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Access?</a> <p data-v-59df77e1>Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. 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To read more about our Open Access Statement click <a href="/page/open-access-statement/">here</a>.</p> <p>For Editorial Policies for <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/journals" target="_blank">journals</a> please consult individual journal pages.</p></div></div> <div class="body" data-v-5ea9fa9c data-v-c0007152><div class="htmlText" data-v-51399daa data-v-5ea9fa9c><h2><strong>Copyright Policy</strong></h2> <p>All published Book Chapters are licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported</a> and <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)</a>. Monographs are licensed under the <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0)</a> license granted to all others. Journal Articles are licensed under <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons 4.0 International License</a>. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.</p> <p><a href="/page/copyright-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Attribution Policy</strong></h2> <p>With the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.</p> <p><a href="/page/attribution-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Ethics Standards</strong></h2> <p>IntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Journal Editors, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and societies, where applicable.</p> <h2><strong>Conflicts of Interest Policy</strong></h2> <p>In line with publication ethics practices recommended by the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/competinginterests">Committee on Publication Ethics</a> (COPE), the <a href="https://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/author-responsibilities--conflicts-of-interest.html">International Committee of Medical Journal Editors</a> (ICMJE), and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible and actual conflicts of interest.</p> <p><a href="/page/conflicts-of-interest-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Authorship Policy</strong></h2> <p>IntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on <a href="http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html#two">ICMJE criteria for authorship</a>. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:</p> <ul> <li>A substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work</li> <li>Participation in drafting or revising the work</li> <li>Approval of the manuscript version to be published</li> </ul> <p><a href="/page/authorship-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Peer Review Policies</strong></h2> <p>All scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.</p> <p><a href="/page/peer-reviewing">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Prior Publication Policy</strong></h2> <p>The Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a <strong>published scientific work</strong>. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between <strong>reviewed and non-reviewed</strong> works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.</p> <p><a href="/page/prior-publication-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Quality Standards</strong></h2> <p>IntechOpen strives to uphold the highest research, ethical, and quality standards set by the industry for the manuscripts we receive and publish, regardless of their format. Our research integrity team monitors the adherence to these standards of all parties involved, including the Authors and the Editors. If we suspect any breach of research or ethical standards, or any other type of scientific misconduct at any stage of the publishing process before the publication, we will investigate it thoroughly and might consult independent bodies such as Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) for guidelines. If the suspicion is confirmed, the submission may be rejected and removed from the process before the publication regardless of their current stage. These sets of rules apply to the work of Academic Editors as well: if any kind of misconduct is confirmed, we reserve the right to remove the Editor from the process and assign a new one. For editorial decisions regarding potential breach of above-mentioned standards applied after a formal publication of the manuscript please refer to our <a href="https://www.intechopen.com/page/retraction-and-correction-policy">Retraction and Correction Policy</a>.</p> <h2><strong>Retraction and Correction Policy</strong></h2> <p>To identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to  transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.</p> <p><a href="/page/retraction-and-correction-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Citation Policy</strong></h2> <p>The author(s) must avoid any kind of citation manipulation as it is considered a form of misconduct. Citation manipulation can be identified by the fact that the citations do not contribute to the scholarly content of the book chapter or journal article and have been included solely for the purpose of increasing citations. Please read the <a href="https://publicationethics.org/citation-manipulation-discussion-document">COPE guidance</a> on citation manipulation.</p> <p>Self-citation itself is not forbidden, as long as it is not used excessively and inappropriately as a form of citation manipulation.</p> <p>The author’s references should not be biased towards a particular author, institution/organization, research group, or publication. Behaviours aimed at inflating citation counts for personal gain will be dealt with in accordance with COPE’s best practices. </p> <h2><strong>Dealing with Misconduct</strong></h2> <p>When faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.</p> <p>IntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.</p> <p>In order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.</p> <h2><strong>Translation Policy</strong></h2> <p>IntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.</p> <p><a href="/page/translation-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Equity and Bias-Free Communication</strong></h2> <p>IntechOpen encourages authors to follow the <a href="https://researchintegrityjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s41073-016-0007-6">SAGER guidelines</a> on sex and gender equity in research, where relevant. Authors should use the terms sex and gender carefully, being clear about which their study applies to and/or how work linked with sex (biological attributes) or gender (shaped by societal and cultural environments) is described. When communicating research conducted on different groups by ethnicity, race, religion, age, disability, disease, etc. a non-discriminatory and bias-free language should be used. The reasoning and the definitions for such grouping categorization should be provided, including potential research funding requirements. When reporting demographic information in the study, It is advisable to use terms that designate ethnicity instead of race.</p> <p>Unless essential in reporting the research outcomes, the derogatory descriptions or offensive language should be avoided.</p> <h2><strong>Advertising Policy</strong></h2> <p>In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.</p> <p><a href="/page/advertising-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Refund Policy</strong></h2> <p>At IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.</p> <p><a href="/page/refund-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Online First Policy</strong></h2> <p>All chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for Authors' research</p> <p>Online First chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.</p> <p>Chapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the entire book, chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.</p> <p>If there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.</p> <p>Readers and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (<a href="http://www.intechopen.com/page/retraction-and-correction-policy">Retraction and Correction Policy</a>.)</p> <p>Since the publication of the Online First chapters precedes the completion of the entire book, in the unlikely event of circumstances beyond publisher’s control that prevent the publication of the book, the publisher reserves the right to transfer the Online First chapters to another title in agreement with the Authors. Should the Authors disagree with the transfer or the publisher can not allocate suitable title in the publishing portfolio, a Cancellation Notice will be issued along with the Online First.</p> <h2><strong>Access Policy</strong></h2> <p>IntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.</p> <p><a href="/page/access-policy">Read more ></a></p> <h2><strong>Types of publications</strong></h2> <p>IntechOpen publishes different types of publications.</p> <p><a href="/page/types-of-publications">Read more ></a></p> <p> </p> </div>      </div> </section> <footer data-v-8693b6c8 data-v-40dc7f01> <div class="footer" data-v-8693b6c8><div class="inner" data-v-8693b6c8><div class="footer-nav cf" data-v-8693b6c8><div class="nav-box" data-v-8693b6c8><a href="/" class="title router-link-active" data-v-8693b6c8>Home</a> <a href="/news" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>News</a> <a href="/contact-us" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>Contact</a> <a href="/page/careers-at-intechopen" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>Careers</a> <a href="/sdg-hub" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>SDG Hub</a></div> <div class="nav-box" data-v-8693b6c8> <a href="/about-intechopen" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>About</a> <a href="/institutions" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>Authors, Editors and Institutions</a> <a href="/page/scientific-advisors" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>Scientific Advisors</a> <a href="/page/team" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>Team</a> <a href="/page/events" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>Events</a> <a href="/advertising" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>Advertising</a> <a href="/page/partnerships" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>Memberships and Partnerships</a></div> <div class="nav-box" data-v-8693b6c8><a href="/publish" class="title" data-v-8693b6c8>Publish</a> <a href="/page/about-open-access" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>About Open Access</a> <a href="/how-open-access-publishing-with-intechopen-works" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>How it Works</a> <a href="/page/OA-publishing-fees" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>OA Publishing Fees</a> <a href="/open-access-funding" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>Open Access Funding</a> <a href="/peer-reviewing" class="link" data-v-8693b6c8>Peer Review</a> <a href="/page/editorial-policies" aria-current="page" class="title router-link-exact-active router-link-active" data-v-8693b6c8>Editorial Policies</a></div> <div class="nav-box" data-v-8693b6c8><div class="social-wrap" data-v-8693b6c8><a href="https://twitter.com/intechopen" target="_blank" class="icr" data-v-8693b6c8><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.025/svg/x.svg" alt="Twitter" data-v-8693b6c8></a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/IntechOpen" target="_blank" class="icr" data-v-8693b6c8><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.025/svg/facebook.svg" alt="Facebook" data-v-8693b6c8></a> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/intechopen" target="_blank" class="icr" data-v-8693b6c8><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.025/svg/linkedin.svg" alt="LinkedIn" data-v-8693b6c8></a> <a href="https://www.instagram.com/intechopen/" target="_blank" class="icr" data-v-8693b6c8><img src="//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/46.025/svg/instagram.svg" alt="Instagram" data-v-8693b6c8></a></div> <div class="company-info-wrap cf" data-v-8693b6c8><p class="address" data-v-8693b6c8> IntechOpen Limited<br data-v-8693b6c8> 167-169 Great Portland Street,<br data-v-8693b6c8> London, W1W 5PF,<br data-v-8693b6c8> UNITED KINGDOM </p> <div class="meta-wrap" data-v-8693b6c8><p class="meta" data-v-8693b6c8>Phone: +44 20 8089 5702</p></div></div></div></div> <div class="search-wrap cf" data-v-8693b6c8><form class="search-term" data-v-6047d25e data-v-8693b6c8><input placeholder="Search" required="required" value="" data-v-6047d25e> <button type="submit" class="icr iconSearch" data-v-6047d25e>Submit</button></form> <a href="https://auth.intechopen.com/?referer=sf&env=https%3A%2F%2Fpublish.intechopen.com" target="_blank" class="cta button-type-1" data-v-8693b6c8>Author Panel Sign in</a></div> <div class="legal-wrap" data-v-8693b6c8><ul class="legal-nav" data-v-8693b6c8><li data-v-8693b6c8><a href="/page/terms-and-conditions" data-v-8693b6c8>Terms and Conditions</a></li> <li data-v-8693b6c8><a href="/privacy-policy" data-v-8693b6c8>Privacy Policy</a></li> <li data-v-8693b6c8><a href="/page/customer-complaints" data-v-8693b6c8>Customer Complaints</a></li></ul> <p class="copyright" data-v-8693b6c8>© 2025 IntechOpen. 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And more as applications, the singular point quantities for two classes of typical three‐ or four‐dimensional polynomial systems are obtained, the corresponding multiple limit cycles or Hopf cyclicity restricted to the center manifold are discussed.","signatures":"Qinlong Wang, Bo Sang and Wentao Huang","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F53492","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F53492","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"191996","title":"Dr.","name":"Qinlong","surname":"Wang","slug":"qinlong-wang","fullName":"Qinlong Wang"},{"id":"195099","title":"Dr.","name":"Bo","surname":"Sang","slug":"bo-sang","fullName":"Bo Sang"},{"id":"195100","title":"Prof.","name":"Wentao","surname":"Huang","slug":"wentao-huang","fullName":"Wentao Huang"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"53713","title":"An Intrinsic Characterization of Bonnet Surfaces Based on a Closed Differential Ideal","doi":"10.5772\u002F67008","slug":"an-intrinsic-characterization-of-bonnet-surfaces-based-on-a-closed-differential-ideal","totalDownloads":1744,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"totalDimensionsCites":2,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":2,"abstract":"The structure equations for a two‐dimensional manifold are introduced and two results based on the Codazzi equations pertinent to the study of isometric surfaces are obtained from them. Important theorems pertaining to isometric surfaces are stated and a theorem due to Bonnet is obtained. A transformation for the connection forms is developed. It is proved that the angle of deformation must be harmonic, and that the differentials of many of the important variables generate a closed differential ideal. This implies that a coordinate system exists in which many of the variables satisfy particular ordinary differential equations, and these results can be used to characterize Bonnet surfaces.","signatures":"Paul Bracken","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F53713","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F53713","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"92883","title":"Dr.","name":"Paul","surname":"Bracken","slug":"paul-bracken","fullName":"Paul Bracken"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"53552","title":"Sub-Manifolds of a Riemannian Manifold","doi":"10.5772\u002F65948","slug":"sub-manifolds-of-a-riemannian-manifold","totalDownloads":2104,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":3,"abstract":"In this chapter, we introduce the theory of sub-manifolds of a Riemannian manifold. The fundamental notations are given. The theory of sub-manifolds of an almost Riemannian product manifold is one of the most interesting topics in differential geometry. According to the behaviour of the tangent bundle of a sub-manifold, with respect to the action of almost Riemannian product structure of the ambient manifolds, we have three typical classes of sub-manifolds such as invariant sub-manifolds, anti-invariant sub-manifolds and semi-invariant sub-manifolds. In addition, slant, semi-slant and pseudo-slant sub-manifolds are introduced by many geometers.","signatures":"Mehmet Atçeken, Ümit Yıldırım and Süleyman Dirik","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F53552","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F53552","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"191326","title":"Prof.","name":"Mehmet","surname":"Atceken","slug":"mehmet-atceken","fullName":"Mehmet Atceken"},{"id":"196148","title":"Dr.","name":"Umit","surname":"Yildirim","slug":"umit-yildirim","fullName":"Umit Yildirim"},{"id":"374181","title":"Dr.","name":"Süleyman","surname":"Dirik","slug":"suleyman-dirik","fullName":"Süleyman Dirik"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"53712","title":"Spectral Theory of Operators on Manifolds","doi":"10.5772\u002F67095","slug":"spectral-theory-of-operators-on-manifolds","totalDownloads":2065,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":4,"abstract":"Differential operators that are defined on a differentiable manifold can be used to study various properties of manifolds. The spectrum and eigenfunctions play a very significant role in this process. The objective of this chapter is to develop the heat equation method and to describe how it can be used to prove the Hodge Theorem. The Minakshisundaram‐Pleijel parametrix and asymptotic expansion are then derived. The heat equation asymptotics can be used to give a development of the Gauss‐Bonnet theorem for two‐dimensional manifolds.","signatures":"Paul Bracken","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F53712","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F53712","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"92883","title":"Dr.","name":"Paul","surname":"Bracken","slug":"paul-bracken","fullName":"Paul Bracken"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"52596","title":"Symplectic Manifolds: Gromov-Witten Invariants on Symplectic and Almost Contact Metric Manifolds","doi":"10.5772\u002F65663","slug":"symplectic-manifolds-gromov-witten-invariants-on-symplectic-and-almost-contact-metric-manifolds","totalDownloads":1762,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":5,"abstract":"In this chapter, we introduce Gromov-Witten invariant, quantum cohomology, Gromov-Witten potential, and Floer cohomology on symplectic manifolds, and in connection with these, we describe Gromov-Witten type invariant, quantum type cohomology, Gromov-Witten type potential and Floer type cohomology on almost contact metric manifolds. On the product of a symplectic manifold and an almost contact metric manifold, we induce some relations between Gromov-Witten type invariant and quantum cohomology and quantum type invariant. We show that the quantum type cohomology is isomorphic to the Floer type cohomology.","signatures":"Yong Seung Cho","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F52596","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F52596","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"62522","title":"Prof.","name":"Yong Seung","surname":"Cho","slug":"yong-seung-cho","fullName":"Yong Seung Cho"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"52886","title":"Head Pose Estimation via Manifold Learning","doi":"10.5772\u002F65903","slug":"head-pose-estimation-via-manifold-learning","totalDownloads":2180,"totalCrossrefCites":4,"totalDimensionsCites":3,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":6,"abstract":"For the last decades, manifold learning has shown its advantage of efficient non-linear dimensionality reduction in data analysis. Based on the assumption that informative and discriminative representation of the data lies on a low-dimensional smooth manifold which implicitly embedded in the original high-dimensional space, manifold learning aims to learn the low-dimensional representation following some geometrical protocols, such as preserving piecewise local structure of the original data. Manifold learning also plays an important role in the applications of computer vision, i.e., face image analysis. According to the observations that many face-related research is benefitted by the head pose estimation, and the continuous variation of head pose can be modelled and interpreted as a low-dimensional smooth manifold, we will focus on the head pose estimation via manifold learning in this chapter. Generally, head pose is hard to directly explore from the high-dimensional space interpreted as face images, which is, however, can be efficiently represented in low-dimensional manifold. Therefore, in this chapter, classical manifold learning algorithms are introduced and the corresponding application on head pose estimation are elaborated. Several extensions of manifold learning algorithms which are developed especially for head pose estimation are also discussed and compared.","signatures":"Chao Wang, Yuanhao Guo and Xubo Song","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F52886","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F52886","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"190308","title":"Dr.","name":"Chao","surname":"Wang","slug":"chao-wang","fullName":"Chao Wang"},{"id":"190461","title":"Prof.","name":"Xubo","surname":"Song","slug":"xubo-song","fullName":"Xubo Song"},{"id":"191562","title":"MSc.","name":"Yuanhao","surname":"Guo","slug":"yuanhao-guo","fullName":"Yuanhao Guo"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"53109","title":"A Fusion Scheme of Local Manifold Learning Methods","doi":"10.5772\u002F66303","slug":"a-fusion-scheme-of-local-manifold-learning-methods","totalDownloads":2011,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":7,"abstract":"Spectral analysis‐based dimensionality reduction algorithms, especially the local manifold learning methods, have become popular recently because their optimizations do not involve local minima and scale well to large, high‐dimensional data sets. Despite their attractive properties, these algorithms are developed based on different geometric intuitions, and only partial information from the true geometric structure of the underlying manifold is learned by each method. In order to discover the underlying manifold structure more faithfully, we introduce a novel method to fuse the geometric information learned from different local manifold learning algorithms in this chapter. First, we employ local tangent coordinates to compute the local objects from different local algorithms. Then, we utilize the truncation function from differential manifold to connect the local objects with a global functional and finally develop an alternating optimization‐based algorithm to discover the low‐dimensional embedding. Experiments on synthetic as well as real data sets demonstrate the effectiveness of our proposed method.","signatures":"Xianglei Xing, Kejun Wang and Weixing Feng","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F53109","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F53109","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"30150","title":"Prof.","name":"Kejun","surname":"Wang","slug":"kejun-wang","fullName":"Kejun Wang"},{"id":"191016","title":"Dr.","name":"Xianglei","surname":"Xing","slug":"xianglei-xing","fullName":"Xianglei Xing"},{"id":"196253","title":"Prof.","name":"Weixing","surname":"Feng","slug":"weixing-feng","fullName":"Weixing Feng"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0}]},"relatedBooks":[{"type":"book","id":"3513","title":"Advances in Quantum Mechanics","subtitle":null,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"bbea1c081216f267a4480707f4ead9cf","slug":"advances-in-quantum-mechanics","bookSignature":"Paul Bracken","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F3513.jpg","editedByType":"Edited by","editors":[{"id":"92883","title":"Dr.","name":"Paul","surname":"Bracken","slug":"paul-bracken","fullName":"Paul Bracken"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"productType":{"id":"1","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},{"type":"book","id":"5213","title":"Research Advances in Quantum Dynamics","subtitle":null,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"15678b0555c714101f8d707a46b4ac60","slug":"research-advances-in-quantum-dynamics","bookSignature":"Paul Bracken","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F5213.jpg","editedByType":"Edited by","editors":[{"id":"92883","title":"Dr.","name":"Paul","surname":"Bracken","slug":"paul-bracken","fullName":"Paul Bracken"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"productType":{"id":"1","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},{"type":"book","id":"11502","title":"Manifolds III","subtitle":"Developments and Developments and Applications","isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"eca1aa784f719310820d6bb2cf5a7b20","slug":"manifolds-iii-developments-and-applications","bookSignature":"Paul Bracken","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F11502.jpg","editedByType":"Edited by","editors":[{"id":"92883","title":"Dr.","name":"Paul","surname":"Bracken","slug":"paul-bracken","fullName":"Paul Bracken"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"productType":{"id":"1","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},{"type":"book","id":"10413","title":"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications","subtitle":null,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7","slug":"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications","bookSignature":"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. 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Managing traffic flow becomes more difficult as urban populations rise and mobility demands rise. The book \"Traffic Flow and Control\" will provide a comprehensive and understandable examination of modern traffic control techniques. The basic ideas, theories, and real-world applications required for efficient traffic system management and optimization will be covered in this resource. It will be designed to help a variety of audiences, including students, practitioners, and researchers, gain a thorough understanding of the various facets of traffic flow and regulation. Both novices and experts may stay up to date with the latest and upcoming advancements in the area thanks to this book. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\r\n\u003Cp\u003EThe book's main sections will concentrate on traffic flow and control techniques and their practical uses. Several theories of traffic flow, including the macroscopic fundamental diagram of traffic flow, the microscopic car-following theory, and the mesoscopic cellular automata, will be covered in the methods section. Additionally, it will look at cutting-edge methods, including big data analytics, adaptive traffic control systems, and microsimulation. Numerous subjects will be covered in the applications portion, such as traffic safety, accident analysis, intelligent transportation systems, intersection operations, highway management, and the effects of traffic on the environment. Smart traffic lights, adaptive signal control, connected cars with vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, artificial intelligence and predictive analytics, autonomous traffic management systems, drones for aerial traffic monitoring, and advanced traffic management systems are just a few of the technologically driven innovations in traffic management that are highlighted in the book. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\r\n\r\n\u003Cp\u003ECase studies are also included to demonstrate the enormous potential of these new technologies. The usefulness of the book is further increased by the appendices, which offer helpful software suggestions and internet resources. All things considered, \"Traffic Flow and Control\" will be a motivating and useful manual for experts looking to come up with fresh concepts and tackle persistent traffic flow and management issues.