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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Townshend_Acts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Townshend Acts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Townshend_Acts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boston_under_occupation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boston_under_occupation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Boston under occupation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boston_under_occupation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Quiet_period"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Quiet_period""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 "Quiet period" </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Quiet_period"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Boston_Tea_Party" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boston_Tea_Party"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Boston Tea Party </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boston_Tea_Party-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Revolution </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Revolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Revolution subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Continental_Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Continental_Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 First Continental Congress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Continental_Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Continental_Congress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Continental_Congress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Second Continental Congress </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Continental_Congress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Move_to_Dedham" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Move_to_Dedham"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Move to Dedham </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Move_to_Dedham-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Return_to_Massachusetts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Return_to_Massachusetts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Return to Massachusetts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Return_to_Massachusetts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Family </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Samuel Adams</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 49 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-49" aria-hidden="true" > 49 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%B2" title="صامويل آدمز – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صامويل آدمز" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%84_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B2" title="ساموئل آدامز – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ساموئل آدامز" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CE%AC%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B5%CE%BB_%CE%86%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BC%CF%82" title="Σάμιουελ Άνταμς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σάμιουελ Άνταμς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%84_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B2" title="ساموئل آدامز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ساموئل آدامز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%88%EB%AE%A4%EC%96%BC_%EC%95%A0%EB%8D%A4%EC%8A%A4" title="새뮤얼 애덤스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="새뮤얼 애덤스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A5%D5%AC_%D4%B1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%BD" title="Սեմուել Ադամս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սեմուել Ադամս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%90%D7%9C_%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9E%D7%A1" title="סמואל אדמס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סמואל אדמס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A_%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="სემიუელ ადამსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სემიუელ ადამსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semjuels_Adamss" title="Semjuels Adamss – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Semjuels Adamss" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A1%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="സാമുവൽ ആഡംസ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സാമുവൽ ആഡംസ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A2%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%B2" title="صامويل آدمز – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="صامويل آدمز" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%9F%E3%83%A5%E3%82%A8%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A2%E3%83%80%E3%83%A0%E3%82%BA" title="サミュエル・アダムズ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サミュエル・アダムズ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adams_Samuel" title="Adams Samuel – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Adams Samuel" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Самуел Адамс – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Самуел Адамс" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81,_%D0%A1%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%8E%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Адамс, Сэмюэл – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Адамс, Сэмюэл" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%98%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%90%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81" title="Самјуел Адамс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Самјуел Адамс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Adams" title="Samuel Adams – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Samuel Adams" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a 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He is standing behind a table, holding a rolled up document in one hand, and pointing with the other hand to a large document on the table." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Samuel_Adams_by_John_Singleton_Copley.jpg/220px-Samuel_Adams_by_John_Singleton_Copley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Samuel_Adams_by_John_Singleton_Copley.jpg/330px-Samuel_Adams_by_John_Singleton_Copley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Samuel_Adams_by_John_Singleton_Copley.jpg/440px-Samuel_Adams_by_John_Singleton_Copley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1806" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">In this <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1772 portrait, Adams points at the <a href="/wiki/Explanatory_charter" class="mw-redirect" title="Explanatory charter">Massachusetts Charter</a>, which he viewed as a constitution that protected the peoples' rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002103-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002136-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198041-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198042-4">[4]</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">4th <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">Governor of Massachusetts</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office October 8, 1794 – June 2, 1797 Acting: October 8, 1793 – October 8, 1794</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts">Lieutenant</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Moses_Gill" title="Moses Gill">Moses Gill</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Increase_Sumner" title="Increase Sumner">Increase Sumner</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">3rd <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts">Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1789–1794 Acting Governor October 8, 1793 – 1794</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Governor</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Preceded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lincoln" title="Benjamin Lincoln">Benjamin Lincoln</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Moses_Gill" title="Moses Gill">Moses Gill</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Massachusetts_Senate" title="President of the Massachusetts Senate">President of the Massachusetts Senate</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1787–1788 1782–1785</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Delegate from Massachusetts to the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1774–1777</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1779–1781</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Clerk of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_House_of_Representatives" title="Massachusetts House of Representatives">Massachusetts House of Representatives</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1766–1774</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">September 27 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> September 16] 1722 <a href="/wiki/Boston,_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston, Massachusetts">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Massachusetts Bay</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">October 2, 1803(1803-10-02) (aged 81) <a href="/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts" title="Cambridge, Massachusetts">Cambridge, Massachusetts</a>, U.S.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Granary_Burying_Ground" title="Granary Burying Ground">Granary Burying Ground</a>, Boston</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican</a> (1790s)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouses</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;margin-top:1px;white-space:normal;">Elizabeth Checkley</div> <div class="marriage-line-margin2px"></div> <div style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:1px;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style>1749; died <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319">1757)</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1151524712"></li></ul> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;">Elizabeth Wells</div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1764)</div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Signature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Adams_Signature.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Samuel Adams's signature"><img alt="Handwritten "Saml Adams", with the "l" a raised curlicue" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Samuel_Adams_Signature.svg/128px-Samuel_Adams_Signature.svg.png" decoding="async" width="128" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Samuel_Adams_Signature.svg/192px-Samuel_Adams_Signature.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Samuel_Adams_Signature.svg/256px-Samuel_Adams_Signature.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="171" data-file-height="28" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Samuel Adams (September 27 [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> September 16] 1722 – October 2, 1803) was an American statesman, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosopher</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Founding_Father_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding Father of the United States">Founding Father of the United States</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bernstein2001-5">[5]</a> He was a politician in <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">colonial Massachusetts</a>, a leader of the movement that became the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, a signatory of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> and other founding documents, and one of the architects of the principles of <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">American republicanism</a> that shaped the political culture of the United States. He was a second cousin to his fellow Founding Father, President <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a>. Adams was born in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, brought up in a religious and politically active family. A graduate of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a>, he was an unsuccessful businessman and tax collector before concentrating on politics. He was an influential official of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_House_of_Representatives" title="Massachusetts House of Representatives">Massachusetts House of Representatives</a> and the Boston Town Meeting in the 1760s, and he became a part of a movement opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">British Parliament</a>'s efforts to tax the <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British American</a> colonies without their consent. His 1768 <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Circular_Letter" title="Massachusetts Circular Letter">Massachusetts Circular Letter</a> calling for colonial non-cooperation prompted the occupation of Boston by British troops, eventually resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a> of 1770. Adams and his colleagues devised a <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee of correspondence">committee of correspondence</a> system in 1772 to help coordinate resistance to what he saw as the British government's attempts to violate the <a href="/wiki/British_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="British Constitution">British Constitution</a> at the expense of the colonies, which linked like-minded <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">Patriots</a> throughout the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>. Continued resistance to British policy resulted in the 1773 <a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a> and the coming of the American Revolution. Adams was actively involved with <a href="/wiki/Early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="Early American publishers and printers">colonial newspapers</a> publishing accounts of colonial sentiment over British colonial rule, which were fundamental in uniting the colonies. Parliament passed the <a href="/wiki/Coercive_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Coercive Acts">Coercive Acts</a> in 1774, at which time Adams attended the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a> in Philadelphia which was convened to coordinate a colonial response. He helped guide Congress towards issuing the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a> in 1774 and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> in 1776, and he helped draft the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts Constitution">Massachusetts Constitution</a>. Adams returned to Massachusetts after the American Revolution, where he served in the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Senate" title="Massachusetts Senate">state senate</a> and was eventually elected governor. Adams later became a controversial figure in American history. Accounts written in the 19th century praised him as someone who had been steering his fellow colonists towards independence long before the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a>. This view was challenged by negative assessments of Adams in the first half of the 20th century, in which he was portrayed as a master of <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> who provoked <a href="/wiki/Mob_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Mob violence">mob violence</a> to achieve his goals. However, according to biographer Mark Puls, a different account emerges upon examination of Adams' many writings regarding the civil rights of the colonists, while the "mob" referred to were a highly reflective group of men inspired by Adams who made his case with reasoned arguments in pamphlets and newspapers, without the use of emotional rhetoric.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200615–16-6">[6]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Massachusetts_Hall,_Harvard_University.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A four-story brick building with many windows." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Massachusetts_Hall%2C_Harvard_University.JPG/220px-Massachusetts_Hall%2C_Harvard_University.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Massachusetts_Hall%2C_Harvard_University.JPG/330px-Massachusetts_Hall%2C_Harvard_University.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Massachusetts_Hall%2C_Harvard_University.JPG/440px-Massachusetts_Hall%2C_Harvard_University.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>While at <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, Adams boarded at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Hall,_Harvard_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University">Massachusetts Hall</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199716-7">[7]</a></figcaption></figure> Adams was born in <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a> in the British colony of <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Massachusetts</a> on September 16, 1722, an <a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style date</a> that is sometimes converted to the New Style date of September 27.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer188514-8">[8]</a> Adams was one of twelve children born to <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Adams, Sr.">Samuel Adams, Sr.</a>, and Mary (Fifield) Adams in an age of high infant mortality; only three of these children lived past their third birthday.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler19974-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200622-11">[11]</a> Adams's parents were devout <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritans</a> and members of the <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Meeting_House" title="Old South Meeting House">Old South Congregational Church</a>. The family lived on what is today Purchase Street in Boston.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200621-12">[12]</a> Adams was proud of his Puritan heritage, and emphasized Puritan values in his political career, especially <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198041–42-13">[13]</a> Samuel Adams, Sr. (1689–1748) was a prosperous merchant and church <a href="/wiki/Deacon" title="Deacon">deacon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19363–4-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20021-9">[9]</a> Deacon Adams became a leading figure in Boston politics through an organization that became known as the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Caucus" title="Boston Caucus">Boston Caucus</a>, which promoted candidates who supported popular causes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20022-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198019-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier197617-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[a]</a> Members of the Caucus helped shape the agenda of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boston_Town_Meeting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boston Town Meeting (page does not exist)">Boston Town Meeting</a>. A New England <a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">town meeting</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local government</a> with elected officials, and not just a gathering of citizens; according to historian <a href="/wiki/William_M._Fowler,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William M. Fowler, Jr.">William Fowler</a>, it was "the most democratic institution in the British empire".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler19978-19">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20022-15">[15]</a> Deacon Adams rose through the political ranks, becoming a justice of the peace, a <a href="/wiki/Boston_Board_of_Selectmen" title="Boston Board of Selectmen">selectman</a>, and a member of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_House_of_Representatives" title="Massachusetts House of Representatives">Massachusetts House of Representatives</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19367–8-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200623-21">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199711-22">[21]</a> He worked closely with <a href="/wiki/Elisha_Cooke,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Elisha Cooke, Jr.">Elisha Cooke, Jr.</a> (1678–1737), the leader of the "popular party", a faction that resisted any encroachment by royal officials on the colonial rights embodied in the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Charter" title="Massachusetts Charter">Massachusetts Charter</a> of 1691.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199710–11-23">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19369-24">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200623-21">[20]</a> In the coming years, members of the "popular party" became known as Whigs or <a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">Patriots</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200223,_74-25">[24]</a> The younger Samuel Adams attended <a href="/wiki/Boston_Latin_School" title="Boston Latin School">Boston Latin School</a> and then entered <a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> in 1736. His parents hoped that his schooling would prepare him for the ministry, but Adams gradually shifted his interest to politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20021-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200625-26">[25]</a> After graduating in 1740, Adams continued his studies, earning a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">master's degree</a> in 1743. In his thesis, he argued that it was "lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate, if the Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved", which indicated that his political views, like his father's, were oriented towards colonial rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193615–16-27">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20027-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199725-29">[28]</a> Adams's life was greatly affected by his father's involvement in a banking controversy. In 1739, Massachusetts was facing a serious currency shortage, and Deacon Adams and the Boston Caucus created a "land bank" which issued paper money to borrowers who mortgaged their land as security.