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.link[data-v-5d258d05]:before{content:"\E903";font-family:"intech";font-size:0.6em;position:absolute;right:-1.5em;top:50%;bottom:0;margin-top:-0.8rem}.calling .link[data-v-5d258d05]:hover{color:#870000}.calling .link[data-v-5d258d05]:hover:after{background-image:linear-gradient(to right, #ae0000 0%, #ae0000 100%)}.calling .cta[data-v-5d258d05]{width:100%;max-width:37rem}.books-list[data-v-5d258d05] .inner{padding:0}.books-list[data-v-5d258d05] .prev{left:-1.5em}.books-list[data-v-5d258d05] .next{right:-2em}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.ofs[data-v-5d258d05]{padding:6rem 0 3rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em) and (max-width: 62.5em){.ofs[data-v-5d258d05]{padding:6rem 0 3rem}}@media screen and (max-width: 62.5em){.calling[data-v-5d258d05]{text-align:center}.books[data-v-5d258d05]{text-align:center;margin-top:4rem}.title[data-v-5d258d05]{margin-bottom:3rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 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maskUnits="userSpaceOnUse" x="3" y="6" width="10" height="5" style="mask-type:luminance" data-v-56230ffb><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M3 6L7.998 10.998L12.996 6H3Z" fill="white" data-v-56230ffb></path></mask> <g mask="url(#mask0_8058_163998)" data-v-56230ffb></g></svg></a> <ul class="submenu" data-v-56230ffb> <li data-v-56230ffb><a href="https://auth.intechopen.com/?referer=www&returl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.intechopen.com%2Fpage%2Fabout-open-access" class="relative-d5" data-v-56230ffb>Login</a></li>  </ul></li></ul> <form class="search-term" data-v-6047d25e data-v-56230ffb><input placeholder="Search" required="required" value="" data-v-6047d25e> <button type="submit" class="icr iconSearch" data-v-6047d25e>Submit</button></form> </aside> <div class="nav-dropdown collapsed" data-v-56230ffb><div class="inner" data-v-56230ffb><div class="drop-box" data-v-56230ffb><a href="/how-open-access-publishing-with-intechopen-works" class="drop-item" data-v-56230ffb>What is Open Access?</a> <p data-v-56230ffb>Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.</p></div> <div class="drop-box" data-v-56230ffb><a href="/authors-and-editors" class="drop-item" data-v-56230ffb>Our Authors and Editors</a> <p data-v-56230ffb>We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.</p></div> <div class="drop-box" data-v-56230ffb><a href="/page/content-alerts" class="drop-item" data-v-56230ffb>Content Alerts</a> <p data-v-56230ffb>Brief introduction to this section that descibes Open Access especially from an IntechOpen perspective</p> <a href="/how-open-access-publishing-with-intechopen-works" class="nav-item" data-v-56230ffb>How it Works</a> <a href="#" class="nav-item" data-v-56230ffb>Manage preferences</a></div> <div class="drop-box" data-v-56230ffb><a href="/page/contact-us" class="drop-item" data-v-56230ffb>Contact</a> <p data-v-56230ffb>Want to get in touch? Contact our London head office or <a href="#" data-v-56230ffb>media team here</a></p> <a href="/page/careers-at-intechopen" class="drop-item" data-v-56230ffb>Careers</a> <p data-v-56230ffb>Our team is growing all the time, so we’re always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing.</p></div></div></div></div></header> <section data-v-c0007152 data-v-40dc7f01> <div class="intro" data-v-4da463df data-v-c0007152><h1 class="heading-1" data-v-4da463df>About Open Access and Open Science</h1> <div class="content" data-v-4da463df><p><em>"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".</em></p> <p><strong>Carlos Moedas</strong>, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.</p></div></div> <div class="body" data-v-5ea9fa9c data-v-c0007152><div class="htmlText" data-v-51399daa data-v-5ea9fa9c><h2><strong>Open Access background</strong></h2> <p>The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: <a href="http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org">http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org</a>)</p> <p>IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.</p> <p>At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. 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We believe that equitable access to knowledge is essential for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 and fostering global advancement.","metaKeywords":null,"publishedDatetime":"October 29, 2024","endDate":null,"newsType":"1","contentRaw":"[{\"type\":\"htmlEditorComponent\",\"content\":\"\u003Cp\u003EThe most recent UN report from this year indicates that, with only six years left, global progress is insufficient to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This underscores the critical necessity for enhanced and more effective international collaboration to accelerate progress immediately.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAs a signatory of the United Nations SDG Publishers Compact and an open access publisher, IntechOpen proudly reaffirms its commitment to Research4Life, emphasising our shared mission to foster a diverse, inclusive, and equitable research ecosystem. We believe that equitable access to knowledge is essential for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 and fostering global advancement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003ESince 2019, our collaboration with\u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.research4life.org\u002F\\\"\u003E Research4Life\u003C\u002Fa\u003E has aimed to boost worldwide participation in research and scholarly communications, particularly from lower-income countries, thereby ensuring that all researchers have an equitable platform to harness knowledge, broaden publishing participation, and address societal challenges.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\"}]","published":true,"mainMedia":null},"components":[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"\u003Cp\u003EThe most recent UN report from this year indicates that, with only six years left, global progress is insufficient to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This underscores the critical necessity for enhanced and more effective international collaboration to accelerate progress immediately.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAs a signatory of the United Nations SDG Publishers Compact and an open access publisher, IntechOpen proudly reaffirms its commitment to Research4Life, emphasising our shared mission to foster a diverse, inclusive, and equitable research ecosystem. We believe that equitable access to knowledge is essential for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030 and fostering global advancement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003ESince 2019, our collaboration with\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.research4life.org\u002F\"\u003E Research4Life\u003C\u002Fa\u003E has aimed to boost worldwide participation in research and scholarly communications, particularly from lower-income countries, thereby ensuring that all researchers have an equitable platform to harness knowledge, broaden publishing participation, and address societal challenges.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"}],"latestNews":[{"slug":"green-energy-and-environmental-technology-journal-supporting-the-un-sustainable-development-goals-20241105","title":"Green Energy and Environmental Technology Journal: Supporting the UN Sustainable Development Goals"},{"slug":"intechopen-signs-research4life-publishers-recommitment-20241029","title":"IntechOpen Signs Research4Life Publishers Recommitment"},{"slug":"intechopen-launches-open-science-hub-20241028","title":"IntechOpen Launches Open Science Hub"},{"slug":"2024-best-paper-award-from-the-ai-computer-science-and-robotics-technology-journal-20241004","title":"2024 Best Paper Award From the AI, Computer Science, and Robotics Technology Journal"},{"slug":"peer-review-week-2024-spotlight-an-interview-with-global-campus-co-founder-paul-tuinenburg-20240927","title":"Peer Review Week Spotlight: An Interview with Global Campus Co-Founder Paul Tuinenburg"},{"slug":"new-open-access-books-from-the-knowledge-unlatched-select-programme-2024-20240819","title":"New Open Access Books from the Knowledge Unlatched Select Programme 2024"},{"slug":"intechopen-presents-interviews-for-young-scientists-with-science-s-leading-minds-20240708","title":"IntechOpen Presents Interviews for Young Scientists with Science's Leading Minds"},{"slug":"recent-intechopen-book-series-launches-20240705","title":"Recent IntechOpen Book Series Launches"}]},"book":{"item":{"type":"book","id":"11672","leadTitle":null,"fullTitle":"Chemokines Updates","title":"Chemokines Updates","subtitle":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","abstract":"This book provides an overview of some of the latest developments in the medical sciences, with particular emphasis on the experimental and theoretical aspects of modern medicine. In recent years, researchers working in applied health sciences have been able to identify diseases indicated by chemokines. Among the topics discussed in this book are chemokines affecting platelet functions, cytokine levels, and oxidative stress parameters in COVID-19, chemokines at the intersection of diabetes-tuberculosis synergy, chemokines in periodontal diseases, pathogenic links between hepato-digestive disorders and periodontal conditions, and IL-inflammatory carcinogenesis. Other areas included are the role of 23 receptor gene variations, the relationship between interleukin‑5 Receptor polymorphism, and immunological parameters in children with asthma. The book’s primary target audience includes students, researchers, medical practitioners, dentists, pharmacologists, and professionals interested in related fields. The book has been written by expert international scientists active in research in the health and applied sciences. We hope it will increase scientists’ knowledge of the complexity of some medical approaches, and encourage both professionals and students to devote part of their future research to understanding the mechanisms and applications of chemokines.","isbn":"978-1-80356-174-5","printIsbn":"978-1-80356-173-8","pdfIsbn":"978-1-80356-175-2","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.100950","price":119,"priceEur":129,"priceUsd":129,"priceCbs":null,"slug":"chemokines-updates","numberOfPages":138,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isInWos":null,"isInBkci":false,"hash":"c00855833476a514d37abf7c846e16e9","bookSignature":"Murat Şentürk","publishedDate":"March 22nd 2023","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F11672.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F11672\u002F1718282022-2116229893\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F11672\u002F1718282022-2116229893\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","numberOfDownloads":1146,"numberOfViews":null,"numberOfWosCitations":0,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":0,"numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook":0,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":6,"numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook":null,"hasAltmetrics":1,"totalAltmetricsMentions":2,"numberOfTotalCitations":6,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"April 15th 2022","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"May 6th 2022","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"July 5th 2022","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"September 23rd 2022","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"November 22nd 2022","currentStepOfPublishingProcess":5,"indexedIn":"1,2,3,4,5,6","editedByType":"Edited by","kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":false,"featuredMarkup":null,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"noAds":0,"editors":[{"id":"14794","title":"Prof.","name":"Murat","middleName":null,"surname":"Şentürk","slug":"murat-senturk","fullName":"Murat Şentürk","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F14794\u002F1719381259\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Murat Şentürk received his BS in chemistry in 2002, his MA in biochemistry in 2006, and his Ph.D. in biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University. Dr. Şentürk is currently a professor in the Department of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy at Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University. Dr. Şentürk has published over 130 scientific articles, reviews, and book chapters and has presented at various conferences to scientists. His research interests include enzyme inhibitors or activators, protein expression, protein purification and characterization, cancer biochemistry, drug design, and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. His research studies have focused on the antioxidant and metabolic enzyme systems. Dr. Şentürk serves on the editorial boards of many international journals.","institutionString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"2","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"2","institution":{"name":"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Turkey"}},"countryString":null}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"171","title":"Cell Biology","slug":"medicine-cell-biology"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"subseries":{"id":"18","series":{"id":"11","title":"Biochemistry","issn":"2632-0983","editor":{"id":"266540","title":"Prof.","name":"Andrei","middleName":null,"surname":"Surguchov","slug":"andrei-surguchov","fullName":"Andrei Surguchov","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F266540\u002F1716387771\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Andrei Surguchov, Ph.D., joined Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, as a faculty member in 1992, where he studied the mechanisms of the genetic control of lipid metabolism. At the University of Utah, his research interests focused on cloning new genes encoding retinal proteins. He studied molecular and cellular mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases and retinal degeneration at Washington University, St. Louis. Currently, his research focuses on the structure-function relationship of proteins involved in neurodegeneration and ocular diseases. Andrei Surguchov is an Editor-in-Chief at Biochemistry Research International and Associate Editor in several biomedical journals.","institutionString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"1","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"1","institution":{"name":"University of Kansas Medical Center","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"United States of America"}}}}},"tags":null,"_preview":0,"chapters":[{"id":"84395","title":"Chemokines Effective on Platelet Functions","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.107183","slug":"chemokines-effective-on-platelet-functions","totalDownloads":154,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":1,"abstract":"Chemokines or chemotactic cytokines are chemical signaling molecules that have a regulatory effect on the orientation of endothelial and epithelial cells, especially leukocytes, immune and inflammatory response, and cell regeneration. They are important in the management of endothelial damage, physical harm, atherosclerosis, vascular injury, bleeding, coagulation, interneuron transmission, and platelet functions. Chemokines are divided into four main subfamilies: CXC, CC, CX3C, and C. All of these proteins exert their biological effects by interacting with G-protein-coupled transmembrane receptors called chemokine receptors, which are selectively present on the surfaces of their target cells. Platelet chemokines increase the recruitment of various hematopoietic cells to the vascular wall by nurturing processes, such as neointima formation, atherosclerosis, and thrombosis, while also promoting vessel repair and regeneration after vascular injury. Regarding platelets, CXCL4 (platelet factor 4 and PF4) and the chemokine CXCL7, which is processed from platelet basic protein to connective tissue activating peptide-III and β-thrombomodulin, to its active form neutrophil-activating peptide-2, which are the most abundant. In this chapter, chemokines that are more effective on platelets will be discussed.","signatures":"Asuman Akkaya Fırat","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F84395","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F84395","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"422779","title":"Dr.","name":"Asuman","surname":"Akkaya Fırat","slug":"asuman-akkaya-firat","fullName":"Asuman Akkaya Fırat"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"81756","title":"Alteration of Cytokines Level and Oxidative Stress Parameters in COVID-19","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.104950","slug":"alteration-of-cytokines-level-and-oxidative-stress-parameters-in-covid-19","totalDownloads":163,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":2,"abstract":"In addition to the proinflammatory state, cytokine production, and cell death, SARS-CoV-2 infection is also associated with oxidative stress as demonstrated by increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and an alteration of antioxidant defense during the infection. Proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines play an important role in respiratory infections caused by viruses including SARS-CoV-2 by activation of the adaptive immune response. In case when the response is not controlled, it can lead to lung tissue involvement in the course of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) or can result in multiple organ failure. Oxidative stress