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","isbn":"978-1-83635-318-8","printIsbn":"978-1-83635-319-5","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83635-320-1","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1007250","price":0,"priceEur":null,"priceUsd":null,"oapfPrice":1400,"slug":null,"numberOfPages":0,"isOpenForSubmission":true,"isSalesforceBook":true,"isNomenclature":false,"hash":"b4f29eaad89705c66a1dd3464ed3055a","bookSignature":"Dr. Said Easa","publishedDate":null,"coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc00000ARjzxIAD\u002F0016524_TrikoderCover%20%282024-09-23%2014%3A51%3A16%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004620\u002F1738243144-1561429816\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004620\u002F1738243144-1561429816\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004620\u002F1739823946-718425412\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1004620\u002F1739823946-718425412\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","keywords":"Macroscopic-Microscopic Models, Three-Phase Traffic Theory, Signalized Intersections, Roundabouts, Freeway Management, Incident Detection, Intelligent Transportation Systems, Ramp Metering, Crash Data Analysis, Road Safety Audits, Sustainable Transportation, Green Infrastructure","numberOfDownloads":null,"numberOfWosCitations":null,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":0,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":0,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"February 6th 2025","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"March 11th 2025","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"May 8th 2025","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"July 27th 2025","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"September 25th 2025","dateConfirmationOfParticipation":"March 6th 2025","remainingDaysToSecondStep":"20 days","secondStepPassed":false,"areRegistrationsClosed":false,"currentStepOfPublishingProcess":2,"editedByType":null,"kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":false,"biosketch":"A distinguished professor who has significantly advanced transportation engineering, pioneered research in intelligent transportation systems, traffic flow theory, and road safety, earned prestigious national and international awards, and is a fellow of the Canadian Academy of Engineering, worldwide ranked #3 in transportation engineering.","equalEditorOneBiosketch":null,"equalEditorTwoBiosketch":null,"equalEditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorOneBiosketch":null,"coeditorTwoBiosketch":null,"coeditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorFourBiosketch":null,"coeditorFiveBiosketch":null,"isPublished":false,"isDeactivated":false,"hasEditors":true,"editors":[{"id":"301454","title":"Dr.","name":"Said","middleName":null,"surname":"Easa","slug":"said-easa","fullName":"Said Easa","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F301454\u002F1738243222\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Said Easa is a Professor of Civil Engineering at Toronto Metropolitan University, Canada. He earned his Ph.D. in Transportation Engineering from the University of California, Berkeley. He has held various leadership positions, including Chair of the Department of Civil Engineering and Director of Quality Assurance for the Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science. In 2012, he was selected as a global expert in the Chinese central government's Thousand Talents Program. He is a Fellow of several organizations, including the Canadian Academy of Engineering, the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering (CSCE), and the International Association of Advanced Materials (IAAM). His research interests include planning, design, operation, and management of transportation systems. Dr. Easa has published over 470 peer-reviewed journal articles and more than 300 contributions, including book chapters, edited volumes, national magazine articles, conference papers, presentations, and reports. He served as the editor of a bestselling book on Urban Planning and Development Applications of GIS, published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). He is an Associate Editor for the Journal of Transportation Engineering and the Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering. His professional activities include serving as president of the Online Network Enabled ITS Research Society, guest editor for various journals, and leading a national delegation to China. He has also judged the annual Canadian Consulting Engineering Awards and participated in national grant selection committees. Dr. Easa has chaired ten national conferences sponsored by ASCE, CSCE, and IAAM, and has served as CSCE Vice-President. Dr. Easa has received many national\u002Finternational awards and honors from Canadian and U.S. organizations. These accolades include the ASCE Frank M. Masters Transportation Engineering Award, the ASCE Wellington M. Arthur Prize, the CSCE Sandford Fleming Award, the CSCE Keefer Medal, the Award of Academic Merit from the Transportation Association of Canada, and the IAAM Medal.","institutionString":"Toronto Metropolitan University, Canada","countryString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"1","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"0","institution":null}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"assistantEditorOne":null,"assistantEditorTwo":null,"assistantEditorThree":null,"assistantEditorFour":null,"assistantEditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"114","title":"Civil Engineering","slug":"engineering-civil-engineering"}],"chapters":null,"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"series":{"id":"30","title":"Civil Engineering","issn":"3029-0287","editor":{"id":"27454","name":"Assed","middleName":"N.","surname":"Haddad","fullName":"Assed Haddad","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F27454\u002F1734011578\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Federal University of Rio de Janeiro","country":{"name":"Brazil"}}}},"subseries":{"id":"109","series":{"id":"30","title":"Civil Engineering","issn":"3029-0287","editor":{"id":"27454","name":"Assed","middleName":"N.","surname":"Haddad","fullName":"Assed Haddad","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F27454\u002F1734011578\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Federal University of Rio de Janeiro","country":{"name":"Brazil"}}}}},"personalPublishingAssistant":{"id":"1000045","firstName":"Karmen","lastName":"Daleta","middleName":null,"title":"Ms.","imageUrl":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","email":"karmen@info.intechopen.com","biography":null},"_preview":0},"regionStatistics":[{"id":"1","name":"Southern Europe","contributorCount":21370},{"id":"2","name":"Northern Europe","contributorCount":6960},{"id":"3","name":"Western Europe","contributorCount":10652},{"id":"4","name":"Northern America","contributorCount":17996},{"id":"5","name":"Eastern Asia","contributorCount":20252},{"id":"6","name":"Australia and New Zealand","contributorCount":2718}],"intechStatistics":{"openAccessBooks":"7,400","internationalAuthorsAndEditors":"193,000","downloads":"210M","deliversInCountries":"154","authorsAmongMostCitedScientists":"TOP 1%","authorsAndEditorsFromTopUniversities":"14%","dimensionsCitations":449245,"crossrefCitations":208668}},"ofsBook_old1":{"item":{},"relatedBooks":[]},"chapter":{"item":{"type":"chapter","id":"73504","title":"Calf-Sex Influence in Bovine Milk Production","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.93966","slug":"calf-sex-influence-in-bovine-milk-production","body":"\n\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction: Sex-bias in mammals mother resource allocation\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EReproduction in mammalian females demands high energetic costs, driving the mobilization of fat deposits, in both gestation and lactation [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In evolutionary biology, numerous hypotheses defend a sex-biased allocation of these resources by the pregnant and nursing females, to maximize the reproductive success of their male and female offspring. Some of these theories support their reasoning in the local resource competition [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], local resource enhancement [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], “advantaged daughters” [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], the “safe bet”\u002Freproductive value [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and the sex-differentiated sources of mortality [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EThe most well-known and tested theory remains the Trivers-Willard hypothesis that predicts that: 1) females in good body condition will allocate her offspring sex ratio towards males; 2) and that mothers in good body condition will also invest more per son than per daughter if males exhibit greater variation in reproductive value when males exhibit greater variation in reproductive value [\u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] According to this hypothesis, female mammals are able to adjust the sex of their offspring based on their own condition as a form to maximize reproductive success in the next generation. This theory also states that the mother will adapt her milk production to offspring gender, for example, by increasing milk production or changing its composition when she is nursing an offspring of the gender that has higher chances of producing future descendants. This strategy is particularly beneficial in species whose males compete for mating, like bovine, with dominant bulls leaving abundant offspring and weaker ones having no offspring at all. On the other side, this hypothesis also describes that investment in female offspring will be more profitable when the mothers are in poor condition because the chance of producing competitive male offspring is low. Well-nourished mothers invest more in male offspring, as strong sons will more likely leave more offspring, whereas even weaker daughters will produce more progeny than weak sons [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EIn agreement with this theory it has been shown that, in humans, the milk produced for males is more energy dense in well-nourished mothers [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], while mothers with low socioeconomic status, when nursing daughters produce milk with a higher fat content than when nursing sons [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, evidence for systematic sex-biased favoring males has been equivocal [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Post-natal, sex-biased nursing care has been investigated as a possible reason for sex-biased milk production in several mammalians, including humans. Several studies reported evidence of sex-biased milk synthesis in different species but drawing definitive conclusions from these studies has been difficult for several reasons [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EThis chapter intents to discuss the evidences pro and against the existence of a sex-bias in cows´ milk production, by stressing the putative effects of the calf gender in consecutive lactations while focusing in particular in dairy cows. Albeit non-consensual, its existence would open new insights on the economic impacts of using sex sorted semen to enhance farm productivity.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Evolution of dairy milk production\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EIn the last decades, industrial intensive milk production system uses the Holstein-Friesian breed, known as highest milk producing cow in the world. It is well documented that, with almost no exceptions, there has been a continuous increase in milk yield per cow. In all countries milk production and milk composition evolved over the years, due to a higher genetic merit and better management of the cows [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. For example, from 2002 to 2013, in Denmark, all but two years showed a significant increase in the milk production compared to the previous year [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In São Miguel island, Azores, the same evolution was observed [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EAlso, in all countries, seasonal variations in milk production and composition were observed, both in intensive [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and pasture-based systems [\u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Previous studies have also proven that milk production varies with parity. It is generally observed a progressive increase in milk production in the first three to four parities and then a progressive decrease [\u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Bovine sex-biased milk production\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EThe main source of income in a dairy farm is, by far, milk sale and any factor that can increase or decrease the production affect significantly the farmers income. Even though external factors like feeding, rearing and management are an important part of profitability, other factors, intrinsic to animals can have an important impact on profitability of a farm. The genetic merit [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and sex of the calf are some of those factors. Beside the intrinsic difference in the commercial value of a female or a male offspring in a commercial farm, if the female milk production is indeed affected by the calf gender, then it could be a major factor for maximizing profits [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003ECalf-sex biased milk production is the capability of a cow to adapt milk production and composition to the sex of her offspring, a phenomenon well documented in diverse mammalian species [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The milk yield and the quality of milk produced are two important characteristics in dairy cow production and are also of great impact in beef production. Any favoring of one sex over the other in bovine offspring can lead to a great increase in the use of sex sorted semen, despite its lower conception rate [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In dairy cows, birth sex-ratio is biased, with more males being born, which suggests underlying mechanisms operating to favor more male offspring [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EBull calves in dairy farms are mostly unwanted, due to their low value; in some countries, they are euthanized after birth, raising an ethical and social concern for the industry. On the other side, the used of sexed semen has higher costs and lower fertility. The fertility of sexed semen is estimated to be 8 to 17.9% lower in heifers compared to the conventional and not advisable to use in multiparous cows [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. If a specific calf sex is associated with higher milk yield, this would have obvious consequences in the value and widespread use of sexed semen [\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003EThe growth rate of a suckling a male calf is higher than in females [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Therefore, it would be expected cows to have higher milk production or more energy dense milk when nursing a male. Despite differences in milk quantity or composition, cows do not show any sex biases in nursing behavior [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Since in most dairy farms, contrasting to most beef operations, calves are removed from the mother soon after calving, the pre and peri-natal mechanisms are the sole responsible for any observed milk-production sex-bias. Besides, cows are usually pregnant for most of the previous lactation [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], so the calf sex can potentially influence the previous lactation during its gestation or the lactation after their birth.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003EIn \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EBovidae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, data on the effect of calf sex in milk production are, to the least, inconsistent. Some studies reported an effect of calf sex on milk yield [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], whereas other studies found no association [\u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. One of the studies found that cows with a given genotype had higher milk yield in case of a male calf than a heifer calf [\u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In buffalos no effect between calf sex and milk production was reported [\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003EIn dairy cows in particular, studies addressing milk production sex-bias so far led to different results. While most studies described an advantage of female offspring, this effect was not observed for all the populations and a significant difference was not always observed [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Canadian and Iranian data for calf-sex bias in milk production found milk yield to be increased when a heifer was calved [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, a higher milk yield after calving a female offspring was only seen in the second lactation in New Zealand Holstein-Friesians [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and only in the first lactation in French Holstein-Friesians [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] (\u003Ca href=\"#tab1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Cthead\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003ECountry\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EYears analyzed\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EN (lactations)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EBreed\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EMain results\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EStudy (chronologically)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\n\u003Ctbody\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EUSA\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E1995-1999\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E2,390,000\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EHolstein\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003ECows favor daughters, producing significantly more milk for daughters across lactation.\u003Cbr\u003EEffects of fetal sex interact dynamically across parities, whereby the sex of the fetus being gestated can enhance or diminish the production of milk during an established lactation.\u003Cbr\u003ESex of the fetus gestated on the first parity has persistent consequences for milk synthesis on the subsequent parity. Specifically, gestation of a daughter on the first parity increases milk production by, 445 kg over the first two lactations\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EFrance\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E2000-2008\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E8,901,000\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EMontbéliarde and Holstein\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EThe effect of the calf sex hardly affected milk production.\u003Cbr\u003EA small effect in favor of males was observed in parity 2 and 3 and was similar across breeds.\u003Cbr\u003EThe estimated effect of the sex of the calf in gestation on the simultaneous lactation was also very small.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EIran\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E1992-2008\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E402,716\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EHolstein\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003ECows with female calves had higher milk and fat yield, persistency of milk and fat yield and longer lactation length, while cows that gave birth to male calves had shorter calving interval and longer productive life.\u003Cbr\u003EAlso, cows with female calves had higher milk yield per day of lactation in the first two parities, but there was no difference in milk yield per day of lactation for parities ≥3.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EDenmark\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003Etill 2013\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E71,088\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EHolstein\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003ECows produced higher volumes of milk if they had a bull calf, with a significantly higher milk production of 0.28% in the first lactation period for cows giving birth to a bull calf.\u003Cbr\u003ESuch difference was even higher when cows gave birth to another bull calf, so having two bull calves resulted in a difference of 0.52% in milk production compared to any other combination of sex of the offspring.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003ENew Zealand\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E1995-2005\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E578,912\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EHolstein and Jersey\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EThe lactation initiated by the birth of a female calf was associated with a 0.33–1.1% (p < 0.05) higher milk yield.\u003Cbr\u003EFemale calf gender present carryover effects associated with higher milk yield in second lactations for Holstein Friesians (0.24%; p = 0.01) and third lactations for Jerseys (1.1%; p = 0.01).\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EUK\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E2013-2014\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E211,932\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EHolstein\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EGiving birth to a heifer calf conferred a 1% milk yield advantage in first lactation heifers, whilst giving birth to a bull calf conferred a 0.5% advantage in second lactation.\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EAzores, Portugal\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E2009-2017\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E45,712\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EHolstein\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EWhether calving a male or a female, cows roughly produced the same amount of milk and protein content. However, the content of fat was slightly higher when they calved females (P < 0.001).\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E[\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EStudies done so far to evaluate the effect of calf sex in Holstein cows’ milk production.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EHowever, Hinde et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], with the largest study done so far on this topic, documented sex-biased milk production in US Holstein cattle. In his population, cows favor daughters, producing significantly more milk for daughters than for sons across lactation, suggesting that the effects of fetal sex can interact dynamically across parities. The sex of the fetus being gestated can enhance or diminish the production of milk during an established lactation. Moreover, the sex of the fetus gestated on the first parity has persistent consequences for milk synthesis on the subsequent parity. Contrastingly, Gillespie et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] did not detect a significant effect of the sex of the calf being gestated on the mother milk production. Dallago et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. found only a calf-sex effect on the lactose and total solids, with an advantage to the females.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EOn a population of 1.49 million cows from the late 90’s, primiparous cows giving birth to a female produced, on average, additional 142 kg (1.3% increase) of milk over a standardized 305-day lactation period compared with those calving a male [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The fetal sex on the first parity had also persistent effects on milk production during the second lactation. Calving a female on the first parity, increases milk production by 445 kg over the first two lactations, identifying a dramatic and sustained programming of mammary function by the offspring in utero. On the other side, cows calving a male son on their first parity produced less milk on their second lactation (P < 0.001), particularly if they also gestated a male calf on the second pregnancy (\u003Ca href=\"#tab2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). According to the same study, the milk composition was similar whether the gestation produced a gestation of a son or daughter; the fat concentration was 3.61% after gestation of a daughter and 3.62% after gestation of a son; protein concentrations were the same (3.17%) [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Cthead\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Cth rowspan=\"2\"\u003EDifferences\u003Cbr\u003EKg (%)\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth colspan=\"3\"\u003ECalf gender combination at the first and second lactation\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EFemale-female vs. male-male\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EFemale-male vs. male-male\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EMale-female vs. male-male\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\n\u003Ctbody\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003Eat first lactation\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E24 (0.3)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E7 (0.1)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E13 (0.2)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003Eat second lactation\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E52 (0.6)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E5 (0.1)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E53 (0.6)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003ECumulative effect\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E76 (0.9)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E12 (0.2)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E66 (0.8)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 2.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EEffect of the calf gender combination at the first and second lactation (305d) according to Hinde et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EGillespie et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] also showed that, in the UK, calving a heifer was associated with a 1% milk yield advantage in first lactation heifers, but calving a bull calf conferred a 0.5% advantage in second lactation. Heifer calves were also associated with a 0.66 kg reduction in saturated fatty acid content of milk in first lactation, even though there was no significant difference between genders in the second lactation. Interestingly, the effects of calf gender observed on both the yield and saturated fatty acid content were considered minor compared to the nutritional and genetic influences. Aspects that affect milk production, such as mastitis [\u003Ca href=\"#B58\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] or lameness [\u003Ca href=\"#B59\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], seem to have a deeper impact on milk production than calf gender.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003EAn Iranian study, using 402,716 Holstein milk records from 1991 to 2008, report that cows calving a female offspring present a higher milk and fat yield and longer persistency of milk and fat yield, as well as a longer lactation length [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Cows calving a male offspring presented shorter calving interval and an overall longer reproductive life. The observed higher daily milk yield after calving a female in the first two parities was not maintained for the next parities [\u003Ca href=\"#B60\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, a higher occurrence of dystocia in male calving was not taken into consideration and was most likely a factor for the higher milk production observed after calving a female calf [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In contrast, both a French [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and a Danish [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] studies found a small increase in milk yield in both Holstein and Montbéliarde dams calving a male offspring. On the French study, the sex-bias favoring males effect reached 40 kg milk (0.5% of the mean), 0.6 kg fat, 0.6 kg protein. A small difference was also noticed for fat and protein contents (from 0.01 to 0.02%) in parity 2 and 3. Similarly, the estimated effect of the sex of the calf in gestation on the simultaneous lactation is very small [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EGræsbøll et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] also reported significantly higher milk productions (0.28%) in first lactating cows producing a bull calf. This difference was even higher when cows calved another bull calf, with a difference of 0.52% in milk production compared to any other possible combinations of offspring sex. The same study pointed that dams would favor a bull fetus by decreasing milk production during the second pregnancy if the calf born in the first parity was a heifer, which diluted the positive effect on milk production of calving a male in the first pregnancy. Being pregnant with a bull fetus may reduce milk production to possibly increase the energy spent on the bull fetus. Also, cows seem to favor living bull offspring over unborn bull offspring, but unborn bull offspring over living heifer offspring [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003EThe magnitude of sex bias milk production, when observed in other species, seems to be stronger among first parity females [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B59\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The fetal sex effect may be disguised in multiparous females because of the cumulative effects of sequential gestations with fetuses of different sexes on the mammary gland architecture [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It is also possible that maternal investment tactics may change according to the residual reproductive value of the offspring [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] or transmit a targeted effort during a critical window of mammary gland preparation for a new lactation [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Interaction effects were observed between calf gender across the first three parities, with the lowest second parity milk yield observed when a cow gave birth to male calves in all three parities. First parity calf sex did not have a significant effect on the third lactation milk yield. Disparities between the effects for calf sex sequences that differed only by the calf gender in the first parity were not significantly different from each other [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EIn cows’ populations were a daughter-biased milk production was observed, this may involve life-history tradeoffs for both cows and their daughters. High milk production in dairy cows has been associated with reduced fertility, health, and survival depending on environmental conditions [\u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It was also observed that cows gestated during lactation have moderately reduced survival and milk production in their own adulthood [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B64\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003ESome of the differences found across different studies could be partly explained by differences in the datasets used; Hess et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] used total lactational yield, calculated using the test interval method; Hinde et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and Barbat et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] used the test day model rather than predicting 305 day milk yields; Graesboll et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] adopted a farm-based approach using Wilmink curves to calculate 305 day milk yields and Gillespie et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] used the Milkbot lactation model, that can be affected by environment and genetics [\u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also, the use of sexed semen was not known in most of the studies and it can have a significant impact in the results obtained. Sexed semen is mainly used to breed heifers with higher genetic merit [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and this creates an obvious bias towards female calves. This can be aggravated by the fact that heifers inseminated with sexed semen tend to have lower fertility and become pregnant later, consequently calving in an older age, which is associated with a higher milk production [\u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EThe effect of the calf gander can further interact with other factors, like parity or seasonality, making it difficult to evaluate it in a precise way. It was observed that after the third calving, the mother milk production was independent of the calf gender. This observation might be related to larger pelvic dimensions of older cows and by consequence a lower incidence of dystocia [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EA significant difference between the dairy industry in Azores [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] or New Zealand [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] compared with other populations is that both are primarily pasture-based. The production and calving in Azores are not, however, as seasonal as the one observed in New Zealand [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In the non-seasonal pasture-based system no calf-sex bias in milk yield was observed, even though a slight increase in fat percentage was associated with the birth of a male calf [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003EIn Denmark, the difference observed in milk production due to the sex of the offspring was generally smaller than the difference between farms. Other management related aspects are more important for the milk yield registered and the differences identified might be due to size of the offspring rather than the sex, but size and sex might also have separated effects [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. So far, no relation was observed among mean somatic cells count and the sex of the calf born [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B69\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], even though this parameter is often associated with the cow body condition [\u003Ca href=\"#B70\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E70\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EModeling complex biological features, such as milk production, is challenging due to the number of inherent and environmental aspects that can influence them. Also, the statistical model used for analysis may influence to a certain point the results and data interpretation. One explanation for the differences of the several studies on calf-sex biased milk production can be related to the models used. For example, in one of the studies, Holstein Friesian cows calving males in the first three parities had significantly lower first lactation milk yield than cows calving two males followed by a female in the first three parities, but this observation is biased if models do not include lactation length. Also, there are no reasonable biological reasons why to test the effect of the gender of the third calf on the first lactation yield. In fact, the observed effect of calf gender on milk yield is due to an association between calf gender and milk yield rather than calf gender triggering a difference in milk yield. The alleged effect of the third parity calf gender on the first lactation milk yield was not apparent when lactation length was included in the models [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EIn beef cows, studies with limited samples led to different sex-biased milk production, pointing to either favors a son [\u003Ca href=\"#B71\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E71\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], or a daughter [\u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], or not show any sex-biases [\u003Ca href=\"#B73\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E73\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. A study in the red Chittagong cattle found no effect of the calf-sex in milk production [\u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Pregnancy and lactation length\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EIn New Zealand, with a seasonal calving system, the calf gender was reported to influence milk yield possibly through the increased gestation length of male calves [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In that study, the milk production tests were performed on the same date for all cows, so those calving a male would have their tests performed, on average, 2 days earlier. However, when the lactation length (reported longer in male calves) was included in the model, no effects existed of the calf gender over the increased production of milk [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. At least part of the reported difference in milk production due to calf gender, was really due to methodological issues. The interval-centering method used provide a 10.8 ± 4.0 L higher milk yield if herd tests are 2 days later in lactation. However, the observed calf sex variance is too large to be explained only by this difference in herd test dates. When lactation length shortens depending on calving date, as well as the herd tests occurring 2 days earlier, the difference in milk yield is 26.9 ± 6.2 L. This difference is similar to the observed effect of calf gender on milk yield, further supporting that this effect is, at least partially, due to the different lactation length when male calves are born 2 days later [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EIt is difficult to establish any association between the calf gender and a presumed sex-biased milk production or a sex-biased pregnancy length, because of various existing confounder factors that may permeate such interaction. Mean pregnancy in length male calves is longer than in females, the difference also being affect by breed and parity [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B75\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E75\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also, primiparous cows tend to present shorter pregnancies than multiparous cows, the calves born lighter [\u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], albeit the risk for dystocia is also higher for first calving cows.