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20024–5-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199721-31">[30]</a> The land bank was generally supported by the citizenry and the popular party, which dominated the House of Representatives, the lower branch of the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Court" title="Massachusetts General Court">General Court</a>. Opposition to the land bank came from the more aristocratic "court party", who were supporters of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_governors_of_Massachusetts" title="List of colonial governors of Massachusetts">royal governor</a> <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Belcher" title="Jonathan Belcher">Jonathan Belcher</a> and controlled the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Governor%27s_Council" title="Massachusetts Governor's Council">Governor's Council</a>, the upper chamber of the General Court. The court party used its influence to have the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">British Parliament</a> dissolve the land bank in 1741.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20025–6-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199723-33">[32]</a> Directors of the land bank, including Deacon Adams, became personally liable for the currency still in circulation, payable in silver and gold. Lawsuits over the bank persisted for years, even after Deacon Adams's death, and the younger Samuel Adams often had to defend the family estate from seizure by the government. For Adams, these lawsuits "served as a constant personal reminder that Britain's power over the colonies could be exercised in arbitrary and destructive ways."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200212-34">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_career">Early career</h2></div> After leaving Harvard in 1743, Adams was unsure about his future. He considered becoming a lawyer but instead decided to go into business. He worked at <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cushing" title="Thomas Cushing">Thomas Cushing</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Counting_house" title="Counting house">counting house</a>, but the job only lasted a few months because Cushing felt that Adams was too preoccupied with politics to become a good merchant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193617-35">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20023-36">[35]</a> Adams's father then lent him <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_pound" title="Massachusetts pound">£</a>1,000 to go into business for himself, a substantial amount for that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20023–4-37">[36]</a> Adams's lack of business instincts were confirmed; he lent half of this money to a friend who never repaid, and frittered away the other half. Adams always remained, in the words of historian <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Maier" title="Pauline Maier">Pauline Maier</a>, "a man utterly uninterested in either making or possessing money".<a href="#cite_note-ANB-38">[37]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_South_Meetinghouse_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="On a city street, an old brick church with a tall steeple is surrounded by modern buildings." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Old_South_Meetinghouse_BW.jpg/220px-Old_South_Meetinghouse_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Old_South_Meetinghouse_BW.jpg/330px-Old_South_Meetinghouse_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Old_South_Meetinghouse_BW.jpg/440px-Old_South_Meetinghouse_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3631" data-file-height="4596" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Meeting_House" title="Old South Meeting House">Old South Meeting House</a> (1968 photo shown) was Adams's church. During the crisis with Great Britain, mass meetings were held here that were too large for <a href="/wiki/Faneuil_Hall" title="Faneuil Hall">Faneuil Hall</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200258-39">[38]</a></figcaption></figure> After Adams had lost his money, his father made him a partner in the family's <a href="/wiki/Malthouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Malthouse">malthouse</a>, which was next to the family home on Purchase Street. Several generations of Adamses were maltsters, who produced the <a href="/wiki/Malt" title="Malt">malt</a> necessary for <a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">brewing</a> beer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaron196274-40">[39]</a> Years later, a poet poked fun at Adams by calling him "Sam the maltster".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20027-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells186524-41">[40]</a> Adams has often been described as a brewer, but the extant evidence suggests that he worked as a maltster and not a brewer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaron196274–75-42">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[b]</a> He also made financial decisions for the malthouse and had a position of influence in the business, which he lost due to his lack of understanding of the responsibilities of accounting and running a business, which led to many poor decisions that caused the malthouse to close.<a href="#cite_note-:0-45">[43]</a> In January 1748, Adams and some friends were inflamed by British <a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">impressment</a> and launched <a href="/wiki/The_Independent_Advertiser" title="The Independent Advertiser">The Independent Advertiser</a>, a weekly newspaper that printed many political essays written by Adams.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20027-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193617–18-46">[44]</a> His essays drew heavily upon English political theorist <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Two_Treatises_of_Government" title="Two Treatises of Government">Second Treatise of Government</a>, and they emphasized many of the themes that characterized his subsequent career.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193621-47">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20028-48">[46]</a> He argued that the people must resist any encroachment on their constitutional rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20028-48">[46]</a> He cited the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">decline of the Roman Empire</a> as an example of what could happen to <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> if it were to abandon its Puritan values.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193619-49">[47]</a> When Deacon Adams died in 1748, Adams was given the responsibility of managing the family's affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200630–31-50">[48]</a> In October 1749, he married Elizabeth Checkley, his pastor's daughter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20029-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199734-52">[50]</a> Elizabeth gave birth to six children over the next seven years, but only two lived to adulthood: Samuel (born 1751) and Hannah (born 1756).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20029-51">[49]</a> In July 1757, Elizabeth died soon after giving birth to a stillborn son.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20029-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200631–32-53">[51]</a> Adams remarried in 1764 to Elizabeth Wells,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199755-54">[52]</a> but had no other children.<a href="#cite_note-ANB-38">[37]</a> Like his father, Adams embarked on a political career with the support of the Boston Caucus. He was elected to his first political office in 1747, serving as one of the clerks of the Boston market. In 1756, the Boston Town Meeting elected him to the post of tax collector, which provided a small income.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20027-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20028-48">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20029-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200214-55">[53]</a> He often failed to collect taxes from his fellow citizens, which increased his popularity among those who did not pay, but left him liable for the shortage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200214"The_failure_to_collect_all_taxes_was_a_Boston_tradition"-56">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198019-16">[16]</a> By 1765, his account was more than £8,000 in arrears. The town meeting was on the verge of bankruptcy, and Adams was compelled to file suit against delinquent taxpayers, but many taxes went uncollected.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200227-57">[55]</a> In 1768, his political opponents used the situation to their advantage, obtaining a court judgment of £1,463 against him. Adams's friends paid off some of the deficit, and the town meeting wrote off the remainder. By then, he had emerged as a leader of the popular party, and the embarrassing situation did not lessen his influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200253–54-58">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conflict_with_Great_Britain">Conflict with Great Britain</h2></div> Samuel Adams emerged as an important public figure in Boston soon after the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>'s victory in the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> (1754–1763). The <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">British Parliament</a> found itself deep in debt and looking for new sources of revenue, and they sought to directly tax the colonies of <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a> for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199750-59">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200217-60">[58]</a> This tax dispute was part of a larger divergence between British and American interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the United Kingdom">British Constitution</a> and the extent of Parliament's authority in the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBailyn1992162-61">[59]</a> In the years leading up to and into the revolution Adams made frequent use of <a href="/wiki/Early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="Early American publishers and printers">colonial newspapers</a> and began openly criticizing British colonial policy and by 1775 was advocating independence from Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002x,_23,_65-62">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198013,_25-63">[61]</a> Adams was foremost in actively using newspapers like the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Gazette" title="Boston Gazette">Boston Gazette</a> to promote the ideals of colonial rights by publishing his letters and other accounts which sharply criticized British colonial policy and especially the practice of colonial taxation without representation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1874lix-64">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885129–130-65">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells186537,_45,_53,_etc-66">[64]</a>The Boston Gazette had a circulation of two thousand, published weekly, which was considerable number for that time. Its publishers, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Edes" title="Benjamin Edes">Benjamin Edes</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Gill_(printer)" title="John Gill (printer)">John Gill</a>, both founding members of the Sons of Liberty,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls20065–6,_92-67">[65]</a> were on friendly and cooperative terms with Adams, <a href="/wiki/James_Otis_Jr." title="James Otis Jr.">James Otis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Caucus" title="Boston Caucus">Boston Caucus</a>. Historian Ralph Harlow maintains that there is no doubt of the influence these men had in arousing public feeling.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlow192346–47-68">[66]</a> In his writings in the Boston Gazette, Adams often wrote under a variety of assumed names, including "Candidus", "Vindex",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECushing190728,_130,_261,_etc-69">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198018–19,_21-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002100,_102,_153-71">[69]</a> and others.<a href="#cite_note-76">[c]</a> In less common instances his letters were unsigned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECushing1908250,_255-77">[74]</a> Adams earnestly endeavored to awaken his fellow citizens over the perceived attacks on their Constitutional rights, with emphasis aimed at Massachusetts <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)" title="Thomas Hutchinson (governor)">Governor Thomas Hutchinson</a>. Hutchinson stressed that no one matched Adams' efforts in promoting the radical Whig position and the revolutionary cause, which Adams accordingly demonstrated with his numerous published and pointedly written essays and letters. In each of its issues from early September through mid-October 1771, the Gazette published Adams' inciteful essays, one of which criticized the Parliament for using colonial taxes to pay Hutchinson's annual salary of £2,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002100–101-78">[75]</a> In a letter of February 1770, published by the New York Journal<a href="#cite_note-79">[d]</a> Adams maintained that it became increasingly difficult to view King George III as one who was not passively involved in Parliamentary decisions. In it he asked if anyone of common sense could deny that the King had assumed a “personal and decisive” role against the Americans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002209-80">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sugar_Act">Sugar Act</h3></div> The first step in the new program was the <a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act" title="Sugar Act">Sugar Act</a> of 1764, which Adams saw as an infringement of longstanding colonial rights. Colonists were not represented in Parliament, he argued, and therefore they could not be taxed by that body; the colonists were represented by the colonial assemblies, and only they could levy taxes upon them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199751-81">[77]</a> Adams expressed these views in May 1764, when the Boston Town Meeting elected its representatives to the Massachusetts House. As was customary, the town meeting provided the representatives with a set of written instructions, which Adams was selected to write. Adams highlighted what he perceived to be the dangers of <a href="/wiki/Taxation_without_representation" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxation without representation">taxation without representation</a>: <blockquote>For if our Trade may be taxed, why not our Lands? Why not the Produce of our Lands & everything we possess or make use of? This we apprehend annihilates our Charter Right to govern & tax ourselves. It strikes at our British privileges, which as we have never forfeited them, we hold in common with our Fellow Subjects who are Natives of Britain. If Taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having a legal Representation where they are laid, are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves?<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199751–52-82">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECushing19041–7-83">[79]</a></blockquote> "When the Boston Town Meeting approved the Adams instructions on May 24, 1764," writes historian John K. Alexander, "it became the first political body in America to go on record stating Parliament could not constitutionally tax the colonists. The directives also contained the first official recommendation that the colonies present a unified defense of their rights."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200221-84">[80]</a> Adams's instructions were published in newspapers and pamphlets, and he soon became closely associated with <a href="/wiki/James_Otis,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="James Otis, Jr.">James Otis, Jr.</a>, a member of the Massachusetts House famous for his defense of colonial rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200221-84">[80]</a> Otis boldly challenged the constitutionality of certain acts of Parliament, but he would not go as far as Adams, who was moving towards the conclusion that Parliament did not have sovereignty over the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200222–23-85">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199752–53-86">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stamp_Act">Stamp Act</h3></div> In 1765, Parliament passed the <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_1765" title="Stamp Act 1765">Stamp Act</a> which required colonists to pay a new tax on most printed materials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200217–18-87">[83]</a> News of the passage of the Stamp Act produced an uproar in the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193650–51-88">[84]</a> The colonial response echoed Adams's 1764 instructions. In June 1765, Otis called for a <a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a> to coordinate colonial resistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199761-89">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200224-90">[86]</a> The Virginia <a href="/wiki/House_of_Burgesses" title="House of Burgesses">House of Burgesses</a> passed a widely reprinted <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Resolves" title="Virginia Resolves">set of resolves</a> against the Stamp Act that resembled Adams's arguments against the Sugar Act.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200224-90">[86]</a> Adams argued that the Stamp Act was unconstitutional; he also believed that it would hurt the economy of the British Empire. He supported calls for a boycott of British goods to put pressure on Parliament to repeal the tax.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200224–25-91">[87]</a> In Boston, a group called the <a href="/wiki/Loyal_Nine" title="Loyal Nine">Loyal Nine</a>, a precursor to the <a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a>, organized protests of the Stamp Act. Adams was friendly with the Loyal Nine but was not a member.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200225-92">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193653-93">[89]</a> On August 14, stamp distributor <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Oliver" title="Andrew Oliver">Andrew Oliver</a> was hanged in effigy from Boston's <a href="/wiki/Liberty_Tree" title="Liberty Tree">Liberty Tree</a>; that night, his home was ransacked and his office demolished. On August 26, lieutenant governor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)" title="Thomas Hutchinson (governor)">Thomas Hutchinson's</a> home was destroyed by an angry crowd. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Safhall1_copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A statue on a pedestal of a man standing with his arms crossed. An inscription on the pedestal reads, "Samuel Adams, 1722–1803. A Patriot. He organized the Revolution and signed the Declaration of Independence." Behind the statue is a three-story brick building with many windows." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Safhall1_copy.jpg/220px-Safhall1_copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Safhall1_copy.jpg/330px-Safhall1_copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Safhall1_copy.jpg/440px-Safhall1_copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1968" data-file-height="2268" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Anne_Whitney" title="Anne Whitney">Anne Whitney</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams_(Whitney_statues)" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Adams (Whitney statues)">Samuel Adams</a>, bronze and granite statue, 1880, located in front of <a href="/wiki/Faneuil_Hall" title="Faneuil Hall">Faneuil Hall</a>, which was the home of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boston_Town_Meeting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boston Town Meeting (page does not exist)">Boston Town Meeting</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200248-94">[90]</a> </figcaption></figure> Officials such as Governor <a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Bernard,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet">Francis Bernard</a> believed that common people acted only under the direction of agitators and blamed the violence on Adams.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200226-95">[91]</a> This interpretation was revived by scholars in the early 20th century, who viewed Adams as a master of <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> who manipulated mobs into doing his bidding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197690–91-96">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200227-57">[55]</a> For example, historian John C. Miller wrote in 1936 in what became the standard biography of Adams<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197691-97">[93]</a> that Adams "controlled" Boston with his "trained mob".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193653-93">[89]</a> Some modern scholars have argued that this interpretation is a myth, and that there is no evidence that Adams had anything to do with the Stamp Act riots.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200226–27-98">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200451–52-99">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199766-100">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[e]</a> After the fact, Adams did approve of the August 14 action because he saw no other legal options to resist what he viewed as an unconstitutional act by Parliament, but he condemned attacks on officials' homes as "mobbish".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198027-102">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200228-103">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200229-104">[99]</a> According to the modern scholarly interpretation of Adams, he supported legal methods of resisting parliamentary taxation, such as petitions, boycotts, and nonviolent demonstrations, but he opposed mob violence which he saw as illegal, dangerous, and counter-productive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200229-104">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198026–28-105">[100]</a> In September 1765, Adams was once again appointed by the Boston Town Meeting to write the instructions for Boston's delegation to the Massachusetts House of Representatives. As it turned out, he wrote his own instructions; on September 27, the town meeting selected him to replace the recently deceased Oxenbridge Thacher as one of Boston's four representatives in the assembly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200230-106">[101]</a> James Otis was attending the Stamp Act Congress in New York City, so Adams was the primary author of a series of House resolutions against the Stamp Act, which were more radical than <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Rights_and_Grievances" title="Declaration of Rights and Grievances">those passed</a> by the Stamp Act Congress. Adams was one of the first colonial leaders to argue that mankind possessed certain <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural rights">natural rights</a> that governments could not violate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200232–33-107">[102]</a> The Stamp Act was scheduled to go into effect on November 1, 1765, but it was not enforced because protestors throughout the colonies had compelled stamp distributors to resign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200233-108">[103]</a> Eventually, British merchants were able to convince Parliament to repeal the tax.