markers show good correlation with several cytokines, which can be measured at the beginning of the disease in a primary care setting to predict the course of COVID-19.","signatures":"Marija Petrusevska, Emilija Atanasovska, Dragica Zendelovska, Aleksandar Eftimov and Katerina Spasovska","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F81756","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F81756","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"455581","title":"Prof.","name":"Marija","surname":"Petrushevska","slug":"marija-petrushevska","fullName":"Marija Petrushevska"},{"id":"455583","title":"Associate Prof.","name":"Dragica","surname":"Zendelovska","slug":"dragica-zendelovska","fullName":"Dragica Zendelovska"},{"id":"455584","title":"Dr.","name":"Emilija","surname":"Atanasovska","slug":"emilija-atanasovska","fullName":"Emilija Atanasovska"},{"id":"455586","title":"MSc.","name":"Katerina","surname":"Spasovska","slug":"katerina-spasovska","fullName":"Katerina Spasovska"},{"id":"466286","title":"Prof.","name":"Aleksandar","surname":"Eftimov","slug":"aleksandar-eftimov","fullName":"Aleksandar Eftimov"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"83732","title":"Chemokines at the Crossroad of Diabetes-Tuberculosis Synergy","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.106598","slug":"chemokines-at-the-crossroad-of-diabetes-tuberculosis-synergy","totalDownloads":157,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":1,"orderNumber":3,"abstract":"The epidemic increase in diabetes mellitus (DM) is taking place in the world were one third of the population is latently infected with tuberculosis (TB). DM, as a chronic metabolic disease, weakens the immune system and increases the risk of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) infection. In those who are already latently infected, it increases the risk of reactivation. This is called DM-TB synergy. While the role of immune cells and cytokines has been well studied in DM-TB synergy, the role played by chemokines is largely unrecognized. Chemokines are low molecular weight proteins that are rapidly secreted by both immune and non-immune cells and guide the directorial migration of these cells. Impairment in chemokine secretion or signaling can lead to delayed immune response and can mediate DM-TB synergy. This chapter describes the role played by various chemokines and their receptors in DM-TB synergy.","signatures":"Vivekanandhan Aravindhan and Srinivasan Yuvaraj","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F83732","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F83732","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"331925","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Vivekanandhan","surname":"Aravindhan","slug":"vivekanandhan-aravindhan","fullName":"Vivekanandhan Aravindhan"},{"id":"485206","title":"Mr.","name":"Srinivasan","surname":"Yuvaraj","slug":"srinivasan-yuvaraj","fullName":"Srinivasan Yuvaraj"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"86154","title":"Chemokines in Periodontal Diseases","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.106846","slug":"chemokines-in-periodontal-diseases","totalDownloads":110,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":2,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":4,"abstract":"Periodontal disease is a chronic multifactorial inflammatory disease affecting the tooth-supporting apparatus including the gingiva, alveolar bone, and periodontal ligament caused by specific microorganisms. Periodontal diseases are among the most widespread diseases in humans and are a major public health problem due to complications caused by early tooth loss. The immunoinflammatory responses initiated by periodontopathogens to protect the host against periodontal infection cause the release of various proinflammatory and chemotactic cytokines, i.e., chemokines. Chemokines have been implicated in the immunopathogenesis of periodontal disease and are found in gingival tissue, GCF, plasma, and saliva in periodontal disease. This section aims to summarize the data concerning the role of chemokines in periodontal tissue inflammation.","signatures":"Figen Öngöz Dede and Şeyma Bozkurt Doğan","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F86154","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F86154","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"312055","title":"Dr.","name":"Figen","surname":"Öngöz Dede","slug":"figen-ongoz-dede","fullName":"Figen Öngöz Dede"},{"id":"486238","title":"Dr.","name":"Şeyma","surname":"Bozkurt Doğan","slug":"seyma-bozkurt-dogan","fullName":"Şeyma Bozkurt Doğan"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"83581","title":"Immunological Insights on Pathogenic Connections between Hepato-Digestive Disorders and Periodontal Conditions","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.107318","slug":"immunological-insights-on-pathogenic-connections-between-hepato-digestive-disorders-and-periodontal-","totalDownloads":133,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":1,"orderNumber":5,"abstract":"The oral cavity is an integral part of the digestive tract and thus significant diseases, including periodontitis, can have an important impact on the normal nutritional functions of the body. Certain diseases of the hepato-digestive system have an inflammatory component, such as chronic hepatitis, fatty liver disease, or gastric cancer. This inflammatory reaction is mainly driven by pro-inflammatory chemokines. This is also the case for periodontitis, a condition characterized by the inflammation of the supporting tissues of teeth. Thus, significant pathogenic connections mediated by pro-inflammatory chemokines could exist between periodontitis and diseases of the hepato-digestive system.","signatures":"Dora Maria Popescu, Dorin Nicolae Gheorghe, Flavia Nicolae, Lucian Paul Dragomir, Allma Pitru, Andrada Soanca, Cristina Florescu, Vasilica Toma, Liliana Georgeta Foia, Alexandra Livia Roman, Petra Surlin and Ion Rogoveanu","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F83581","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F83581","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"67378","title":"Prof.","name":"Liliana","surname":"Georgeta Foia","slug":"liliana-georgeta-foia","fullName":"Liliana Georgeta Foia"},{"id":"171921","title":"Prof.","name":"Petra","surname":"Surlin","slug":"petra-surlin","fullName":"Petra Surlin"},{"id":"234366","title":"Dr.","name":"Cristina","surname":"Florescu","slug":"cristina-florescu","fullName":"Cristina Florescu"},{"id":"235560","title":"Dr.","name":"Dorin Nicolae","surname":"Gheorghe","slug":"dorin-nicolae-gheorghe","fullName":"Dorin Nicolae Gheorghe"},{"id":"245303","title":"Dr.","name":"Vasilica","surname":"Toma","slug":"vasilica-toma","fullName":"Vasilica Toma"},{"id":"296954","title":"Dr.","name":"Allma","surname":"Pitru","slug":"allma-pitru","fullName":"Allma Pitru"},{"id":"296962","title":"Prof.","name":"Ion","surname":"Rogoveanu","slug":"ion-rogoveanu","fullName":"Ion Rogoveanu"},{"id":"334422","title":"Prof.","name":"Alexandra","surname":"Livia Roman","slug":"alexandra-livia-roman","fullName":"Alexandra Livia Roman"},{"id":"342481","title":"Dr.","name":"Dora Maria","surname":"Popescu","slug":"dora-maria-popescu","fullName":"Dora Maria Popescu"},{"id":"472279","title":"Dr.","name":"Flavia","surname":"Nicolae","slug":"flavia-nicolae","fullName":"Flavia Nicolae"},{"id":"486577","title":"Prof.","name":"Andrada","surname":"Soanca","slug":"andrada-soanca","fullName":"Andrada Soanca"},{"id":"486578","title":"Dr.","name":"Lucian Paul","surname":"Dragomir","slug":"lucian-paul-dragomir","fullName":"Lucian Paul Dragomir"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"82914","title":"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.105049","slug":"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis","totalDownloads":215,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":6,"abstract":"In this chapter, we will discuss the importance of genetic variations in the IL-23 receptor (IL-23R) gene in driving the process of inflammation-induced carcinogenesis. By applying bladder cancer (BLC) as a model, we will focus on two contradictory genetic mutations within the receptor gene. The first one is enhanced by cancer and induces inflammation-induced carcinogenesis via up-regulating IL-23\u002FIL-17 inflammatory axis. However, the other preventive one deregulates this inflammatory pathway by distorting the protein nature of the receptor, leading to block its binding affinity. During the process of carcinogenesis, cancer genetically inclines the balance towards the protumor, via over-expressing the IL-23R on the surfaces of immune-bearing cells, particularly tumor-associated monocytes (TAMs) and thus increasing the levels of pro-angiogenic cytokines IL-23 and IL-17.","signatures":"Mohammed El-Gedamy","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F82914","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F82914","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"454203","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Mohammed","surname":"El-Gedamy","slug":"mohammed-el-gedamy","fullName":"Mohammed El-Gedamy"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"82506","title":"Interleukin-5 and Interleukin-5 Receptor Polymorphism in Asthma","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.105078","slug":"interleukin-5-and-interleukin-5-receptor-polymorphism-in-asthma","totalDownloads":214,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":7,"abstract":"Asthma is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs, in the world. It’s associated with type 2 cytokines interleukin-4, IL-5, and IL-13, which promote airway eosinophilia, bronchial hyperresponsiveness, mucus overproduction, and immunogloubulin E synthesis. IL-5 is a cytokine known to play major role in the regulation of eosinophil formation, maturation, survival, and recruitment. Hence, an increased production of IL-5 may be contributed to the pathogenesis of asthma. The expression of human IL-5 receptor presented on eosinophils, basophils, and mast cells. Hence, a polymorphism in IL-5 receptor may be implicated in the development of asthma. Many candidate genes that could potentially contribute to the susceptibility to the disease have not been investigated to date, and not all of the polymorphisms of the candidate genes have been tested for a possible association with the disease. Taking this into consideration, IL-5 (together with the IL-5 receptor) polymorphism deserves attention as the subject of further investigations into asthma. In this review, we will address the role of IL-5 and IL-5 receptor polymorphism in asthma, describe the impact of these polymorphisms on the Blood parameters and clinical parameters. Further, give an overview of preclinical and clinical studies targeting the IL-5 and IL-5 receptor pathway.","signatures":"Raghdah Maytham Hameed, Haidar Abdul Amir Najim Abood and Mohanad Mohsin Ahmed","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F82506","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F82506","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"454189","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Raghdah","surname":"Maytham Hameed","slug":"raghdah-maytham-hameed","fullName":"Raghdah Maytham Hameed"},{"id":"455448","title":"Prof.","name":"Haidar Abdul Amir Najim","surname":"Abood","slug":"haidar-abdul-amir-najim-abood","fullName":"Haidar Abdul Amir Najim Abood"},{"id":"455451","title":"Prof.","name":"Mohanad Mohsin","surname":"Ahmed","slug":"mohanad-mohsin-ahmed","fullName":"Mohanad Mohsin Ahmed"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0}]},"relatedBooks":[{"type":"book","id":"5540","title":"Enzyme Inhibitors and 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Heston and Charles R. Doarn","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y00000xzFKYQA2\u002F0015591_TrikoderCover%20%282023-06-30%2009%3A00%3A58%29.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":null,"editors":[{"id":"217926","title":"Dr.","name":"Thomas F.","middleName":null,"surname":"Heston","slug":"thomas-f.-heston","fullName":"Thomas F. Heston"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}}},"ofsBook":{"item":{"type":"book","id":"1004355","leadTitle":null,"title":"Teacher Training and Student Learning - Past Values, Present Uncertainties and Future Prospects","subtitle":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","abstract":"This book stems from the need to promote in-depth and multi-perspective reflection on teacher education. This is to allow a greater understanding of the cultural, sociological, anthropological, and pedagogical dynamics that converge in this complex professionalism.\r\nFollowing a reflection on the profound diachronic and diatopic roots that invest the teaching profession through what Hobswam called the age of extreme, we will try to outline the characteristics that this profession has taken on over the last twenty-five years and what complex problems it has to face.\r\nWhat will be the next challenges of teaching? What are the future prospects and responsibilities that future teachers will have to fulfill? How can the teachers of the future be trained?\r\nAll this is in the light of the quest for ever greater protagonism and involvement on the part of human beings in their learning processes. Processes that will last a lifetime and influence future generations.","isbn":"978-1-83634-817-7","printIsbn":"978-1-83634-818-4","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83634-819-1","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1005967","price":0,"priceEur":null,"priceUsd":null,"oapfPrice":1400,"slug":null,"numberOfPages":0,"isOpenForSubmission":true,"isSalesforceBook":true,"isNomenclature":false,"hash":"bd1b847d31fab6f280bef82bb11b123d","bookSignature":"Prof. Filippo Gomez Paloma, Dr. Pio Alfredo Di Tore and Dr. Giuseppina Rita Jose Mangione","publishedDate":null,"coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc0000084zLmIAI\u002F0016259_TrikoderCover%20%282024-07-01%2007%3A02%3A32%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004355\u002F1728473213-20870320\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004355\u002F1728473213-20870320\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004355\u002F1731538822-747836045\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004355\u002F1731538822-747836045\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","keywords":"Pedagogy, Didactics, Educational Models, Pedagogical Activism, Innovative Didactics, Teacher Training, Emotional Intelligence, Artificial Intelligence, New Pedagogical Horizons, Learning Processes, Lifelong Learning, Academic Training","numberOfDownloads":null,"numberOfWosCitations":null,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":0,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":0,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"October 16th 2024","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"December 11th 2024","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"January 15th 2025","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"April 5th 2025","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"June 4th 2025","dateConfirmationOfParticipation":"December 6th 2024","remainingDaysToSecondStep":"8 days","secondStepPassed":false,"areRegistrationsClosed":false,"currentStepOfPublishingProcess":2,"editedByType":null,"kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":false,"biosketch":"A pioneering researcher in embodied education, expert national trainer on embodied education approach in schools, and member of the National Board of the Italian Society of Educational Research.","equalEditorOneBiosketch":null,"equalEditorTwoBiosketch":null,"equalEditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorOneBiosketch":"Member of the EU-financed project Rome Technopole, editor-in-chief of the Journal of Inclusive Methodology and Technology in Learning and Teaching (class-A rated scientific journal), and educational technology curriculum coordinator.","coeditorTwoBiosketch":"Scientific director of the INDIRE Territorial Unit of Naples, coordinating the research activities to respond to the objectives and mission of the institute on the topic of innovation, training, and school improvement.","coeditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorFourBiosketch":null,"coeditorFiveBiosketch":null,"isPublished":false,"isDeactivated":false,"editors":[{"id":"512023","title":"Prof.","name":"Filippo","middleName":null,"surname":"Gomez Paloma","slug":"filippo-gomez-paloma","fullName":"Filippo Gomez Paloma","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F512023\u002F1728473468\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Filippo Gomez Paloma is a Full Professor of Didactics and Special Pedagogy in the Department of Education, University of Cassino e Lazio Meridionale, Italy. He holds a master’s degree in psychology, two degrees (Italian and French) in Motor and Sports Sciences, three specializations in special education, a master’s degree on International Qualification of 'High Education Level” in Sports Science, and a Ph.D. in Pedagogy. He is a member of many international scientific societies and a member of the board of directors of the Italian Society of Educational Research. Dr. Paloma was previously the director of the Special Education School, European University of Rome, Italy, and a senior expert pedagogical consultant for the National Institute for the Evaluation of the Education and Training System (INVALSI), Italy. Currently, he is a member of the National Commission for Scientific National Habilitation on his way to becoming a Full and