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003ERecently, Atashi and Asaadi [\u003Ca href=\"#B77\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], using 252,798 lactations on 108,077 Holstein dairy cows in Iran showed that multiparous cows with longer gestations performed better in lactation than primiparous cows. This study also showed that multiparous cows with short gestation length had a lower yield at the beginning of lactation and higher raising and declining slopes of the lactation curve compared with cows presenting longer or average length of pregnancy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EThe production system may also interfere with milk production performance of dairy cows. In seasonal breeding systems, late calving cows usually have a shorter lactation since the entire herd ceases lactation on the same day [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The lactation length is usually longer in non-seasonal systems because the lactation can continue until the milk yield of an individual cow drops below a point when it is more economical to dry the cow. In these conditions a weaker negative correlation between gestation and lactation length is observed compared with seasonal systems where all the cows are dried of on a single day [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, even in non-seasonal systems lactation length was observed to be approximately four days shorter following the birth of a male calf compared to a female calf across the first four lactations [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Chegini et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] found that cows calving female offspring had more persistent lactations than those that calving male offspring, suggesting that the lactation curves are different.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003EStill, there is some controversy regarding the best methodology to apply when modeling the milk production (whether in milk yield or composition) to adequately account the effects of the gender of the calf. This is not an easy task, because it establishes a complex interaction with other parameters (e.g., pregnancy length, dystocia, and some cow related factors) that may act as confounding factors. Lactation length is one important factor affecting milk yield per lactation, leading to the need to introduce correction factors for lactation length in the models for milk production in cows. Lactation length in itself has a negative relationship with the annualized production of milk and milk solids [\u003Ca href=\"#B78\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E78\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also, the milk yield and milk production curves change according to the lactation number, the persistency of the peak and lactational length, the cow genetics and the number or milking frequency, among other factors. Such aspects should also be considered in the lactation modeling studies. Models construct evaluate the lactation curves should be used that take all possible confounders into account simultaneously. Therefore, further investigation is necessary to confirm whether the shape of lactation curves differ based on calf gender and identify potential biological explanations for any such difference.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Calving difficulty\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003ECalving difficulty is higher with larger calves [\u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It is also known that there is a higher frequency of dystocia in male calves’ birth [\u003Ca href=\"#B60\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Dystocia significantly reduces the whole lactation milk yield [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B69\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B75\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E75\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B77\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], besides increasing veterinary treatment costs [\u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and reducing cow fertility. After dystocia there is a higher incidence of metritis [\u003Ca href=\"#B77\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], ketosis [\u003Ca href=\"#B80\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E80\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B81\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], both associated with a decrease in milk production. Also, an easy calving presumably leads to a higher milk production because it is associated with reduced stress and pain during calving, consequently leading to a lower energy imbalance that can cause more metabolic disorders [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EMale calves are typically larger than females, and pose a greater risk of dystocia [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B82\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E82\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, Hinde et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] reported that sex-biased milk synthesis remained when analysis was restricted to a subset of females without record of dystocia, and included information on individual cows across the first and second parity, favoring females.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003EA Danish study found different results. Farmer assisted calving were associated with a higher milk yield while cows with no farmer assistance or with veterinary assistance during the most recent calving produced less milk. This means that mildly to moderate calving difficulties improved milk yield, while no assistance or the need for veterinary assistance decreased subsequent milk production. In the same study the interaction between sex of offspring and difficulty of calving was found to be insignificant [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Still, it must be also considered that dystocia might go unnoticed, nevertheless affecting milk production, which could lead to misreading of the sex-bias towards higher production after female calving because of unidentified or unrecorded dystocia [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The effect of the different degrees of dystocia in milk production or for how long they persist remain unclear [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B85\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E85\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EIn UK Holstein-Friesian cows, moderate calving difficulties resulted in higher milk production. It is possible that some births not needing help and human supervision may experience real difficulties that go unnoticed and are wrongly registered as an easy calving, when they might have had some difficulties without the farmer’s notice. Furthermore, it is likely that cows with highly valuated genetic material may be offered calving assistance from the farmer more often [\u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003EA reduction in milk production was observed between days in milk 10 and 90 after veterinary-assisted calving compared with non-assisted calving, leading to the conclusion that non-assisted cows presented a flatter lactation curve after peak yield [\u003Ca href=\"#B69\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. One of the reasons is a reduced dry matter intake in the months postpartum [\u003Ca href=\"#B86\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E86\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003EIn Jerseys the effects of calf gender in mothers milk production were not as pronounced as in Holstein-Friesians [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], which can point to a genetic selection of calf-sex biased milk production.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. Biological pathways of sex-biased milk production\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003EDairy calves are usually separated from their mothers right after or within hours of birth and artificially reared; therefore, the differences observed on milk production of the mother should relate to factors affecting the lactogenesis in pre- or peri-natal period [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The pathways through which fetal sex may influence milk production are not yet fully understood. Sex-biased milk production may reflect differential cellular capacity in the mammary gland, programmed via hormonal signals from the fetal-placental unit, or post-natal through sex-biased nursing behavior [\u003Ca href=\"#B87\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E87\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Several hypothetical mechanisms have been explored in an attempt to explain the mechanisms that may explain a sex-biased milk production in bovine, albeit with discrepant results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EOne possible mechanism may relate to the translocation of fetal hormones to the cow mammary gland via the maternal circulation [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The concentrations of sexual hormones differ between male and female fetuses and can potentially enhance or inhibit mammary milk synthesis if they get access to the maternal circulation. In the bovine species, fetal steroid hormones are present from the first trimester [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B88\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B89\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E89\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The hormones produced by the bovine fetus can cross the placenta to the cow circulation and calf sex influences hormonal levels in the mother [\u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B90\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B91\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E91\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B92\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B93\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E93\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B94\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E94\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Thereby, variations in the blood levels of the hormones involved in lactogenesis may influence milk, dependent on the sex of the calf born [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In humans, higher concentrations of circulating androgens during the second trimester were associated with a lower probability of sustaining breastfeeding to three months post-partum, but the effect of fetal sex on the milk production was not directly analyzed [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B95\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E95\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EAlso, it is possible that the sex of the first parity calf affects milk production for the duration of the productive life of a cow due to the differences in the level of the hormones that influence mammary development, as it has been reported in mice [\u003Ca href=\"#B96\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E96\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], since dairy cows are first bred before they are fully mature, usually with only 60% of their adult weight.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EXiang and colleagues [\u003Ca href=\"#B97\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E97\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] showed gender variations in the placenta weight in both \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EBos taurus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EBos indicus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E pregnancies; the placenta of the male fetus present heavier total placenta weight, better placenta efficiency heavier fetus weight than female fetus. These differences might explain and favor the fact that male calves are usually heavier than the female’s.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003EDifferences in the amount of placental lactogen produced between female and male fetus could differently prime the mammary gland of the cow [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It is accepted that prolactin and placental lactogens have roles in mammogenesis and lactogenesis but the mechanisms of action of those hormones act are still in discussion, and the role of the calf gender is still unclear [\u003Ca href=\"#B98\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E98\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B99\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E99\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Albeit the information available for bovine is scarce, in humans, differences were found in the levels of placental lactogen in the umbilical cord blood in female and male pregnancies [\u003Ca href=\"#B100\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It was also been shown that glucose-to-insulin ratios were lower in women bearing a female vs. those bearing a male fetus [\u003Ca href=\"#B101\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E101\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Both insulin and glucose are important modulators of milk production. The fetal Insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) are raised in maternal circulation during pregnancy in male-pregnant dairy cows and diminished in female-pregnant cows [\u003Ca href=\"#B102\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. It was also demonstrated that the level of this hormone directly affects milk production [\u003Ca href=\"#B103\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E103\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B104\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E104\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In cows, Insulin and IGF-I concentrations, important metabolic mediators of the energetic metabolism and body condition, are negatively associated with milk yield during the production phase of the lactation [\u003Ca href=\"#B105\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003EHienddleder et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B106\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E106\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] showed that total thyroxine concentrations were higher in male pregnancies, while triiodothyronine concentrations were unaffected by fetal gender. Contrastingly, free thyroxine concentrations were higher in female pregnancies of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EBos indicus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E genetics, while in the \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EBos taurus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, the values for that hormone tend to be higher in male pregnancies. No gender-associated differences were found regarding the Insulin-like growth factors in this study. The changes in the thyroid hormones’ concentrations may contribute to a different pattern in gene expression at the mammary gland, due to their galactopoietic role that sets the mammary gland´ s metabolic priority during lactation [\u003Ca href=\"#B107\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003EExploring another route, Chew et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B108\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E108\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] showed that larger calves are associated with higher milk production, maybe related to higher concentrations of estrogen and placental lactogens during gestation. Indirectly, this could be one of the reasons why, in some cases, male calves are associated with higher milk production, since male calves are usually heavier at birth [\u003Ca href=\"#B109\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E109\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, a negative correlation between birthweight and milk production during gestation was also found, leading to the hypothesis that the competition for nutrient between the fetus in gestation and the milk production for the current one would drive a diminished milk production. Yet, it cannot be ruled out that a high milk production is in itself responsible for a smaller birthweight of the calf in gestation [\u003Ca href=\"#B110\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E110\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003EWomen giving birth to daughters show upregulation of epithelial\u002Flactocyte genes, which may be associated with increased milk yield [\u003Ca href=\"#B111\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E111\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also, in dairy cattle a sex-biased in nitrogen and energy metabolism during the transition period was observed [\u003Ca href=\"#B112\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E112\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Higher odds exist for a male birth in cows that lose less body condition after calving [\u003Ca href=\"#B113\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E113\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B114\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E114\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The depth of the Negative Energetic Balance (NEB) experienced by these cows may affect the sex-biased production of milk to favor one sex or the other. The usually higher NEB that cows go through in more intensive systems may account for the results obtained under highly intensive conditions compared to the ones obtained under less stressful management. Roche et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B113\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E113\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] showed that a higher loss of body condition score by the cow was associated with a higher rate of born females. Higher milk producer cows usually lose more body condition score and have a higher rate of female calves’ gestation [\u003Ca href=\"#B114\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E114\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This might be the reason why it seems that the birth of a female is positive to milk production; however, the relationship between these factors might be the inverse, with higher producers having a higher rate of female calves [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003ECow’s milk production increases with the weight of the calf born [\u003Ca href=\"#B115\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E115\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and male calves mean weight at birth is higher [\u003Ca href=\"#B82\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E82\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This difference in calf-sex birth weight can lead to the idea that the milk production is related to sex, when in fact it only reflects the birth weight [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Chew et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B108\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E108\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] found no calf-sex bias in milk production when birth weight was included in the model.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003EThe sex of the calf whose birth initiates lactation can influence the milk production in the subsequent lactation because of the hormonal influences on the mammary gland development or due to the calf sex effects on pregnancy length. Also, fetal sex can influence lactation production during pregnancy because cows become pregnant at peak lactation [\u003Ca href=\"#B109\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E109\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003EIn the \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECervus elaphus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E species, the red reindeer, dominant females give birth to a higher proportion of males than their subordinates. It is known that these dominant hinds produce higher levels of progesterone in the early days of pregnancy, and male blastocysts secrete interferon-tau earlier than females, so the hypothesis is that maternal recognition of pregnancy in dominant hinds is therefore more likely to be successful if the blastocyst is male [\u003Ca href=\"#B116\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E116\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Factors such as this at the time of maternal recognition of pregnancy in cattle could also affect calf sex, but this has not been studied yet.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003EHolstein heifers in the USA, even after administration of bST (bovine somatotropin) still produced significantly higher milk yield if they calve a female offspring, but sex-biased milk synthesis was not observed in parities two through five [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Even though hormones can cause sex-biased milk production, other factors such as birth, weight, lactation length and dystocia probably have a higher impact [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E7. The use of sexed semen\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003ESexed semen produces 90% of offspring of the desired sex, but the fertility is reduced in between 75 to 80% compared with conventional frozen semen [\u003Ca href=\"#B117\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E117\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], because the sorting process produces a higher level of damaged to the spermatozoa [\u003Ca href=\"#B118\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E118\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Usually, sexed semen is applied more frequently in heifers, to profit from their higher fertility. Also, the heifers selected to be inseminated with sexed semen are usually the ones with higher genetic merit, so they are the ones producing the replacement animals [\u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003EThe use of sorted semen in dairy industry screws the gender ratios into the female sex, seeking the production of future genetically superior replacement animals. Under the sex-biased milk production framework, and according to some studies [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], it would be expected to observe an increase in milk yield in cows that calved a female in their first and eventually in the second parity. This effect would overcome any negative effects exerted by the calving of a larger male fetus (increasing the stress over nutrients partitioning between the fetus and the mother during pregnancy, and increasing the risk for dystocia) and variations in pregnancy length. On the other hand, the sorted semen being applied more often in heifers or primiparous cows, the former tending to present shorter pregnancy lengths [\u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], may also influence the results if the type of semen used does not enter in the model used. Attention should be paid when analyzing data from most studies, because usually the type of semen used in artificial insemination is not considered as a variable in the statistical model, which could affect the results.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003EAfter investigating the effect of sex-bias in milk production, using simulated data and considering different intensities of sexed semen in three different scenarios, two studies concluded that including sex-bias could increase profitability between €4.0 and €9.9 per cow per year [\u003Ca href=\"#B58\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B119\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E119\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] (\u003Ca href=\"#tab3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). On the other hand, it was also concluded that any increase in milk yield from cows calving a female calf was insufficient to warrant the use of sexed semen. The real influence of sex-biased milk production using sexed semen must be further studied before recommendations can be made into its economic impact [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also, two different studies concluded that, even though there might be an effect of calf gender on a cows’ milk production, the impact was not large enough to influence profit [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] or encourage the use of sexed semen [\u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"tab3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\"hsides\" rules=\"groups\"\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Ccol\u003E\n\u003Cthead\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EDifferences in milk yield per cow\u002Fyear\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EWithout sex bias\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003EWith sex bias\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003Cth\u003ESimulation scenario\u003C\u002Fth\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\n\u003Ctbody\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EMilk yield (kg of ECM)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E36\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E48\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003ESorted semen used in 30% of heifers and 30% of cows\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003ENet return (€)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E3.0\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E7.0\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003EMilk yield (kg of ECM)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E66\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E99\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003ESorted semen used in 100% of heifers and 50% of cows\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003Ctr\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003ENet return (€)\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E3.1\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003Ctd\u003E13.0\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftbody\u003E\n\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 3.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003EEffects of the use of sex sorted semen on milk yield per cow\u002Fyear considering two different simulation scenarios [\u003Ca href=\"#B109\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E109\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\n\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E8. Conclusions\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p56\"\u003EWhether or not a sex biased milk production in dairy cows exists, this bias can vary, favoring one sex or the other and, sometimes, none. It seems to favor females in intensive production systems, while in other less intensive systems this was not observed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p57\"\u003EThe conflictual results obtained in different studies considering the cow may influence the sex of offspring suggest that the systems were cows are generally in good and competitive condition produce more milk for bull calves. They also seem to indicate that cows in a worse condition, or of a genetically diverging strain, apparently invest more milk in heifer calves. Up to now, conflicting reports have been presented to the scientific society, but differences among the models used make difficult to establish a clear relation between the gender of the offspring and the productivity of the cow. The different results observed are probably due to differences in the methodological approach, and the different influencer parameters used to calculate a lactation milk production, and in possible confounding factors that may not be completely identified. Also, other factors, such as different housing and feedings can have impact in calf-sex milk production bias in pathways still to be understood.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p58\"\u003ETo further explore this theory, additional research is needed that includes other cattle populations and correlating the investment strategy with an animal welfare index. If the calf sex effect in milk production is present in a population, selection of bull mothers and progeny tested bulls may be biased due to the offspring sex, increasing the genetic progress towards more profitable cows, if this calf-gender bias is accounted for in breeding value estimation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EAcknowledgments\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\u003Cp id=\"p59\"\u003EThis work was funded by the project UIDB\u002FCVT\u002F00772\u002F2020, supported by the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation (FCT).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EConflict of interest\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p60\"\u003EThe authors declare no conflict of interest.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"sex-biased milk production, secondary-sex effects, cattle, production system","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F73504.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F73504.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F73504\u002F1672084953\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F73504","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F73504","cdnMediaBaseUrl":null,"totalDownloads":816,"totalViews":2975,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"introChapter":false,"impactScore":1,"impactScorePercentile":73,"impactScoreQuartile":3,"hasAltmetrics":0,"dateSubmitted":null,"dateReviewed":"September 10th 2020","datePrePublished":"October 8th 2020","datePublished":"January 20th 2021","dateFinished":"October 8th 2020","readingETA":"0","abstract":"The main source of incomes in a dairy farm is milk sales, and any factor altering the production affects the farmers’ income significantly. According to the Trivers-Willard hypothesis, if the cows’ systems are generally good and offer competitive conditions, they produce more milk for bull calves. They also suggest that cows in a worse condition or of a genetically diverging strain invest more milk in heifer calves. The existence of a sex-bias in cows’ milk production remains controversial even if it would open new insights on the economic impacts of using sex-sorted semen to enhance farm productivity. Sex-biased milk production in cows can vary, favoring one sex or the other and, sometimes, none. It seems to favor females in intensive production systems, while in other less intensive systems, this effect seems to disappear. This chapter intends to address available evidence on the sex-biased cows’ milk production and discuss why further research forecasting this issue is needed, including other cattle populations and correlating the investment strategy with an animal welfare index. Besides, other factors, such as different housing and feedings, can impact the calf-sex milk production bias through pathways still to be understood.","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F73504","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F73504","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"8545","type":"book","title":"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine","slug":"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine","publishedDate":"January 20th 2021","bookSignature":"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F8545.