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200237Puls200662-109">[104]</a> By May 16, 1766, news of the repeal had reached Boston. There was celebration throughout the city, and Adams made a public statement of thanks to British merchants for helping their cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865112-110">[105]</a> The Massachusetts popular party gained ground in the May 1766 elections. Adams was re-elected to the House and selected as its clerk, in which position he was responsible for official House papers. In the coming years, Adams used his position as clerk to great effect in promoting his political message.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200240-111">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200241-112">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200244–45-113">[108]</a> Joining Adams in the House was <a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a>, a new representative from Boston. Hancock was a wealthy merchant—perhaps the richest man in Massachusetts—but a relative newcomer to politics. He was initially a protégé of Adams, and he used his wealth to promote the Whig cause.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199773-114">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200239-116">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Townshend_Acts">Townshend Acts</h3></div> After the repeal of the Stamp Act, Parliament took a different approach to raising revenue, passing the <a href="/wiki/Townshend_Acts" title="Townshend Acts">Townshend Acts</a> in 1767 which established new <a href="/wiki/Duty_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Duty (economics)">duties</a> on various goods imported into the colonies. These duties were relatively low because the British ministry wanted to establish the precedent that Parliament had the right to impose tariffs on the colonies before raising them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200250-117">[112]</a> Revenues from these duties were to be used to pay for governors and judges who would be independent of colonial control. To enforce compliance with the new laws, the Townshend Acts created a <a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">customs</a> agency known as the American Board of Custom Commissioners, which was headquartered in Boston.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200249–50-118">[113]</a> Resistance to the Townshend Acts grew slowly. The General Court was not in session when news of the acts reached Boston in October 1767. Adams therefore used the Boston Town Meeting to organize an economic boycott, and called for other towns to do the same. By February 1768, towns in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut had joined the boycott.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200250-117">[112]</a> Opposition to the Townshend Acts was also encouraged by <a href="/wiki/Letters_from_a_Farmer_in_Pennsylvania" title="Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania">Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania</a>, a series of popular essays by <a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson_(delegate)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dickinson (delegate)">John Dickinson</a> which started appearing in December 1767. Dickinson's argument that the new taxes were unconstitutional had been made before by Adams, but never to such a wide audience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200251-119">[114]</a> In January 1768, the Massachusetts House sent a petition to King George asking for his help.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200251-119">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885109-120">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[f]</a> Adams and Otis requested that the House send the petition to the other colonies, along with what became known as the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Circular_Letter" title="Massachusetts Circular Letter">Massachusetts Circular Letter</a>, which became "a significant milestone on the road to revolution".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200251-119">[114]</a> The letter written by Adams called on the colonies to join with Massachusetts in resisting the Townshend Acts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200252-122">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199778-123">[117]</a> The House initially voted against sending the letter and petition to the other colonies but, after some politicking by Adams and Otis, it was approved on February 11.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200252-122">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199778–80-124">[118]</a> British <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies" title="Secretary of State for the Colonies">colonial secretary</a> <a href="/wiki/Wills_Hill,_1st_Marquess_of_Downshire" title="Wills Hill, 1st Marquess of Downshire">Lord Hillsborough</a>, hoping to prevent a repeat of the Stamp Act Congress, instructed the colonial governors in America to dissolve the assemblies if they responded to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. He also directed Massachusetts Governor <a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Bernard,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet">Francis Bernard</a> to have the Massachusetts House rescind the letter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200254-125">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199782-126">[120]</a> On June 30, the House refused to rescind the letter by a vote of 92 to 17, with Adams citing their <a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition" title="Right to petition">right to petition</a> as justification.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200255-127">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199782-126">[120]</a> Far from complying with the governor's order, Adams instead presented a new petition to the king asking that Governor Bernard be removed from office. Bernard responded by dissolving the legislature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200255-127">[121]</a> The commissioners of the Customs Board found that they were unable to enforce trade regulations in Boston, so they requested military assistance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200257-128">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199782-126">[120]</a> Help came in the form of <a href="/wiki/HMS_Romney_(1762)" title="HMS Romney (1762)">HMS Romney</a>, a fifty-gun warship which arrived in <a href="/wiki/Boston_Harbor" title="Boston Harbor">Boston Harbor</a> in May 1768.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200257-128">[122]</a> Tensions escalated after the captain of Romney began to <a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">impress</a> local sailors. The situation exploded on June 10, when customs officials seized <a href="/wiki/HMS_Liberty_(1768)" title="HMS Liberty (1768)">Liberty</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sloop" title="Sloop">sloop</a> owned by John Hancock—a leading critic of the Customs Board—for alleged customs violations. Sailors and marines came ashore from Romney to tow away Liberty, and a riot broke out. Things calmed down in the following days, but fearful customs officials packed up their families and fled for protection to Romney and eventually to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Independence_(Massachusetts)" title="Fort Independence (Massachusetts)">Castle William</a>, an island fort in the harbor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200257–60-129">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199781-130">[124]</a> Governor Bernard wrote to London in response to the Liberty incident and the struggle over the Circular Letter, informing his superiors that troops were needed in Boston to restore order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200259–60-131">[125]</a> Lord Hillsborough ordered four regiments of the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a> to Boston. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boston_under_occupation">Boston under occupation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boston_1768_edit.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A wide view of a port town with several wharves. In the foreground there are eight large sailing ships and an assortment of smaller vessels. Soldiers are disembarking from small boats onto a long wharf. The skyline of the town, with nine tall spires and many smaller buildings, is in the distance. A key at the bottom of the drawing indicates some prominent landmarks and the names of the warships." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Boston_1768_edit.jpeg/290px-Boston_1768_edit.jpeg" decoding="async" width="290" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Boston_1768_edit.jpeg/435px-Boston_1768_edit.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Boston_1768_edit.jpeg/580px-Boston_1768_edit.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="961" /></a><figcaption>Paul Revere's 1768 engraving of British troops arriving in Boston was reprinted throughout the colonies.</figcaption></figure> Learning that British troops were on the way, the Boston Town Meeting met on September 12, 1768, and requested that Governor Bernard convene the General Court.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200261–62-132">[126]</a> Bernard refused, so the town meeting called on the other Massachusetts towns to send representatives to meet at <a href="/wiki/Faneuil_Hall" title="Faneuil Hall">Faneuil Hall</a> beginning on September 22.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200262–63-133">[127]</a> About 100 towns sent delegates to <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Convention_of_Towns" title="Massachusetts Convention of Towns">the convention</a>, which was effectively an unofficial session of the Massachusetts House. The convention issued a letter which insisted that Boston was not a lawless town, using language more moderate than what Adams desired, and that the impending military occupation violated Bostonians' natural, constitutional, and charter rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200263-134">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199788-135">[129]</a> By the time that the convention adjourned, British troop transports had arrived in Boston Harbor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199788-135">[129]</a> Two regiments disembarked in October 1768, followed by two more in November.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200265-136">[130]</a> According to some accounts, the occupation of Boston was a turning point for Adams, after which he gave up hope of reconciliation and secretly began to work towards American independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865207-137">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885119–120-138">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200264–65-139">[133]</a> However, historian <a href="/wiki/Carl_L._Becker" title="Carl L. Becker">Carl Becker</a> wrote in 1928 that "there is no clear evidence in his contemporary writings that such was the case.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker192895–101-140">[134]</a> Nevertheless, the traditional, standard view of Adams is that he desired independence before most of his contemporaries and steadily worked towards this goal for years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200447,_55-141">[135]</a> There is much speculation among historians, with compelling arguments either way, over whether and when before the war Adams openly advocated independence from Britain. Historian <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Maier" title="Pauline Maier">Pauline Maier</a> challenged the idea that he had in 1980, arguing instead that Adams, like most of his peers, did not embrace independence until after the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a> had begun in 1775.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198015,_25-142">[136]</a> According to Maier, Adams at this time was a reformer rather than a revolutionary; he sought to have the British ministry change its policies, and warned Britain that independence would be the inevitable result of a failure to do so.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198021–25-143">[137]</a> Adams biographer Stewart Beach also questioned whether Adams sought independence before the mid-1770s, in that Hutchinson, who despised Adams, and had reason enough to, never once in his papers accused Adams of pushing the idea of independence from Britain, though he notes that Adams had publicly promised retaliation to any British troops sent over to quell the rebellion, moreover, that Adams was never accused of treason by the Parliament before the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach1965171–172-144">[138]</a> Adams wrote numerous letters and essays in opposition to the occupation, which he considered a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_Rights_1689" title="Bill of Rights 1689">1689 Bill of Rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200267-145">[139]</a> The occupation was publicized throughout the colonies in the <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Occurrences" title="Journal of Occurrences">Journal of Occurrences</a>, an unsigned series of newspaper articles that may have been written by Adams in collaboration with others.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199790–92-146">[140]</a> The Journal presented what it claimed to be a factual daily account of events in Boston during the military occupation, an innovative approach in an era without professional newspaper reporters. Their articles primary focused on the many grievances held by ordinary Bostonians toward the British occupation, including its subversion of civil authority and misbehavior by occupational troops. The Journal also criticized the British impressment of colonial sailors into the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200268–69-147">[141]</a> The Journal ceased publication on August 1, 1769, which was a day of celebration in Boston, as Bernard had left Massachusetts, never to return.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200274-148">[142]</a> Adams continued to work on getting British occupational troops to withdraw from Boston and keeping the boycott going until the Townshend duties were repealed. Two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the other two remained.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200274-148">[142]</a> Tensions between occupational troops and local colonists eventually resulted in the killing of five Bostonians in the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre</a> of March 1770. According to the "propagandist interpretation"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197690–91-96">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197692–95-149">[143]</a> of Adams popularized by historian John Miller, Adams deliberately provoked the incident to promote his secret agenda of American independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1936276-150">[144]</a> According to Pauline Maier, however, "There is no evidence that he prompted the Boston Massacre riot".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198027-102">[97]</a> After the Boston Massacre, Adams and other town leaders met with Bernard's successor Governor <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)" title="Thomas Hutchinson (governor)">Thomas Hutchinson</a> and with Colonel <a href="/wiki/William_Dalrymple_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Dalrymple (general)">William Dalrymple</a>, the army commander, to demand the withdrawal of all occupational troops from Boston.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200282-151">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997105-152">[146]</a> The situation remained explosive, so Dalrymple agreed to remove both regiments to Castle William.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200282–84-153">[147]</a> Adams wanted the soldiers involved in the massacre to have a fair trial, because this would show that Boston was not controlled by a lawless mob, but was instead the victim of an unjust occupation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997107-154">[148]</a> He convinced his cousins <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Quincy_II" title="Josiah Quincy II">Josiah Quincy</a> to defend the soldiers, knowing that they would not slander Boston to gain an acquittal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200284–85-155">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997109–110-156">[150]</a> However, Adams wrote essays condemning the outcome of the trials; he thought that the soldiers should have been convicted of murder.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200294–95-157">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Quiet_period"">"Quiet period"</h3></div> After the Boston Massacre, politics in Massachusetts entered what is sometimes known as the "quiet period".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200293-158">[152]</a> In April 1770, Parliament repealed the Townshend duties, except for the tax on tea. Adams urged colonists to keep up the boycott of British goods, arguing that paying even one small tax allowed Parliament to establish the precedent of taxing the colonies, but the boycott faltered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200291-159">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997111-160">[154]</a> As economic conditions improved, support waned for Adams's causes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002105-161">[155]</a> In 1770, New York City and Philadelphia abandoned the non-importation boycott of British goods and Boston merchants faced the risk of being economically ruined, so they also agreed to end the boycott, effectively defeating Adams's cause in Massachusetts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200291-159">[153]</a> John Adams withdrew from politics, while John Hancock and James Otis appeared to become more moderate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200297,_99-162">[156]</a> In 1771, Samuel Adams ran for the position of Register of Deeds, but he was beaten by <a href="/wiki/Ezekiel_Goldthwait" title="Ezekiel Goldthwait">Ezekiel Goldthwait</a> by more than two to one.<a href="#cite_note-163">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[158]</a> He was re-elected to the Massachusetts House in April 1772, but he received far fewer votes than ever before.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002104-165">[159]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Governor_Samuel_Adams.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An older man, seated, with a hint of a smile. He has white hair and is wearing a dark suit. He is pointing to a document on a table." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Governor_Samuel_Adams.jpg/220px-Governor_Samuel_Adams.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Governor_Samuel_Adams.jpg/330px-Governor_Samuel_Adams.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Governor_Samuel_Adams.jpg 2x" data-file-width="385" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Samuel Adams as he looked in 1795 when he was Governor of Massachusetts. The original portrait was destroyed by fire; this is a <a href="/wiki/Mezzotint" title="Mezzotint">mezzotint</a> copy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865334-166">[160]</a></figcaption></figure> A struggle over the <a href="/wiki/Power_of_the_purse" title="Power of the purse">power of the purse</a> brought Adams back into the political limelight. Traditionally, the Massachusetts House of Representatives paid the salaries of the governor, lieutenant governor, and superior court judges. From the Whig perspective, this arrangement was an important <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">check on executive power</a>, keeping royally appointed officials accountable to democratically elected representatives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198022-167">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997117-168">[162]</a> In 1772, Massachusetts learned that those officials would henceforth be paid by the British government rather than by the province.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002106-169">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[g]</a> To protest this, Adams and his colleagues devised a system of <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee of correspondence">committees of correspondence</a> in November 1772; the towns of Massachusetts would consult with each other concerning political matters via messages sent through a network of committees that recorded British activities and protested imperial policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells186584-171">[164]</a> Committees of correspondence soon formed in other colonies, as well. Governor Hutchinson became concerned that the committees of correspondence were growing into an independence movement, so he convened the General Court in January 1773.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002111–112-172">[165]</a> Addressing the legislature, Hutchinson argued that denying the supremacy of Parliament, as some committees had done, came dangerously close to rebellion. "I know of no line that can be drawn", he said, "between the supreme authority of Parliament and the total independence of the colonies."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997120-173">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002112-174">[167]</a> Adams and the House responded that the Massachusetts Charter did not establish Parliament's supremacy over the province, and so Parliament could not claim that authority now.