Associated Professor of Teaching, Special Education and Educational Research in Italy.","institutionString":null,"countryString":"Italy","position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"3","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"2","institution":{"name":"University of Cassino and Southern Lazio","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Italy"}}}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":{"id":"611668","title":"Dr.","name":"Pio Alfredo","middleName":null,"surname":"Di Tore","slug":"pio-alfredo-di-tore","fullName":"Pio Alfredo Di Tore","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F611668\u002F1728473206\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Pio Alfredo Di Tore, PhD in Educational Research Methodology, has a degree in literature, with a thesis on \"Semantic technologies and literary texts\". For several years he worked as a software designer for \"Omslearning. it\", a software house specializing in e-learning solutions. He is currently an Associate Professor of Didactics, Special Pedagogy, and Educational Research at the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio. His research interests are mainly aimed at the relationship between corporeity, technologies, and teaching, with particular attention to natural interfaces and simulation environments.","institutionString":null,"countryString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"0","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"0","institution":{"name":"University of Cassino and Southern Lazio","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Italy"}}},"coeditorTwo":{"id":"611670","title":"Dr.","name":"Giuseppina Rita","middleName":null,"surname":"Jose Mangione","slug":"giuseppina-rita-jose-mangione","fullName":"Giuseppina Rita Jose Mangione","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F611670\u002F1728473210\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Giuseppina Rita Jose Mangione is an educational technologist with a doctorate in Telematics and Information Society. She deals with innovative models in schools from an educational and teacher professional development point of view. She conducts observation and analysis activities of situated practices by analyzing the processes and dimensions through which new ways of teaching and learning take shape and mature.","institutionString":"INDIRE - National Institute for Documentation, Innovation and Educational Research, Italy","countryString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"0","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"0","institution":null},"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"assistantEditorOne":null,"assistantEditorTwo":null,"assistantEditorThree":null,"assistantEditorFour":null,"assistantEditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"265","title":"Education","slug":"social-sciences-education"}],"chapters":null,"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"subseries":{"id":"89","series":{"id":"23","title":"Education and Human Development","issn":"2755-9513","editor":{"id":"280770","name":"Katherine","middleName":null,"surname":"Meltzoff","fullName":"Katherine Meltzoff","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F280770\u002F1721284561\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of California, Riverside","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}}}},"personalPublishingAssistant":{"id":"278926","firstName":"Ivana","lastName":"Barac","middleName":null,"title":"Ms.","imageUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fstorage\u002Fusers\u002F278926\u002Fimages\u002F8058_n.jpg","email":"ivana.b@intechopen.com","biography":"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."},"_preview":0},"regionStatistics":[{"id":"1","name":"Southern Europe","contributorCount":21370},{"id":"2","name":"Northern Europe","contributorCount":6960},{"id":"3","name":"Western Europe","contributorCount":10652},{"id":"4","name":"Northern America","contributorCount":17996},{"id":"5","name":"Eastern Asia","contributorCount":20252},{"id":"6","name":"Australia and New Zealand","contributorCount":2718}],"intechStatistics":{"openAccessBooks":"7,300","internationalAuthorsAndEditors":"191,000","downloads":"210M","deliversInCountries":"154","authorsAmongMostCitedScientists":"TOP 1%","authorsAndEditorsFromTopUniversities":"14%","dimensionsCitations":432681,"crossrefCitations":199883}},"ofsBook_old1":{"item":{},"relatedBooks":[]},"chapter":{"item":{"type":"chapter","id":"68898","title":"Introductory Chapter: Radiation Exposure, Dose and Protection","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.89041","slug":"introductory-chapter-radiation-exposure-dose-and-protection","body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003ERadiation sources are known to be basically of two origins, that is, the natural or background radiation and artificial or man-made radiation. Natural or background radiation sources are grouped as those from cosmic; these are radiation from the space. The dose from cosmic source of radiation could vary from one location to another, i.e., the dose values vary in different parts of the world and also change with altitude. The exposure also decreases in intensity with depth in the atmosphere or increase with increase altitude [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EOther natural source group is the terrestrial radiation, which is from soil, water and vegetation. These are radionuclides such as \u003Csup\u003E238\u003C\u002Fsup\u003EU, \u003Csup\u003E234\u003C\u002Fsup\u003ETh and \u003Csup\u003E40\u003C\u002Fsup\u003EK, and they contribute mostly to the external dose to human body. Radon is another example of naturally occurring radionuclide which is found in rock formations and can release higher levels of radiation that can pose health risks particularly lung cancer.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EThe third source of natural radiation is the internal radiation, and these are \u003Csup\u003E40\u003C\u002Fsup\u003EK, \u003Csup\u003E14\u003C\u002Fsup\u003EC and \u003Csup\u003E210\u003C\u002Fsup\u003EPb inside the body. These radionuclides enter the body through the ingestion of food, milk and water or by inhalation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EThe artificial or man-made radiations are those that originate from various activities of man such as in consumer products, examples which include building materials, television receivers and tobacco products. Other activities are nuclear power plants for electricity\u002Fpower generation, testing and using of nuclear bombs, decommissioning of radioactive waste, and industrial activities such as mining, security inspection systems use in cargo scanners and personnel security systems and medical purposes.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EAlso radiation can be categorized into types; they are ionizing and nonionizing radiation. Nonionizing radiation is the type of electromagnetic radiation with no enough energy to ionize atom, while ionizing radiation is radiation that carries enough energy to detach electrons from atoms causing the atom to become charged or ionized. Ionizing radiation has more energy than nonionizing radiation, that is, enough to cause chemical changes, and thereby causing damage to tissue. The ionizing radiation is further categorized into four types: alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays and X-rays. The effects of ionizing radiation at high-dose levels are well known, while the effects of ionizing radiation at low doses are not yet clear. Ionizing radiation is used for diagnostic and therapeutic medical purposes, and there are advantages and disadvantages attached to the use of ionizing radiation for this purpose; the advantage lies in being able to diagnose and treat diseases; however, it can damage human cells and cause harm. Radiation doses of about 10 Sv and above received in a short period can cause the organs and tissues in the body to cease to function and may lead to death [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EThese two categories of radiation, ionizing and nonionizing, can cause damage to humans. Ionizing radiation can cause cancer, heart and brain problems, while nonionizing radiation can cause burning of retinas, skin cancer as a result of long exposure to the sun [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EExamples of natural sources of ionizing radiation include metal mining, radon exposure, cosmic rays from the sun and radioactive rocks and soils, while examples of artificial sources of ionizing radiation includes nuclear reactors, medical equipment such as X-rays. Sources of natural nonionizing radiation are sunlight and thermal radiation, while man-made sources of nonionizing radiation are microwave oven, cell phones and power lines.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EMost of the man-made exposure to radiation is from medical procedures. This can be shown from the NCRP Report No. 93, 1987, on the ionizing radiation exposure of the population of the United States. Natural sources of radiation accounted for 82%, and medical sources are responsible for 11% of the remaining and 18% from man-made radiation (NCRP Report No. 160), and most of the exposure is from diagnostic X-rays such as examinations of computed tomography, conventional radiography and fluoroscopy and interventional fluoroscopy. The average dose from the use of radiation for treatment purposes is much less than that from diagnostic purposes even though quite a number of exposures may be used in certain treatments such as cancer; only a small number of people are involved, and exposures are limited to small areas where treatment is necessary [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003EMedical use of radiation is known to be the greatest artificial source of doses to human beings at large. Following the improvement in technology and healthcare, this has led to an increase in the usage of radiation; this can be measured by the frequency of procedures and by the levels of individual and collective doses. Medical X-rays are responsible, in Western countries, for at least some 300 man Sv per million inhabitants, representing approximately 90% of man-made source. The common sources of radiation exposure to the population are the natural sources and medical irradiation [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EThe risk of radiation exposure from X-ray such as malignancy, skin damage and cataract is high with increasing number of examination performed. There is an increase in the number of procedures performed and the possibility of more complicated procedures such as interventional procedures that can lead to higher doses to patients and staff. The increasing number of computed tomography (CT) procedures performed also can lead to increase in the collective dose.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003ESince the diagnostic X-rays take the highest portion of the medical use of radiation or in which human are exposed apart from the natural sources, it is therefore necessary that people or the population are protected which therefore necessitate the need for a radiation protection to be considered in order to eliminate the damage from unnecessary exposure. Even though, the doses from diagnostic radiology are much less than in the treatment of diseases, there is a need to monitor that the dose to the patient is not too low or too high for a particular procedure. According to the International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP), radiation protection involves the use of three techniques, and these are justification of practices, optimization of protection and the use of dose limits\u002Flevels. Since dose limits do not apply to medical exposure, optimization and justification are therefore important in patients using radiation for medical purposes.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003EThe European Union Council Directive 97\u002F43\u002FEuratom (the Council of the European Union, 1997) also laid emphasis on the need of these two principles of justification and optimization. The principle of justification implies that the advantages to the patient and the society during a radiological procedure must be more than the risks for the patient and the need to consider alternative techniques that do not involve medical radiation exposure [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003EThe principle of optimization is to keep the dose ‘as low as reasonably achievable’ (ALARA principle) economic and social factors being taken into consideration (ICRP 60) [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also ICRP in its recommendation in Publication 73 (ICRP 73) introduced the need for establishment and use of diagnostic reference levels (DRLs) to ensure that implementation guidance is available. The purpose of DRLs is not to be used when considering the dose to individual patients but to prevent delivery of unnecessary high doses as well as to be used in estimating radiation doses as a form of quality assurance [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EThe International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) defined DRL as ‘a form of investigation level, applied to an easily measured quantity, usually the absorbed dose in air, or tissue-equivalent material at the surface of a simple phantom or a representative patient,’ while the Council of the European Union defined DRL as ‘dose levels in medical radiodiagnostic practices or, in case of radiopharmaceuticals, levels of activity, for typical examinations for groups of standard-sized patients or standard phantoms for broadly defined types of equipment.’\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EDRLs settings for diagnostic radiology should not be based on patient’s doses measured from only well-equipped hospitals but in all types of different hospitals, clinics and practices. DRL values are to be established by using the 75th percentile, taking into account of values that are too low or too high. DRLs are to be set locally, regionally or nationally and recorded on regular basis to allow for comparison over some time and also for the purpose of establishing database. According to Vassileva and Rehani [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], DRLs are indicators for a typical practice in a country or in a region, and since equipment and procedures can vary between different facilities in countries or regions, it is therefore a good practice to establish national or regional DRLS. DRLs should be reviewed wherever DRLs are constantly exceeded and that corrective actions are taken when appropriate.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EIn most countries with established National Diagnostic Reference Levels (nDRLs), the responsibility lies with the government national authorities and institutes responsible for radiological protection and nuclear safety. They perform the function of collecting data from different hospitals or clinics with medical imaging facilities, analysis of the data and then give update on the DRL values. The established DRL values are reviewed periodically, and recommendations are made based on the findings.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Reason for DRLs\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EFrom the article on historical background on DRLs, Wall and Shrimpton [\u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] reported that national surveys of patient doses on X-ray examinations conducted in Europe and the USA in the 1950s showed high variations in doses from different hospitals which came about the need for quantitative guidance on patient exposure. It was reported that in the late 1980s, the dose guidelines started first in the USA and then in the UK and then followed in Europe, and the reference doses were incorporated into working documents giving \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EQuality Criteria for Diagnostic Radiographic Images\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E for adult and pediatric by European countries study groups of radiologists and physicists.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EIn 1997, the need to develop the DRLs then followed, (Council Directive 97\u002F43\u002FEURATOM, 1997) which is defined as dose levels in diagnostic radiology to patients of standard-sized groups or standard phantoms, for particular examinations and as well considering different types of equipment [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The DRL values should not be exceeded for standard procedures when good and normal practice is applied. The main aim of a DRL is to serve as a control in using radiation for diagnostic purposes and by avoiding unnecessary exposure to radiation. In 1989, national reference doses were first suggested for some radiographic examinations. This was followed by the investigation in the levels in patient doses by ICRP in 1990 and further developed into development of DRLs in ICRP Publication 73.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003EThe list of medical exposure according to the United Kingdom nDRLs required by the Ionizing Radiation Regulations in 2000 include adult and pediatric computer tomography examinations, general radiography and fluoroscopy which include diagnostic examinations on adult and pediatrics and interventional procedures on adult and dental radiography.