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8545\u002F1713442604-601591350\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8545\u002F1713442604-601591350\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8545\u002F1718278121-1269730278\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8545\u002F1718278121-1269730278\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8545\u002F1718114495-1300232764\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8545\u002F1718114495-1300232764\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":"978-1-83881-937-8","price":119,"printIsbn":"978-1-83881-936-1","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83881-938-5","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","numberOfWosCitations":0,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":true,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"25600","title":"Prof.","name":"Faruk","middleName":null,"surname":"Aral","slug":"faruk-aral","fullName":"Faruk Aral"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":{"id":"350887","title":"Prof.","name":"Rita","middleName":null,"surname":"Payan-Carreira","slug":"rita-payan-carreira","fullName":"Rita Payan-Carreira"},"coeditorTwo":{"id":"309250","title":"Dr.","name":"Miguel","middleName":null,"surname":"Quaresma","slug":"miguel-quaresma","fullName":"Miguel Quaresma"},"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"1379"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"70381","type":"chapter","title":"Physiological and Clinical Aspects of the Endocrinology of the Estrous Cycle and Pregnancy in Mares","slug":"physiological-and-clinical-aspects-of-the-endocrinology-of-the-estrous-cycle-and-pregnancy-in-mares","totalDownloads":1075,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"signatures":"Katy Satué and Juan Carlos Gardon","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"125292","title":"Dr.","name":"Katy","middleName":null,"surname":"Satué Ambrojo","fullName":"Katy Satué Ambrojo","slug":"katy-satue-ambrojo"},{"id":"251314","title":"Dr.","name":"Juan Carlos","middleName":null,"surname":"Gardón Poggi","fullName":"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi","slug":"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi"}]},{"id":"71105","type":"chapter","title":"Understanding Sow Sexual Behavior and the Application of the Boar Pheromone to Stimulate Sow Reproduction","slug":"understanding-sow-sexual-behavior-and-the-application-of-the-boar-pheromone-to-stimulate-sow-reprodu","totalDownloads":1766,"totalCrossrefCites":5,"signatures":"John J. McGlone, Edgar O. Aviles-Rosa, Courtney Archer, Meyer M. Wilson, Karlee D. Jones, Elaina M. Matthews, Amanda A. Gonzalez and Erica Reyes","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"311962","title":"Prof.","name":"John","middleName":null,"surname":"McGlone","fullName":"John McGlone","slug":"john-mcglone"},{"id":"315592","title":"Dr.","name":"Edgar","middleName":"Omar","surname":"Aviles-Rosa","fullName":"Edgar Aviles-Rosa","slug":"edgar-aviles-rosa"},{"id":"315595","title":"B.Sc.","name":"Courtney","middleName":null,"surname":"Archer","fullName":"Courtney Archer","slug":"courtney-archer"},{"id":"315596","title":"Ms.","name":"Meyer","middleName":null,"surname":"Wilson","fullName":"Meyer Wilson","slug":"meyer-wilson"},{"id":"315597","title":"Ms.","name":"Karlee","middleName":null,"surname":"Jones","fullName":"Karlee Jones","slug":"karlee-jones"},{"id":"315598","title":"Ms.","name":"Elaina","middleName":null,"surname":"Mathews","fullName":"Elaina 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Payan-Carreira","authors":[{"id":"309250","title":"Dr.","name":"Miguel","middleName":null,"surname":"Quaresma","fullName":"Miguel Quaresma","slug":"miguel-quaresma","email":"miguelq@utad.pt","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F309250\u002F1734011623\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","institution":{"name":"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Portugal"}}},{"id":"350887","title":"Prof.","name":"Rita","middleName":null,"surname":"Payan-Carreira","fullName":"Rita Payan-Carreira","slug":"rita-payan-carreira","email":"rtpayan@uevora.pt","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F350887\u002F1738836433\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","institution":{"name":"University of Évora","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Portugal"}}}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction: Sex-bias in mammals mother resource allocation","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Evolution of dairy milk production","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3","title":"3. Bovine sex-biased milk production","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_4","title":"4. Pregnancy and lactation length","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_5","title":"5. Calving difficulty","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_6","title":"6. Biological pathways of sex-biased milk production","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_7","title":"7. The use of sexed semen","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_8","title":"8. Conclusions","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_9","title":"Acknowledgments","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_12","title":"Conflict of interest","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\n\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EHinde K, Carpenter AJ, Clay JS, Bradford BJ. Holsteins favor Heifers, not Bulls: biased milk production programmed during pregnancy as a function of fetal sex. PloS one. 2014;9(2):e86169. 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Lazard, H. Rey-Valette, J. Aubin, S. Mathé, E. Chia, D. Caruso, O. Mikolasek, J.P. Blancheton, M. Legendre, A. Baruthio, F. René, P. Levang, J. Slembrouck, P. Morissens and O. 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Shin, Qinfeng Gao and Siu Gin Cheung","authors":[{"id":"69769","title":"Dr.","name":"Paul","middleName":null,"surname":"Shin","fullName":"Paul Shin","slug":"paul-shin"}]},{"id":"24073","title":"Ejaculate Allocation and Sperm Competition in Alternative Reproductive Tactics of Salmon and Trout: Implications for Aquaculture","slug":"ejaculate-allocation-and-sperm-competition-in-alternative-reproductive-tactics-of-salmon-and-trout-i","signatures":"Tomislav Vladić","authors":[{"id":"66067","title":"Dr.","name":"Tomislav","middleName":null,"surname":"Vladic","fullName":"Tomislav Vladic","slug":"tomislav-vladic"}]},{"id":"24074","title":"Embryonic and Larval Development of Freshwater Fish","slug":"embryonic-and-larval-development-of-freshwater-fish","signatures":"Faruk Aral, Erdinç Şahınöz and Zafer Doğu","authors":[{"id":"25600","title":"Prof.","name":"Faruk","middleName":null,"surname":"Aral","fullName":"Faruk Aral","slug":"faruk-aral"},{"id":"29132","title":"Dr.","name":"Zafer","middleName":null,"surname":"Dogu","fullName":"Zafer Dogu","slug":"zafer-dogu"},{"id":"39952","title":"Dr.","name":"Erdinc","middleName":null,"surname":"Sahinoz","fullName":"Erdinc Sahinoz","slug":"erdinc-sahinoz"}]},{"id":"24075","title":"Histopathology and Other Methods for Detection of Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia (VHS) in Some Iranian Rainbow Trout Farms","slug":"histopathology-and-other-methods-for-detection-of-viral-hemorrhagic-septicemia-vhs-in-some-iranian-r","signatures":"Adel Haghighi Khiabanian Asl","authors":[{"id":"71469","title":"Dr","name":"Adel","middleName":null,"surname":"Haghighi Khiabanian Asl","fullName":"Adel Haghighi Khiabanian Asl","slug":"adel-haghighi-khiabanian-asl"}]},{"id":"24076","title":"Stock Enhancement of Sturgeon Fishes in Iran","slug":"stock-enhancement-of-sturgeon-fishes-in-iran","signatures":"Hassan Salehi","authors":[{"id":"76768","title":"Dr.","name":"Hassan","middleName":null,"surname":"Salehi","fullName":"Hassan Salehi","slug":"hassan-salehi"}]},{"id":"24077","title":"Environmental Effect of Using Polluted Water in New\u002FOld Fish Farms","slug":"environmental-effect-of-using-polluted-water-in-new-old-fish-farms","signatures":"Y. Hamed, Sh. Salem, A. Ali and A. Sheshtawi","authors":[{"id":"70745","title":"Dr.","name":"Yasser","middleName":null,"surname":"Hamed","fullName":"Yasser Hamed","slug":"yasser-hamed"}]},{"id":"24078","title":"Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae, an Emerging Pathogen Affecting New Cultured Marine Fish Species in Southern Spain","slug":"photobacterium-damselae-subsp-damselae-an-emerging-pathogen-affecting-new-cultured-marine-fish-speci","signatures":"A. Labella, C. Berbel, M. Manchado, D. Castro and J.J. Borrego","authors":[{"id":"67855","title":"Prof.","name":"Juan J.","middleName":null,"surname":"Borrego","fullName":"Juan J. Borrego","slug":"juan-j.-borrego"},{"id":"71146","title":"Dr.","name":"Alejandro","middleName":null,"surname":"Labella","fullName":"Alejandro Labella","slug":"alejandro-labella"},{"id":"71148","title":"Dr.","name":"Concepcion","middleName":null,"surname":"Berbel","fullName":"Concepcion Berbel","slug":"concepcion-berbel"},{"id":"71149","title":"Dr.","name":"Manuel","middleName":null,"surname":"Manchado","fullName":"Manuel Manchado","slug":"manuel-manchado"},{"id":"71151","title":"Dr.","name":"Dolores","middleName":null,"surname":"Castro","fullName":"Dolores Castro","slug":"dolores-castro"}]},{"id":"24079","title":"Bacteria Isolated From Diseased Wild and Farmed Marine Fish in Greece","slug":"bacteria-isolated-from-diseased-wild-and-farmed-marine-fish-in-greece","signatures":"Mary Yiagnisis and Fotini Athanassopoulou","authors":[{"id":"71057","title":"Dr.","name":"Mary","middleName":null,"surname":"Yiagnisis","fullName":"Mary Yiagnisis","slug":"mary-yiagnisis"}]},{"id":"24080","title":"The Immune System Drugs in Fish: Immune Function, Immunoassay, Drugs","slug":"the-immune-system-drugs-in-fish-immune-function-immunoassay-drugs","signatures":"Cavit Kum and Selim Sekkin","authors":[{"id":"68075","title":"Dr.","name":"Cavit","middleName":null,"surname":"Kum","fullName":"Cavit Kum","slug":"cavit-kum"}]},{"id":"24081","title":"Antibacterial Drugs in Fish Farms: Application and Its Effects","slug":"antibacterial-drugs-in-fish-farms-application-and-its-effects","signatures":"Selim Sekkin and Cavit Kum","authors":[{"id":"68279","title":"Dr.","name":"Selim","middleName":null,"surname":"Sekkin","fullName":"Selim Sekkin","slug":"selim-sekkin"}]}]}],"publishedBooks":[],"publishedBooksByAuthor":[]},"onlineFirst":{"chapter":{"type":"chapter","id":"1206671","title":"Virtual Verification and Validation of Autonomous Vehicles: Toolchain and Workflow","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1008921","slug":null,"body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EThe market of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) is growing, driven by advancement in sensor technologies, artificial intelligence and the need of safer and efficient transportation. This section introduces the market of ADAS and AV, main challenges associated with AV development, scenario-based testing and overview of the proposed approach.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E1.1 ADAS and AV market and main challenges\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EIncremental development and acceptance of automated driving technology currently lead to rapid adaptation of ADAS and AV technology. These systems provide enhanced safety features and a higher level of automation. The ADAS features of lane-keep assist, adaptive cruise control, emergency braking, and traffic sign recognition have contributed to achieving the different levels of vehicle automation. Finally, with the AV technology, the vehicle takes control of driving tasks, reducing the driver to a passenger to some extent.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003EMany vehicle manufacturers and suppliers have invested resources in developing AV technology as there is a market demand, particularly with shared mobility services, public transport, and logistics. Many research findings have predicted that the market for ADAS and AV will keep growing in the upcoming years.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003EOne of the market research reports shows that the market will grow by 11.9% [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Another research by Mckinsey and Company provides the market prediction for the upcoming years, shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This research emphasizes growth in the ADAS and AV market up to 300 billion dollars by 2035 with level 4 automation responsible for the largest market share.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EADAS market research report.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p8\"\u003EFurthermore, over the past few years, advancements in networks and technology have enhanced communication between the vehicles and infrastructure. Connected, Cooperative, and Automated Mobility (CCAM) has broadened the autonomous driving capabilities by providing transport facilities to people who cannot drive, delivering goods when human mobility is restricted, and in remote areas [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p9\"\u003ECCAM also has the capability to improve urban transportation efficiency by minimizing accidents and reducing \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m1\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003ECO\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E emissions. In a holistic view, CCAM relies on intelligent infrastructure that includes smart roadside units (RSUs) and Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) communication. High speed and real-time communication is necessary between the vehicles and their surroundings and also traffic telematics - which collects, processes, and utilizes the traffic data and provides it to the relevant autonomous vehicles.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EThese features will provide vital information such as traffic jam warnings, accident warnings, better alternate routes, taxi information, parking lot information, etc. On the other hand, the advanced technology of AVs faces different challenges, among which some of the major challenges are:\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: order;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScalability and interoperability\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E – To scale the AV operations across different regions of the world, AV systems must be capable of operating safely across different environmental and traffic conditions. The systems should be efficient in delivering the objective of driving themselves considering the unpredictable behavior of the surrounding world.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p12\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EEfficient testing\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E – Traditional testing methods involve real-world driving which can be time-consuming, expensive, and might also be limited in the scope of scenario-based testing as the testing team can only perform a fixed number of scenarios with the actual vehicle in the given amount of time. To tackle this, the industry is moving toward simulation and virtual validation techniques. These allow for accelerated testing cycles with opportunities to create a vast number of scenarios. These virtual tests can include edge cases like complex traffic intersections and extreme weather, and all the regular ADAS features, thus making the development envelope larger while decreasing the costs and development time.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EInfrastructure\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E – The current road networks and communication infrastructures are not capable of supporting the advanced requirements of autonomous vehicles. While the sensors on these vehicles are advanced enough to provide comprehensive detection and interpretation of the surroundings, the sensors in the outside world need to be further developed to help in Vehicle-2-Everything (V2X) features. The road markings and traffic signs have to be maintained well throughout the lifetime which are crucial in providing necessary information to the sensors of the AV.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E1.2 Introduction to the concept of scenario-based testing and virtual validation\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EAutonomous vehicles need to navigate safely through different traffic and environmental conditions. It can take a considerable amount of time to test all the possible scenarios with physical testing. To tackle this, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Evia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E simulations, a wide variety of traffic scenarios, as well as different weather and illumination conditions, can be performed in an efficient manner. Engineers and developers can build the scenarios to be tested in the dedicated software, where a digital twin of the actual autonomous vehicle will be deployed and tested.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EScenario-based testing ensures that the AV systems can be rigorously tested across different sets of conditions, improving the performance of perception, planning, and control systems in various aspects. Virtual validation enables rapid iteration and assessments in the virtual environment which will bring down the development time and the related costs. This is achieved by using powerful computing systems to test multiple scenarios continuously where the developers can intervene to improve the controller algorithm or to calibrate the sensors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p16\"\u003EScenario-based testing provides evidence of the reliability and safety of AVs. Virtual validation further enhances this process by enabling continuous testing and iterative development without the additional time and expense of physical prototypes. Together, these help ensure that the AV technology is rigorously tested and refined, before deploying onto physical hardware.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E1.3 Overview of proposed approach and main contributions\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003ESiemens provides scalable solutions for safety validation with a portfolio of software tools and an integrated toolchain that complies with international regulations and standards. By using recorded data to extract critical scenarios and synthetically generate edge cases, the toolchain enables automatic and effective scenario synthesis. Taking care of the software infrastructure and adding scenario-generation elements expedites the validation procedure and reduces the safety hazards in ADAS and AV systems.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003ESiemens’ approach for safety validation of automated vehicles is showcased in \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The workflow consists of different steps that commence with requirements management, followed by scenario extraction and creation, and finally the assessment phase. This workflow, together with the toolchain, systematically supports the scenario-based testing of ADAS and AV systems using Model-in-the-Loop (MiL), Software-in-the-Loop (SiL), and Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) setups.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003ESiemens autonomy toolchain and workflow for ADAS\u002FAV.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EThe main contributions of this book chapter can be summarized as follows. Section 2 deals with deriving and managing the requirements. First, the applicable legislation as well as the relevant standards are highlighted. Next, the first steps of the overall workflow are described, starting with the description of the operational design domain, definition of the dynamic driving task and requirements management. All these steps, define requirements for data collection and scenario extraction\u002Fcreation, which are described in next section.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003ESection 3 introduces a systematic approach to extracting known-safe scenarios from real-world data using Siemens’ Simcenter Autonomy Data Analysis (ADA) tool. These scenarios serve as the foundation for further testing and optimization. Siemens’ Critical Scenario Creation (CSC) tool innovatively transforms known-safe scenarios into high-risk scenarios, including known-unsafe and unknown-unsafe situations. The use of advanced optimization techniques for scenario creation addresses potential risks and improves testing comprehensiveness.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EThe toolchain incorporates standardized test scenarios from regulatory frameworks such as EURO NCAP, UN-R131, and ISO standards, ensuring compliance with safety and performance regulations for autonomous and advanced driver-assistance systems.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003ESection 4 presents the Siemens methodology and tooling for virtual scenario-based testing, including high-fidelity simulation models, advanced techniques for scenario selection and sampling, and methods for requirements coverage. The methodology and tooling are also discussed with respect to simulation credibility assessment frameworks, providing examples of usability and simulation models and results validation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003ESection 5 discusses the verification and validation of ADAS and AV using simulation. In particular, Software-in-the-Loop (SiL) and Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) environments and CCAM testing are discussed. The challenges of these setups are summarized and two examples of HiL simulations are given to illustrate these challenges and to propose solutions for them. Finally, Section 6 summarizes the main conclusions of this chapter.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Deriving and managing requirements for ADAS\u002FAV\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EIn this section first the applicable legislation and standards are discussed, then the operational design domain description is provided and finally, the importance of requirement management and tracking is discussed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.1 Applicable legislation and standards for ADAS\u002FAV\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003EIn August 2022, the EU Commission adopted regulation 2022\u002F1426 laying down rules for the application of regulation (EU) 2019\u002F2144 of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards uniform procedures and technical specifications for the type-approval of the automated driving system (ADS) of fully automated vehicles.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EThe assessment of the automated driving system of fully automated vehicles, as proposed by this regulation, relies heavily on the traffic scenarios that are relevant to the different use cases of fully automated vehicles. It is therefore necessary to define those different use cases.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EGiven the complexity of automated driving systems, it is necessary to supplement the performance requirements and tests of this regulation with manufacturer documentation demonstrating that the automated driving system is free of unreasonable safety risks to vehicle occupants and other road users in the relevant scenarios and during the ADS lifetime.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EIn this sense, in February 2021, the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE) presented the New Assessment\u002FTest Method for Automated Driving (NATM) [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] – a framework, that introduces a multi-pillar approach for safety validation of automated driving, see \u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EMulti-pillar approach for safety validation of automated driving systems.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p31\"\u003EThe multi-pillar safety validation of automated vehicles specifies five certification pillars, which support the safety argumentation. In addition to the three well-known pillars (track testing, real-world testing, and audit), the regulation mentions virtual testing and in-service monitoring.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EIn this document, the verification, validation, assurance, and certification are defined\u002Fdescribed as follows:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003EVerification is an activity that determines whether a system meets the requirements, answering the question: “Did we build the system right?”\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003EValidation is assessing if the system meets the end user needs, answering the question: “Did we build the right system?”. On the other hand, model validation is evaluating how well the model represents reality.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EAssurance is justified confidence that the system functions as intended.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p36\"\u003ECertification determines whether a system conforms to a set of criteria or standards.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EIn the next subsections, we briefly overview the most relevant standards.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.1 ISO 26262: Functional safety standard\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p38\"\u003EThe ISO26262 functional safety standard is well-known and widely used in the automotive sector [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The standard lays down the main requirements of how the system should detect and respond to failures, errors, or off-nominal performance. As shown on the left side of \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E ISO 26262 defined several workflows such as product development at the system level, software development, and hardware development. Each workflow includes testing, verification, and validation activities.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003EDevelopment workflow (left) and software development workflow (right) according to ISO 26262.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003EThe detailed software development workflow, including software integration and testing, verification of software safety requirements, system integration, and testing is presented in \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, see right side.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E2.1.2 ISO 21448: SOTIF\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EThe ISO 21448 (SOTIF) – safety of the intended functionality – describes how the system should detect and respond to functional insufficiencies of the intended functionality or reasonably foreseeable misuse by persons [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EThe objective is to validate the automated function in all relevant scenarios, especially under difficult conditions for both sensors and algorithms. As a remark: functional insufficiencies at the vehicle level due to - insufficiency of specifications (e.g., incorrect\u002Fincomplete specifications) - performance limitation (e.g., limited sensors range, overestimated braking assistance).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EThe end goal – SOTIF release – is the absence of unreasonable risk due to hazards resulting from functional insufficiencies of the intended functionality or by reasonably foreseeable misuse by road users. The hazardous event model according to ISO 21448 is presented in \u003Ca href=\"#F5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF5.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003EHazardous event model according to ISO 21448.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003EISO 21448 introduces the concept of scenario-based testing, where the scenario is defined as a sequence of scenes usually including the automated driving system(s) (ADS)\u002Fsubject vehicle(s), and its\u002Ftheir interactions in the process of performing the dynamic driving task (DDT).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003EFurthermore, the scene is defined as a snapshot of all entities including, but not limited to the automated driving system (ADS)\u002Fsubject vehicle, scenery, dynamic environment, and all actors and observer’s self-representations, and the relationships between those entities. Finally, scenery is defined as part of the environment that remains unchanged.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003EAccording to ISO 21448, the development is a progressive process as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The scenario space is divided into safe and hazardous (non-safe) scenarios as well as known and unknown scenarios.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF6.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003EProgressive development according to ISO 21448.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003EOne of the major goals of the development according to ISO 21448 is to discover the unknown and hazardous scenarios and make them known and later by certain technical measures (e.g., by adapting the system under test of limiting the operational design domain) make them safe. Finally, the “area” of safe and known scenarios shall increase and the area of hazardous scenarios shall decrease significantly.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003EOther relevant standards, which are not detailed here, include ISO 22737 and ISO 34502. The ISO 22737 standard specifies low-speed automated driving (LSAD) system requirements and procedures, which are going to assist manufacturers of LSAD systems in the incorporation of minimum safety requirements in their designs and allow end users, operators, and regulators to reference a minimum set of performance requirements in their procurements [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003EISO 22737 is a very clear and prescriptive standard, which can be used during the development of LSAD.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.2 ODD description\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003EA key aspect of the safe use of automated vehicle technology is defining its capabilities and limitations and clearly communicating these to the end user, leading to a state of “informed safety”. The first step in establishing the capability of an ADS is the definition of its operational design domain (ODD). The ODD represents the operating environment within which an ADS can perform the dynamic driving task (DDT) safely.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003EAs shown in Section 1.3 the verification and validation workflow starts with a description of ODD, a definition of the DDT, and requirements elicitation according to applicable legislation and standards, as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F7\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF7.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 7.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003EThe first steps of the workflow - requirements management and data collection.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p55\"\u003EIn this subsection the focus is mainly on the ODD, the next subsection is related to requirements definition and requirements management, especially how the requirements are linked to the assessment. Based on the ODD definition and defined requirements the data collection\u002Frecording can start, which can feed the scenario generation as well as the model validation process.