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002112–113-175">[168]</a> Hutchinson soon realized that he had made a major blunder by initiating a public debate about independence and the extent of Parliament's authority in the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002114-176">[169]</a> The Boston Committee of Correspondence published its statement of colonial rights, along with Hutchinson's exchange with the Massachusetts House, in the widely distributed "<a href="/wiki/Boston_Pamphlet" title="Boston Pamphlet">Boston Pamphlet</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997120-173">[166]</a> The quiet period in Massachusetts was over. Adams was easily re-elected to the Massachusetts House in May 1773, and was also elected as moderator of the Boston Town Meeting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002116-177">[170]</a> In June 1773, he introduced a <a href="/wiki/Hutchinson_letters_affair" title="Hutchinson letters affair">set of private letters</a> to the Massachusetts House, written by Hutchinson several years earlier. In one letter, Hutchinson recommended to London that there should be "an abridgement of what are called English liberties" in Massachusetts. Hutchinson denied that this is what he meant, but his career was effectively over in Massachusetts, and the House sent a petition asking the king to recall him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002118-178">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002119-179">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997121-180">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[h]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boston_Tea_Party">Boston Tea Party</h3></div> Adams took a leading role in the events that led up to the famous <a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Boston Tea Party</a> of December 16, 1773, although the precise nature of his involvement has been disputed. In May 1773, the British Parliament passed the <a href="/wiki/Tea_Act" title="Tea Act">Tea Act</a>, a tax law to help the struggling <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a>, one of Great Britain's most important commercial institutions. Britons could buy smuggled Dutch tea more cheaply than the East India Company's tea because of the heavy taxes imposed on tea imported into Great Britain, and so the company amassed a huge surplus of tea that it could not sell.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1987248–249-182">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979334-183">[175]</a> The British government's solution to the problem was to sell the surplus in the colonies. The Tea Act permitted the East India Company to export tea directly to the colonies for the first time, bypassing most of the merchants who had previously acted as middlemen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197967,_70-184">[176]</a> This measure was a threat to the American colonial economy because it granted the Tea Company a significant cost advantage over local tea merchants and even local tea smugglers, driving them out of business. The act also reduced the taxes on tea paid by the company in Britain, but kept the controversial Townshend duty on tea imported in the colonies. A few merchants in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charlestown</a> were selected to receive the company's tea for resale.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197975–76-185">[177]</a> In late 1773, seven ships were sent to the colonies carrying East India Company tea, including four bound for Boston.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197978–79-186">[178]</a> News of the Tea Act set off a firestorm of protest in the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120-187">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997122-188">[180]</a> This was not a dispute about high taxes; the price of legally imported tea was actually reduced by the Tea Act. Protesters were instead concerned with a variety of other issues. The familiar "<a href="/wiki/No_taxation_without_representation" title="No taxation without representation">no taxation without representation</a>" argument remained prominent, along with the question of the extent of Parliament's authority in the colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1987246-189">[181]</a> Some colonists worried that, by buying the cheaper tea, they would be conceding that Parliament had the right to tax them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120-187">[179]</a> The "power of the purse" conflict was still at issue. The tea tax revenues were to be used to pay the salaries of certain royal officials, making them independent of the people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197978,_106-190">[182]</a> Colonial smugglers played a significant role in the protests, since the Tea Act made legally imported tea cheaper, which threatened to put smugglers of Dutch tea out of business.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979102-191">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[i]</a> Legitimate tea importers who had not been named as consignees by the East India Company were also threatened with financial ruin by the Tea Act<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1987256-193">[184]</a> and other merchants worried about the precedent of a government-created monopoly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120-187">[179]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boston_Tea_Party_Currier_colored.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Two ships in a harbor, one in the distance. On board, men stripped to the waist and wearing feathers in their hair are throwing crates into the water. A large crowd, mostly men, is standing on the dock, waving hats and cheering. A few people wave their hats from windows in a nearby building." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Boston_Tea_Party_Currier_colored.jpg/220px-Boston_Tea_Party_Currier_colored.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Boston_Tea_Party_Currier_colored.jpg/330px-Boston_Tea_Party_Currier_colored.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Boston_Tea_Party_Currier_colored.jpg/440px-Boston_Tea_Party_Currier_colored.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1789" data-file-height="1091" /></a><figcaption>This iconic 1846 lithograph by <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Currier" title="Nathaniel Currier">Nathaniel Currier</a> was entitled "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase "Boston Tea Party" had not yet become standard.<a href="#cite_note-194">[185]</a></figcaption></figure> Adams and the correspondence committees promoted opposition to the Tea Act.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120–122-195">[186]</a> In every colony except Massachusetts, protesters were able to force the tea consignees to resign or to return the tea to England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197996–100-196">[187]</a> In Boston, however, Governor Hutchinson was determined to hold his ground. He convinced the tea consignees, two of whom were his sons, not to back down.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979104–105-197">[188]</a> The Boston Caucus and then the Town Meeting attempted to compel the consignees to resign, but they refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002121–122-198">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979109–112-199">[190]</a> With the tea ships about to arrive, Adams and the Boston Committee of Correspondence contacted nearby committees to rally support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002122–123-200">[191]</a> The tea ship Dartmouth[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] arrived in the Boston Harbor in late November, and Adams wrote a circular letter calling for a mass meeting to be held at Faneuil Hall on November 29. Thousands of people arrived, so many that the meeting was moved to the larger <a href="/wiki/Old_South_Meeting_House" title="Old South Meeting House">Old South Meeting House</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[192]</a> British law required the Dartmouth to unload and pay the duties within twenty days or customs officials could confiscate the cargo. The mass meeting passed a resolution introduced by Adams urging the captain of the Dartmouth to send the ship back without paying the import duty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002123–124-202">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls2006143-203">[194]</a> Meanwhile, the meeting assigned twenty-five men to watch the ship and prevent the tea from being unloaded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002123-204">[195]</a> Governor Hutchinson refused to grant permission for the Dartmouth to leave without paying the duty. Two more tea ships arrived in Boston Harbor, the Eleanor and the Beaver. The fourth ship, the William, was stranded near Cape Cod and never arrived in Boston. December 16 was the last day of the Dartmouth's deadline, and about 7,000 people gathered around the Old South Meeting House.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002125-205">[196]</a> Adams received a report that Governor Hutchinson had again refused to let the ships leave, and he announced, "This meeting can do nothing further to save the country."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865122–123-206">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1936294-207">[198]</a> According to a popular story, Adams's statement was a prearranged signal for the "tea party" to begin. However, this claim did not appear in print until nearly a century after the event, in a biography of Adams written by his great-grandson, who apparently misinterpreted the evidence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200453-208">[199]</a> According to eyewitness accounts, people did not leave the meeting until ten or fifteen minutes after Adams's alleged "signal", and Adams in fact tried to stop people from leaving because the meeting was not yet over.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198027,_28–32-209">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200453-208">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[j]</a> While Adams tried to reassert control of the meeting, people poured out of the Old South Meeting House and headed to Boston Harbor. That evening, a group of 30 to 130 men boarded the three vessels, some of them thinly disguised as <a href="/wiki/Mohawk_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohawk nation">Mohawk Indians</a>, and dumped all 342 chests of tea into the water over the course of three hours.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002125–126-211">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979141–144-212">[202]</a> Adams never revealed whether he went to the wharf to witness the destruction of the tea. Whether or not he helped plan the event is unknown, but Adams immediately worked to publicize and defend it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002126-213">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997124-214">[204]</a> He argued that the Tea Party was not the act of a lawless mob, but was instead a principled protest and the only remaining option that the people had to defend their constitutional rights.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002129-215">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Revolution">Revolution</h2></div> Great Britain responded to the Boston Tea Party in 1774 with the <a href="/wiki/Intolerable_Acts" title="Intolerable Acts">Coercive Acts</a>. The first of these acts was the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Port_Act" title="Boston Port Act">Boston Port Act</a>, which closed Boston's commerce until the East India Company had been repaid for the destroyed tea. The <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Government_Act" title="Massachusetts Government Act">Massachusetts Government Act</a> rewrote the Massachusetts Charter, making many officials royally appointed rather than elected, and severely restricting the activities of town meetings. The <a href="/wiki/Administration_of_Justice_Act_1774" title="Administration of Justice Act 1774">Administration of Justice Act</a> allowed colonists charged with crimes to be transported to another colony or to Great Britain for trial. A new royal governor was appointed to enforce the acts: General <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gage" title="Thomas Gage">Thomas Gage</a>, who was also commander of British military forces in North America.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002130–133-216">[206]</a> Adams worked to coordinate resistance to the Coercive Acts. In May 1774, the Boston Town Meeting (with Adams serving as moderator) organized an economic boycott of British goods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002131–132-217">[207]</a> In June, Adams headed a committee in the Massachusetts House—with the doors locked to prevent Gage from dissolving the legislature—which proposed that an inter-colonial congress meet in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> in September. He was one of five delegates chosen to attend the <a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002135–136-218">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997130-219">[209]</a> Adams was never fashionably dressed and had little money, so friends bought him new clothes and paid his expenses for the journey to Philadelphia, his first trip outside of Massachusetts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002137-220">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198033–34-221">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997130–131-222">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Continental_Congress">First Continental Congress</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Adams_by_Paul_Revere_1774.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Samuel_Adams_by_Paul_Revere_1774.jpeg/220px-Samuel_Adams_by_Paul_Revere_1774.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Samuel_Adams_by_Paul_Revere_1774.jpeg/330px-Samuel_Adams_by_Paul_Revere_1774.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Samuel_Adams_by_Paul_Revere_1774.jpeg/440px-Samuel_Adams_by_Paul_Revere_1774.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Adams as portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Revere" title="Paul Revere">Paul Revere</a>, 1774. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Art_Gallery" title="Yale University Art Gallery">Yale University Art Gallery</a>.</figcaption></figure> In Philadelphia, Adams promoted colonial unity while using his political skills to lobby other delegates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002139-223">[213]</a> On September 16, messenger <a href="/wiki/Paul_Revere" title="Paul Revere">Paul Revere</a> brought Congress the <a href="/wiki/Suffolk_Resolves" title="Suffolk Resolves">Suffolk Resolves</a>, one of many resolutions passed in Massachusetts that promised strident resistance to the Coercive Acts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002139–140-224">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997130–133-225">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael2004298-226">[216]</a> Congress endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, issued a <a href="/wiki/Declaration_and_Resolves_of_the_First_Continental_Congress" title="Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress">Declaration of Rights</a> that denied Parliament's right to legislate for the colonies, and organized a colonial boycott known as the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002140-227">[217]</a> Adams returned to Massachusetts in November 1774, where he served in the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Provincial_Congress" title="Massachusetts Provincial Congress">Massachusetts Provincial Congress</a>, an extralegal legislative body independent of British control. The Provincial Congress created the first <a href="/wiki/Minutemen" title="Minutemen">minutemen</a> companies, consisting of militiamen who were to be ready for action on a moment's notice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002143-228">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997134-229">[219]</a> Adams also served as moderator of the Boston Town Meeting, which convened despite the Massachusetts Government Act, and was appointed to the Committee of Inspection to enforce the Continental Association.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002143-228">[218]</a> He was also selected to attend the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a>, scheduled to meet in Philadelphia in May 1775. John Hancock had been added to the delegation, and he and Adams attended the Provincial Congress in <a href="/wiki/Concord,_Massachusetts" title="Concord, Massachusetts">Concord, Massachusetts</a>, before Adams's journey to the second Congress. The two men decided that it was not safe to return to Boston before leaving for Philadelphia, so they stayed at <a href="/wiki/Hancock-Clarke_House" class="mw-redirect" title="Hancock-Clarke House">Hancock's childhood home</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lexington,_Massachusetts" title="Lexington, Massachusetts">Lexington</a>.<a href="#cite_note-230">[220]</a> On April 14, 1775, General Gage received a letter from <a href="/wiki/William_Legge,_2nd_Earl_of_Dartmouth" title="William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth">Lord Dartmouth</a> advising him "to arrest the principal actors and abettors in the Provincial Congress whose proceedings appear in every light to be acts of treason and rebellion".<a href="#cite_note-231">[221]</a> On the night of April 18, Gage sent out a detachment of soldiers on the fateful mission that sparked the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>. The purpose of the British expedition was to seize and destroy military supplies that the colonists had stored in Concord. According to many historical accounts, Gage also instructed his men to arrest Hancock and Adams, but the written orders issued by Gage made no mention of arresting the Patriot leaders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002146-232">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[223]</a> Gage had evidently decided against seizing Adams and Hancock, but Patriots initially believed otherwise, perhaps influenced by London newspapers that reached Boston with the news that the patriot leader would be hanged if he were caught.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgan200511-234">[224]</a> From Boston, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Warren" title="Joseph Warren">Joseph Warren</a> dispatched Paul Revere to warn the two that British troops were on the move and might attempt to arrest them.<a href="#cite_note-235">[225]</a> As Hancock and Adams made their escape, the first shots of the war began at <a href="/wiki/Battles_of_Lexington_and_Concord" title="Battles of Lexington and Concord">Lexington and Concord</a>. Soon after the battle, Gage issued a proclamation granting a general pardon to all who would "lay down their arms, and return to the duties of peaceable subjects"—with the exceptions of Hancock and Samuel Adams.<a href="#cite_note-236">[226]</a> Singling out Hancock and Adams in this manner only added to their renown among Patriots and, according to Patriot historian <a href="/wiki/Mercy_Otis_Warren" title="Mercy Otis Warren">Mercy Otis Warren</a>, perhaps exaggerated the importance of the two men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198017-237">[227]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200462–63-238">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Continental_Congress">Second Continental Congress</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Declaration_of_Independence_(1819),_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="About 50 men, most of them seated, are in a large meeting room. Most are focused on the five men standing in the center of the room. The tallest of the five is laying a document on a table." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/240px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/360px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg/480px-Declaration_of_Independence_%281819%29%2C_by_John_Trumbull.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1970" /></a><figcaption>In <a href="/wiki/John_Trumbull" title="John Trumbull">John Trumbull</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(Trumbull)" class="mw-redirect" title="Declaration of Independence (Trumbull)">Declaration of Independence</a>, Adams is seated to the viewer's right of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a>, whose legs are crossed in the front row.<a href="#cite_note-239">[229]</a></figcaption></figure> The Continental Congress worked under a secrecy rule, so Adams's precise role in congressional deliberations is not fully documented. He appears to have had a major influence, working behind the scenes as a sort of "<a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_whip" class="mw-redirect" title="Parliamentary whip">parliamentary whip</a>"<a href="#cite_note-240">[230]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> credits Samuel Adams—the lesser-remembered Adams—with steering the Congress toward independence, saying, "If there was any <a href="/wiki/Palinurus" title="Palinurus">Palinurus</a> to the Revolution, Samuel Adams was the man."<a href="#cite_note-241">[231]</a> He served on numerous committees, often dealing with military matters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002150-242">[232]</a> Among his more noted acts, Adams nominated George Washington to be commander in chief over the Continental Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2010186-243">[233]</a> Adams was a cautious advocate for a declaration of independence, urging eager correspondents back in Massachusetts to wait for more moderate colonists to come around to supporting separation from Great Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198026-244">[234]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002151-245">[235]</a> He was pleased in 1775 when the colonies began to replace their old governments with independent <a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republican</a> governments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002152–153-246">[236]</a> He praised <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>'s popular pamphlet <a href="/wiki/Common_Sense_(pamphlet)" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Sense (pamphlet)">Common Sense</a>, writing as "Candidus" in early 1776, and supported the call for American independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002153-247">[237]</a> On June 7, Adams's political ally <a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a> introduced a <a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">three-part resolution</a> calling for Congress to declare independence, create a colonial confederation, and seek foreign aid. After a delay to rally support, Congress approved the language of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a> on July 4, 1776, which Adams signed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier19805-248">[238]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002154–155-249">[239]</a> When he returned to Congress, they continued to manage the war effort. Adams served on military committees, including an appointment to the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_War" title="Board of War">Board of War</a> in 1777.