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Regulatory bodies on the use of ionizing radiation and DRLs\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EThe regulatory bodies on the use of radiation include the following organizations:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, UNSCEAR\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003EUNSCEAR, which was established in 1955 with the mandate to undertake broad assessments of the sources of ionizing radiation and its effects on human health and the environment, provides the service of assessing global levels and effects of ionizing radiation as well as providing scientific basis for radiation protection. The use of radiation for medical purposes could be of positive applications; it is a reality that X-rays can cause biological harm or injury to humans [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Reports from developed countries indicated that the use of ionizing radiation for diagnostic purpose is estimated to be about 1 mSv per capital annual. At this dose level, the estimated annual additional cancer mortality is 0.5 per 10,000 persons of a general population basing on the additive risk model of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effect of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR). In its report in 2008, UNSCEAR Report No. 1 reported an increase in the total number of diagnostic medical examinations from 2.4 to 3.6 billion; this is an increase of almost 50% from its previous study in 1991–1996. The use of high-dose X-ray techniques such as the computed tomography scanning is leading to growth in the annual number of procedures in many countries thereby increasing the collective dose. It is estimated that the total collective effective dose from medical diagnostic examinations have increased by 1.7 million man Sv, that is, it rises from about 2.3 million to about 4 million man Sv, which gives an increase of about 70% [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EIAEA develops safety standards to protect the health and minimize the danger to people’s life and property associated with the use of ionizing radiation in medicine, etc. IAEA focuses on ensuring that radiation doses to patients commensurate with the medical purpose, thereby preventing patients from being exposed to unnecessary and unintended radiation. To ensure that radiation protection and safety of radiation sources in medical uses of ionizing radiation, the IAEA Safety Guide on Radiation Protection and Safety in Medical Uses of Ionizing Radiation (2018) was published to provide recommendations and guidance on fulfilling the requirements of IAEA Safety Standards series No GSR Part 3 [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EAccording to the report from the IAEA office of Public Information and Communication, DRLs is a tool for comparing diagnostic imaging procedures in a country which include adults and children of different ages and weights in examinations in X-rays, CT, image-guided interventional procedures or nuclear medicine procedure. Each facility needs to set their DRL and then compare with local, national or regional doses. The newsletter report also mentioned the need to track radiation dose data to improve practice and reduce doses without loss of diagnostic quality. As well as prevent unnecessary exposures.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EInternational Atomic Energy Agency also states that DRLs should be set locally, regionally or even nationally. IAEA also agreed to set the nDRLs at the third quartile values, and they could not be considered as optimum dose but in identifying unusual practices. According to IAEA, the government is responsible for the establishment of DRLs and to involve health authority, the professional bodies and the regulatory body. IAEA also identifies DRLs as a tool in radiation protection of the patients.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.3 The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EThe primary aim of radiological protection, as stated in ICRP Publication 60, is ‘to provide an appropriate standard of protection for mankind without unduly limiting the beneficial practices giving rise to radiation exposure’ [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003EAccording to the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) in its international recommendations, ICRP 60, (ICRP 19), the focus is on the principles of justification and optimization of all radiation exposures in diagnostic radiology. Another recommendation, which is the ICRP 85, [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], focused on the risk of skin damage from interventional radiology. In 2007 in its publication (ICRP Publication 103), ICRP presented the revised recommendations for radiological protection followed by ICRP Publication 118 (2012) published on deterministic effects of ionizing radiation. ICRP makes recommendations only, and it is the responsibility of government of individual countries to implement those recommendations through legislation appropriate for their own country.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.4 World Health Organization (WHO)\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EAccording to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are established relevant guidelines that have to be considered in each type of diagnostic procedure [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Human exposure to radiation for medical research is considered as not justified unless it is in accordance with the provisions of the Helsinki Declaration [\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and follows the guidelines for its application prepared by the Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and WHO [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EThe WHO in 2008 launched a Global Initiative on Radiation Safety in Health Care Settings (GIRSHCS), thereby facilitating the adoption and applications of regulations, in the evaluation of radiation medicine and medical imaging procedures. WHO also facilitates training on the use of appropriate technologies as well as publishing and disseminating guidance tools and technical documents. In 2012, the WHO presented report of its Radiation Risk Communication in pediatric imaging workshop on the need to develop and implement a risk communication tool in order to create the awareness of radiation risks and exposure in pediatric procedures [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.5 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP)\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003ENational Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements Report No. 160 (1993) focused on the biological effects of ionizing radiation such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and cataracts, while its Report No. 180 focused on the management of exposure to ionizing radiation and expressed radiation protection principles as justification, optimization of protection and numeric protection criteria, i.e., the management of dose to an individual. This means that the protection criteria is the first objective when there is a numeric protection for a specific exposure; then the optimization of protection should follow [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EThe use and exposure of humans to ionizing and nonionizing form of radiation is of various purposes. Radiation exposure cannot be entirely avoided on this planet, taking into account how much radiation people receive from natural sources. The proper use of radiation can be of immense benefits. The sources and categories of radiation exposure, the various use of ionizing radiation and the principles of radiation protection to avoid unnecessary exposure to high level of radiation dose from the use of ionizing radiation have been discussed in this chapter.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":null,"chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F68898.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F68898.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F68898\u002F1672044320\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F68898","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F68898","cdnMediaBaseUrl":null,"totalDownloads":1038,"totalViews":429,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":2,"totalAltmetricsMentions":8,"introChapter":null,"impactScore":1,"impactScorePercentile":68,"impactScoreQuartile":3,"hasAltmetrics":1,"dateSubmitted":null,"dateReviewed":"August 6th 2019","datePrePublished":null,"datePublished":"January 15th 2020","dateFinished":"September 3rd 2019","readingETA":"0","abstract":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F68898","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F68898","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"7668","type":"book","title":"Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiation","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiation","slug":"ionizing-and-non-ionizing-radiation","publishedDate":"January 15th 2020","bookSignature":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F7668.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1713438878-950220412\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1713438878-950220412\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1718277003-1124482878\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1718277003-1124482878\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1718112989-386084799\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1718112989-386084799\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":"978-1-78984-142-8","price":119,"printIsbn":"978-1-78984-141-1","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83968-440-1","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","numberOfWosCitations":0,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"245068","title":"Dr.","name":"Otolorin Adelaja","middleName":null,"surname":"Osibote","slug":"otolorin-adelaja-osibote","fullName":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"1213"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"69519","type":"chapter","title":"The Effect of Repeated Electromagnetic Fields Stimulation in Biological Systems","slug":"the-effect-of-repeated-electromagnetic-fields-stimulation-in-biological-systems","totalDownloads":1316,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"signatures":"Felipe P. 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Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Reason for DRLs","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3","title":"3. Regulatory bodies on the use of ionizing radiation and DRLs","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3_2","title":"3.1 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, UNSCEAR","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_4_2","title":"3.2 International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"3.3 The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_6_2","title":"3.4 World Health Organization (WHO)","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_7_2","title":"3.5 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP)","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_9","title":"4. Conclusion","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EUnited States Environmental Protection Agency. Radiation sources and doses. 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Geneva: WHO; 1990\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B17","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B17\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EWorld Health Organization (WHO). Rational use of diagnostic imaging in paediatrics. Technical Report Series No. 757. Geneva: WHO; 1987\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B18","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B18\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EHelsinki Declaration 1964. Adopted by the 18th World Medical Assembly and as amended by the 29th World Medical Assembly, Tokyo, 1975, the 35th World Medical Assembly, Venice, 1983, and the 41st World Medical Assembly, Hong Kong\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B19","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B19\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003ECouncil for International Organizations of Medical Sciences (CIOMS), in collaboration with World Health Organization. International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. Geneva; 1993\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B20","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B20\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EWorld Health Organization (WHO). Use of ionizing radiation and radionuclides on human beings for medical research, training and non-medical purposes. Technical Report Series No. 611. Geneva: WHO; 1977\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B21","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B21\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EWorld Health Organization. Radiation risk communication in paediatric imaging. Global initiative on radiation safety in health care settings workshop report. 2012\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B22","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B22\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003ENational Council on Radiation Protection (NCRP) Report No. 180—Management of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation: Radiation Protection Guidance for the United States; 2018\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B23","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B23\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003ENCRP Report No. 160. Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"}],"footnotes":[],"contributors":[{"corresp":"yes","contributorFullName":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote","address":"osibotea@cput.ac.za","affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003EDepartment of Mathematics and Physics, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},"book":{"id":"7668","type":"book","title":"Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiation","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Ionizing and Non-ionizing Radiation","slug":"ionizing-and-non-ionizing-radiation","publishedDate":"January 15th 2020","bookSignature":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F7668.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1713438878-950220412\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1713438878-950220412\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1718277003-1124482878\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1718277003-1124482878\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1718112989-386084799\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F7668\u002F1718112989-386084799\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":"978-1-78984-142-8","price":119,"printIsbn":"978-1-78984-141-1","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83968-440-1","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","numberOfWosCitations":0,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"245068","title":"Dr.","name":"Otolorin Adelaja","middleName":null,"surname":"Osibote","slug":"otolorin-adelaja-osibote","fullName":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"1213"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"69519","type":"chapter","title":"The Effect of Repeated Electromagnetic Fields Stimulation in Biological Systems","slug":"the-effect-of-repeated-electromagnetic-fields-stimulation-in-biological-systems","totalDownloads":1316,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"signatures":"Felipe P. 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Yoshida, Manabu Fukumoto, Hideaki Yamashiro and Tomisato Miura","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","authors":[{"id":"280170","title":"Dr.","name":"Hideaki","middleName":null,"surname":"Yamashiro","fullName":"Hideaki Yamashiro","slug":"hideaki-yamashiro"}]},{"id":"66165","type":"chapter","title":"Environmental Radiation: Natural Radioactivity Monitoring","slug":"environmental-radiation-natural-radioactivity-monitoring","totalDownloads":1842,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"signatures":"Isam Salih Mohamed Musa","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","authors":[{"id":"284133","title":"Prof.","name":"Isam","middleName":null,"surname":"Salih","fullName":"Isam Salih","slug":"isam-salih"}]},{"id":"68898","type":"chapter","title":"Introductory Chapter: Radiation Exposure, Dose and Protection","slug":"introductory-chapter-radiation-exposure-dose-and-protection","totalDownloads":1038,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"signatures":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","authors":[{"id":"245068","title":"Dr.","name":"Otolorin Adelaja","middleName":null,"surname":"Osibote","fullName":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote","slug":"otolorin-adelaja-osibote"}]}]},"subseries":null,"relatedBooks":[{"type":"book","id":"1002954","title":"Advances in Dosimetry and New Trends in Radiopharmaceuticals","subtitle":null,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"hash":"e7c718b71c63ec66c4a3ea6953b859b0","slug":null,"isPublished":true,"bookSignature":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote and Elisabeth Eppard","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F12800.jpg","editedByType":null,"editors":[{"id":"245068","title":"Dr.","name":"Otolorin Adelaja","surname":"Osibote","slug":"otolorin-adelaja-osibote","fullName":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"productType":{"id":"1","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"1171169","title":"Introductory Chapter: Dosimetry in Radiopharmacy","slug":null,"signatures":"Otolorin Adelaja Osibote and Elisabeth Eppard","authors":[{"id":"245845","title":"Dr.","name":"Elisabeth","middleName":null,"surname":"Eppard","fullName":"Elisabeth Eppard","slug":"elisabeth-eppard"}]},{"id":"1153704","title":"Advances in Radiotherapy Dosimetry Techniques and Pre-Treatment Verification","slug":null,"signatures":"Elahheh Salari and E. Ishmael Parsai","authors":[{"id":"438826","title":null,"name":"Elahheh","middleName":null,"surname":"Salari","fullName":"Elahheh Salari","slug":"elahheh-salari"},{"id":"539771","title":"Prof.","name":"E.","middleName":"Ishmael","surname":"Parsai","fullName":"E. Parsai","slug":"e.