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p56\"\u003EThe ODD taxonomy specified in this BSI PAS 1883 enables ADS manufacturers to specify and implement minimum safety requirements in their designs, and allows end users, operators, and regulators to reference a minimum set of ODD attributes and performance requirements in their procurements [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p57\"\u003EThe ODD description is structured according to \u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E left side and a so-called ODD checklist is included: see \u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E right side which is a very important checklist during the design as well as testing of ADS.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F8\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF8.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 8.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p58\"\u003EODD description (left side) and ODD checklist (right side) according to BSI PAS 1883.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p59\"\u003EIt will also enable ADS manufacturers, developers, and suppliers of components and sub-components to define the operating capability and assemble sets of evidence that will improve confidence in the safety of the resulting product (such as component specifications) and in the data obtained from appropriate test and verification activities.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p60\"\u003EThis BSI PAS 1883 document is intended for organizations developing safety cases for automated vehicle trials and testing, manufacturers and developers of Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Level 3 and SAE Level 4 ADS, and suppliers of components and sub-components. It is also of interest to insurers, regulators, service providers, and national, local, and regional governments to enable them to understand possible ADS deployments and capabilities.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p61\"\u003EThe BSI PAS 1883 document does not cover the basic test procedures for attributes of the ODD, the monitoring requirements of the ODD attributes, and the format of the ODD definition.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E2.3 Requirements management\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p62\"\u003EBefore we start to discuss requirements management it is essential to define the main characteristics of well-written requirements. Well-written requirements shall have (at least) the following characteristics (see ISO 26262): complete, consistent, feasible, modifiable, unambiguous, and testable.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p63\"\u003EComplete: The requirements must be complete, meaning they shall contain all the required information to realize\u002Fimplement the requirement. There is no need to assume anything to realize\u002Fimplement the requirement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p64\"\u003EConsistent: Consistent requirements mean that there is no contradictory information in the requirements document. Feasible: This is one of the crucial aspects of requirements. Requirements shall be implementable within the given time frame and budget and implementable using the existing and chosen technology platform.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p65\"\u003EModifiable: In most projects, requirements are never static and do not stop after the requirements document is signed off. The best way to manage the requirements is to manage these changes using a requirements management tool. In case of any changes, the specific requirements and the dependent ones can be modified accordingly without impact on the others.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p66\"\u003EUnambiguous: Unambiguous means a single interpretation. If a requirement is defined so that it can only be interpreted in one way, it means it is unambiguous. All subjective words or statements must be eliminated from the requirements.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p67\"\u003ETestable: A testable requirement can be defined as a requirement, which can be tested and validated using any of the following methods: inspection, walk-through, demonstration, or testing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p68\"\u003EFurthermore, the workflow associated with the virtual verification and validation methodology shall be traceable (see continuous integration\u002Fcontinuous deployment ISO 21448), platform-independent, scalable (shall be able to handle large amounts of data) and modular to handle high-complexity systems.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p69\"\u003EThe requirements usually are grouped into main categories, like basic or general requirements, system requirements, functional safety requirements, performance requirements, etc. Furthermore, the requirements are split into sub-requirements, from which test requirements specifications and test cases are derived, see \u003Ca href=\"#F9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. These links usually are created manually by the requirement engineer.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F9\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF9.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 9.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p70\"\u003ERequirements, test requirements, test specifications, test cases, and test reports.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p71\"\u003EThe requirements related to the virtual verification and validation (V&V) methodology shall clearly separate verification requirements and validation requirements. Requirements shall be linked to test cases, so traceability between requirements and test cases is established (see ISO 26262).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p72\"\u003ESubsystems and systems are verified against technical requirements (in line with the concept “doing things right”) and subsystems and systems are validated against end user requirements (“doing the right things”), see ISO 26262.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p73\"\u003EBy linking the requirements with the test requirements and test cases, a so-called traceability matrix is generated as shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, where a requirement shall be tested by at least one test requirement.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F10\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF10.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 10.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p74\"\u003ETraceability matrix – linking requirements with test cases – example in polarion.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Scenario extraction and creation\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p75\"\u003EThis section outlines the process of extracting and creating scenarios for testing autonomous vehicle systems. First, known-safe scenarios are extracted from real-world driving data using the Simcenter ADA tool. These scenarios form the foundation for further testing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p76\"\u003ETo assess system performance under more challenging conditions, Siemens’ Critical Scenario Creation (CSC) tool transforms known-safe scenarios into known-unsafe scenarios by optimizing risk factors. The CSC tool also creates unknown-unsafe scenarios through a three-step process involving feature extraction, behavior configuration, and risk identification, using advanced optimization techniques. Additionally, standard test scenarios from regulatory bodies are integrated to ensure compliance with safety protocols and regulations.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1 Data collection and data analysis\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p77\"\u003EThe data collection process begins by gathering information from various sources, including vehicle sensors, drone footage, and infrastructure-mounted devices, to capture real-world driving scenarios within the ODD. Siemens provides the necessary tools and services for sensor setup, data recording, and data processing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p78\"\u003EThis process ensures that actor behaviors, traffic flow, and other environmental elements are accurately captured and processed. Errors in the collected data, such as noise, missed detections, and occlusions, are corrected during data processing, which results in reliable and complete trajectory datasets.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p79\"\u003EIn terms of data analysis, the Simcenter ADA tool is responsible for processing raw data and extracting known-safe scenarios. Simcenter ADA analyzes the data to extract, replay, and categorize scenarios, evaluating them based on key performance indicators (KPIs). Additionally, users can explore specific scenarios in detail and export the data for further simulation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p80\"\u003EHowever, Simcenter ADA only extracts known-safe scenarios, which are essential for testing under noncritical conditions. These safe scenarios serve as a baseline for further critical scenario generation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2 Scenario extraction\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p81\"\u003EScenario extraction is primarily handled by the Simcenter ADA tool, which identifies known-safe scenarios based on safety thresholds. These scenarios are carefully categorized to ensure that they meet the requirements. Known-safe scenarios are valuable for verifying system performance in stable, nonhazardous conditions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p82\"\u003ETo address critical testing needs, Siemens also employs its Critical Scenario Creation (CSC) tool, which builds upon the known-safe scenarios extracted by Simcenter ADA. The CSC tool is used to generate two types of high-risk scenarios: known-unsafe and unknown-unsafe.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_13_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.3 Critical scenario creation\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p83\"\u003EThe Critical Scenario Creation (CSC) tool plays a crucial role in transforming known-safe scenarios into high-risk scenarios that are essential for testing autonomous vehicle systems in more dangerous and unpredictable situations.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p84\"\u003EKnown-unsafe scenarios: Based on the known-safe scenarios provided by Simcenter ADA, the CSC tool optimizes scenario parameters to identify potential risk factors. By increasing the criticality of the known scenario, the tool generates known-unsafe scenarios (shown by the orange arrow in \u003Ca href=\"#F11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). These scenarios are critical for assessing how well autonomous systems handle predictable, hazardous conditions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p85\"\u003EUnknown-unsafe scenarios: The creation of unknown-unsafe scenarios involves a more complex process, as these scenarios represent unforeseen, potentially dangerous situations that may not have been previously encountered. The CSC tool provides a three-step process for unknown-unsafe scenario creation involves ([\u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]):\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: order;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p86\"\u003EExtraction: The first step is to extract key features that describe the behavior of actors in the scene, such as vehicle paths, velocity profile and offset to center of the lane. These features are determined by modeling the road layout as a graph and calculating probability distributions for each parameter and node combination. For actor i, the probability of behavior \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m2\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is computed as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F11\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF11.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 11.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p87\"\u003ESOTIF scenarios (right), Siemens autonomy toolchain for scenario generation (left), and arrows in green show scenarios from safe-known, orange, and red arrows show the known-unsafe and unknown-unsafe scenarios, respectively.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E1\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" display=\"block\" id=\"m3\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:munderover\u003E\u003Cmml:mo movablelimits=\"false\"\u003E∏\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Em\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:munderover\u003E\u003Cmml:mspace width=\"0.12em\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mspace\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003Epar\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE1\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p88\"\u003Ewhere:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p89\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m4\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ep\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the probability of a path cluster for actor \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E,\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p90\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m5\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003Epar\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ej\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E represents the probability of the \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ej – th\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E parameter,\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p91\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Em\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is the number of parameters extracted for actor \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Col style=\"list-style-type: order;\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p92\"\u003EConfiguration: The next step is to configure the behavior of actors and parameters to define the search space. Given the complexity of the scenario, the tool automatically reduces the search space by identifying noninteracting actor paths with ego vehicle and partitioning the remaining space based on discrete parameters, for example, colliding actor type. This step reduces the search space, making it manageable for further optimization.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p93\"\u003EIdentification: The final step involves applying an optimization algorithm to assess the risk and novelty of the generated scenarios. This step uses proprietary metrics to identify the most critical scenarios, focusing on time to collision (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ETTC\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) and unexpectedness. The unexpectancy is calculated based on the difference between what the ego vehicle predicts and what is happening in a scenario. The objective function \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m6\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, which evaluates the risk of a scenario (having scenario parameters \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m7\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E) is defined as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Fol\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E2\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" display=\"block\" id=\"m8\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EG\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E2\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E−\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eϵ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E+\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003ETTC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003Emin\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE2\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p94\"\u003Ewhere:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p95\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m9\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EG\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is a function of the scenario probability \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m10\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E,\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p96\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m11\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"normal\"\u003Eϵ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is an unexpectedness metric to measure novelty (with a constant of two added to ensure a nonnegative value),\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p97\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m12\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003ETTC\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003Emin\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E represents the minimum time to collision.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p98\"\u003EThe scenario probability \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m13\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is calculated as:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E3\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" display=\"block\" id=\"m14\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Es\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eλ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003ETL\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:munderover\u003E\u003Cmml:mo movablelimits=\"false\"\u003E∏\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E1\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003En\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:munderover\u003E\u003Cmml:mspace width=\"0.12em\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mspace\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE3\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p99\"\u003Ewhere:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p100\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m15\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eλ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003ETL\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is a factor in traffic lights,\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p101\"\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m16\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EP\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mrow\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ea\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mrow\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is the probability of actor behavior \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ei\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E,\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p102\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003En\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is the number of actors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p103\"\u003EThe optimization problem is formulated to minimize the risk function \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m17\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E, subject to constraints:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\"df_E4\" class=\"formula panel\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" display=\"block\" id=\"m18\" specific-use=\"web-only\"\u003E\u003Cmml:munder\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003Emin\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:munder\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Ef\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mfenced open=\"(\" close=\")\"\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mfenced\u003E\u003Cmml:mspace width=\"2em\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mspace\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003Esubject\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mspace width=\"0.5em\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mspace\u003E\u003Cmml:mtext mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003Eto\u003C\u002Fmml:mtext\u003E\u003Cmml:mspace width=\"1.5em\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:mspace\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eη\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E∈\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003EX\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E,\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eζ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003Ecol\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mo\u003E=\u003C\u002Fmml:mo\u003E\u003Cmml:mn\u003E0\u003C\u002Fmml:mn\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003Cspan class=\"equ\"\u003EE4\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p104\"\u003Ewhere \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EX\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E defines the bounds for the scenario parameters, and \u003Cspan class=\"inline-formula\"\u003E\u003Cmml:math xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" id=\"m19\"\u003E\u003Cmml:msub\u003E\u003Cmml:mi\u003Eζ\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003Cmml:mi mathvariant=\"italic\"\u003Ecol\u003C\u002Fmml:mi\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:msub\u003E\u003C\u002Fmml:math\u003E\u003C\u002Fspan\u003E is a Boolean variable that is 0 in case of ego collision and 1 in case of non-ego actors collision. This approach allows the CSC tool to generate unknown-unsafe scenarios (as shown by the red arrow in \u003Ca href=\"#F11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), which represent unforeseen, potentially dangerous situations. These scenarios provide critical insights into how autonomous systems respond to rare and unexpected hazards.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_14_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.4 Standard scenarios\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p105\"\u003EIn addition to the scenarios generated through extraction and critical scenario creation, the Siemens toolchain also incorporates standardized test scenarios from various regulatory bodies and accident databases. These scenarios are based on industry-recognized standards, including:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p106\"\u003EEURO NCAP (for Advanced Driver Assistance Systems, ADAS)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p107\"\u003EUN R131 and UN R152 (Automated Emergency Braking Systems, AEBS)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p108\"\u003EUN R157 (Automated Lane Keeping Systems, ALKS)\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p109\"\u003EFor autonomous vehicles, Siemens utilizes test scenarios specified by ISO standards, such as ISO 22737 (LSAD) and ISO\u002FDIS 23374-1 (automated valet parking system), which provide guidelines for verifying and validating the performance of these systems in different driving environments. These standardized scenarios serve as a baseline for testing compliance with safety and performance regulations, ensuring that both ADAS and autonomous systems meet global safety requirements.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p110\"\u003EIn addition to adhering to these regulations, the Siemens toolchain allows for the customization of scenarios based on expert input, enabling developers to test additional requirements specific to their operational design domain. These virtual tests help ensure the safety and robustness of the systems before they are subjected to real-world testing on roads.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_16\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Scenario-based testing: The workflow\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p111\"\u003EIn this section, the workflow for scenario-based simulation testing is described. \u003Ca href=\"#F12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E presents an example of a scenario-based testing workflow using the Siemens toolchain. The workflow begins with scenario selection from scenario databases (SCDBs) based on system under test (SUT) specifications, such as ODD and test requirements. This is followed by various techniques for scenario concretization and test automation. The ADAS\u002FAV function is then evaluated against the concrete scenarios, and results are generated for the SUT assessment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F12\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF12.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 12.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p112\"\u003EExample scenario-based testing workflow.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p113\"\u003EThe Siemens toolchain provides the following key features to enable this workflow:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p114\"\u003ESimcenter High-Performance Engineering Exploration and Design Optimization Software (HEEDS) [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] which provides test automation capabilities along with smart sampling and optimization methods.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p115\"\u003ESimcenter Prescan [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] fully supports industry standards, ASAM OpenDrive [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and OpenScenario-XML [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], for scenario description.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p116\"\u003EDetailed and physics-based world model for representative sensor simulation. For example, measured materials are provided for accurate radar sensor simulation (e.g., to capture reflectivity and multi-path phenomena).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p117\"\u003EPhysics-based sensor simulation of ADAS\u002FAV sensors and high-fidelity vehicle dynamics models.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p118\"\u003EUser-friendly APIs for incorporating ADAS\u002FAV functions and external vehicle dynamics models for closed-loop scenario execution.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p119\"\u003EBuilding, configuring, and validating high-fidelity models for simulation is essential to ensure the reliability of simulation results. This is discussed in Section 4.1. The broader framework for the credibility of the simulation results, which includes model validation, is presented in Section 4.2. The final two subsections discuss scenario selection, sampling, and meeting coverage requirements for scenario-based testing.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_16_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.1 Model building, model validation, and digital twins\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p120\"\u003EDepending on the test scenarios and the underlying requirements, the fidelity required for the simulation models may be determined. Simcenter Prescan provides sensor models and vehicle dynamics models of different fidelity. For example, when testing perception functions, high-fidelity physics-based sensors may be used. On the other hand, when testing planning and control functions, ground truth sensor models or probabilistic sensor models which can output perception results with a certain error rate can be used.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p121\"\u003EThe process of model building and model validation can be illustrated through the example of the physics-based camera (PBC) sensor simulation in Simcenter Prescan. The process of modeling can be separated into three parts: (a) the generic PBC model and camera sensor simulation, (b) configuration of the PBC model to a real camera, and (c) validation of the PBC model against the real camera.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p122\"\u003EThe PBC model consists of a pipeline that models different layers of the physical sensor such as the lens and color filter array. The high-fidelity model can represent various physical effects that may occur, for example, geometric distortion, blooming, and flare. In conjunction with the camera model, the simulation engine must also accurately compute the propagation of light, including reflections, in the scene in different environmental conditions. Together, the physics-based simulation engine and PBC model enable accurate camera sensor simulation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p123\"\u003EThe high-fidelity PBC model provides many parameters, relating to different physical layers of the camera sensor, to configure the model for real camera sensors. Some relevant information for these parameters can be found in the technical specifications of the sensors. For some important properties, measurements in a laboratory are needed with the physical sensor. For example, a test setup is shown in the top right of \u003Ca href=\"#F13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, where the camera is placed in front of a uniformly illuminated screen to understand the shading (or vignetting) properties of the camera.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F13\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF13.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 13.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p124\"\u003EExample validation of the PBC output against a real camera sensor. Here, the shading property of the camera image is being investigated.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p125\"\u003EThe figure also shows how lab measurements are used for model validation. For this example, the vignetting behavior of the PBC in Simcenter Prescan is computed by recreating the laboratory test within the simulation. The vignetting behavior is then compared to the measured behavior of the physical sensor. Lab measurements may also be performed to validate sensor simulation under diverse weather conditions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p126\"\u003EAdditionally, the validation may be performed by evaluating the behavior of the target ADAS\u002FAV camera processing pipeline on the camera simulation model outputs and the physical camera outputs. The test conditions chosen for validation should ideally cover the ODD sufficiently. It is important especially to focus on key factors known to impact the physical sensor and related AD functions, for example, weather and illumination.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_17_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.2 Simulation credibility assessment\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p127\"\u003EAs simulation is an essential pillar of ADS safety assessment, it is important to assess and ensure the credibility of simulation results. Technical guidance on the credibility assessment of simulation-based testing is provided in the NATM [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and the EU 2022\u002F1426 regulation [\u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p128\"\u003EThese documents provide a framework on credibility, which covers topics such as the suitability of the simulation models with respect to the ODD and assessment goals, and the correlation between simulation and physical testing. The credibility framework also includes the model building and model validation processes. These were already described in the previous section (Section 4.1). Below are two other aspects of how the Siemens toolchain conforms to the technical guidance in the above standards.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p129\"\u003EThe usability pillar of the credibility framework includes documenting assumptions and limitations of simulation tooling and preventing incorrect use of the tools. The Simcenter Prescan manual and user graphical user interface (GUI) both provide such measures.