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002157-250">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865468-251">[241]</a> He advocated paying bonuses to <a href="/wiki/Continental_Army" title="Continental Army">Continental Army</a> soldiers to encourage them to reenlist for the duration of the war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002158–159-252">[242]</a> He called for harsh state legislation to punish <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a>, writing that their "secret Machinations" posed "a greater threat to the glorious cause than the British military did." In Massachusetts, more than 300 Loyalists were banished and their property confiscated by the state government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002161–162-253">[243]</a> After the war, Adams opposed allowing Loyalists to return to Massachusetts, fearing that they would work to undermine republican government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002193–194-254">[244]</a> Adams was the Massachusetts delegate appointed to the committee to draft the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>, the plan for the colonial confederation. With its emphasis on state sovereignty, the Articles reflected Congress's wariness of a strong central government, a concern shared by Adams. Like others at the time, Adams considered himself a citizen of the United States while continuing to refer to Massachusetts as his "country".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002162–163,_197-255">[245]</a> After much debate, the Articles were sent to the states for ratification in November 1777. From Philadelphia, Adams urged Massachusetts to ratify, which it did. Adams signed the Articles of Confederation with the other Massachusetts delegates in 1778, but they were not ratified by all the states until 1781. Adams returned to Boston in 1779 to attend a state constitutional convention. The Massachusetts General Court had proposed a new constitution the previous year, but voters rejected it, and so a convention was held to try again. Adams was appointed to a three-man drafting committee with his cousin <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Bowdoin" title="James Bowdoin">James Bowdoin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002181-256">[246]</a> They drafted the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts Constitution">Massachusetts Constitution</a>, which was amended by the convention and approved by voters in 1780. The new constitution established a republican form of government, with annual elections and a <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>. It reflected Adams's belief that "a state is never free except when each citizen is bound by no law whatever that he has not approved of, either directly, or through his representatives".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002184-257">[247]</a> By modern standards, the new constitution was not "<a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a>"; Adams, like most of his peers, believed that only free males who owned property should be allowed to vote, and that the senate and the governor served to balance any excesses that might result from majority rule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002183–185-258">[248]</a> In 1781, Adams retired from the Continental Congress. His health was one reason; he was approaching his sixtieth birthday and suffered from <a href="/wiki/Essential_tremor" title="Essential tremor">tremors</a> that made writing difficult.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002167-259">[249]</a> But he also wanted to return to Massachusetts to influence politics in the Commonwealth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002188-260">[250]</a> He returned to Boston in 1781, and never left Massachusetts again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002170–171-261">[251]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Move_to_Dedham">Move to Dedham</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Dedham,_Massachusetts_in_the_American_Revolution" title="Dedham, Massachusetts in the American Revolution">Dedham, Massachusetts in the American Revolution</a></div> During the Revolution, Adams returned to Massachusetts from the Continental Congress for a two-month break.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308-262">[252]</a> He found his home on Purchase Street had been destroyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308-262">[252]</a> The windowpanes were etched with insults and caricatures were drawn on the walls.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308-262">[252]</a> His garden was trampled, the outbuildings knocked down, and the house was robbed of all its furnishings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308-262">[252]</a> Adams was unable to fix the house, so he moved his family to <a href="/wiki/Dedham,_Massachusetts" title="Dedham, Massachusetts">Dedham</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308-262">[252]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Return_to_Massachusetts">Return to Massachusetts</h2></div> Adams remained active in politics upon his return to Massachusetts. He lived in a run down house on Winter Street in Boston that had been confiscated from its Loyalist owner.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiff2022318-263">[253]</a> He frequently served as moderator of the Boston Town Meeting, and was elected to the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Senate" title="Massachusetts Senate">state senate</a>, where he often served as that body's <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Massachusetts_Senate" title="President of the Massachusetts Senate">president</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002189-264">[254]</a> Adams focused his political agenda on promoting virtue, which he considered essential in a republican government. If republican leaders lacked virtue, he believed, liberty was endangered. His major opponent in this campaign was his former protégé John Hancock; the two men had a falling out in the Continental Congress. Adams disapproved of what he viewed as Hancock's vanity and extravagance, which Adams believed were inappropriate in a republican leader. When Hancock left Congress in 1777, Adams and the other Massachusetts delegates voted against thanking him for his service as president of Congress.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002178-265">[255]</a> The struggle continued in Massachusetts. Adams thought that Hancock was not acting the part of a virtuous republican leader by acting like an aristocrat and courting popularity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002178-265">[255]</a> Adams favored <a href="/wiki/James_Bowdoin" title="James Bowdoin">James Bowdoin</a> for governor, and was distressed when Hancock won annual landslide victories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002186–189-266">[256]</a> Adams's promotion of public virtue took several forms. He played a major role in getting Boston to provide a free public education for children, even for girls, which was controversial.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002192-267">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002193-268">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002194-269">[259]</a> Adams was one of the charter members of the <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a> in 1780.<a href="#cite_note-AAAS-270">[260]</a> After the Revolutionary War, Adams joined others, including Thomas Jefferson, in denouncing the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_Cincinnati" title="Society of the Cincinnati">Society of the Cincinnati</a>, an organization of former army officers. Adams worried that the Society was "a stride towards an hereditary military nobility", and thus a threat to republicanism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002196-271">[261]</a> Adams also believed that public theaters undermined civic virtue, and he joined an ultimately unsuccessful effort to keep theaters banned in Boston.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002193-268">[258]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885404-272">[262]</a> Decades after Adams's death, orator <a href="/wiki/Edward_Everett" title="Edward Everett">Edward Everett</a> called him "the last of the Puritans".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198047quoting_Everett's_1835_"Battle_of_Lexington"_oration-273">[263]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:33%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> I firmly believe that the benevolent Creator designed the republican Form of Government for Man. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Samuel Adams, April 14, 1785<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198044-274">[264]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECushing1908314-275">[265]</a></cite></div> </div> Postwar economic troubles in western Massachusetts led to an uprising known as <a href="/wiki/Shays%27_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Shays' Rebellion">Shays' Rebellion</a>, which began in 1786. Small farmers, angered by high taxes and debts, armed themselves and shut down debtor courts in Worcester and Hampshire Counties, prompting Governor <a href="/wiki/James_Bowdoin" title="James Bowdoin">James Bowdoin</a> to consult Adams first. Adams at a Boston town meeting oversaw the drafting of a circular letter that denounced these actions as unconstitutional and as acts treason.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002202-276">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPencak198964-277">[267]</a> As Massachusetts' senator representing Boston, Adams played an important role in forming Governor Bowdoin's hard-line policy to suppress the rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPencak198964-277">[267]</a> His old political ally <a href="/wiki/James_Warren_(politician)" title="James Warren (politician)">James Warren</a> thought that Adams had forsaken his principles, but Adams saw no contradiction. He approved of rebellion against an unrepresentative government, as had happened during the American Revolution, but he opposed taking up arms against a republican government, composed of fellow American citizens, where problems should be remedied through elections. He thought that the leaders of Shays's Rebellion should be hanged, reportedly saying that "the man who dares to rebel against the laws of a republic ought to suffer death", and urged Governor Bowdoin to use military force, who obliged and sent four thousand militiamen to put down the uprising.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198030–31-278">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002202–203-279">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPencak198964-277">[267]</a> Shays's Rebellion contributed to the belief that the Articles of Confederation needed to be revised. In 1787, delegates to the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia Convention">Philadelphia Convention</a>, instead of revising the Articles, created a new <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> with a much stronger national government. The Constitution was sent to the states for ratification, when Adams expressed his displeasure. "I confess," he wrote to Richard Henry Lee on Boston December 3, 1787, "as I enter the Building I stumble at the Threshold. I meet with a National Government, instead of a Federal Union of States."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECushing1907323-280">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002203-281">[271]</a> Adams was one of those derisively labeled <a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalism" title="Anti-Federalism">"Anti-Federalists"</a> by proponents of the new Constitution, who called themselves "Federalists".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002203–204-282">[272]</a> Adams was elected to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Massachusetts_ratifying_convention&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Massachusetts ratifying convention (page does not exist)">Massachusetts ratifying convention</a> which met in January 1788. Despite his reservations, Adams rarely spoke at the convention, and listened carefully to the arguments rather than raising objections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002205–206-283">[273]</a> Adams and John Hancock had reconciled, and they finally agreed to give their support for the Constitution, with the proviso that some amendments be added later.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865260–261-284">[274]</a> Even with the support of Hancock and Adams, the Massachusetts convention narrowly ratified the Constitution by a vote of 187 to 168.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002207-285">[275]</a> While Adams was attending the ratifying convention, his only son Samuel Adams, Jr. died at just 37 years of age. The younger Adams had served as surgeon in the Revolutionary War, but had fallen ill and never fully recovered. The death was a stunning blow to the elder Adams.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865255-286">[276]</a> The younger Adams left his father the certificates that he had earned as a soldier, giving Adams and his wife unexpected financial security in their final years. Investments in land made them relatively wealthy by the mid-1790s, but this did not alter their frugal lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002209,_219-287">[277]</a> Adams was concerned about the new Constitution and made an attempt to re-enter national politics. He allowed his name to be put forth as a candidate for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> in the December 1788 election, but lost to <a href="/wiki/Fisher_Ames" title="Fisher Ames">Fisher Ames</a>, apparently because Ames was a stronger supporter of the Constitution, a more popular position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002214–215-288">[278]</a> Adams belonged to the school of revolutionary crusaders, whose purpose and influence became obscured by 1776 and all but disappeared by war's end. By the late 1780s Adams appeared to be an aging politician whose glory days were obscured by present-day constitutional issues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPencak198963-289">[279]</a> Ames, however, belonged to the group of constructive statesmen who built up out of the wreck of revolution and strived to bring the young nation into a rapidly changing world by establishing a strong federal constitution. During this time the newspapers outlined the stark contrast in politics between Adams and Ames in their pages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPencak198963-289">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlow1923343–344-290">[280]</a> Despite his defeat, Adams continued to work for amendments to the Constitution, a movement that ultimately resulted in the addition of a <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> in 1791.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002210–211-291">[281]</a> Adams subsequently became a firm supporter of the Constitution, with these amendments and the possibility of more.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002214–215-288">[278]</a> In 1789, Adams was elected <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts#Lieutenant_Governor" title="Governor of Massachusetts">Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts</a> and served in that office until Governor Hancock's death in 1793, when he became acting governor. The next year, Adams was elected as governor in his own right, the first of four annual terms. He was generally regarded as the leader of his state's <a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Jeffersonian Republicans</a>, who were opposed to the <a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a>. Unlike some other Republicans, Adams supported the suppression of the <a href="/wiki/Whiskey_Rebellion" title="Whiskey Rebellion">Whiskey Rebellion</a> in 1794 for the same reasons that he had opposed Shays's Rebellion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002213–214-292">[282]</a> Like his fellow Republicans, he spoke out against the <a href="/wiki/Jay_Treaty" title="Jay Treaty">Jay Treaty</a> in 1796, a position that drew criticism in a state that was increasingly Federalist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002217-293">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls2006227-294">[284]</a> In that year's <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">U. S. presidential election</a>, Republicans in Virginia cast 15 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">electoral votes</a> for Adams in an effort to make him Jefferson's vice-president,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885409-295">[285]</a> but Federalist John Adams won the election, with Jefferson becoming vice-president. The Adams cousins remained friends, but Samuel was pleased when Jefferson defeated John Adams in the 1800 presidential election.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002219-296">[286]</a> Samuel Adams took a cue from President Washington, who declined to run for reelection in 1796: he retired from politics at the end of his term as governor in 1797.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002218-297">[287]</a> Adams suffered from what is now believed to have been <a href="/wiki/Essential_tremor" title="Essential tremor">essential tremor</a>, a movement disorder that rendered him unable to write in the final decade of his life.<a href="#cite_note-298">[288]</a> He died at the age of 81 on October 2, 1803, and was interred at the <a href="/wiki/Granary_Burying_Ground" title="Granary Burying Ground">Granary Burying Ground</a> in Boston.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885416–417-299">[289]</a> Boston's Republican newspaper the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Chronicle" title="Independent Chronicle">Independent Chronicle</a> eulogized him as the "Father of the American Revolution".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002221-300">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Adams_resting_place_(36133).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A rectangular, rough-hewn block of stone on the ground. There is a walkway in the foreground, grass and trees in the background. A weathered plaque on the stone reads: "Samuel Adams, Signer of the Declaration of Independence, Governor of this Commonwealth, A Leader of Men and an ardent Patriot."" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Samuel_Adams_resting_place_%2836133%29.jpg/220px-Samuel_Adams_resting_place_%2836133%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Samuel_Adams_resting_place_%2836133%29.jpg/330px-Samuel_Adams_resting_place_%2836133%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Samuel_Adams_resting_place_%2836133%29.jpg/440px-Samuel_Adams_resting_place_%2836133%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="3126" /></a><figcaption>Samuel Adams grave marker in the <a href="/wiki/Granary_Burying_Ground" title="Granary Burying Ground">Granary Burying Ground</a></figcaption></figure> Samuel Adams is a controversial figure in American history. Disagreement about his significance and reputation began before his death and continues to the present.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier19807–8-301">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197682-302">[292]</a> Adams's contemporaries, both friends and foes, regarded him as one of the foremost leaders of the American Revolution. Thomas Jefferson, for example, characterized Adams as "truly the Man of the Revolution."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier19805-248">[238]</a> Leaders in other colonies were compared to him; <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Harnett" title="Cornelius Harnett">Cornelius Harnett</a> was called the "Samuel Adams of North Carolina", <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson" title="Charles Thomson">Charles Thomson</a> the "Samuel Adams of Philadelphia",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier19803-303">[293]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Gadsden" title="Christopher Gadsden">Christopher Gadsden</a> the "Sam Adams of the South".<a href="#cite_note-304">[294]</a> When John Adams traveled to France during the Revolution, he had to explain that he was not Samuel, "the famous Adams".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier19803-303">[293]</a> Supporters of the Revolution praised Adams, but Loyalists viewed him as a sinister figure. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Oliver_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Oliver (jurist)">Peter Oliver</a>, the exiled chief justice of Massachusetts, characterized him as a devious <a href="/wiki/Machiavelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Machiavelli">Machiavellian</a> with a "cloven Foot".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197682-302">[292]</a> Thomas Hutchinson, Adams's political foe, took his revenge in his History of Massachusetts Bay, in which he denounced him as a dishonest character assassin, emphasizing his failures as a businessman and tax collector. This hostile "Tory interpretation" of Adams was revived in the 20th century by historian Clifford K. Shipton in the Sibley's Harvard Graduates reference series.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197683–84-305">[295]</a> Shipton wrote positive portraits of Hutchinson and Oliver and scathing sketches of Adams and Hancock; his entry on Adams was characterized by historian <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Maier" title="Pauline Maier">Pauline Maier</a> as "forty-five pages of contempt".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198011-306">[296]</a> Whig historians challenged the "Tory interpretation" of Adams. William Gordon and <a href="/wiki/Mercy_Otis_Warren" title="Mercy Otis Warren">Mercy Otis Warren</a>, two historians who knew Adams, wrote of him as a man selflessly dedicated to the American Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197684–85-307">[297]</a> But in the early 19th century, Adams was often viewed as an old-fashioned Puritan, and was consequently neglected by historians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier19806–7-308">[298]</a> Interest in Adams was revived in the mid-19th century. Historian <a href="/wiki/George_Bancroft" title="George Bancroft">George Bancroft</a> portrayed him favorably in his monumental History of the United States from the Discovery of the American Continent (1852). The first full biography of Adams appeared in 1865, a three-volume work written by William Wells, his great-grandson.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier19806–7-308">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197685–86-309">[299]</a> The Wells biography is still valuable for its wealth of information,<a href="#cite_note-ANB-38">[37]</a> although Whig portrayals of Adams were uncritically pro-American and had elements of <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiography</a>, a view that influenced some later biographies written for general audiences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197685,_92-310">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002229–230-311">[301]</a> Adams' writings include letters and essays, many of which were published in colonial newspapers like the Boston Gazette. These works were collected, edited and published in a four-volume work (1906–08) edited by Harry A. Cushing. In the preface of this work, Cushing asserts that, "The writings of no one of the leaders of the American Revolution form a more complete expression of the causes and justification of that movement than do those of Samuel Adams.