-parsai"}]},{"id":"1153541","title":"Modern Dosimetry in Radiation Oncology Clinical Trials","slug":null,"signatures":"Koren Smith, Linda Ding, Maryann Bishop-Jodoin, Matt Iandoli, Fran Laurie, Stephen Kry, Michael Knopp, Mark Rosen, Ying Xiao, Fred Prior, Joel Saltz and Thomas J. FitzGerald","authors":[{"id":"241806","title":"Dr.","name":"Thomas J.","middleName":null,"surname":"FitzGerald","fullName":"Thomas J. 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Molloy, Siroos Mirzaei, Hojjat Ahmadzadehfar and Elisabeth Eppard","authors":[{"id":"245845","title":"Dr.","name":"Elisabeth","middleName":null,"surname":"Eppard","fullName":"Elisabeth Eppard","slug":"elisabeth-eppard"}]},{"id":"1141914","title":"Radiochemical Purity and Identity in Radiopharmaceuticals: Design and Improvement of Quality Control Methods by HPLC","slug":null,"signatures":"Roberto Mercado, Silvia Lagos and Ethel Velásquez","authors":[{"id":"524477","title":"M.Sc.","name":"Roberto","middleName":null,"surname":"Mercado","fullName":"Roberto Mercado","slug":"roberto-mercado"},{"id":"525076","title":"Dr.","name":"Ethel","middleName":null,"surname":"Velasquez","fullName":"Ethel Velasquez","slug":"ethel-velasquez"},{"id":"525082","title":"Dr.","name":"Silvia","middleName":null,"surname":"Lagos","fullName":"Silvia Lagos","slug":"silvia-lagos"}]}]}],"publishedBooks":[],"publishedBooksByAuthor":[]},"onlineFirst":{"chapter":{"type":"chapter","id":"88668","title":"The Biochemistry of Autism","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.113872","slug":"the-biochemistry-of-autism","body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EAutism is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder, that often presents as developmental delay in language (sometimes with complete lack of speech), impairments in social interaction and communication skills, rigid, repetitive behaviours, and delayed physical development of fine motor skills, and even delayed continence. This may be accompanied by challenges with sensory processing and executive functioning the frequency of autism has been steadily increasing from the mid-1960s, when the incidence was less than 1 in 1000, to a current rate of nearly 1 in 30 as is found in the US. The economic cost of autism is enormous, with over one third of the National Disability Insurance Scheme in Australia going to the care and treatment of those with the condition. There are numerous charities that have been set up with the charter to support the individuals with autism and their families. The majority of these organisations are working on the premise that the cause of autism is not known and that therefore there is no cure for autism. Despite this assumption, it is already known that several nutritional deficiencies are associated with delayed mental development of young children, including Iodine deficiency (one of the single most important preventable cause of developmental delay in the world) [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], iron deficiency (the second most preventable cause of developmental delay in the world [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], as well as vitamin B12 deficiency [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. As such it was highly likely that one or more of these deficiencies was the causative agent for the increase in the rate of autism spectrum disorder. To glean further insight into this condition urinary organic acid analysis was carried out on over 600 children with diagnosed autism spectrum disorder and data was compared to 50 neurotypical individuals.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Metabolic testing\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EExamination of urinary organic acids has proven to be a reliable indicator of functional vitamin B2, vitamin B12, biotin, vitamin B1, iron and functional vitamin D [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Vitamin B2 (riboflavin), obtained from diet or supplement, must first be modified (activated) within the cell. Such activation is indirectly controlled by the function of the thyroid, and requires sufficiency of three minerals, iodine, selenium and molybdenum. Iodine is essential for the formation of tetraiodothyronine (T4), whilst selenium is required by the deiodinase, which then removes one Iodine from T4 to produce the active form of thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine (T3). T3 then stimulates the cell to produce riboflavin kinase, which then phosphorylates riboflavin to produce one of the active forms of riboflavin, flavin-mononucleotide. Finally, molybdenum is required to form the active form of FAD synthase, which then converts FMN to FAD (\u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Each of FMN and FAD have different roles within the cell and are required by around 100 different enzymes, one of which is responsible for the activation of vitamin B6. In a deficiency of Iodine and\u002For selenium there is reduced production of FMN and reduced activation of vitamin B6. Another essential role of active B2 (as FMN and FAD) within the cell is the maintenance of functional vitamin B12 activity (\u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigures 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Hence, in what can be thought of as a cascade, a single nutrient deficiency in any one of iodine, selenium, molybdenum, vitamin B2, vitamin B6 or vitamin B12 will result in the eventual inactivation of what vitamin B12 is circulating.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EInvolvement of iodine, selenium and molybdenum in the activation of vitamin B2. TSH—thyroid stimulating hormone; T4—tetraiodothyronine; T3—triiodothyronine, FMN—flavin mononucleotide; FAD—flavin adenine dinucleotide; PPO—pyridoxine phosphate oxidase; PLP—pyridoxal-5-phosphate; PNP—pyridoxal hydrochloride.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002Fmedia\u002FF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003ERole of vitamin B6 (P5P) and vitamin B2 (FAD), in the cycling of methylcobalamin (methylB12) and in regeneration of methionine from homocysteine, via methyl donation from methyltetrahydrofolate (5MTHF). MTHFR—methylenehydrofolate reductase; S-AdoMet—S-Adenosylmethionine; S-AdoHcy—S-adenosylhomocysteine; SHMT—serinehydoxymethyltransferase; NADP—nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; P5P—pyridoxal-5-phosphate.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002Fmedia\u002FF3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003ERegeneration of MethylCo(III)B12 from inactive Co(II)B12 by the FMN\u002FFAD dependent enzyme methionine synthase reductase (MTRR).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EFunctional vitamin B12 deficiency, due to any of I\u002FSe\u002FMo\u002FB2\u002FB6, is somewhat different to overt vitamin B12 deficiency, in that it can be accompanied by other symptoms which are associated with deficiency in vitamin B2 or B6 alone. Further, in functional vitamin B12 deficiency serum levels of vitamin B12 can be normal or elevated but metabolically it can be shown that the individual is functionally deficient in vitamin B12 (also known as paradoxical B12 deficiency). Hence, one might expect that depending upon the cause of the functional vitamin B12 deficiency, there may be a range of symptoms and this may explain the current breadth of autism spectrum disorders.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EInfants born with cobalamin (vitamin B12) deficiency are at significant risk of lasting brain damage. Further, the deficiency can cause developmental and intellectual delay, hypotonia, tremor, seizure, and failure to thrive. Without therapy, there can be irreversible intellectual impairment, as well as cognitive and developmental delay [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Thus, the concurrence of hypotonia with developmental and intellectual delay, especially with premature birth, low birth weight, difficulties feeding, and problems sleeping are all “Red Flags” for vitamin B12 deficiency. Lower levels of vitamin B12 have been found in the brains of children with autism [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Absolute vitamin B12 deficiency can readily be ascertained by serum levels of vitamin B12 as well as elevations in the two metabolites, homocysteine (see \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) and methylmalonic acid (MMA). The deficiency in the children is normally associated with a vegan or vegetarian diet in the mothers, and hence lower serum vitamin B12 and low transfer to the developing embryo. There has been a dramatic increase in the incidence of vegan and vegetarian diets, such that in a study in Canada in 2008 revealing that 1 in 20 pregnant women in Canada were deficient in vitamin B12 [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Treatment of overt B12 deficiency in these children involves daily injection of vitamin B12 for 1–2 weeks followed up by monthly injections, with almost all symptoms resolving [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003EChildren born with functional vitamin B12 deficiency differ from those with overt vitamin B12 deficiency in that they may have some of the symptoms of overt deficiency, however since serum levels may be normal or elevated, the deficiency is missed, thus, the children have paradoxical B12 deficiency [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In these individuals, there may still be developmental and intellectual delay plus difficulty feeding, poor sleep habits, hypotonia and seizures. Additionally, the children may have speech, linguistics and social impairments, as well as behavioural disorders, and problems with fine and gross motor movement. Many also have multiple food intolerances, particularly to foods with sulphites, nitrites or histamine in them. Treatment of these children by injection with vitamin B12 does little to resolve the condition.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1 Mineral deficiency in paradoxical B12 deficiency\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EIodine deficiency has been recognised by the WHO as the single most preventable cause of mental retardation in the world and has mandated Iodine supplementation in all countries. It has been known for many years that iodine deficiency in pregnancy impairs the neurological development of the foetus, and as such iodine deficiency in the mother can cause irreversible brain damage to the foetus resulting in severe mental retardation [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Thus, Iodine deficiency in the neonate is associated with mental retardation, increased perinatal mortality, retarded physical development, and reduced verbal IQ [\u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003EDespite this, insufficient iodine intake in mothers is common in many countries including the USA [\u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Canada, UK (73% deficient) [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Spain [\u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Australia, and New Zealand [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Iodine deficiency is more common in families that do not use Iodized salt, who have low dairy intake, or consume “gluten-free” products. Plant-based diets are low in Iodine, and as such vegans may be at risk of Iodine deficiency [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The incidence of “gluten-free” consumption now is very common with as much as 25% of persons in the US, UK, and Australia adopting a nutrient poor, gluten-free diet.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003EIodine deficiency and its effects have been known for over 100 years, and Iodine supplementation was introduced into the USA in 1924, however, Iodine levels have been dropping in the US since 1971, and levels of Iodine intake halved in the period 1971–1994. The situation has steadily become worse, and over 50% of women admitted into Boston Maternity wards in 2008 were found to have insufficient Iodine intake [\u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], with 23% being deficient in Iodine in Michigan, USA [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Similarly, in a recent study in Australia, over 40% of women of child-bearing age were found to have insufficient Iodine intake [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Iodine intake tended to be lower in women on vegan diets.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003ESelenium is an essential cofactor in 25 selenoproteins in the body, including glutathione peroxidase, thiodoxin reductase and three different selenium-dependent iodothyronine deiodinases (types I, II, and III) that can both activate and inactivate thyroid hormones, making selenium an essential micronutrient for normal development, growth, and metabolism. Selenium levels in many soils in many countries has recently been identified as a nutrient deficiency of concern in the UK, Europe, New Zealand, many states in the USA, and in Canada. Selenium deficiency is more common in those on a low dairy diet, or those who have adopted the nutrient poor gluten-free diet.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003ESelenium deficiency can exacerbate the effects of iodine deficiency [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and has independently been associated with poor cognitive performance in children [\u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and poor neurological development, developmental delay, particularly if combined with Iodine deficiency [\u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In countries such as New Zealand, and Malawi, which are known to have low selenium levels in the soils, many women receive less than the recommended daily allowance of selenium [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EMolybdenum levels in many countries have been steadily declining and molybdenum deficiency is common. Molybdenum deficiency is common in children with sulphite sensitivity, a common preservative in many foods. Molybdenum cofactor deficiency has previously been associated with developmental delay [\u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], hypersensitivity to sulphite [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and seizures [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and neonatal convulsions [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and encephalopathy [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EEach of iodine, selenium and molybdenum are essential metals involved in the activation of vitamin B2 to the two biologically active forms, flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and Flavin-Adenine-dinucleotide (FAD). Hence a deficiency in one or all of iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum would lead to functional vitamin B2 deficiency, which would in itself lead to functional B12 deficiency.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EAnalysis of HMTA data from 250 children diagnosed with ASD revealed that a deficiency of one of iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum was very common with every child having a deficiency in Iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum, as defined by the bottom quartile of the standard range. Many children were below and outside the standard range as measured by DData laboratories. Hence for Iodine 17% were below the standard range, with 46.6% low for selenium and 46.7% low for molybdenum (\u003Ca href=\"#tab1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIodine\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ENormal range\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.25–1.8 ppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAutism %\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E<0.25 ppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E17%\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E<0.5 ppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E31%\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ESelenium\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ENormal range\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.7–1.5 ppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAutism %\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E<0.7 ppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E46.6%\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E<0.9 ppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E82%\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EMolybdenum\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ENormal range\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.05–1.3 ppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAutism %\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E<0.05 ppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E46.7%\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E<0.07 ppm\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E72%\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003ERanges of iodine, selenium, and molybdenum, calcium and magnesium from HMTA of children with autism.