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p130\"\u003EConsider the example of camera sensor simulation in rainy conditions. Firstly, the Simcenter Prescan user manual [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] details the theoretical foundations of the rain model, for example, principles governing the relationship between raindrop fall speed and raindrop diameter. The user is then guided to realistic values for the rain parameters, with recommendations are available also in the GUI. The user is further warned about limitations in accurately rendering the effect of light sources on the intensity of raindrops. To prevent incorrect use, a warning appears in the GUI, as described in the user manual:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdisp-quote\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p131\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E“In this release, weather (rain) is not directly influenced by car\u002Fstreet lights … (this) will result in a parse warning”\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdisp-quote\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p132\"\u003ETo further demonstrate the simulation model validity, Siemens V&V methodology includes the use of hardware-in-loop testing and track testing to validate the simulation results. A subset of scenarios that have been tested in the simulation are used for a correlation analysis between simulation results and physical testing. The selection of the test scenarios sufficiently covers the ODD, but emphasizes key scenario regions:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p133\"\u003Escenarios with results close to safety thresholds,\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p134\"\u003Eknown high variance regions of the simulator \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E(based on previous correlation studies, model validation, or known limitations of the simulator)\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p135\"\u003Esafety-critical regions that are identified based on safety standards, for example, triggering conditions found during SOTIF safety analysis of the SUT.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_18_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.3 Scenario selection and parametrization\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p136\"\u003EThe Siemens methodology and tooling include automatic retrieval of scenarios from scenario databases (SCDBs) based on use case specifications such as ODD and test requirements. This reduces manual effort and human error when searching SCDBs for scenarios.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p137\"\u003EFor the universality of the tool, input and output formats must adhere to ISO 34503 (ODD taxonomy and specification) [\u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and ASAM OpenLabel standards (scenario, behavior description) [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The input ODD definition must be specified as per ISO 34503 standard, while the input test requirements and the output query criteria are provided based on taxonomies of ISO 34503 and OpenLabel.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p138\"\u003EThe tool is presented in \u003Ca href=\"#F14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Firstly, the natural language ODD definition (as per ISO 34503) is interpreted into a machine-readable format, and the requirements are parsed using the ISO 34503 ontology reference. Then, scenario query definition is performed per requirement, such that a traceable set of scenarios is obtained per requirement. Here, the test elements necessary based on the ODD and a requirement are identified.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F14\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF14.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 14.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p139\"\u003EAutomated scenario retrieval from scenario databases.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p140\"\u003EFor example, consider a requirement: \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ecrossing traffic at intersections shall be detected by radar in dense fog\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and an ODD definition including \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Efog: [clear, moderate, medium, dense]\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. For this example requirement, dense fog is a relevant test attribute, and other ODD fog values are ignored. Once test elements are identified, a search query is generated and passed to the SCDB application program interface (API). The retrieved scenarios are provided to the user, and a traceability matrix is generated. The user is provided feedback when requirements are unclear or under-specified, such that the automated retrieval of scenarios is not possible.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p141\"\u003EThe selected scenarios are then prepared for testing. Simcenter HEEDS provides test automation capabilities and advanced sampling techniques to efficiently test the SUT against the retrieved scenarios. For example, adaptive sampling iteratively samples the design space to increase test efforts in specific regions of interest within the parameter space, such as regions where the SUT behavior may change with smaller parameter steps.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p142\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows how adaptive sampling efficiently approximates the response surface of a SUT in a cut-in scenario with two parameters: the SUT speed (horizontal axis) and cut-in vehicle speed (vertical axis).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F15\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF15.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 15.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p143\"\u003EThe left figure shows a reference response surface of an SUT for a cut-in scenario, where the y-axis is SUT speed and the x-axis is cut-in vehicle speed. The blue region is safe, the red region is unsafe. The right figure presents the approximated response surface using Simcenter HEEDS adaptive sampling. The colors represent prediction confidence in safety, ranging from dark blue (safe with high confidence) to dark red (unsafe with high confidence).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p144\"\u003EThe reference response surface (shown on the left) is obtained with an extensive grid-based sampling method. This response surface shows, as expected, that the SUT is unsafe when the ego vehicle has high speed and the cut-in vehicle has low speeds (top-left region of parameter space). However, unexpectedly, the SUT also behaves unsafely for high speeds of the cut-in vehicle (right-hand side of parameter space).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p145\"\u003EWith a limited number of samples, adaptive sampling efficiently approximates the response surface; distinguishing unsafe regions from safe regions and detecting edge cases in the parameter space.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_19_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E4.4 Assessment of scenario-based testing - workflow and requirements-based coverage\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p146\"\u003ESafety argumentation for ADAS\u002FAV requires test coverage for requirements. In this subsection, an example of effectively combining field testing and simulation-based testing is presented to meet coverage needs. \u003Ca href=\"#F16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the process by which Simcenter ADA [\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] extracts scenarios encountered by the SUT during field testing. A coverage analysis is then performed given the scenarios against the requirement verification plan. Gaps in requirement coverage (e.g., testing under diverse weather conditions) are then met through additional scenario generation or scenario retrieval from SCDBs as explained in the previous subsection. The additional scenarios are tested in simulation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F16\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF16.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 16.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p147\"\u003EWorkflow for achieving requirements coverage by augmenting field testing with simulation-based testing. The Siemens tools enabling the workflow are mentioned in brackets.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p148\"\u003EFor a full-scale and iterative V&V of ADAS\u002FAV, a good test infrastructure with automated testing based on SUT updates, requirement management, and visualization dashboards to highlight coverage and assessment results is essential. The iterative V&V process often leads to new requirements and further developments of the SUT. The Siemens methodology and tooling presented in this section enable efficiently performing these V&V iterations and creating a solid safety argument for the SUT.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_21\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Virtual verification and validation\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p149\"\u003EAs became clear from the previous section, road vehicle automation functions, both for ADAS and AV, require extensive testing for verification of the requirements and validation of the resulting functionality, among others with respect to SOTIF. The assessment phase of Siemens autonomy toolchain is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F17\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF17.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 17.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p150\"\u003ESiemens autonomy toolchain - assessment phase.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p151\"\u003ETo enable this assessment efficiently, simulation environments play an important role. Various types of simulation environments exist, as explained in subsection 5.1. One of these is hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL), which is essential during assessment but generally poses one of the biggest technical challenges. This is elaborated upon in subsection 5.2, whereas subsection 5.3 provides two examples of HiL simulations.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p152\"\u003EDue to the inherent connectivity component in CCAM systems, testing these systems in a HiL-like environment requires specific measures, as further explained in subsection 5.4.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_21_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.1 SiL and HiL testing\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p153\"\u003ETo reduce testing costs and time, a shift can be observed from real-world testing to virtual testing. The latter employs high-fidelity simulation models for the vehicle and its environment, while including the ADAS\u002FAV control system in a phased approach, gradually moving from Model-in-the-Loop (MiL) \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Evia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Software-in-the-Loop (SiL) toward the actual hardware implementation in a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) setup following Siemens’ toolchain as explained previously and also described in Ref. [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p154\"\u003EWhereas MiL simulations are primarily useful at the development phase of the automation function, SiL and HiL simulations target verification and regression testing of the automation function. Here, SiL focuses on efficiently checking compiled automation software deployed on the simulation platform, after which the next step is to check the actual hardware implementation of the compiled software in a HiL setup.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p155\"\u003EIn the broader context of ADAS\u002FAV development, these simulation architectures fit into the V-model development lifecycle, where HiL simulation bridges the gap between SiL testing and vehicle-level testing. It serves as a crucial intermediate step, allowing for the validation of both hardware and software components in a controlled, reproducible environment before moving to more expensive and complex vehicle prototypes.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p156\"\u003ETo better understand the simulation setup involved in SiL and HiL, the basic logical architecture of a controlled vehicle (whether equipped with ADAS or with AV functions) in simulation is depicted in \u003Ca href=\"#F18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. This figure shows the ego-vehicle model (the platform including actuators), which drives in a virtual environment, the latter including the static environment (road network, buildings, and other infrastructure), and the dynamic environment, that is, the other actors in the simulation. This virtual environment is perceived by the ego-vehicle sensors such as lidar, radar, and camera. The output of these sensors as well as the output of vehicle dynamics sensors and, in the case of AV, a mission, constitute the inputs for the ADAS\u002FAV automation software stack involving perception, planning, and control of the ego vehicle.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F18\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF18.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 18.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p157\"\u003EHigh-level logical architecture of a vehicle equipped with ADAS\u002FAV functionality in a simulation environment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p158\"\u003ESiL simulation typically involves a compiled version of the automation software stack, running on a PC, whereas the other simulation components run in a simulation environment such as Simcenter Prescan. SiL simulation is particularly useful for detecting the following types of errors:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p159\"\u003ESyntax errors, which already show up at compilation time;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p160\"\u003ERuntime errors such as a memory leak, division by zero, and encoding errors;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p161\"\u003ESemantic errors, that is, the automation software stack does not generate error messages, but the result of the computations is not what the programmer intended.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p162\"\u003EAs such, SiL simulation serves to discover compilation problems, but not yet implementation problems. The latter is the focus of HiL simulation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p163\"\u003EHiL simulation is a technique where real hardware components are combined with a virtual, simulated environment, thus establishing a hybrid testing environment. As ADAS\u002FAV function software reaches the stage of deployment on target hardware, HiL provides a valuable environment for seamless integration and thorough testing of the target hardware in a simulated environment. As a result, HiL setups have become an indispensable tool in the development and testing of ADAS and AV functions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p164\"\u003EOne of the primary advantages of HiL setups is their ability to facilitate early testing, that is, when access to complete vehicle systems is yet limited or unavailable. By creating a virtual environment that simulates real-world conditions, HiL allows developers and engineers to conduct comprehensive tests, identify potential issues, and optimize performance well before the software is implemented in an actual vehicle, thereby saving time, effort, and costs associated with real-life testing on test tracks and public roads.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p165\"\u003EAdditionally, risks associated with testing ADAS\u002FAV software in real vehicles are minimized, ensuring a higher level of safety throughout the development process. Last but not least, HiL testing also allows for the exploration of edge cases and rare scenarios that might be difficult or dangerous to replicate in real-world testing. It is specifically this characteristic that makes HiL also useful for the verification and validation process after the ADAS\u002FAV function design.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_22_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.2 Challenges in HiL simulation\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p166\"\u003EHiL simulations, however, involve several challenges, the most important of which are summarized as follows.\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p167\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScalability\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E — State-of-the-art vehicle automation systems employ complex and extensive sensor suites. For instance, Mobileye’s SuperVision system [\u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] utilizes 11 cameras along with a long- and short-range radar sensor. Consequently, HiL setups for these systems must be capable of scaling easily to accommodate a multitude of simulated sensors while maintaining real-time performance.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p168\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EInterfacing\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E — The hardware under test can be equipped with a large variety of interfaces, often sensor-specific. Examples are GMSL2 for cameras, CAN for radar, and automotive ethernet for lidar. Consequently, the HiL setup has to accommodate those interfaces, which can be considered as a specific aspect of scalability.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p169\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ESynchronization\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E — Another challenge associated with multi-sensor systems, is the synchronization of data from multiple sensors. Each sensor may have different sampling rates and latencies, requiring algorithms to align the data streams accurately or at least ensure correct time stamping of all data. This synchronization is vital for testing sensor fusion algorithms and ensuring the ADAS\u002FAV system receives a coherent representation of its environment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p170\"\u003ETo address the above challenges, in particular with respect to scalability, Simcenter Prescan has been designed to meet the demanding requirements of modern HiL setups. One of its key strengths is the inherent capability to be distributed across multiple nodes, providing a robust solution for scaling simulations to accommodate the increasing number of sensors in state-of-the-art ADAS\u002FAV systems. This distributed architecture ensures that the simulation can maintain real-time performance.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p171\"\u003EFurthermore, Simcenter Prescan offers a powerful feature that allows users to insert custom code for manipulating sensor outputs directly on the GPU or CPU, referred to as User Algorithm on Federate (UAoF). This enables users to modify data streams or redirect them to generic PCIe devices, effectively simulating the physical signals of actual sensors. The ability to do this directly on the GPU or CPU reduces latency in the generation of the physical signals to meet real-time requirements. In summary, the foundations for scalability are created by\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p172\"\u003EThe ability to deploy on multiple machines;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p173\"\u003EA mechanism to stream sensor data from the simulation;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p174\"\u003EThe application of generic PCIe hardware interfaces.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_23_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.3 HiL examples\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p175\"\u003EThis section presents two examples of HiL setups. Firstly, a so-called Injection HiL is presented, where simulated sensor signals are injected into an automation software stack running on an Electronic Control Unit (ECU). Secondly, a Projection HiL is described, involving a camera as hardware, detecting a simulated environment projected on a monitor.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_23_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E5.3.1 Injection HiL\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p176\"\u003ETo illustrate the above considerations and the resulting HiL setup, \u003Ca href=\"#F19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the hardware and software architecture of a setup to test the Apollo AV stack [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] implemented on a high-performance PC that mimics an onboard ECU.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F19\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF19.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 19.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p177\"\u003EHiL setup for evaluation of the Apollo AV control system in a virtual environment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p178\"\u003EApollo performs localization, perception, routing, prediction and planning, and control. The inputs consist of vehicle dynamics sensors (termed ‘chassis’ in the figure), GNSS for vehicle location, and environmental sensor data (lidar and two forward-looking cameras in the figure). The outputs are throttle and brake level, and desired steering angle. Apollo utilizes a middleware layer called CyberRT, which is an open-source runtime framework that is highly optimized for performance, latency, and data throughput.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p179\"\u003ENext to the Apollo PC, the hardware also involves two PCs to simulate the ego vehicle and its environment using Simcenter Prescan. The first PC, termed Federate 1, simulates the ego vehicle in Simcenter Prescan (in combination with C++) by means of a multi-body Simcenter Amesim vehicle dynamics model, the static and dynamic environment, as well as a lidar model, being one of the onboard sensors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p180\"\u003EThe second PC, termed Federate 2, is dedicated to running both physics-based camera models since these are computationally intensive. To do so, Simcenter Prescan provides a mechanism to include the static and dynamic environment in Federate 2 during compilation time. Hence, at simulation time, only the actor motion needs to be communicated from Federate 1 to Federate 2 over a TCP connection, thereby reducing data transfer over the network.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p181\"\u003EMoreover, each camera model includes a UAoF to convert simulation data to the required format (which is RGB to YUV422 conversion in this case). Clearly, this federated architecture introduces scalability with respect to the number of onboard sensors. In fact, any number of federated PC’s can be added to run one or more sensor models, thus maintaining real-time execution when scaling up.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p182\"\u003EThe schematic in \u003Ca href=\"#F19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E also shows the interfaces between the Simcenter Prescan simulation and the Apollo ECU. These interfaces conform to automotive standards, employing GSML2 for camera data and, in this example, UDP over automotive ethernet for lidar and vehicle dynamics sensors, indicated by the connected Network Interface Controllers (NICs) in the figure.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p183\"\u003EThe GSML2 interface is implemented by dedicated PCIe boards. Due to the federated architecture and the UAoF capability, simulation data can be converted to any format that is required by the ECU hardware under test, thereby providing a highly generic setup, capable of accommodating a large variety of ECUs equipped with automotive-grade interfaces.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p184\"\u003EFinally, it is noted that all clocks in the HiL setup are synchronized with the Precision Time Protocol [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] (not shown in the figure). This allows the sensor fusion algorithm implemented in the ECU to correctly process all incoming sensor signals. Moreover, the Federate PCs execute the time update in a synchronized manner such that the ECU receives a coherent representation of its environment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_24_3\" data-lvl=\"3\"\u003E\u003Ch4 class=\"heading subsection-title\"\u003E5.3.2 Projection HiL\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p185\"\u003EAlthough HiL is usually associated with testing a hardware implementation of a decision and control system, it is also possible and useful to include other components of the system as depicted in \u003Ca href=\"#F18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E as hardware in a virtual environment. This is illustrated by the second HiL example, involving an automotive camera as the hardware under test.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p186\"\u003EThe architecture of this HiL setup is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, involving a simulated ego-vehicle, modeled in C++\u002FMATLAB\u002FSimulink, in a virtual environment provided by Simcenter Prescan. One of the ego-vehicle sensors, a camera, is included as hardware-in-the-loop. This camera is facing a monitor which displays the simulated static and dynamic environment. The CAN bus involves bi-directional communication, that is, communication of the detected object information to the Simcenter Prescan PC and communication of the ego-vehicle velocity to the camera.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F20\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF20.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 20.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p187\"\u003EHiL setup for evaluation of an automotive camera in a virtual environment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p188\"\u003EClearly, this HiL setup is less complex than the previous one. The issue of real-time simulation, however, is nevertheless present: In recent years, automotive cameras show significant improvement in terms of resolution and update rate, moving toward 4 K and 60 Hz, respectively.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p189\"\u003EConsequently, to provide a realistic simulated environment, the simulation must generate the image frames at the same or higher specifications. At the same time, environment visualization needs to resemble reality to an increasing extent over the past years, in particular, due to requirements imposed by AI-based image processing solutions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p190\"\u003EAs a result of these developments, the image generation involves an increasing computational effort. To significantly relieve this computational burden, Simcenter Prescan includes the feature of Deep Learning Super Sampling (DLSS), developed by NVIDIA [\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This feature allows for generating camera frames at a lower resolution, thereby decreasing the rendering effort, after which the required resolution is obtained by low-effort up-sampling using a neural network.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p191\"\u003EThe newer versions of DLSS add AI-based frame generation to the super sampling feature. This involves generating a new frame between two existing frames, hence doubling the update rate. As a result, the images can still be generated according to ever-increasing specifications.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_26_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.4 CCAM testing\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p192\"\u003ERemote monitoring is an essential feature of AVs and CCAM, for monitoring the ODD, performance, and safety monitoring of the automated driving system as well as for monitoring the traffic and the infrastructure. The autonomous vehicles can benefit from being remotely monitored so that if needed, the engineers and developers can look into the recordings and improve the driving performance of the vehicles.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p193\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"#F21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E shows the modular approach for remote monitoring. The two systems communicate with each other over the Message Queue Telemetry Transport (MQTT) cloud network.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F21\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF21.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 21.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p194\"\u003ERemote monitoring essential feature of CCAM and AV.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p195\"\u003EThe vehicle sends image frames, GPS coordinates, and other sensor information to the MQTT cloud. The local server, digital twin (DT) service runs programs to receive the data from the cloud, decode the data, and provide relevant visualization along with data saving options. The vehicle, its surroundings, including the infrastructure are all remotely monitored via the vehicle’s onboard sensors see lower-right part of \u003Ca href=\"#F21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. This real-time data, in combination with digital twins, can be used by the engineers to assess the vehicle safety\u002Fperformance and improve\u002Fupdate the software whenever is necessary [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p196\"\u003EThe modular setup shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E can be extended to remote\u002Ftele-operated driving, as presented in \u003Ca href=\"#F22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The remote driver perceives the images, GPS data, and provides input (acceleration\u002Fbraking\u002Fsteering) values to the remote vehicle \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Evia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E the MQTT cloud. The remote driver operates in a virtual environment and the vehicle is in the real-world environment, see \u003Ca href=\"#F22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F22\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF22.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 22.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p197\"\u003ERemote\u002Ftele-operated driving essential feature of CCAM and AV.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p198\"\u003ERemote monitoring - using advanced and safe communication networks with low latency - is an essential sub-component of the safe teleoperation, where the latter is mainly used during emergency maneuvers of AVs.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p199\"\u003EThe presented applications in this subsection are essential features of CCAM and AVs, so proper testing and suitable test environments are necessary before deployment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p200\"\u003EThe mixed-reality testing setup shown in \u003Ca href=\"#F23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E allows testing efficiently and safely different scenarios in combination with V2X (e.g., roadside unit sensors), where virtual V2X objects are created in the virtual environment and can be injected remotely \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Evia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E the MQTT cloud, directly into the vehicle CAN bus.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F23\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FF23.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 23.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p201\"\u003EMixed-reality testing feature of CCAM.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p202\"\u003EAdditionally, the setup allows to testing CCAM applications in the presence of packet loss, communication jitter, and different values of communication latency.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_28\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. Conclusion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p203\"\u003EThis chapter highlighted that the complexity of ADAS\u002FAV requires efficient and robust testing methods to ensure safety and reliability. In this sense Siemens’ autonomy workflow and toolchain for testing and virtual validation of ADAS\u002FAV functions was presented.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p204\"\u003EThe introduction section described the growing ADAS and AV market, driven by the integration of advanced technologies and increasing global demand. It addressed the main issues that AV development faces, like guaranteeing scalability, improving testing effectiveness, and getting around infrastructure constraints. The section highlighted virtual validation and scenario-based testing as effective testing of AV systems in a variety of circumstances. Siemens’ toolchain was further presented for scenario generation and validation to speed up development.