesian vessels">Austronesian replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dk%C5%ABle%CA%BBa" title="Hōkūleʻa">Hōkūleʻa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sarimanok_(vinta)" title="Sarimanok (vinta)">Sarimanok</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Te_Au_o_Tonga" title="Te Au o Tonga">Te Au o Tonga</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBiloa" title="Hawaiʻiloa">Hawaiʻiloa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Samudra_Raksa" title="Samudra Raksa">Samudra Raksa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alingano_Maisu" title="Alingano Maisu">Alingano Maisu</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sakman" title="Sakman">Saina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balangay#Balangay_Voyage" title="Balangay">Balangay Voyage</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fa%CA%BBafaite" title="Faʻafaite">Faʻafaite</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gaualofa" title="Gaualofa">Gaualofa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Marumaru_Atua" title="Marumaru Atua">Marumaru Atua</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Maritime_Museum#Seaworthy_ships" title="New Zealand Maritime Museum">Aotearoa One</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Mediterranean <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Olympias_(trireme)" title="Olympias (trireme)">Olympias</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Navis_lusoria#Other_reconstructions" title="Navis lusoria">Regina</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_Ship_Expedition" title="Phoenician Ship Expedition">Phoenician Ship Expedition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_ship_replica" title="Viking ship replica">Viking replicas</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Viking_(replica_Viking_longship)" title="Viking (replica Viking longship)">Viking</a></i></li></ul></li> <li>Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vital_Alsar_Pacific_raft_expeditions" title="Vital Alsar Pacific raft expeditions">Vital Alsar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivlia_(ship)" title="Ivlia (ship)"><i>Ivlia</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abora_(expeditions)" title="Abora (expeditions)">Abora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viracocha_expedition" title="Viracocha expedition">Viracocha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangaroa_Expedition" title="Tangaroa Expedition">Tangaroa</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Institutes and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Council_on_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology">Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America" title="Archaeological Institute of America">Archaeological Institute of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Archaeologists" title="European Association of Archaeologists">European Association of Archaeologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Nautical_Archaeology" title="Institute of Nautical Archaeology">Institute of Nautical Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Congress_of_Maritime_Museums" title="International Congress of Maritime Museums">International Congress of Maritime Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RPM_Nautical_Foundation" title="RPM Nautical Foundation">RPM Nautical Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_American_Archaeology" title="Society for American Archaeology">Society for American Archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Museums and<br />memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodrum_Castle#Museum_of_Underwater_Archaeology" title="Bodrum Castle">Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_Solar_boat_museum" title="Giza Solar boat museum">Giza Solar boat museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Egyptian_Museum" title="Grand Egyptian Museum">Grand Egyptian Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrenia_Castle#Shipwreck_museum" title="Kyrenia Castle">Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Seafaring" title="Museum of Ancient Seafaring">Museum of Ancient Seafaring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Ancient_Ships,_Pisa" title="Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa">Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Subaquatic_Archaeology" title="National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology">National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology</a></li> <li>Viking ship museums: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Oslo)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Oslo)">Oslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Ship_Museum_(Roskilde)" title="Viking Ship Museum (Roskilde)">Roskilde</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="vertical-align:center; text-align:center;"><div id="Legend_and_literature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Legend and literature</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legend" title="Legend">Legend</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ark_of_bulrushes" title="Ark of bulrushes">Ark of bulrushes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flood_myths" title="List of flood myths">Flood myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_flood_narrative" title="Genesis flood narrative">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilgamesh_flood_myth" title="Gilgamesh flood myth">Gilgamesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_flood_myths" title="Ancient Greek flood myths">Greek</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Odyssey" title="Odyssey">Odyssey</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histories_(Herodotus)" title="Histories (Herodotus)"><i>The Histories</i> (Herodotus)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Ocean_(Pytheas)" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Ocean (Pytheas)">On the Ocean</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Argonautica" title="Argonautica">Argonautica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Histories_(Polybius)" title="The Histories (Polybius)"><i>The Histories</i> (Polybius)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/120px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="78" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/180px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png/240px-Galley_-_Layard_-_Ninive_page_324_detail.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="353" /></span></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magadhan_Empire" title="Magadhan Empire">Magadha</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenization_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire">Hellenic</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir-Suzdal" title="Vladimir-Suzdal">Vladimir-Suzdal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Muscovy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Perm" title="Great Perm">Permian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ukraine" title="History of Ukraine">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Ruthenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Kiev" title="Principality of Kiev">Kyivan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_Iran" title="Safavid Iran">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>"Empire" as a description of foreign policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">American Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet empire</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header"><b>Phoenicia</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects" style="white-space:nowrap;">sister projects</span></a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Phoenicia" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Phoenicia">Definitions</a></b> from Wiktionary</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Phoenicia" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Phoenicia">Media</a></b> from Commons</span></li><li class="sister-bar-item"><span class="sister-bar-logo"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-bar-link"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Phoenicia" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Phoenicia">Texts</a></b> from Wikisource</span></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41642#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41642#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q41642#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000403681147">ISNI</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/124825610">VIAF</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJqQC6bRhwGc8gRhx7JJjC">WorldCat</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4076086-8">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n85072262">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563094">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Foiníkie"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge414227&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000300213&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007555456905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/678334">Pleiades</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p><span class="geo-inline-hidden noexcerpt"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Phoenicia&params=34_07_25_N_35_39_04_E_"><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">34°07′25″N</span> <span class="longitude">35°39′04″E</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">34.12361°N 35.65111°E</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">34.12361; 35.65111</span></span></span></a></span></span> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&oldid=1257462063">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phoenicia&oldid=1257462063</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Phoenicia" title="Category:Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:2nd_millennium_BC" title="Category:2nd millennium BC">2nd millennium BC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:9th_century_BC" title="Category:9th century BC">9th century BC</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:8th_century_BC" 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