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003ENote: data is represented for children with autism as the percentage of individuals with iodine levels <0.25 ppm, and <0.5 ppm; selenium levels <0.7 ppm, and <0.9 ppm; molybdenum levels <0.05 ppm, and <0.07 ppm.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EThe data is strongly suggestive that the cause of the developmental delay seen in autism is a nutrient deficiency of iodine, selenium, and\u002For molybdenum in the mother, which would then result in functional vitamin B2 deficiency and subsequent functional B12 deficiency, which would result in developmental delay in the child.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003EIn summary, a deficiency of one of iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum was found in the HMTA of every child diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder who was examined in this study. Given the known association between deficiencies in iodine and selenium and developmental delay, there would be a strong reason to believe that these deficiencies were directly linked to the condition in these children.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.2 Functional vitamin B2 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EThe observation that all children with ASD were deficient in one or more of iodine, selenium and molybdenum, should in turn result in metabolic deficiency of vitamin B2 as FMN—for a deficiency in iodine, and\u002For selenium and in FAD for a deficiency in any of iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum (see \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Metabolically such deficiencies can be seen by \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eelevations\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in various markers, such as succinate (FMN deficiency), the QA:KA ratio (deficiency in FMN leading to deficiency in vitamin B6), lactic acid, oxalic acid, adipic acid, suberic acid, sebacic acid, and glutaric acid (FAD—deficiency) (see \u003Ca href=\"#tab2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EMarker\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003ENT\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EAutism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESuccinate\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E4.34 ± 3.41\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E26.35 ± 4.7\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EQA:KA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E3.4 ± 3.0\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E6.77 ± 27.68\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EOxalic acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E70.3 ± 46.3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E263 ± 218\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ELactic acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E14 ± 15.6\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E33 ± 74\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAdipic acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.2 ± 1.16\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E7.25 ± 16.4\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESuberic acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.6 ± 2.1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E6.8 ± 14\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESebacic acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.12 ± 0.27\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E3.7 ± 37.5\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EGlutaric acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.25 ± 0.22\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.25 + − 1.6\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 2.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EElevations in functional vitamin B2 deficiency markers in the urine of children with autism spectrum disorder.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EQA—quinolinic acid; KA—kynurenic acid. Data is expressed as mmol\u002Fmol creatinine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.3 Functional vitamin B12 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EGiven the essential role of vitamin B2 in the maintenance of activity of vitamin B12 (as outlined in \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigures 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), an OAT analysis was carried out to look for metabolic markers of vitamin B12 deficiency. The major markers used were the classical marker of AdenosylB12 deficiency, Methyl Malonic Acid (MMA), and “inferred markers” of methyl B12 deficiency which become elevated in deficiency of methyl B12 in the synthesis of Epinephrine (\u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E) and of Melatonin (\u003Ca href=\"#F5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002Fmedia\u002FF4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003ERole of methylation in the formation of epinephrine (top) and alteration in the metabolic breakdown products of dopamine and nor-epinephrine in functional methyl B12 deficiency (bottom). MTR—methionine synthase; MAO-A—monoamine oxidase A; PNMT—phenylalanine-N-methyl transferase; DOPA DC—DOPA decarboxylase; DBH—dopamine-beta hydroxylase; Vit C—vitamin C; PNMT—phenylalanine-N-methyltransferase; Met—methionine; MeCbl—methylcoblamin.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EAll children examined were found to be deficient in both Adenosyl and Methyl B12, and so would “fit” the classical cause of developmental delay seen in overt B12 deficiency in the mothers, and the child. The difference being that the majority of the children had paradoxical B12 deficiency in which serum B12 was normal or elevated, but the child was functionally deficient in vitamin B12 (\u003Ca href=\"#tab3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth align=\"left\"\u003EMarker\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003ENT\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EAutism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EMMA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.65 ± 0.3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E2.29 ± 2.95\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EHVA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.68 ± 1.3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E6.08 ± 5.2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EVMA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.05 ± 0.5\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E2.86 ± 1.55\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E5HIAA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.65 ± 0.7\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E6.44 ± 14.7\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EQA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.21 ± 0.69\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E5.1 ± 3.2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EKA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.5 ± 0.35\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E2.39 ± 3.25\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 3.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EElevations in Adenosyl B12 deficiency marker (MMA) and methyl B12 deficiency markers (HVA, VMA, 5HIAA, QA, KA) in the urine of children with autism spectrum disorder.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EData is expressed as mmol\u002Fmol creatinine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.4 Sleep issues in children with autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EAs can be seen in \u003Ca href=\"#F5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (upper panel), vitamin B12—methyl B12 (methylcobalamin), has a role in the synthesis of melatonin, and so levels of melatonin would be reduced in these children. The deficiency of melatonin then would explain the known association of sleep disorders with developmental delay [\u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The data is similar to that described previously in which elevated serum serotonin, and reduced melatonin was found in patients with autism spectrum disorder [\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002Fmedia\u002FF5.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003ERole of methylation in the formation of melatonin (top) via the action of hydroxy-indole-methyl transferase (HIOMT) and alteration in the metabolic breakdown products of serotonin (5HIAA) and tryptophan (QA, KA) in methyl B12 deficiency (bottom). 5HIAA—5-hydroxyindole acetic acid; 5HTP—5-hydroxytryptophan; TPH—tryptophan hydroxylase; HTD—hydroxytryptophan decarboxylase; KAT—kynurenine aminotransferase; NAcSer—N-acetylserotonin.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.5 Reduced melatonin and myelination in autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EVitamin B12 has a critical role in the production of melatonin, and vitamin B12 deficiency, with retarded myelination has been associated with severe brain atrophy and delayed myelination particularly of the frontal and temporal regions of the brain [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Melatonin works in combination with vitamin D in the activation and differentiation of neuronal stem cells into oligodendrocytes. Lack of melatonin results in delayed myelination in the brain [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Melatonin has also been shown to have a role in peripheral neuroregeneration [\u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Lack of myelination has been associated with poor myelination in the brain, and developmental and mental delay in conditions such as ASD and in mental deterioration such as in dementia. Delayed myelination of Broca’s area in the brain is associated with lack of development of articulated speech, a common feature of the autism spectrum disorders (ASD).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.6 Vitamin B12 deficiency, creatine deficiency and developmental delay in autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003EOver 40% of all methylation in the body goes to the production of creatine. The penultimate step in energy production within the cell is the transfer of ATP across the mitochondrial membrane via the enzyme creatine-kinase, to an awaiting creatine molecule in the cytoplasm of the cell to make the high energy phosphate donor creatine-phosphate. Without this step, the generation of ATP within the mitochondria is futile. Lack of activity of the enzyme GAMT has been shown to give rise to many of the symptoms of autism. In children GAMT deficiency can cause severe developmental and mental retardation, speech delay, recurrent seizures (and TICS), behavioural changes, and movement disorders, including Muscular hypotonia, mild spasticity, and coordination disturbances [\u003Ca href=\"#B58\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B59\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B60\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In many ways, autism could be regarded as a Guanidinoacetate-N-methyl-transferase deficiency syndrome (GNMTDS). Lack of creatine production is also associated with hypotonia, or floppy baby syndrome (\u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002Fmedia\u002FF6.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003ERole of methylation in the formation of creatine by the action of Guanidinoacetate-methyl transferase (GAMT) on Guanidinoacetate and S-Adenosylmethionine (SAM).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.7 CoQ10 deficiency developmental delay in autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EProduction of the electron shuttle vector, CoQ10 requires three methylation steps, and in Methyl B12 deficiency, there is reduced production of CoQ10, resulting in elevation of 3-hydroxymethylglutarate (HMG) in ASD. Greatly increased levels of HMG are seen in the urine of those with autism spectrum disorder, which would in turn suggest reduced production of CoQ10 and greatly reduced activity of the electron transport chain (\u003Ca href=\"#tab4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003ENT\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EAutism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003E3-hydroxymethylglutarate\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E8.23 ± 8.18\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E34.27 ± 26.00\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 4.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EElevations in the CoQ10 deficiency marker (3-hydroxymethylglutarate) in children with autism spectrum disorder.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003EData is expressed as mmol\u002Fmol creatinine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.8 Vitamin B12 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder: interim summary\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003EOur studies have shown that all children with autism spectrum disorder have functional vitamin B12 deficiency.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003EFunctional vitamin B12 deficiency results in\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003EReduced production of melatonin, thereby causing\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EDelayed myelination of nerves\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EDevelopmental delays\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EPoor sleep production\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003EPoor gut health\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003EReduced production of creatine, thereby causing\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003Esevere developmental and mental retardation,\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003Espeech delay,\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003Erecurrent seizures (and TICS),\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003Ebehavioural changes, and\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003Emovement disorders, including muscular hypotonia, mild spasticity, and coordination disturbances\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003EReduced production of CoQ10, with resultant drop in energy transfer on the Electron transport chain.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.9 Vitamin B2 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder: other sequelae\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003EIn contrast to overt vitamin B12 deficiency, functional vitamin B12 deficiency due to functional vitamin B2 deficiency can cause other sequelae, thereby accounting for the broad spectrum of the autism spectrum disorder.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_10_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.9.1 Metabolism of fat\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003EVitamin B2 as FAD is required for effective lipolysis. Vitamin B2 deficiency results in less efficiency of fat metabolism resulting in elevations in short and medium chain fatty acids in urine (\u003Ca href=\"#tab5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003ENT\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EAutism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EAdipic acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.25 ± 1.1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E7.25 ± 16.4\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESuberic acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1.64 ± 2.06\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E6.76 ± 14.03\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ESebacic acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E0.12 ± 2.06\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E3.68 ± 37.45\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 5.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003EElevations in the fatty acids in urine of children with autism spectrum disorder.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003EData is expressed as mmol\u002Fmol creatinine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p56\"\u003EThe inability to burn fat may explain the unhealthy weight gain and obesity in many children with autism [\u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.9.2 Metabolism of glucose\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p57\"\u003EMetabolism of glucose is quite complex. Glucose that is taken up from the intestine is rapidly taken up by cells in tissues such as the liver, muscle or brain, and is either acted upon directly via the glycolysis pathway, or in glucose excess, glucose is converted to glycogen. In the process of glycolysis, the 6-carbon glucose molecule is converted to 2 copies of the three carbon molecule, pyruvate. Vitamin B2 as FAD is required by the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase in order to convert pyruvate, the final product of glycolysis, to acetyl-CoA (\u003Ca href=\"#F7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). In functional B2 deficiency, the activity of the enzyme is reduced and there is a build-up of lactic acid. The lactic acid then suppresses uptake of further glucose into the cell (\u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigures 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and \u003Ca href=\"#F9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F7\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002Fmedia\u002FF7.