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p205\"\u003EIn Section 2 we focused on the verification and validation workflow starting with describing the ODD, the definition of the DDT, and requirements elicitation according to applicable legislation and standards. In this sense, a detailed overview of the applicable legislation and relevant standards is provided. Furthermore, the requirements management process highlighted the importance of traceability between requirements and test cases\u002Fresults.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p206\"\u003EFurthermore, the combination of known-safe scenario extraction and the generation of both known and unknown-unsafe scenarios ensures robust testing of autonomous vehicle systems, addressing both predictable and unforeseen hazards are discussed in Section 3.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p207\"\u003EThe integration of standard scenarios from regulatory and industry standards highlights the features of the toolchain meeting global safety and performance requirements. In addition, advanced techniques in unknown-unsafe scenario creation enable developers to identify critical risks, ensuring improved system safety and reliability in complex and rare real-world scenarios.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p208\"\u003EIn Section 4 we highlighted key components of the Siemens methodology and tooling for efficient, full-scale virtual scenario-based testing, including high-fidelity simulation models, automated scenario selection, advanced scenario sampling methods, and methods for requirements coverage.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p209\"\u003EIt also demonstrated how the methodology and tooling conform with aspects of the simulation credibility assessment frameworks of NATM and EU 2022\u002F1426 and how a solid safety argument based on virtual scenario-based testing can be achieved.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p210\"\u003EFinally, in Section 5, as an essential part of the verification and validation workflow, SiL and HiL simulation environments were discussed. Especially for HiL simulations, three challenges were presented, being scalability with respect to the number of simulated sensors, automotive-grade interfacing to make the gap toward actual implementation as small as possible, and synchronization of the various simulation components to ensure deterministic execution of the simulation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p211\"\u003EIt was shown that scalability is obtained by implementing a federated architecture of the simulation, thereby ensuring real-time execution independent of the number of simulated sensors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p212\"\u003EIn addition, essential CCAM and AV features, such as remote monitoring and tele-operated driving have been presented and a modular\u002Fdistributed test environment has been described.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_29\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EAcknowledgments\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p213\"\u003E\u003Cinline-graphic class=\"media-panel\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"inline-graphic-media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FUF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Finline-graphic\u003E\u003Cinline-graphic class=\"media-panel\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"inline-graphic-media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FUF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Finline-graphic\u003EHORIZON JU Innovation Actions - 101139048 - ENVELOPE - HORIZON-JU-SNS-2023. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Smart Networks and Services Joint Undertaking (SNS JU) under grant agreement no. 101139048. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or SNS JU. Neither the European Union nor SNS JU can be held responsible for them.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p214\"\u003E\u003Cinline-graphic class=\"media-panel\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"inline-graphic-media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FUF3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Finline-graphic\u003E\u003Cinline-graphic class=\"media-panel\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"inline-graphic-media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FUF4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Finline-graphic\u003EThis project has received funding from the European Union in the NextGenerationEU program under grant agreement no. NGFDI2201, Digital Infrastructure for Future-proof Mobility (DITM).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p215\"\u003E\u003Cinline-graphic class=\"media-panel\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"inline-graphic-media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FUF5.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Finline-graphic\u003E\u003Cinline-graphic class=\"media-panel\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"inline-graphic-media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002Fmedia\u002FUF6.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Finline-graphic\u003EThis project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon Europe Research and Innovation Actions under grant agreement no.101069573, a safety assurance framework for connected, automated mobility systems (SUNRISE).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"autonomous vehicles,virtual verification and validation,scenario-based testing,workflow,toolchain","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000011YN2KQAW\u002Fa09Tc000001KBtBIAW\u002FFinal-Virtual%20verification%20and%20validation%20of%20autonomous%20%20%282025-02-04%2013%3A04%3A39%29.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000011YN2KQAW\u002Fa09Tc000001KBtBIAW\u002FFinal%20%28xml%29-Virtual%20verification%20and%20validation%20of%20autonomous%20%20%282025-02-04%2013%3A11%3A25%29.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738654806-645910331\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F1206671","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F1206671","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F1206671\u002F1738846073-6261142\u002F","totalDownloads":21,"totalViews":0,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"dateSubmitted":"December 6th 2024","dateReviewed":"December 15th 2024","datePrePublished":"February 6th 2025","datePublished":null,"dateFinished":null,"readingETA":"0","abstract":"\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003EThe complexity and efficient development of Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) require robust testing and validation methods to ensure their safety and reliability. This book chapter presents Siemens’ autonomy toolchain for testing and virtual validation of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and AV functions. The approach integrates scenario-based testing, virtual validation, and compliance with the applicable regulations and standards, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Relying on the multi-pillar safety validation framework proposed by United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE), and EU regulations, Siemens’ toolchain enables efficient scenario extraction, critical scenario creation, and large-scale virtual validation. By addressing both software infrastructure and scenario generation, Siemens contributes to enhancing the reliability and safety of ADAS and AV systems.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F1206671","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F1206671","signatures":"Alexandru Forrai, Mohsen Alirezaei, Tajinder Singh, Amit Gali and Jeroen Ploeg","isPublished":false,"isOnlineFirst":true,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":1,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"1003917","type":"book","title":"Modeling and Control of Autonomous Systems","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Modeling and Control of Autonomous Systems","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"publishedDate":null,"bookSignature":"Dr. Mahmut Reyhanoglu","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000011YN2KQAW\u002F0015821_TrikoderCover%20%282023-10-29%2016%3A53%3A59%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003917\u002F1718875356-62788602\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003917\u002F1718875356-62788602\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003917\u002F1730066405-1962572277\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003917\u002F1730066405-1962572277\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 4.0","editedByType":null,"isbn":"978-1-83634-391-2","printIsbn":"978-1-83634-392-9","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83634-393-6","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"15068","title":"Dr.","name":"Mahmut","middleName":null,"surname":"Reyhanoglu","slug":"mahmut-reyhanoglu","fullName":"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"authors":[{"id":"611343","title":"Dr.Ing.","name":"Alexandru","middleName":null,"surname":"Forrai","fullName":"Alexandru Forrai","slug":"alexandru-forrai","email":"alexandru.forrai@siemens.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null},{"id":"611347","title":"Dr.Ing.","name":"Mohsen","middleName":null,"surname":"Alirezaei","fullName":"Mohsen Alirezaei","slug":"mohsen-alirezaei","email":"mohsen.alirezaei@siemens.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null},{"id":"611349","title":"Dr.Ing.","name":"Jeroen","middleName":null,"surname":"Ploeg","fullName":"Jeroen Ploeg","slug":"jeroen-ploeg","email":"jeroen.ploeg@siemens.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null},{"id":"630474","title":"M.Sc.","name":"Amit","middleName":null,"surname":"Gali","fullName":"Amit Gali","slug":"amit-gali","email":"amit.gali.ext@siemens.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null},{"id":"630475","title":"M.Sc.","name":"Tajinder","middleName":null,"surname":"Singh","fullName":"Tajinder Singh","slug":"tajinder-singh","email":"singh.tajinder@siemens.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":null}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_1_2","title":"1.1 ADAS and AV market and main challenges","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_2_2","title":"1.2 Introduction to the concept of scenario-based testing and virtual validation","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_3_2","title":"1.3 Overview of proposed approach and main contributions","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5","title":"2. Deriving and managing requirements for ADAS\u002FAV","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"2.1 Applicable legislation and standards for ADAS\u002FAV","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_5_3","title":"2.1.1 ISO 26262: Functional safety standard","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_6_3","title":"2.1.2 ISO 21448: SOTIF","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_8_2","title":"2.2 ODD description","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_9_2","title":"2.3 Requirements management","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_11","title":"3. Scenario extraction and creation","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_11_2","title":"3.1 Data collection and data analysis","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_12_2","title":"3.2 Scenario extraction","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_13_2","title":"3.3 Critical scenario creation","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_14_2","title":"3.4 Standard scenarios","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_16","title":"4. Scenario-based testing: The workflow","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_16_2","title":"4.1 Model building, model validation, and digital twins","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_17_2","title":"4.2 Simulation credibility assessment","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_18_2","title":"4.3 Scenario selection and parametrization","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_19_2","title":"4.4 Assessment of scenario-based testing - workflow and requirements-based coverage","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_21","title":"5. Virtual verification and validation","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_21_2","title":"5.1 SiL and HiL testing","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_22_2","title":"5.2 Challenges in HiL simulation","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_23_2","title":"5.3 HiL examples","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_23_3","title":"5.3.1 Injection HiL","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_24_3","title":"5.3.2 Projection HiL","level":"3"},{"id":"sec_26_2","title":"5.4 CCAM testing","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_28","title":"6. Conclusion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_29","title":"Acknowledgments","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"other\"\u003EMarkets and Markets. Advanced driver assistance systems market report. 2030. 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Strasbourg, France: DSC2024; 2024. pp. 1-4\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"}],"footnotes":[],"contributors":[{"corresp":"yes","contributorFullName":"Alexandru Forrai","address":"alexandru.forrai@siemens.com","affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003ESiemens Industry Software Netherlands B.V, Helmond, The Netherlands\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"},{"corresp":null,"contributorFullName":"Mohsen Alirezaei","address":null,"affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003ESiemens Industry Software Netherlands B.V, Helmond, The Netherlands\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"},{"corresp":null,"contributorFullName":"Tajinder Singh","address":null,"affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003ESiemens Industry Software Netherlands B.V, Helmond, The Netherlands\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"},{"corresp":null,"contributorFullName":"Amit Gali","address":null,"affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003ESiemens Industry Software Netherlands B.V, Helmond, The Netherlands\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"},{"corresp":null,"contributorFullName":"Jeroen Ploeg","address":null,"affiliation":"\u003Cul class=\"list\"\u003E\u003Cli\u003ESiemens Industry Software Netherlands B.V, Helmond, The Netherlands\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E"}],"corrections":null},"book":{"id":"1003917","type":"book","title":"Modeling and Control of Autonomous Systems","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Modeling and Control of Autonomous Systems","slug":null,"isPublished":false,"publishedDate":null,"bookSignature":"Dr. Mahmut Reyhanoglu","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa043Y000011YN2KQAW\u002F0015821_TrikoderCover%20%282023-10-29%2016%3A53%3A59%29.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003917\u002F1718875356-62788602\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003917\u002F1718875356-62788602\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":null,"cdnWebCoverURL300":null,"cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003917\u002F1730066405-1962572277\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F1003917\u002F1730066405-1962572277\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 4.0","editedByType":null,"isbn":"978-1-83634-391-2","printIsbn":"978-1-83634-392-9","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83634-393-6","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"15068","title":"Dr.","name":"Mahmut","middleName":null,"surname":"Reyhanoglu","slug":"mahmut-reyhanoglu","fullName":"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"subsereis":null,"subseries":null},"profile":{"item":{"id":"342925","title":"Dr.","name":"Rehan","middleName":null,"surname":"Ahmad","email":"rahmatullahq7@gmail.com","fullName":"Rehan Ahmad","slug":"rehan-ahmad","position":null,"biography":null,"institutionString":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","totalCites":0,"totalChapterViews":"0","outsideEditionCount":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"1","totalEditedBooks":"0","personalWebsiteUrl":null,"twitterURL":null,"linkedinURL":null,"institution":{"name":"Gomal University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Pakistan"}}},"booksEdited":[],"chaptersAuthored":[{"id":"76161","title":"Bioinoculants in Technological Alleviation of Climatic Stress in Plants","slug":"bioinoculants-in-technological-alleviation-of-climatic-stress-in-plants","abstract":"Global climate change is leading to a series of frequent onset of environmental stresses such as prolonged drought periods, dynamic precipitation patterns, heat stress, and cold stress on plants and commercial crops. The increasing severity of such stresses is not only making agriculture and related economic sector vulnerable but also negatively influences plant diversity patterns. The global temperature of planet Earth has risen to 1.1°C since the last 19th century. An increase in surface temperature leads to an increase in soil temperature which ultimately reduces water content in the soil, thereby, reducing crop growth and yield. Moreover, this situation is becoming more intense for agricultural practices in arid and semi-arid regions. To overcome climatically induced stresses, acclimatization of plant species via bioinoculation with Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) is becoming an effective approach. The PGPR are capable of colonizing rhizosphere (exophytes) as well as plant organs (endophytes), where they trigger an accumulation of osmolytes for osmoregulation or improving gene expression of heat or cold stress proteins, or by signaling the synthesis of phytohormones, metabolites, proteins, and antioxidants to scavenge reactive oxygen species. Thus, PGPR exhibiting multiple plant growth-promoting traits can be employed via bioinoculants to improve the plant’s tolerance against unfavorable stress conditions.","signatures":"Rafia Younas, Shiza Gul, Rehan Ahmad, Ali Raza Khan, Mumtaz Khan, Tauseef Anwar and Huma Qureshi","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"342918","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Huma","surname":"Qureshi","fullName":"Huma Qureshi","slug":"huma-qureshi","email":"drhuma@gu.edu.pk"},{"id":"342923","title":"Dr.","name":"Rafia","surname":"Younas","fullName":"Rafia Younas","slug":"rafia-younas","email":"dr.rafia@gu.edu.pk"},{"id":"342924","title":"Dr.","name":"Shiza","surname":"Gul","fullName":"Shiza Gul","slug":"shiza-gul","email":"nosheenilayas@gmail.com"},{"id":"342925","title":"Dr.","name":"Rehan","surname":"Ahmad","fullName":"Rehan Ahmad","slug":"rehan-ahmad","email":"rahmatullahq7@gmail.com"},{"id":"342926","title":"Dr.","name":"Ali Raza","surname":"Khan","fullName":"Ali Raza Khan","slug":"ali-raza-khan","email":"muhammad8faris@gmail.com"},{"id":"342927","title":"Dr.","name":"Mumtaz","surname":"Khan","fullName":"Mumtaz Khan","slug":"mumtaz-khan","email":"arshaduaar60@gmail.com"},{"id":"342928","title":"Dr.","name":"Tauseef","surname":"Anwar","fullName":"Tauseef Anwar","slug":"tauseef-anwar","email":"drtauseefanwar@gmail.com"}],"book":{"id":"10454","title":"Technology in Agriculture","slug":"technology-in-agriculture","productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume"}}}],"collaborators":[{"id":"129681","title":null,"name":"Mamun Bin Ibne","surname":"Reaz","slug":"mamun-bin-ibne-reaz","fullName":"Mamun Bin Ibne Reaz","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F129681\u002F1728967669\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Mamun Bin Ibne Reaz was born in Bangladesh, in December 1963. He received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. degree in Applied Physics and Electronics, both from University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh, in 1985 and 1986, respectively. He received his D.Eng. degree in 2007 from Ibaraki University, Japan. He is currently a Professor in the Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia involved in teaching, research and industrial consultation. He is a Senior Associate of the Abdus Salam International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), Italy since 2008. He is also a Senior Member of IEEE. He has published extensively in the area of IC Design, Biomedical application IC and Smart Home. He is author and coauthor of more than 300 research articles in design automation, IC design for biomedical applications and Smart Home. He is also the recipient of more than 50 research grants (national and international).","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Independent University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Bangladesh"}}},{"id":"244639","title":"Dr.","name":"Muhammad E.H.","surname":"Chowdhury","slug":"muhammad-e.h.-chowdhury","fullName":"Muhammad E.H. Chowdhury","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F244639\u002F1737969542\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Muhammad E. H. Chowdhury obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham, UK, in 2014 and did his postdoctoral training at the same institute. Currently, he is an assistant professor and program coordinator in the Electrical Engineering Department, Qatar University. His research spans biomedical instrumentation, signal processing, wearable sensors, medical image analysis, machine learning, and computer vision. With more than 200 peer-reviewed journal articles, 30 conference papers, and numerous book chapters to his credit, Dr. Chowdhury leads multiple projects funded by the Qatar National Research Fund and Qatar University and has received awards including the COVID-19 Dataset Award and Academic Health System (AHS) Award from Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC). Recognized among the top 2% of scientists worldwide, Dr. Chowdhury contributes as a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and serves in editorial roles for prestigious journals.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Qatar University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Qatar"}}},{"id":"245398","title":"Dr.","name":"Amith M. A.","surname":"Khandakar","slug":"amith-m.-a.-khandakar","fullName":"Amith M. A. Khandakar","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Qatar University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Qatar"}}},{"id":"279345","title":"Prof.","name":"Mohammad Tariqul","surname":"Islam","slug":"mohammad-tariqul-islam","fullName":"Mohammad Tariqul Islam","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"National University of Malaysia","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Malaysia"}}},{"id":"342918","title":"Assistant Prof.","name":"Huma","surname":"Qureshi","slug":"huma-qureshi","fullName":"Huma Qureshi","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Gomal University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Pakistan"}}},{"id":"342923","title":"Dr.","name":"Rafia","surname":"Younas","slug":"rafia-younas","fullName":"Rafia Younas","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Gomal University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Pakistan"}}},{"id":"342924","title":"Dr.","name":"Shiza","surname":"Gul","slug":"shiza-gul","fullName":"Shiza Gul","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Gomal University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Pakistan"}}},{"id":"342926","title":"Dr.","name":"Ali Raza","surname":"Khan","slug":"ali-raza-khan","fullName":"Ali Raza Khan","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Gomal University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Pakistan"}}},{"id":"342927","title":"Dr.","name":"Mumtaz","surname":"Khan","slug":"mumtaz-khan","fullName":"Mumtaz Khan","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Gomal University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Pakistan"}}},{"id":"342928","title":"Dr.","name":"Tauseef","surname":"Anwar","slug":"tauseef-anwar","fullName":"Tauseef Anwar","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Pir Mehr Ali Shah Arid Agriculture University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Pakistan"}}}]},"generic":{"page":{"slug":"editorial-policies","title":"Editorial Policies","intro":"\u003Cp\u003EAll publications on this website are published under the Open Access model, without any subscription, registration, or access fees required from the user or his\u002Fher institution. In accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative's (BOAI) definition of Open Access, users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, and link to the full text versions of all Chapters. To read more about our Open Access Statement click \u003Ca href=\"\u002Fpage\u002Fopen-access-statement\u002F\"\u003Ehere\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EFor Editorial Policies for \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Fjournals\" target=\"_blank\"\u003Ejournals\u003C\u002Fa\u003E please consult individual journal pages.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E","metaTitle":"Editorial policies","metaDescription":"Editorial policies","metaKeywords":null,"canonicalURL":"\u002Fpage\u002Feditorial-policies","contentRaw":"[{\"type\":\"htmlEditorComponent\",\"content\":\"\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ECopyright Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll published Book Chapters are licensed under \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby\u002F3.0\u002F\\\"\u003ECreative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby\u002F4.0\u002F\\\"\u003ECreative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Monographs are licensed under the \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby-nc\u002F4.0\u002F\\\"\u003ECreative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0)\u003C\u002Fa\u003E license granted to all others. Journal Articles are licensed under \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fcreativecommons.org\u002Flicenses\u002Fby\u002F4.0\u002F\\\"\u003ECreative Commons 4.0 International License\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002Fcopyright-policy\\\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAttribution Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002Fattribution-policy\\\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EEthics Standards\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Journal Editors, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and societies, where applicable.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EConflicts of Interest Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by the \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fpublicationethics.org\u002Fcompetinginterests\\\"\u003ECommittee on Publication Ethics\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (COPE), the \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.icmje.org\u002Frecommendations\u002Fbrowse\u002Froles-and-responsibilities\u002Fauthor-responsibilities--conflicts-of-interest.html\\\"\u003EInternational Committee of Medical Journal Editors\u003C\u002Fa\u003E (ICMJE), and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible and actual conflicts of interest.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002Fconflicts-of-interest-policy\\\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAuthorship Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on \u003Ca href=\\\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.icmje.org\u002Frecommendations\u002Fbrowse\u002Froles-and-responsibilities\u002Fdefining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html#two\\\"\u003EICMJE criteria for authorship\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cul\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EA substantial contribution to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EParticipation in drafting or revising the work\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\\t\u003Cli\u003EApproval of the manuscript version to be published\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\\n\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002Fauthorship-policy\\\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EPeer Review Policies\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002Fpeer-reviewing\\\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EPrior Publication Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a \u003Cstrong\u003Epublished scientific work\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between \u003Cstrong\u003Ereviewed and non-reviewed\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002Fprior-publication-policy\\\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EQuality Standards\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen strives to uphold the highest research, ethical, and quality standards set by the industry for the manuscripts we receive and publish, regardless of their format. Our research integrity team monitors the adherence to these standards of all parties involved, including the Authors and the Editors. If we suspect any breach of research or ethical standards, or any other type of scientific misconduct at any stage of the publishing process before the publication, we will investigate it thoroughly and might consult independent bodies such as Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) for guidelines. If the suspicion is confirmed, the submission may be rejected and removed from the process before the publication regardless of their current stage. These sets of rules apply to the work of Academic Editors as well: if any kind of misconduct is confirmed, we reserve the right to remove the Editor from the process and assign a new one. For editorial decisions regarding potential breach of above-mentioned standards applied after a formal publication of the manuscript please refer to our \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Fpage\u002Fretraction-and-correction-policy\\\"\u003ERetraction and Correction Policy\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ERetraction and Correction Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003ETo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to  transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002Fretraction-and-correction-policy\\\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ECitation Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe author(s) must avoid any kind of citation manipulation as it is considered a form of misconduct. Citation manipulation can be identified by the fact that the citations do not contribute to the scholarly content of the book chapter or journal article and have been included solely for the purpose of increasing citations. Please read the \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fpublicationethics.org\u002Fcitation-manipulation-discussion-document\\\"\u003ECOPE guidance\u003C\u002Fa\u003E on citation manipulation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003ESelf-citation itself is not forbidden, as long as it is not used excessively and inappropriately as a form of citation manipulation.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe author’s references should not be biased towards a particular author, institution\u002Forganization, research group, or publication. Behaviours aimed at inflating citation counts for personal gain will be dealt with in accordance with COPE’s best practices. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EDealing with Misconduct\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ETranslation Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002Ftranslation-policy\\\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EEquity and Bias-Free Communication\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen encourages authors to follow the \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fresearchintegrityjournal.biomedcentral.com\u002Farticles\u002F10.1186\u002Fs41073-016-0007-6\\\"\u003ESAGER guidelines\u003C\u002Fa\u003E on sex and gender equity in research, where relevant. Authors should use the terms sex and gender carefully, being clear about which their study applies to and\u002For how work linked with sex (biological attributes) or gender (shaped by societal and cultural environments) is described. When communicating research conducted on different groups by ethnicity, race, religion, age, disability, disease, etc. a non-discriminatory and bias-free language should be used. The reasoning and the definitions for such grouping categorization should be provided, including potential research funding requirements. When reporting demographic information in the study, It is advisable to use terms that designate ethnicity instead of race.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EUnless essential in reporting the research outcomes, the derogatory descriptions or offensive language should be avoided.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAdvertising Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\\\"\u002Fpage\u002Fadvertising-policy\\\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ERefund Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. 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Following publication of the entire book, chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. 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Following publication of the entire book, chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. 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Should the Authors disagree with the transfer or the publisher can not allocate suitable title in the publishing portfolio, a Cancellation Notice will be issued along with the Online First.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAccess Policy\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\"\u002Fpage\u002Faccess-policy\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003ETypes of publications\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Ca href=\"\u002Fpage\u002Ftypes-of-publications\"\u003ERead more >\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"}]},"successStories":{"items":[]},"authorsAndEditors":{"filterParams":{"sort":"featured,name"},"profiles":[],"filtersByRegion":[],"offset":0,"limit":12,"total":null},"chapterEmbeded":{"data":{}},"editorApplication":{"success":null,"errors":{}},"ofsBooks":{"filterParams":{},"books":[],"filtersByTopic":[],"offset":0,"limit":12,"total":null},"ofsBookV4":{"item":{"type":"book","id":"1004783","leadTitle":null,"title":"Advanced Applications of Metal-Organic Frameworks - Bridging Science and Technology","fullTitle":"Advanced Applications of Metal-Organic Frameworks - Bridging Science and Technology","subtitle":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","abstract":"This book will explore the recent advancements and interdisciplinary applications of Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs). 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The book will also cover the topic of driving progress in sustainable development by addressing global challenges like environmental pollution, renewable energy, and resource efficiency.","isbn":"978-1-83635-429-1","printIsbn":"978-1-83635-430-7","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83635-431-4","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.1008135","oapfPrice":1400,"isOpenForSubmission":true,"isSalesforceBook":true,"isNomenclature":false,"hash":"b7c5883feadef84e63f202a18f602278","bookSignature":"Prof. Arunkumar Chandrasekhar and Mr. Sayyid Abdul Basith","publishedDate":null,"coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fintech-files.s3.amazonaws.com\u002Fa04Tc00000BcX3nIAF\u002F0016687_TrikoderCover%20%282024-11-05%2011%3A35%3A13%29.jpg","keywords":["Novel Synthesis"," Scalability"," Functional MOFs"," Energy Conversion"," Electrochemical Applications"," MOF Recycling"," Biosensors"," Antimicrobial MOFs"," Industrial Applications"," MOF Catalysis"," Flexible Electronics"," Post-synthetic Modifications"],"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"19 February 2025","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"24 March 2025","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"21 May 2025","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"09 August 2025","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"08 October 2025","dateConfirmationOfParticipation":"March 19th 2025","remainingDaysToSecondStep":"a month","secondStepPassed":false,"areRegistrationsClosed":false,"currentStepOfPublishingProcess":2,"editedByType":null,"sdgRelated":false,"biosketch":"An Associate Professor in the Sensors and Biomedical Technology Department at the School of Electronics Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, India, with a PhD as a Korean Government Scholarship Program (KGSP) recipient at Jeju National University.","coeditorOneBiosketch":"An award-winning researcher with four published Indian patents who specializes in self-powered sensors, triboelectric nanogenerators, and sustainable technologies.","coeditorTwoBiosketch":null,"coeditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorFourBiosketch":null,"coeditorFiveBiosketch":null,"isPublished":false,"isDeactivated":false,"hasEditors":true,"editors":[{"id":"226215","name":"Arunkumar","surname":"Chandrasekhar","fullName":"Arunkumar Chandrasekhar","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F226215\u002F1729072207\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Arunkumar Chandrasekhar is an associate professor in the Sensors and Biomedical Technology Department, School of Electronics Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, India. He was a post-doctoral researcher in the Nanomaterials and Systems lab at Jeju National University, South Korea, where he received his Ph.D. with support from the Korean Government Scholarship Program (KGSP). In 2023, he received the State University Research Excellence (SURE) research funding from the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), India. His research interests include wearable and portable self-powered healthcare and biomedical device fabrication, triboelectric and piezoelectric sensors, and microelectronic mechanical systems. 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This book chapter presents Siemens’ autonomy toolchain for testing and virtual validation of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and AV functions. The approach integrates scenario-based testing, virtual validation, and compliance with the applicable regulations and standards, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Relying on the multi-pillar safety validation framework proposed by United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UN-ECE), and EU regulations, Siemens’ toolchain enables efficient scenario extraction, critical scenario creation, and large-scale virtual validation. 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A solution in SimuliNK was developed to simulate vehicle dynamics, inertial sensors, and its Guidance Navigation and Control (GNC) algorithms. The proposed unconventional approach for determining platform attitude in 6D space enhances guidance accuracy. An original model-based control with specific tuning algorithms is proposed, evaluated, and tested in simulations and some real flights. The results show that the vehicle’s performance in response to excessive and agile roll, pitch, and yaw is extremely sensitive to the quality of guidance. 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The new framework now combines artificial intelligence, holography, and natural language processing to give a customized educational experience while emotionally engaging the viewer through a system that harmonizes third-party solutions, like HeyGen AI to create avatars, which are modeled on real people; the Holo Tube holographic projector to create a 3D digital twin; and Gamma AI to produce content presentations that are highly engaging and visually appealing. 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This chapter presents an overview of SSI, beginning with exploration of the diverse sensing modalities employed to capture the neural and muscular signals. These include electroencephalography (EEG), surface electromyography (sEMG), and other emerging techniques. The subsequent sections detail the processing of neural signals, encompassing feature preprocessing, and a variety of recognition algorithms in the context of Silent Speech Recognition (SSR). Additionally, different voice synthesis methods are discussed. The application scenarios of SSI are examined, spanning from restoring speech capabilities for individuals with speech impairments to enhancing communication in noisy environments and enabling silent communication in private and military contexts. 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The improvement in the quantity and quality of information from robot sensors, along with increased computational capacities, has enabled the development of new algorithms to model the human environment in which the robot moves and interacts. This chapter will describe modelling techniques for scenes and objects that compose the environment, with the aim of generating an internal representation of the robot’s surroundings so it can navigate and perform manipulation tasks in shared environments with humans. Recent advances in environment modelling driven by deep learning and machine learning techniques, using sensor information, will be presented. Additionally, new trends in the generation of simulated environments, their elements, and synthetic databases will be studied. 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Additionally, Dr. Chibinski is a frequent lecturer at national and international events.","institutionString":"State University of Ponta Grossa, Brazil","institution":null},{"id":"149154","title":"Dr.","name":"Andréa","middleName":"Dolores Correia Miranda","surname":"Valdivia","slug":"andrea-valdivia","fullName":"Andréa Valdivia","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F149154\u002F1734032572\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"She has a degree in Stomatology from the Andina University of Cusco-Perú (2002). Postgraduate in Dentistry and Dental Materials (2009) from the School of Dentistry of the Federal University of Uberlandia-Brazil. She has experience in the area of Dentistry, with an emphasis on Dental Operative and Dental Materials. With a master\\'s degree (2011) and a doctorate (2016) completed in Integrated Dental Clinic by the Postgraduate program of the Faculty of Dentistry of the Federal University of Uberlandia- Brazil, in the Biomechanical research line applied to Dentistry. Research internship (2011) at the College\\'s Biomaterials and Biomechanics Research Laboratory at the University of Tennessee Health Sciences Center, UTHS, United States. Exchange period during the doctorate (2013-2014) carried out at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven - KUL-Belgium. She has published several papers in national and international journals of the Dentistry area as well as collaboration in two book chapters. She acts as a member of the editorial board of national and international journals. She is a Researcher Professor at School of Dentistry, Autonomous University of Guadalajara in Mexico since June 2017. She is a member of Mexico\\'s National System of Researchers, SNI.\nDuring the years of post-graduation studies, she was able to participate in research groups, undergraduate clinics and extension projects where she was able to learn and share knowledge with students, as well as guide them in scientific initiation studies, writing of scientific articles, research projects, as well as participate in several conferences presenting research work both in Brazil and abroad.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara","country":{"name":"Mexico"}}},{"id":"498634","title":"M.Sc.","name":"Marut","middleName":null,"surname":"Phuphaniat","slug":"marut-phuphaniat","fullName":"Marut Phuphaniat","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F498634\u002F1694583197\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":"Praboromarajchanok Institute","institution":null},{"id":"460434","title":"Dr.","name":"Ann Sara","middleName":"Sara","surname":"George","slug":"ann-sara-george","fullName":"Ann Sara George","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences","country":{"name":"India"}}},{"id":"485771","title":"Prof.","name":"Sorina Mihaela","middleName":null,"surname":"Solomon","slug":"sorina-mihaela-solomon","fullName":"Sorina Mihaela Solomon","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F485771\u002F1730268729\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Prof. Habil. Sorina Mihaela Solomon, DM, is the head of the Periodontology Department and coordinator of the residency program in periodontology at the Faculty of Dental Medicine, \\\"Grigore T. Popa\\\" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania. Prof. Solomon has held the title of senior specialist in general dentistry since 2000 and senior specialist in periodontology since 2013. Throughout her career, Prof. Solomon has made significant contributions to the non-surgical and regenerative periodontal therapy field through publications and lectures. Her research interests encompass new adjunctive protocols in subgingival instrumentation, adjunctive periodontal therapies, peri-implant disease, and the interplay between periodontitis and systemic diseases. Dr. Solomon has also been providing specialized dental assistance since 1991.","institutionString":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy","institution":{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy","country":{"name":"Romania"}}},{"id":"437047","title":"Dr.","name":"Shaimaa","middleName":"H Rafat","surname":"Hussein Rafat Kotb","slug":"shaimaa-hussein-rafat-kotb","fullName":"Shaimaa Hussein Rafat Kotb","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F437047\u002F1734031046\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Assistant lecturer of Oral Medicine ,Periodontology ,Oral Diagnosis & Dental Radiology at Sphinx University, New Assuit, Egypt.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Tanta University","country":{"name":"Egypt"}}},{"id":"210679","title":"Dr.","name":"Luiza","middleName":null,"surname":"Rusu","slug":"luiza-rusu","fullName":"Luiza Rusu","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F210679\u002F1683698808\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Luiza Rusu is a visiting scientist at the University of Illinois at Chicago and the Ohio State University. A medical doctor from Bucharest, Romania, she received her PhD in Pharmacology from the University of Illinois at Chicago in 2013 and then worked as postdoctoral researcher at University of Illinois at Chicago and at Ohio State University. She is best known for her studies on endothelial cell G protein signaling in hemostasis and thrombosis. Her interests include understanding the pathophysiological role of endothelial cell vWF secretion in the severe endothelial dysfunction syndrome (SEDS). She was granted NIH and AHA awards during her graduate and postdoctoral studies. Dr Rusu published several peer-reviewed papers and served as guest reviewer for international journals, and she is the holder of a registered patent on the effects of a novel inhibitor of vWF secretion on thrombosis, organ failure, and survival.","institutionString":"The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center","institution":{"name":"The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"460038","title":"Dr.","name":"Manal A.","middleName":null,"surname":"Ablal","slug":"manal-a.-ablal","fullName":"Manal A. Ablal","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F460038\u002F1710144519\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"A Senior Clinical Lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, School of Dentistry of the University of Liverpool (United Kingdom). \nA Master of Dental Science [MDentSci] (Restorative)- University of Liverpool\nA PhD in Dentistry (Restorative)- University of Liverpool\nA Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (SFHEA)\nA member of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh (MFDS RCSEd)\nA member of the Faculty of Dental Trainers (MFDTEd)\nMain research interest are cariology research and toothwear, 3D models in Dental Education\nPublished a few research papers\nPeer reviewer in various journals","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Liverpool","country":{"name":"United Kingdom"}}},{"id":"52177","title":"Prof.","name":"Farid","middleName":null,"surname":"Bourzgui","slug":"farid-bourzgui","fullName":"Farid Bourzgui","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F52177\u002F1734011527\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Prof. Farid Bourzgui obtained his DMD and his DNSO option in Orthodontics at the School of Dental Medicine, Casablanca Hassan II University, Morocco, in 1995 and 2000, respectively. Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). He is the author of several scientific articles, book chapters, and books.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Hassan II Casablanca","country":{"name":"Morocco"}}},{"id":"174262","title":"Prof.","name":"Laura-Cristina","middleName":null,"surname":"Rusu","slug":"laura-cristina-rusu","fullName":"Laura-Cristina Rusu","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F174262\u002F1734011534\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Professor Laura Cristina Rusu, DMD, Ph.D., is the mother of two lovely boys and a full-time professor and head of the Oral Pathology Department, Faculty of Dental Medicine, \\'Victor Babes\\' University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania. Her Ph.D. thesis was centered on allergens in dental materials. In 2017 she obtained a Dr. Habil and was confirmed as PhD coordinator in dental medicine. She took part in 11 research projects, including FP7 COST Action MP 1005, and authored more than 140 peer-reviewed papers. She has published ten books and book chapters as author and co-author. She has guest-edited seven special issues in different journals, and edited or co-edited five books, plus one ongoing book editing project. She currently holds three patents. Dr. Rusu is an editorial board member for the Journal of Science and Art and Medicine in Evolution. She is also a topic editor for the journal Materials. Her main scientific interests are oral pathology and oral diagnosis in dental medicine, focusing on oral cancer.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timișoara","country":{"name":"Romania"}}},{"id":"180569","title":"Dr.","name":"Lavinia Cosmina","middleName":null,"surname":"Ardelean","slug":"lavinia-cosmina-ardelean","fullName":"Lavinia Cosmina Ardelean","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F180569\u002F1729660491\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Professor Lavinia Cosmina Ardelean, DMD, Ph.D., is a professor and head of the Department of Technology of Materials and Devices in Dental Medicine, 'Victor Babes” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania. She has authored\u002Fco-authored 19 books, and 15 book chapters. She is an editorial board member of numerous journals, including \"Scientific Reports\" and a member of reviewer\u002Ftopic boards of journals: \"Materials\", \"Prosthesis\", \"Metals\", \"Coatings\", \"Polymers\", \"Journal of Functional Biomaterials\" and \"Biomedicines\". She has guest-edited ten Special Issues in different journals and seven books. She is currently involved in one ongoing book editing project. With more than 280 WOS-verified peer reviews to her credit to date, Dr. Ardelean was awarded a Top Reviewer in Cross-Field award in 2019 and a Top Reviewer in Materials Science award in 2019. She currently holds two patents. Her research interests include most areas of dentistry, with a focus on dental materials\u002Fbiomaterials, digital dentistry, 3D printing\u002Fbioprinting in dentistry, welding, prosthetics, and oral health care.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Victor Babeș University of Medicine and Pharmacy Timișoara","country":{"name":"Romania"}}},{"id":"173419","title":"Dr.","name":"Diego","middleName":null,"surname":"Romario-Silva","slug":"diego-romario-silva","fullName":"Diego Romario-Silva","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F173419\u002F1706694265\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Ph.D. in Dentistry in the area of Pharmacology, Anesthesiology, and Therapeutics by FOP-UNICAMP. Dental surgeon and Master in Dentistry, from the State University of Paraíba (UEPB). He is currently a Professor of Dentistry at Faculdade de Norte de Mato Grosso. He develops research on the following themes: Pharmacology, Natural Products, Microbiology, Periodontal Disease, Drug Delivery Systems, and Bioinformatics applied to Pharmacology. Contact: diegoromarioo@gmail.com.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"State University of Paraíba","country":{"name":"Brazil"}}},{"id":"423179","title":"Prof.","name":"Betsy Sara","middleName":"Sara","surname":"Thomas","slug":"betsy-sara-thomas","fullName":"Betsy Sara Thomas","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F423179\u002F1604448294\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Mahsa University","country":{"name":"Malaysia"}}},{"id":"318170","title":"Dr.","name":"Aneesa","middleName":null,"surname":"Moolla","slug":"aneesa-moolla","fullName":"Aneesa Moolla","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F318170\u002F1686725135\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Aneesa Moolla is a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO) in South Africa. She holds a Ph.D. in psychology, her research is focused on oral health, mental health and resilience. Dr. Moolla has extensive experience in diverse healthcare fields and has worked in dental private practice, with the Red Cross Flying Doctor service, and in corporate healthcare. During her career, her research has further broadened into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades and COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.","institutionString":"University of the Witwatersrand","institution":{"name":"University of the Witwatersrand","country":{"name":"South Africa"}}},{"id":"443786","title":"Prof.","name":"Kazuya","middleName":null,"surname":"Honda","slug":"kazuya-honda","fullName":"Kazuya Honda","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F443786\u002F1604448294\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Nihon University","country":{"name":"Japan"}}},{"id":"419588","title":"Dr.","name":"Sergio Alexandre","middleName":null,"surname":"Gehrke","slug":"sergio-alexandre-gehrke","fullName":"Sergio Alexandre Gehrke","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F419588\u002F1734011639\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche\u002FAlicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface\u002FUCAM\u002FPgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia","country":{"name":"Spain"}}},{"id":"310000","title":"Dr.","name":"Andrei Victor","middleName":null,"surname":"Sandu","slug":"andrei-victor-sandu","fullName":"Andrei Victor Sandu","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F310000\u002F1717524399\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Researcher and associate professor at the Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering. Dr. Sandu has expertise in the field of materials science, mainly in advanced analysis techniques. He started his 'scientific life” young with his first publication at the age of 18 years. Now he has over 300 publications, 250 of them indexed by the Web of Science (Thomson Reuters) and over 30 patents. Regarding international recognition, the Hirsh index is 22 (over 1500 citations), being a visiting Professor at the Universiti Malaysia Perlis. On the innovative side, he has received over 100 medals at inventions exhibitions and contests and various important orders. He is the President of the Romanian Inventors Forum, a member of WIIPA – World Invention Intellectual Property Association and full member of Romania at IFIA – International Federation of Inventors’ Associations. He is the publishing editor of the International Journal of Conservation Science (Web of Science and Scopus Indexed) and the European Journal of Materials Science and Engineering and a reviewer for many valuable journals.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași","country":{"name":"Romania"}}},{"id":"314944","title":"Dr.","name":"Madalina Simona","middleName":null,"surname":"Baltatu","slug":"madalina-simona-baltatu","fullName":"Madalina Simona Baltatu","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F314944\u002F1720604275\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Mădălina Simona Bălțatu is a lecturer at Technical University “Gh. Asachi” from Iași; she defended her Ph.D. thesis in 2017. She is a young researcher with a lot of experience in the field of biomaterials (proven by articles, international books, and book chapters: https:\u002F\u002Fwww.afir.org.ro\u002Fmsb\u002F). Published work includes six books and four book chapters; 60 papers published in journals and at conferences, of which 40 articles are indexed in Web of Science; five patent applications and 56 awards obtained at invention salons (32 gold medals, seven silver medals, two bronze medals, 15 special awards). More information about published work: h-index 17, Citations: 781, Source: Google Scholar; h-index 15, Citations: 495, Source: Web of Science.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași","country":{"name":"Romania"}}},{"id":"12354","title":"Prof.","name":"Petrica","middleName":null,"surname":"Vizureanu","slug":"petrica-vizureanu","fullName":"Petrica Vizureanu","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F12354\u002F1720604236\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Petrică Vizureanu obtained an MSc and Ph.D. in heating equipment at the Gheorghe Asachi Technical University, Iasi, Romania, in 1992 and 1999, respectively. Dr. Vizureanu is currently a full professor and scientific supervisor in materials engineering at the same university and the appointed director of the Department of Technologies and Equipment for Materials Processing. He is an editor and guest editor for many journals and publishing houses. His research focuses on expert systems for heating system programming, computer-assisted design for heating equipment, heating equipment for materials processing, heat transfer, biomaterials, and geopolymers. He has published more than 250 papers in international journals and conference proceedings as well as over 40 books.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Gheorghe Asachi Technical University of Iași","country":{"name":"Romania"}}},{"id":"420937","title":"Prof.","name":"Sukumaran","middleName":null,"surname":"Anil","slug":"sukumaran-anil","fullName":"Sukumaran Anil","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F420937\u002F1739528227\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Prof. Anil Sukumaran is a distinguished dental professional and academician with over 36 years of experience. He is a senior consultant professor and chairman of Hospital Research at Hamad Medical Corporation, Qatar. He earned his PhD in dentistry from the University of Hong Kong and has received numerous fellowships, including from the Royal College of Pathologists and the Pierre Fauchard Academy. Prof. Sukumaran has made significant contributions to dental research and education, publishing over 400 research papers and mentoring students globally. He has held key positions at prestigious institutions like King Saud University, where he established a medical research facility. His expertise lies in biomaterials, dentistry, and oral health.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Hamad Medical Corporation","country":{"name":"Qatar"}}},{"id":"26946","title":"Prof.","name":"Dragana","middleName":null,"surname":"Gabrić","slug":"dragana-gabric","fullName":"Dragana Gabrić","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F26946\u002F1739872606\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dragana Gabrić, DMD, Ph.D., is an full professor and a scientific advisor at the Department of Oral Surgery, School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb, and also a specialist in oral surgery, Head of the Clinical Department of Oral Surgery, University Dental Clinic, University Hospital Center Zagreb, Croatia. \n\nShe is head of the Reference Center for Dental Implantology, Ministry of Health of the Republic of Croatia. Professor Gabrić is the author and coauthor of many cited scientific and professional papers and reviews as well as twenty-six book chapters. She has been an invited speaker at many international scientific and professional courses, congresses, and universities. She is a Member of the Croatian Chamber of Dental Medicine, Croatian Society of Oral Surgeons, Croatian Association for Dental Implantology, Croatian Medical Association, Laser and Health Academy, Croatian Association for Minimally Invasive Dental Medicine, and Croatian Society for Maxillofacial and Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery of the Face and Neck. Dr. Gabrić holds one registered patent.","institutionString":"School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb","institution":null},{"id":"423958","title":"Dr.","name":"Maria Grace","middleName":"Costa","surname":"Viana","slug":"maria-grace-viana","fullName":"Maria Grace Viana","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F423958\u002F1604448294\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Education and Career\n\nGrace Viana is a statistician with a BSc (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics, 1977) and MSc (Federal University - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1983) in Statistics. She worked as statistician for a decade at the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics. She continues her work as statistician at UIC in 2000.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"University of Illinois at Chicago","country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"342152","title":"Dr.","name":"Santo","middleName":null,"surname":"Grace Umesh","slug":"santo-grace-umesh","fullName":"Santo Grace Umesh","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F342152\u002F1710187876\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":null,"institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"SRM Dental College","country":{"name":"India"}}},{"id":"333647","title":"Dr.","name":"Shreya","middleName":null,"surname":"Kishore","slug":"shreya-kishore","fullName":"Shreya Kishore","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F333647\u002F1712310455\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"SRM Dental College","country":{"name":"India"}}},{"id":"323731","title":"Prof.","name":"Deepak M.","middleName":"Macchindra","surname":"Vikhe","slug":"deepak-m.-vikhe","fullName":"Deepak M. Vikhe","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F323731\u002F1695903207\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................","institutionString":null,"institution":{"name":"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences","country":{"name":"India"}}},{"id":"334336","title":"Dr.","name":"Irina-Georgeta","middleName":null,"surname":"Sufaru","slug":"irina-georgeta-sufaru","fullName":"Irina-Georgeta Sufaru","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F334336\u002F1730268727\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.png","biography":"Dr. Irina-Georgeta Sufaru, DM, Ph.D., is a senior specialist in periodontology, having been in clinical practice since 2008. Dr. Sufaru is an associate professor in the Periodontology Department, Faculty of Dental Medicine, “Grigore T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania. Dr. Sufaru is an author with contributions to numerous papers, books, and book chapters on periodontology. Her research is dedicated to various aspects of periodontal medicine, with a specific focus on clinical and molecular diagnosis, as well as surgical and non-surgical treatment of periodontal diseases.","institutionString":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy","institution":{"name":"Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy","country":{"name":"Romania"}}}]}},"subseries":{"item":{"id":"14","type":"subseries","title":"Cell and Molecular Biology","keywords":"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression","scope":"\u003Cp\u003E\r\n\tThe Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to carefully review and rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that clearly report significant advances in the fields. 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