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 7.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p58\"\u003EMetabolism of ingested glucose. In glucose deficiency, dietary intake of glucose is taken up by cells, which then use glycolysis to convert the C6 compound to pyruvate (C3). Pyruvate is subsequently converted to AcetylCoA via pyruvate dehydrogenase in the presence of FAD, TPP, and Lipoate. In glucose excess glucose is converted to glycogen.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F8\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002Fmedia\u002FF8.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 8.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p59\"\u003EMetabolism of ingested glucose in functional B2 deficiency. Dietary glucose is converted to pyruvate, but due to the deficiency of FAD, the pyruvate is converted to lactate. Glycogenolysis is blocked due to lack of P5P, and so as there is reduced blood glucose, hypoglycemia results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F9\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002Fmedia\u002FF9.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 9.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p60\"\u003EMetabolism of ingested glucose in functional B2 deficiency. In slight deficiency of active B2, as FAD, there is an increase in glutaric acid, which is accompanied by a rapid increase in lactic acid. As functional B2 increases lactic acid generation is greatly reduced. Data is expressed as mmol\u002Fmol creatinine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p61\"\u003EPotentially children with autism could present as having diabetes, if functional B2 deficiency was low, or having hypoglycemia if functional B2 deficiency was high. This would explain the heterogeneity of data in studies on diabetes and autism spectrum disorder [\u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B64\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Deficiency of iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum in the mothers of children who give birth to children with autism spectrum disorder, would result in gestational diabetes, a known associative factor for having a child with autism [\u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.9.3 Iron deficiency in autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p62\"\u003EIron deficiency is the second most preventable cause of developmental delay [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Deficiency of iron leads to lower levels of oxygen carriage due to lower haemoglobin in serum, but more importantly, as the serum iron-carrying protein, ferritin decreases below 70 μg\u002FL there is an uncoupling of the citric acid cycle due to the denaturation of the enzyme aconitase. This, in turn, leads to reduced energy transfer into the citric acid cycle, and excretion of citric acid into urine. This lack of energy, can be associated with hypotonia, which is common in autism spectrum disorder (\u003Ca href=\"#tab6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003ENT\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EAutism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECitric acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E144 ± 123\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E312 ± 245\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 6.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p64\"\u003EElevations in citric acid in the urine of children with autism spectrum disorder.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p63\"\u003EData is expressed as mmol\u002Fmol creatinine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_13_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.9.4 GABA deficiency in autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p65\"\u003EProduction of GABA requires the P5P-dependent enzyme, Glutamate decarboxylase. In iodine and\u002For selenium deficiency, levels of P5P will be reduced and so synthesis of GABA will be reduced resulting in the observed elevations of glutamate—an excitatory neurotransmitter, in the brains of children with autism spectrum disorder [\u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and will presumably explain some of the behavioural issues observed in these individuals.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_14_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.9.5 Vitamin D deficiency in autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p66\"\u003EVitamin D deficiency has previously been associated with developmental delay. Lack of vitamin D leads to poor uptake of calcium from the intestine as well as bone demineralization and an increased fracture rate has been noted in children with autism spectrum disorder. Elevations in urinary phosphoric acid and decreased calcium was found in the hair of children with autism, suggesting a co-deficiency with vitamin B2 and vitamin B12 (\u003Ca href=\"#tab7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab7\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Ccol\u003E\u003Cthead\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Cth\u003E\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003ENT\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003Cth\u003EAutism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\u003Ctbody\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003EPhosphoric acid\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E1420 ± 470\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E3253 ± 1357\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003Ctr\u003E\u003Ctd\u003ECalcium HMTA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E546 ± 609\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003Ctd align=\"center\"\u003E380 ± 255\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 7.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p68\"\u003EElevations in phosphoric acid in the urine of children with autism spectrum disorder and reduced calcium in hair.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p67\"\u003EData is expressed as mmol\u002Fmol creatinine.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_17\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Treatment of functional vitamin B12 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p69\"\u003EResolution of functional vitamin B12 deficiency is a relatively simple process using the RnB protocol, which is designed to fix functional riboflavin (vitamin B2) deficiency, and then addressing the functional B12 deficiency. First one must identify the mineral deficiency that has caused the functional vitamin B2 deficiency, which is normally iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum. This can be done via a simple Hair Metals Analysis test, and can be supported by thyroid data. Hence in HMTA, Iodine should be >1.0, selenium >1.0 and molybdenum >0.1 ppm. TSH levels indicating Iodine sufficiency should be as close to 1.0 as possible, with biochemical deficiency of functional B2 seen at values >1.5. These findings can be backed up by organic acid testing for functional B2 sufficiency (see Section 2.2. for representative markers). Supplementation should be Iodide >150 μg \u002Fday, selenite >55 μg \u002Fday and molybdate >100 μg\u002Fday. Once sufficiency is established children should be supplemented with at least 5 mg per day riboflavin. Finally, vitamin B12, preferably a mix of Adenosyl\u002FMethyl B12 should be administered by injection or topical administration of the B12 oils Adenosyl\u002FMethyl B12 oils product. Oral administration has not been found to be effective. The biochemical status of the children should be monitored to ensure that the treatment has been effective and adjustments made accordingly.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_18\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Prevention of autism spectrum disorder\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p70\"\u003EEvidence to date strongly supports the notion that it is the deficiencies in the womb that ultimately cause autism, hence the potential mother needs to be nutritionally sufficient before pregnancy. Suggested ranges are:\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: simple;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p71\"\u003EIron: ferritin > 70 μg\u002FL, haemoglobin > 14, haematocrit > 0.4\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p72\"\u003EVitamin B12 > 400 pg\u002Fml (300 pmol\u002FL)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p73\"\u003ESupplementation\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p74\"\u003EIodide 225 μg\u002Fday\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p75\"\u003ESelenite 100 μg\u002Fday\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p76\"\u003EMolybdate 200 μg\u002Fday\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p77\"\u003EFolate > 400 μg\u002Fday.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p78\"\u003EAt the start of the second and third trimester nutritional status should be checked by TSH\u002FT4\u002FT3 and preferably by Organic Acids Testing, and supplementation adjusted accordingly.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_19\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p79\"\u003EDietary deficiency in iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum, when combined with the increased rate of vitamin D deficiency has resulted in a rapid increase in the rate of autism, worldwide. The developmental delay, which results is very similar to that seen in children with overt vitamin B12 deficiency. The major difference being that serum vitamin B12 is normal or elevated, which is paradoxical and so the association with vitamin B12 deficiency is almost always missed. Close examination of the urinary organic acids quickly reveals functional vitamin B2 deficiency, which is accompanied by vitamin B12 deficiency associated markers. The corollary to these findings is that the cause of the disorder is relatively easy to understand and as such enables a treatment regime to be established and also provides a strategy to prevent the development of the condition in the first place. To this end, a Hair Metals Test Analysis should be performed to identify deficiency (ies) in iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum. This is combined with an Organic Acids test (OAT) analysis, to support the potential functional B2\u002FB12 deficiency, supplementation with the deficient mineral is then commenced followed by the addition of vitamin B2, and then Adenosyl\u002FMethyl B12. Progress can then be checked by performing a new OAT. This in turn should provide considerable relief in the emotional pain and suffering of parents and carers of these individuals, as it provides a reason for the condition. In addition, the findings have the potential to dramatically reduce the costs to society of a condition that is entirely preventable by ensuring adequate nutrition in the womb of pregnant mothers.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_23\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EConflict of interest\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p80\"\u003EThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"vitamin B2, vitamin B12, iodine, selenium, molybdenum, iron, vitamin D, autism, developmental delay, organic acids test","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F88668.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F88668.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F88668","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F88668","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F88668\u002F1732965482-1802199603\u002F","totalDownloads":8,"totalViews":0,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"dateSubmitted":"August 2nd 2023","dateReviewed":"October 31st 2023","datePrePublished":"November 27th 2024","datePublished":null,"dateFinished":"November 22nd 2023","readingETA":"0","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p1\"\u003EMetabolic analysis of the biochemistry of children with autism has revealed a complex nutritional deficiency in these children that ultimately results in functional vitamin B12 deficiency. As such the children closely resemble those with developmental delay resulting from a deficiency in vitamin B12 in the womb. Deficiency of iodine, selenium and\u002For molybdenum is seen in all the children, which then results in functional vitamin B2 deficiency, which in turn results in functional deficiency in vitamin B12. The resulting deficiency leads to lower production of melatonin, resulting in delayed myelination of neurons, particularly in the area of the brain involved in speech, and in poor motor skill development. Lack of melatonin also leads to the many sleep issues common in the children as well as poor gut health. The situation is compounded by deficiencies in iron and vitamin D. A potential protocol for resolution of the condition is discussed, as well as methods for prevention of the condition.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F88668","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F88668","signatures":"Gregory Russell-Jones","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"14469","type":"book","title":"Metabolism Annual Volume 2024","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Metabolism Annual Volume 2024","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"publishedDate":null,"bookSignature":"Dr. Yannis Karamanos","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F14469.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F14469\u002F1733124723-241832010\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F14469\u002F1733124723-241832010\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F14469\u002F1733124723-241832010\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F14469\u002F1733124723-241832010\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F14469\u002F1733124723-241832010\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F14469\u002F1733124723-241832010\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":null,"isbn":"978-0-85014-079-8","printIsbn":"978-0-85014-078-1","pdfIsbn":"978-0-85014-080-4","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"138626","title":"Dr.","name":"Yannis","middleName":null,"surname":"Karamanos","slug":"yannis-karamanos","fullName":"Yannis Karamanos"}],"productType":{"id":"5","title":"Annual Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Authored by"}},"authors":null,"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Metabolic testing","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"2.1 Mineral deficiency in paradoxical B12 deficiency","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_3_2","title":"2.2 Functional vitamin B2 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_4_2","title":"2.3 Functional vitamin B12 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"2.4 Sleep issues in children with autism spectrum disorder","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_6_2","title":"2.5 Reduced melatonin and myelination in autism spectrum disorder","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_7_2","title":"2.6 Vitamin B12 deficiency, creatine deficiency and developmental delay in autism spectrum disorder","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_8_2","title":"2.7 CoQ10 deficiency developmental delay in autism spectrum disorder","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_9_2","title":"2.8 Vitamin B12 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder: interim summary","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_10_2","title":"2.9 Vitamin B2 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder: other sequelae","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_10_3","title":"Table 5.","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_11_3","title":"2.9.2 Metabolism of glucose","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_12_3","title":"Table 6.","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_13_3","title":"2.9.4 GABA deficiency in autism spectrum disorder","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_14_3","title":"Table 7.","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_17","title":"3. Treatment of functional vitamin B12 deficiency in autism spectrum disorder","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_18","title":"4. Prevention of autism spectrum disorder","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_19","title":"5. Conclusion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_23","title":"Conflict of interest","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003ETeti G, Salvatore V, Ruggeri A, Manzoli L, Gesi M, Orsini G, et al. In Vitro reparative dentin: A biochemical and morphological study. European Journal of Histochemistry. 2013;\u003Cbold\u003E57\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E(3):e23. DOI: 10.4081\u002Fejh.2013.e23\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B2","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B2\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"journal\"\u003EKapil U. Health consequences of iodine deficiency. 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It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ECarlos Moedas\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","metaTitle":"About Open Access","metaDescription":"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.","metaKeywords":null,"canonicalURL":"about-open-access","contentRaw":"[{\"type\":\"htmlEditorComponent\",\"content\":\"\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EOpen Access background\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. 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IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs\u002FCompacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). \u003Ca href=\\\"copyright-policy\\\"\u003ERead more \u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EPeer Review Policies\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. \u003Ca href=\\\"peer-reviewing\\\"\u003ERead more \u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EOA Publishing Fees\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. \u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002FOA-publishing-fees\\\"\u003ERead more \u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EDigital Archiving Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EOpen Science\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. 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The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org\"\u003Ehttp:\u002F\u002Fwww.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org\u003C\u002Fa\u003E)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EOpen Access Standards followed by IntechOpen\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EOAI-PMH\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). \u003Ca href=\"\u002Fpage\u002Foai-pmh\"\u003ERead more\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ELicense\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs\u002FCompacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0). \u003Ca href=\"copyright-policy\"\u003ERead more \u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EPeer Review Policies\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. \u003Ca href=\"peer-reviewing\"\u003ERead more \u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EOA Publishing Fees\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. \u003Ca href=\"\u002Fpage\u002FOA-publishing-fees\"\u003ERead more \u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EDigital Archiving Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. 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It aims to make research more open to participation, review\u002Frefutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cul\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EPromoting open and publicly accessible education tools\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003ETransparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EReproducible research data and re-analysis\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EPublic availability and re-usability of scientific data\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EPublic accessibility and transparency of scientific communication\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003ETransparent peer-review and publishing practices\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EUsing web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003ESupporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003ESupporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cul\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EOpen Access\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EOpen Data\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EOpen Metrics and Impact\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\t\u003Cli\u003EOpen Source\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"}]},"successStories":{"items":[]},"authorsAndEditors":{"filterParams":{"sort":"featured,name"},"profiles":[],"filtersByRegion":[],"offset":0,"limit":12,"total":null},"chapterEmbeded":{"data":{}},"editorApplication":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"ofsBooks":{"filterParams":{},"books":[],"filtersByTopic":[],"offset":0,"limit":12,"total":null},"ofsBookV4":{"item":{"type":"book","id":"1004577","leadTitle":null,"title":"Animal Endocrinology - Divergent Hormone Signaling","subtitle":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","abstract":"Endocrinology is a diverse and complicated facet of comprehensive, systems-based physiology. The field of endocrinology encompasses the study of hormones, their production, their release, their effects, and feedback (both positive and negative) to regulate physiological functions. This edition of Animal Endocrinology seeks to explore various systems and organs that are primary hormone producers- e.g. the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, thyroid, adrenal glands, enterocytes, gonads, and more. The gastrointestinal tract is the largest organ system in the body with the most significant blood flow, innervation, and immunity; however, the adrenals are arguably the most powerful regarding their endocrinological effects given their minuscule size. Plus, even the heart produces hormones! Many physiological functions are not only regulated by hormones but are controlled by the cooperation of multiple organs and organ systems. Finally, organs that produce hormones are also sites for tumorigenesis and other diseases requiring study and subsequent intervention. 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Our current training not only generates relatively low number of geriatricians but there also remains a huge need for better staff training and support to provide safe, holistic and dignified care. The cornerstone of modern geriatric medicine is the comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA). This is defined as multidimensional, interdisciplinary diagnostic process that aims to determine a frail older person’s medical conditions, mental health, functional capability and social circumstances in order to develop a coordinated and integrated plan for treatment, rehabilitation and long-term follow-up [2]. All older people admitted to hospital with an acute medical illness, geriatric syndromes including falls, incontinence, delirium or immobility, unexplained functional dependency or need for rehabilitation warrant CGA. CGA could screen for treatable illnesses, establish the key diagnosis leading to hospital admission and formulate a rational therapeutic plan thus resulting in the improved outcome. This chapter starts with an introduction to the ageing nation and impact of ageing on hospitals. This will be followed by discussing physiological changes of ageing and the various components of multidisciplinary assessment for older people admitted to hospital with an acute illness that could lead to high-level holistic care. It also covers a wide range of issues and challenges which medical team\u002Fmultidisciplinary teams often come across during routine care of acutely unwell older people. 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This demographic megatrend has brought topics such as physiological age and frailty to the forefront of medical research efforts around the globe. The concept of frailty has evolved significantly since the mid-twentieth century. The outdated stereotype of a “thin, stooped, slow octogenarian” has transitioned to a more scientific and objective understanding of the problem. Still, a comprehensive and concise definition of “frailty” remains elusive. Until such a definition is firmly established and universally agreed upon, clinicians continue to rely on the somewhat subjective conceptual framework of today. In this chapter, the authors review key issues pertaining to clinical management of frail patients, including diagnosis\u002Fidentification, preventive strategies, therapeutic approaches, and common pitfalls. The relationship between frailty, various domains of life, and functional status is also discussed. 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On the other hand, physiological and cognitive changes interfere with drugs’ pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics contributing to drug-related problems which have been reported to account for a large percentage of emergency treatment and hospitalizations of older people, increasing the costs with health in the most aged regions. In order to reduce the use of potentially inappropriate medicines in this population, strategies and tools have been developed in recent years to assess the appropriateness medication use in the elderly.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"9161","slug":"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity","title":"Frailty in the Elderly","fullTitle":"Frailty in the Elderly - Understanding and Managing Complexity","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Daniela A. 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These drugs have been associated with delirium, cognitive impairment, sedation, dizziness, falls, fracture, constipation, urinary retention, blurred vision, tachycardia and dry mouth. If possible, these drugs should be avoided in older adults or less toxic agents within the class should be utilized. This chapter will explore the mechanism of action of anticholinergic drugs at both the cellular and organ system level; discuss how to assess for anticholinergic drug burden; list medications with anticholinergic effects as identified in the Beer’s criteria on potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults; review anticholinergic drug–drug interactions; describe contraindications to the use of anticholinergic agents; and explore practical considerations such as the availability of these substances in nonprescription medications, their use at end of life and deprescribing.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"9515","slug":"update-in-geriatrics","title":"Update in Geriatrics","fullTitle":"Update in Geriatrics","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Donna M. Lisi","authors":[{"id":"324936","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Donna M.","middleName":null,"surname":"Lisi","slug":"donna-m.-lisi","fullName":"Donna M. 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The contents of training courses related to Exercise Aging and Health are responsible for ensuring an intervention focused on the needs of older people. Healthcare professionals, physical activity instructors, or other health professionals who work directly with older people may need to understand deeply demography, theories, and current policies on aging, physical, and functional changes associated with aging, physical-psychosocial relationships, contextual determinants of physical activity, and exercise prescription in the older population.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"11226","slug":"geriatric-medicine-and-healthy-aging","title":"Geriatric Medicine and Healthy Aging","fullTitle":"Geriatric Medicine and Healthy Aging","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Élvio Rúbio Gouveia, Bruna R. 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Physical activity (PA) is emerging as a potent intervention to enhance the well-being and functional independence of older individuals. The current review chapter will focus on the effect of PA on physical and cognitive function to provide comprehensive understanding of the interplay among community-dwelling older adults. The review (1) overviews the positive impact of PA on physical functions, including muscle strength, endurance, balance, and cardiovascular health, elucidating how these benefits contribute to improved mobility and reduced risk of falls among older adults, and (2) explores also how regular PA is associated with the cognitive benefits, including its preventive or delaying effect of cognitive decline, enhancements in memory, attention, executive function, and overall cognitive vitality. It emphasizes the critical role of PA in enhancing the overall capacity on managing daily living of older adults and offers insights into effective strategies for promoting active and healthy aging. These knowledge and insights can also guide healthcare practitioners, policymakers, and researchers in developing and implementing effective strategies to promote PA and support healthy aging in older populations.","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"book":{"id":"12860","slug":"advances-in-geriatrics-and-gerontology-challenges-of-the-new-millennium","title":"Advances in Geriatrics and Gerontology","fullTitle":"Advances in Geriatrics and Gerontology - Challenges of the New Millennium","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true},"signatures":"Milan Chang Gudjonsson","authors":[{"id":"236863","title":"Ph.D.","name":"Milan","middleName":null,"surname":"Chang Gudjonsson","slug":"milan-chang-gudjonsson","fullName":"Milan Chang Gudjonsson"}]}],"onlineFirstChaptersFilter":{"topicId":"182","limit":6,"offset":0},"onlineFirstChaptersCollection":[],"onlineFirstChaptersTotal":0},"preDownload":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"subscriptionForm":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"aboutIntechopen":{},"privacyPolicy":{},"cookiePolicy":{},"recruitmentPrivacyNotice":{},"peerReviewing":{},"howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks":{},"sponsorshipBooks":{"sponsorshipBooks":[],"offset":0,"limit":8,"total":null},"allSeries":{"pteSeriesList":[],"lsSeriesList":[],"hsSeriesList":[],"sshSeriesList":[],"testimonialsList":[]},"series":{"item":{"id":"34","title":"Genetics","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.107199","issn":"3049-7094","scope":"\u003Cdiv\u003E\r\n\t"Genetics," which has been proud of its tradition since Mendel presented his research results in 1865, initially progressed quite slowly due to simple observational approaches of individuals and groups. However, the discovery of double-stranded DNA by Watson and Crick about 70 years ago triggered rapid progress in life sciences, including genetics, which was primarily conducted using <i>Escherichia coli<\u002Fi> and bacteriophages infecting <i>E. coli.<\u002Fi> Subsequently, genetics has achieved remarkable developments, such as understanding genetic disorders, including cancers, through research on the biogenesis and differentiation of plants and animals.\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv\u003E\r\n\tThe two topics of this book series - Human Genetics, and Genomics - will address important areas of advancement in genetics.\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv\u003E\r\n\tHuman Genetics: After fundamental genetics, initially studied with the main goal of revealing the functions of individual genes and proteins, genetics expanded from understanding the genetic system itself to understanding many infectious diseases caused by bacteria and viruses. Consequently, human beings are now overcoming infectious diseases by developing medicinal chemicals, including antibiotics and vaccines. However, genetic disorders remain challenging to cure up to now. Nevertheless, even the cure for them, including various cancers, is coming closer to reality due to the rapid progress of human genetics. In this way, the welfare of human life continues to improve, and even longevity, which was once a dream, has been achieved to some extent in recent years.\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv\u003E\r\n\tGenomics: On the other hand, the understanding of the comprehensive interrelationship of whole genes or whole proteins functioning in one organism has become possible now, as research has entered the era of genomics, owing to the rapid progress of base sequence analysis and bioinformatics. The development of genomics has further made it possible to understand the evolutionary processes of organisms through comparative studies among the genomes of many organisms.\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\r\n\u003Cdiv\u003E\r\n\tThis book series will discuss the findings obtained during the advancement of human genetics and genomics. It is also expected that this series will trigger the formation of a better world composed of human beings and all other organisms on Earth through discussions of research results obtained under the development of general genetics.\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E","coverUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fseries\u002Fcovers\u002F34.jpg","latestPublicationDate":"November 22nd, 2024","hasOnlineFirst":true,"numberOfPublishedBooks":3,"editor":{"id":"29410","title":"Emeritus Prof.","name":"Kenji","middleName":null,"surname":"Ikehara","slug":"kenji-ikehara","fullName":"Kenji Ikehara","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F29410\u002F1707915395\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Kenji Ikehara graduated from the Department of Industrial Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Kyoto University in 1968. He received his B. Eng. (1968) and subsequently earned M. Eng. (1970) and D. Eng. (1976) degrees from Kyoto University. He began his career as a research associate in the Faculty of Science at the University of Tokyo before moving on to become an associate professor in the Faculty of Science at Nara Women's University. He was later promoted to professor and subsequently served as the dean of the Faculty of Science at Nara Women's University. Additionally, he held the position of director at the Nara Study Center of the Open University of Japan.\r\nFor approximately 15 years, he focused his research on sporulation initiation of Bacillus subtilis. Later, he shifted his focus to the origins and evolutionary processes of microbial genes, the genetic code, proteins, and life. He has proposed several hypotheses, including the GC-NSF(a) hypothesis on the origin of genes, the GNC-SNS hypothesis on the genetic code, the protein 0th-order structure hypothesis on the origin of proteins, and the [GADV]-protein world hypothesis (GADV hypothesis) on the origin of life. 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