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECushing1904v–viii-312">[302]</a> In the late 19th century, many American historians were uncomfortable with contemporary revolutions and found it problematic to write approvingly about Adams. Relations had improved between the United States and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom</a>, and Adams's role in dividing Americans from Britons was increasingly viewed with regret.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198014-313">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197686-314">[304]</a> In 1885, James Hosmer wrote a biography that praised Adams, but also found some of his actions troubling, such as the 1773 publication of Hutchinson's private letters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier19809-315">[305]</a> Subsequent biographers became increasingly hostile towards Adams and the common people whom he represented. In 1923, Ralph V. Harlow used a "<a href="/wiki/Freudian" class="mw-redirect" title="Freudian">Freudian</a>" approach to characterize Adams as a "neurotic crank" driven by an "inferiority complex".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198010–11-316">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197691-97">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-318">[k]</a> Harlow argued that, because the masses were easily misled, Adams "manufactured public opinion" to produce the Revolution, a view that became the thesis of John C. Miller's 1936 biography Sam Adams: Pioneer in Propaganda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198011-306">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197691-97">[93]</a> Miller portrayed Adams more as an incendiary revolutionary than an adroit political operative, attributing to this one man all the acts of Boston's "body of the people", and consistently calling his subject "Sam", despite the fact that Adams was almost always known as "Samuel" in his lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-ANB-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200458–59-319">[308]</a> Miller's influential book became, in the words of historian Charles Akers, the "scholarly enshrinement" of "the myth of Sam Adams as the Boston dictator who almost single-handedly led his colony into rebellion". According to Akers, Miller and other historians used "Sam did it" to explain crowd actions and other developments, without citing any evidence that Adams directed those events.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkers1974121–122-320">[309]</a> In 1974, Akers called on historians to critically re-examine the sources rather than simply repeating the myth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkers1974130-321">[310]</a> By then, scholars were increasingly rejecting the notion that Adams and others used "propaganda" to incite "ignorant mobs", and were instead portraying a revolutionary Massachusetts too complex to have been controlled by one man.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197693-322">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197694–95-323">[312]</a> Historian <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Maier" title="Pauline Maier">Pauline Maier</a> argued that Adams, far from being a radical mob leader, took a moderate position based on the English revolutionary tradition that imposed strict constraints on resistance to authority. That belief justified force only against threats to the constitutional rights so grave that the "body of the people" recognized the danger, and only after all peaceful means of redress had failed. Within that revolutionary tradition, resistance was essentially conservative. In 2004, <a href="/wiki/Ray_Raphael" title="Ray Raphael">Ray Raphael</a>'s Founding Myths continued Maier's line by deconstructing several of the "Sam" Adams myths that are still repeated in many textbooks and popular histories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200445–63-324">[313]</a> Samuel Adams's name has been used by commercial and non-profit ventures since his death. The <a href="/wiki/Boston_Beer_Company" title="Boston Beer Company">Boston Beer Company</a> created <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams_Boston_Lager" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Adams Boston Lager">Samuel Adams Boston Lager</a> in 1985, drawing upon the tradition that Adams had been a brewer; it became a popular award-winning brand.<a href="#cite_note-325">[314]</a> Adams's name is also used by a pair of non-profit organizations, the <a href="/wiki/Sam_Adams_Alliance" title="Sam Adams Alliance">Sam Adams Alliance</a> and the Sam Adams Foundation. These groups take their names from Adams in homage to his ability to organize citizens at the local level to achieve a national goal.<a href="#cite_note-326">[315]</a> In her 2022 biography of Adams, <a href="/wiki/Stacy_Schiff" title="Stacy Schiff">Stacy Schiff</a> writes that Adams "operated by stealth, melting into committees and crowd actions, pseudonyms and smoky back rooms."<a href="#cite_note-327">[316]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Family">Family</h2></div> In 1749, Samuel Adams married Elizabeth Checkley, with whom he had six children, two of whom lived to adulthood: Samuel (born 1751) and Hannah (born 1756). Of these two, only Hannah married and had children, and all of Samuel Adams' known descendants are through her. In 1764, Adams married his second wife, Elizabeth Wells. They had no children. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/28px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/41px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/55px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_American_publishers_and_printers" title="Early American publishers and printers">Early American publishers and printers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> The Caucus originally met at <a href="/wiki/Faneuil_Hall" title="Faneuil Hall">Faneuil Hall</a> in Boston, where Adams had made several public speeches advocating independence, and arranged for its relocation to Philadelphia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier197617-17">[17]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Stoll, 2008 in Samuel Adams, notes that <a href="/wiki/Jim_Koch" title="Jim Koch">Jim Koch</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Beer_Company" title="Boston Beer Company">Boston Beer Company</a>, reports having been offered for purchase a receipt for <a href="/wiki/Hops" title="Hops">hops</a> signed by Adams, which indicates that Adams was a brewer, not just a maltster.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll2008275,_n_16-43">[42]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Other assumed names include, “A Chatterer,”, "Alfred",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198023-72">[70]</a> "A Tory", "Valerius Poplicola".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECushing190662,_70,_89,_etc-73">[71]</a> “A Freeholder", "A Puritan", “An American”,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200211,_53,_226-74">[72]</a> "Determinus".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier199122-75">[73]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> Not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Journal-American" title="New York Journal-American">New York Journal-American</a> founded in 1882. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Fowler believes that Adams must have known about the attack on Hutchinson's home in advance, though he concedes that there are no records that link him to the incident.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199766-100">[96]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> In London, the petition to the king was published, along with other documents, by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hollis_(1720%E2%80%931774)" title="Thomas Hollis (1720–1774)">Thomas Hollis</a> under the title "The True Sentiments of America".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885109-120">[115]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Adams and others had previously suspected that Hutchinson's salary was being paid by the Crown; this had been unconfirmed until this development".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002106-169">[163]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Hutchinson maintained that he was predicting a curtailment of liberty, rather than recommending it; for the modern scholarly analysis of the letters affair, see Bernard Bailyn, The Ordeal of Thomas Hutchinson (Cambridge, 1974). </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> See also: John W. Tyler, Smugglers & Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution (Boston, 1986) (in Further reading section) </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> For firsthand accounts that contradict the story that Adams gave the signal for the tea party, see L. F. S. Upton, ed., "Proceeding of Ye Body Respecting the Tea", William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, 22 (1965), 297–98; Francis S. Drake, Tea Leaves: Being a Collection of Letters and Documents, (Boston, 1884), LXX; Boston Evening Post, December 20, 1773; Boston Gazette, December 20, 1773; Massachusetts Gazette and Boston Weekly News-Letter, December 23, 1773. </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> See Harlow, 1923:Samuel Adams, Promoter of the American Revolution: A Study in Psychology and Politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlow1923title_page-317">[307]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002103-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002103_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002136-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002136_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198041-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198041_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198042-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198042_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-Bernstein2001-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Bernstein2001_5-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBernstein2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Bernstein" title="Richard B. Bernstein">Bernstein, Richard B.</a> (2011) [2009]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foundingfathersr0000bern/page/176/mode/2up">"Appendix: The Founding Fathers: A Partial List"</a>. The Founding Fathers Reconsidered. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983257-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983257-6"><bdi>978-0-19-983257-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Appendix%3A+The+Founding+Fathers%3A+A+Partial+List&rft.btitle=The+Founding+Fathers+Reconsidered&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-983257-6&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Richard+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffoundingfathersr0000bern%2Fpage%2F176%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200615–16-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuls200615–16_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuls2006">Puls 2006</a>, pp. 15–16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199716-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199716_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer188514-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosmer188514_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHosmer1885">Hosmer 1885</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander20021-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander20021_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander20021_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander20021_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander20021_9-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler19974-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler19974_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200622-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuls200622_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuls2006">Puls 2006</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200621-12"><a 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href="#CITEREFMaier1976">Maier 1976</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler19978-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler19978_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller19367–8-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller19367–8_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1936">Miller 1936</a>, pp. 7–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls200623-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuls200623_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuls200623_21-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuls2006">Puls 2006</a>, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199711-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199711_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199710–11-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199710–11_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, pp. 10–11. </li> <li 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200224–25_91-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 24–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200225-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200225_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller193653-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller193653_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller193653_93-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1936">Miller 1936</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200248-94"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200248_94-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 48. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200226-95"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200226_95-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197690–91-96">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197690–91_96-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197690–91_96-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Toole1976">O'Toole 1976</a>, pp. 90–91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197691-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197691_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197691_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197691_97-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Toole1976">O'Toole 1976</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200226–27-98"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200226–27_98-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200451–52-99"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael200451–52_99-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael2004">Raphael 2004</a>, pp. 51–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199766-100">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199766_100-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199766_100-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198027-102">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198027_102-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198027_102-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200228-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200228_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200229-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200229_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200229_104-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198026–28-105"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198026–28_105-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, pp. 26–28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200230-106"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200230_106-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200232–33-107"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200232–33_107-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 32–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200233-108"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200233_108-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200237Puls200662-109"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200237Puls200662_109-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 37; <a href="#CITEREFPuls2006">Puls 2006</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865112-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1865112_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1865">Wells 1865</a>, p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200240-111"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200240_111-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200241-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200241_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200244–45-113"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200244–45_113-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 44–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199773-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199773_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 73. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Nobles, "Old Republicans", 269. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200239-116"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200239_116-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200250-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200250_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200250_117-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200249–50-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200249–50_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 49–50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200251-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200251_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200251_119-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200251_119-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 51. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885109-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885109_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885109_120-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHosmer1885">Hosmer 1885</a>, p. 109. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200252-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200252_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200252_122-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199778-123"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199778_123-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199778–80-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199778–80_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, pp. 78–80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200254-125"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200254_125-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199782-126">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199782_126-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199782_126-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199782_126-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200255-127">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200255_127-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200255_127-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200257-128">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200257_128-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200257_128-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200257–60-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200257–60_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 57–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199781-130"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199781_130-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200259–60-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200259–60_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 59–60. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200261–62-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200261–62_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 61–62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200262–63-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200262–63_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 62–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200263-134"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200263_134-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199788-135">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199788_135-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199788_135-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 88. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200265-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200265_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865207-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1865207_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1865">Wells 1865</a>, p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885119–120-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885119–120_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHosmer1885">Hosmer 1885</a>, pp. 119–120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200264–65-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200264–65_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 64–65. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBecker192895–101-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBecker192895–101_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBecker1928">Becker 1928</a>, pp. 95–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200447,_55-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael200447,_55_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael2004">Raphael 2004</a>, p. 47, 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198015,_25-142"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198015,_25_142-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 15, 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198021–25-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198021–25_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, pp. 21–25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeach1965171–172-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeach1965171–172_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeach1965">Beach 1965</a>, pp. 171–172. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200267-145"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200267_145-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 67. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199790–92-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler199790–92_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 90–92. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200268–69-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200268–69_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 68–69. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200274-148">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200274_148-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200274_148-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197692–95-149"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEO'Toole197692–95_149-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Toole1976">O'Toole 1976</a>, p. 92–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1936276-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1936276_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1936">Miller 1936</a>, p. 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200282-151"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200282_151-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997105-152"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997105_152-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200282–84-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200282–84_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 82–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997107-154"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997107_154-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200284–85-155"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200284–85_155-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 84–85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997109–110-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997109–110_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 109–110. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200294–95-157"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200294–95_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 94–95. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200293-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200293_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200291-159">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200291_159-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200291_159-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997111-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997111_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002105-161"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002105_161-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander200297,_99-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander200297,_99_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 97, 99. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Hassam, John T. Registers of Deeds for the County of Suffolk, Massachusetts, 1735–1900, pp. 14–28, John Wilson & Son, University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1900. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Goldthwaite, Charlotte. Descendants of Thomas Goldthwaite, pp. 84–87, Hartford Press, The Case, Lookwood & Brainard Company, 1899. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002104-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002104_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865334-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1865334_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1865">Wells 1865</a>, p. 334. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198022-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198022_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997117-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997117_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002106-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002106_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002106_169-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells186584-171"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells186584_171-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1865">Wells 1865</a>, p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002111–112-172"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002111–112_172-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 111–112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997120-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997120_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997120_173-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002112-174"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002112_174-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002112–113-175"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002112–113_175-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 112–113. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002114-176"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002114_176-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 114. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002116-177"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002116_177-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002118-178"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002118_178-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002119-179"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002119_179-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 119. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997121-180"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997121_180-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1987248–249-182"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomas1987248–249_182-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1987">Thomas 1987</a>, pp. 248–249. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979334-183"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree1979334_183-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, p. 334. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197967,_70-184"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree197967,_70_184-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, pp. 67, 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197975–76-185"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree197975–76_185-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, pp. 75–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197978–79-186"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree197978–79_186-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, pp. 78–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120-187">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120_187-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120_187-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120_187-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 120. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997122-188"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997122_188-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1987246-189"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomas1987246_189-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1987">Thomas 1987</a>, p. 246. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197978,_106-190"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree197978,_106_190-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, pp. 78, 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979102-191"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree1979102_191-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1987256-193"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomas1987256_193-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThomas1987">Thomas 1987</a>, p. 256. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_F._Young" title="Alfred F. Young">Alfred F. Young</a>, The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution (Boston: Beacon Press, 1999; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8070-5405-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8070-5405-4">0-8070-5405-4</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5405-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-5405-5">978-0-8070-5405-5</a>), 183–85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120–122-195"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002120–122_195-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 120–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree197996–100-196"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree197996–100_196-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, pp. 96–100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979104–105-197"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree1979104–105_197-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, pp. 104–105. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002121–122-198"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002121–122_198-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 121–122. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979109–112-199"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree1979109–112_199-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, pp. 109–112. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002122–123-200"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002122–123_200-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 122–123. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> This was not an official town meeting, but a gathering of "the body of the people" of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Boston" title="Greater Boston">greater Boston</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002123–124-202"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002123–124_202-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 123–124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls2006143-203"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuls2006143_203-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuls2006">Puls 2006</a>, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002123-204"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002123_204-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002125-205"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002125_205-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865122–123-206"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1865122–123_206-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1865">Wells 1865</a>, pp. 122–123. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiller1936294-207"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMiller1936294_207-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller1936">Miller 1936</a>, p. 294. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200453-208">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael200453_208-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael200453_208-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael2004">Raphael 2004</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198027,_28–32-209"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198027,_28–32_209-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, pp. 27, 28–32. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002125–126-211"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002125–126_211-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 125–126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELabaree1979141–144-212"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELabaree1979141–144_212-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLabaree1979">Labaree 1979</a>, p. 141–144. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002126-213"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002126_213-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997124-214"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997124_214-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 124. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002129-215"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002129_215-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002130–133-216"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002130–133_216-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 130–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002131–132-217"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002131–132_217-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 131–132. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002135–136-218"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002135–136_218-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 135–136. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997130-219"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997130_219-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 130. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002137-220"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002137_220-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198033–34-221"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198033–34_221-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, pp. 33–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997130–131-222"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997130–131_222-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, pp. 130–131. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002139-223"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002139_223-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 139. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002139–140-224"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002139–140_224-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 139–140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997130–133-225"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997130–133_225-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, pp. 130–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael2004298-226"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael2004298_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael2004">Raphael 2004</a>, p. 298. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002140-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002140_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002143-228">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002143_228-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002143_228-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 143. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997134-229"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFowlerFowler1997134_229-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFowlerFowler1997">Fowler & Fowler 1997</a>, p. 134. </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride, 94, 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride, 76; Alden, "March to Concord", 451. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002146-232"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002146_232-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> Alden, "March to Concord", 453. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgan200511-234"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBurgan200511_234-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBurgan2005">Burgan 2005</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> Fischer, Paul Revere's Ride, 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> The text of Gage's proclamation is available <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/timeline/amrev/shots/proclaim.html">online</a> from the Library of Congress. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198017-237"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198017_237-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaphael200462–63-238"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaphael200462–63_238-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRaphael2004">Raphael 2004</a>, pp. 62–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanrevolution.org/deckey.html">"Key to Declaration of Independence"</a>. Retrieved February 26, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Key+to+Declaration+of+Independence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanrevolution.org%2Fdeckey.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Nobles, "Old Republicans", 264, citing Jack N. Rakove, The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress (New York 1979), 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> Randall, Henry Stephens, The Life of Thomas Jefferson, J. B. Lippincott, 1871, p. 182 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002150-242"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002150_242-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChernow2010186-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChernow2010186_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChernow2010">Chernow 2010</a>, p. 186. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198026-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198026_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002151-245"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002151_245-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002152–153-246"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002152–153_246-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 152–153. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002153-247"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002153_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 153. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier19805-248">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier19805_248-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier19805_248-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002154–155-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002154–155_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 154–155. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002157-250"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002157_250-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 157. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865468-251"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1865468_251-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1865">Wells 1865</a>, p. 468. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002158–159-252"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002158–159_252-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 158–159. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002161–162-253"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002161–162_253-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 161–162. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002193–194-254"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002193–194_254-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 193–194. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002162–163,_197-255"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002162–163,_197_255-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 162–163, 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002181-256"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002181_256-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 181. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002184-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002184_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002183–185-258"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002183–185_258-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 183–185. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002167-259"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002167_259-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 167. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002188-260"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002188_260-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 188. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002170–171-261"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002170–171_261-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 170–171. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308-262">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308_262-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308_262-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308_262-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308_262-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiff2022308_262-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchiff2022">Schiff 2022</a>, p. 308. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchiff2022318-263"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchiff2022318_263-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchiff2022">Schiff 2022</a>, p. 318. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002189-264"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002189_264-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002178-265">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002178_265-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002178_265-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002186–189-266"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002186–189_266-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 186–189. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002192-267"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002192_267-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 192. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002193-268">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002193_268-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002193_268-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002194-269"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002194_269-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 194. </li> <li id="cite_note-AAAS-270"><a href="#cite_ref-AAAS_270-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110103142200/https://www.amacad.org/about/charter.aspx#chartermbrs#chartermbrs">"Charter of Incorporation"</a>. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amacad.org/about/charter.aspx#chartermbrs">the original</a> on January 3, 2011. Retrieved April 6, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Charter+of+Incorporation&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amacad.org%2Fabout%2Fcharter.aspx%23chartermbrs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002196-271"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002196_271-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 196. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885404-272"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885404_272-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHosmer1885">Hosmer 1885</a>, p. 404. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198047quoting_Everett's_1835_"Battle_of_Lexington"_oration-273"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198047quoting_Everett's_1835_"Battle_of_Lexington"_oration_273-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 47, quoting Everett's 1835 "Battle of Lexington" oration. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198044-274"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198044_274-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECushing1908314-275"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECushing1908314_275-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCushing1908">Cushing 1908</a>, p. 314. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002202-276"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002202_276-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPencak198964-277">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPencak198964_277-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPencak198964_277-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPencak198964_277-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFPencak1989">Pencak 1989</a>, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaier198030–31-278"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaier198030–31_278-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaier1980">Maier 1980</a>, pp. 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002202–203-279"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002202–203_279-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 202–203. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECushing1907323-280"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECushing1907323_280-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCushing1907">Cushing 1907</a>, p. 323. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002203-281"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002203_281-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 203. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002203–204-282"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002203–204_282-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 203–204. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002205–206-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002205–206_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 205–206. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865260–261-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1865260–261_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1865">Wells 1865</a>, pp. 260–261. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002207-285"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002207_285-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 207. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1865255-286"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1865255_286-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWells1865">Wells 1865</a>, p. 255. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002209,_219-287"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002209,_219_287-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 209, 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002214–215-288">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002214–215_288-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002214–215_288-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 214–215. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPencak198963-289">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPencak198963_289-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPencak198963_289-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFPencak1989">Pencak 1989</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarlow1923343–344-290"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarlow1923343–344_290-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarlow1923">Harlow 1923</a>, pp. 343–344. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002210–211-291"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002210–211_291-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 210–211. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002213–214-292"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002213–214_292-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, pp. 213–214. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002217-293"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002217_293-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPuls2006227-294"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPuls2006227_294-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPuls2006">Puls 2006</a>, p. 227. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885409-295"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHosmer1885409_295-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHosmer1885">Hosmer 1885</a>, p. 409. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002219-296"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002219_296-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 219. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002218-297"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlexander2002218_297-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexander2002">Alexander 2002</a>, p. 218. </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElan_D._Louis" class="citation web cs1">Elan D. Louis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/abstract/56/9/1201">"Samuel Adams' tremor"</a>. Neurology (2001) 56:1201–05 (online abstract). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.samadamsalliance.org/about/our-story.aspx">the original</a> on October 24, 2010. Retrieved November 7, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Sam+Adams+Alliance+%E2%80%93+Our+Story&rft.pub=The+Sam+Adams+Alliance&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.samadamsalliance.org%2Fabout%2Four-story.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> The Revolutionary: Samuel Adams. Stacy Schiff. Little, Brown and Company. 2022. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0316441117" title="Special:BookSources/978-0316441117">978-0316441117</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkers1974" class="citation journal cs1">Akers, Charles W. (March 1974). "Review: Sam Adams-And Much More". The New England Quarterly. 47 (1). The New England Quarterly, Inc.: 120–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F364333">10.2307/364333</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/364333">364333</a>. <q>Reviewed Work: Political Parties in Revolutionary Massachusetts by Stephen E. 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Boston: <a href="/wiki/Little,_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Little, Brown">Little, Brown</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brewedinamericah00baro/page/462">462</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0405046839" title="Special:BookSources/0405046839"><bdi>0405046839</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/62009546">62009546</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/428916">428916</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brewed+in+America%3A+The+History+of+Beer+and+Ale+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=462&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F428916&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F62009546&rft.isbn=0405046839&rft.aulast=Baron&rft.aufirst=Stanley+Wade&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrewedinamericah00baro%2Fpage%2F462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeach1965" class="citation book cs1">Beach, Stewart (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/samueladamsfatef00beac">Samuel Adams; the fateful years, 1764-1776</a>. 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Putnam's Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+writings+of+Samuel+Adams&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Cushing&rft.aufirst=Harry+Alanzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwrititngssamadam03adamrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushing1908" class="citation book cs1">—— (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/writingsofsamuel0004adam/page/n9/mode/2up">The writings of Samuel Adams</a>. Vol. IV. New York : G.P. Putnam's Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+writings+of+Samuel+Adams&rft.pub=New+York+%3A+G.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Cushing&rft.aufirst=Harry+Alonzo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwritingsofsamuel0004adam%2Fpage%2Fn9%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ferguson, Niall, "The Square and the Tower: Networks and Power from the Freemasons to Facebook", (2018), pp. 107–109.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChernow2010" class="citation book cs1">Chernow, Ron (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/washingtonlife00cher_0">Washington: A Life</a>. Penguin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-266-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59420-266-7"><bdi>978-1-59420-266-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Washington%3A+A+Life&rft.pub=Penguin+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59420-266-7&rft.aulast=Chernow&rft.aufirst=Ron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwashingtonlife00cher_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Fischer, David H. Paul Revere's Ride. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508847-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508847-6">0-19-508847-6</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowlerFowler1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_M._Fowler" title="William M. Fowler">Fowler, William M.</a>; Fowler, Lillian M. (January 1, 1997). <a href="/wiki/Oscar_Handlin" title="Oscar Handlin">Handlin, Oscar</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j792AAAAMAAJ">Samuel Adams: Radical Puritan</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Longman" title="Longman">Longman</a>. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-673-99293-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-673-99293-4"><bdi>0-673-99293-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Samuel+Adams%3A+Radical+Puritan&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1997-01-01&rft.isbn=0-673-99293-4&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=William+M.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+Lillian+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj792AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarlow1923" class="citation book cs1">Harlow, Ralph Volney (1923). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/samueladamspromo0000harl/page/n5/mode/2up">Samuel Adams, promoter of the American revolution; Promoter of the American Revolution: A Study in Psychology and Politics</a>. New York, H. Holt and company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Samuel+Adams%2C+promoter+of+the+American+revolution%3B+Promoter+of+the+American+Revolution%3A+A+Study+in+Psychology+and+Politics&rft.pub=New+York%2C+H.+Holt+and+company&rft.date=1923&rft.aulast=Harlow&rft.aufirst=Ralph+Volney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsamueladamspromo0000harl%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosmer1885" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_K._Hosmer" class="mw-redirect" title="James K. Hosmer">Hosmer, James K.</a> (1885). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/samueladams07hosmgoog">Samuel Adams</a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a>. p. 469.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Samuel+Adams&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=469&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=1885&rft.aulast=Hosmer&rft.aufirst=James+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsamueladams07hosmgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLabaree1979" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Woods_Labaree" title="Benjamin Woods Labaree">Labaree, Benjamin Woods</a> (1979) [1964]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_dJ_PwAACAAJ">"The Boston Tea Party"</a>. The New England Quarterly. 38 (2). Boston: <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeastern University Press">Northeastern University Press</a>: 255–257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-930350-05-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-930350-05-7"><bdi>0-930350-05-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/363599">363599</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Boston+Tea+Party&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=255-257&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F363599%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=0-930350-05-7&rft.aulast=Labaree&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+Woods&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_dJ_PwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaier1976" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pauline_Maier" title="Pauline Maier">Maier, Pauline</a> (1976). "Coming to Terms with Samuel Adams". The American Historical Review. 81 (1): 12–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1863739">10.2307/1863739</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1863739">1863739</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Coming+to+Terms+with+Samuel+Adams&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=12-37&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1863739&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1863739%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Maier&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaier1991" class="citation book cs1">—— (1991) [1972]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromresistanceto00paul_0">From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765–1776</a>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-46190-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-46190-8"><bdi>0-394-46190-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Resistance+to+Revolution%3A+Colonial+Radicals+and+the+Development+of+American+Opposition+to+Britain%2C+1765%E2%80%931776&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Knopf&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-394-46190-8&rft.aulast=Maier&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromresistanceto00paul_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaier1980" class="citation book cs1">—— (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oldrevolutionari0000maie">The Old Revolutionaries: Political Lives in the Age of Samuel Adams</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Knopf_Doubleday_Publishing_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group">Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group</a>. p. 309. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-51096-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-51096-8"><bdi>0-394-51096-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Old+Revolutionaries%3A+Political+Lives+in+the+Age+of+Samuel+Adams&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=309&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-394-51096-8&rft.aulast=Maier&rft.aufirst=Pauline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foldrevolutionari0000maie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1936" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Chester_Miller" title="John Chester Miller">Miller, John Chester</a> (1936). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vgl3AAAAMAAJ">Sam Adams: Pioneer in Propaganda</a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Little,_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Little, Brown">Little, Brown</a>. p. 437. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5987-49451" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5987-49451"><bdi>978-0-5987-49451</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sam+Adams%3A+Pioneer+in+Propaganda&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=437&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1936&rft.isbn=978-0-5987-49451&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=John+Chester&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dvgl3AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Nobles, Gregory. "Yet the Old Republicans Still Persevere: Samuel Adams, John Hancock, and the Crisis of Popular Leadership in Revolutionary Massachusetts, 1775–90". In Ronald Hoffman and Peter J. Albert, eds., The Transforming Hand of Revolution: Reconsidering the American Revolution as a Social Movement, 258–85. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8139-1561-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8139-1561-9">0-8139-1561-9</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Toole1976" class="citation journal cs1">O'Toole, James M. (March 1976). "The Historical Interpretations of Samuel Adams". <a href="/wiki/New_England_Quarterly" class="mw-redirect" title="New England Quarterly">New England Quarterly</a>. 49 (1): 82–96. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F364558">10.2307/364558</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/364558">364558</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+England+Quarterly&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Interpretations+of+Samuel+Adams&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=82-96&rft.date=1976-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F364558&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F364558%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=O%27Toole&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPencak1989" class="citation journal cs1">Pencak, William (March 1989). "Samuel Adams and Shays's Rebellion". The New England Quarterly. 62 (1). The New England Quarterly, Inc.: 63–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F366210">10.2307/366210</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/366210">366210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Samuel+Adams+and+Shays%27s+Rebellion&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=63-74&rft.date=1989-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F366210&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F366210%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pencak&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuls2006" class="citation book cs1">Puls, Mark (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/samueladams00mark">Samuel Adams: Father of the American Revolution</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/St._Martin%27s_Press" title="St. Martin's Press">St. Martin's Press</a>. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-7582-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-7582-5"><bdi>1-4039-7582-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Samuel+Adams%3A+Father+of+the+American+Revolution&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=273&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-4039-7582-5&rft.aulast=Puls&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsamueladams00mark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaphael2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ray_Raphael" title="Ray Raphael">Raphael, Ray</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781565849211">Founding Myths: Stories That Hide Our Patriotic Past</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/The_New_Press" title="The New Press">The New Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781565849211/page/354">354</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56584-921-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-56584-921-3"><bdi>1-56584-921-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Founding+Myths%3A+Stories+That+Hide+Our+Patriotic+Past&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=354&rft.pub=The+New+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-56584-921-3&rft.aulast=Raphael&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781565849211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoll2008" class="citation book cs1">Stoll, Ira (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/samueladamslife0000stol">Samuel Adams: A Life</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-94567" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4165-94567"><bdi>978-1-4165-94567</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Samuel+Adams%3A+A+Life&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4165-94567&rft.aulast=Stoll&rft.aufirst=Ira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsamueladamslife0000stol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1874" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Isaiah (1874). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofprintin01thom">The history of printing in America, with a biography of printers</a>. Vol. I. New York, B. Franklin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+printing+in+America%2C+with+a+biography+of+printers&rft.pub=New+York%2C+B.+Franklin&rft.date=1874&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Isaiah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofprintin01thom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1987" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Peter David Garner (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/townshenddutiesc0000thom/page/n5/mode/2up">The Townshend Duties Crisis: The Second Phase of the American Revolution, 1767-1773</a>. Clarendon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-29674" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1982-29674"><bdi>978-0-1982-29674</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Townshend+Duties+Crisis%3A+The+Second+Phase+of+the+American+Revolution%2C+1767-1773&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-1982-29674&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Peter+David+Garner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftownshenddutiesc0000thom%2Fpage%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1865" class="citation book cs1">Wells, William V. (1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/lifepublicservic00well#page/n5/mode/2up">The Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams: Being a Narrative of His Acts and Opinions, and of His Agency in Producing and Forwarding the American Revolution, with Extracts From His Correspondence, State Papers, and Political Essays</a>. Vol. 3. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Little,_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Little, Brown">Little, Brown</a>. p. 540.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Public+Services+of+Samuel+Adams%3A+Being+a+Narrative+of+His+Acts+and+Opinions%2C+and+of+His+Agency+in+Producing+and+Forwarding+the+American+Revolution%2C+with+Extracts+From+His+Correspondence%2C+State+Papers%2C+and+Political+Essays&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=540&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown&rft.date=1865&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=William+V.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Flifepublicservic00well%23page%2Fn5%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiff2022" class="citation book cs1">Schiff, Stacy (2022). <a href="/wiki/The_Revolutionary:_Samuel_Adams" title="The Revolutionary: Samuel Adams">The Revolutionary: Samuel Adams</a>. Little, Brown & Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780316441117" title="Special:BookSources/9780316441117"><bdi>9780316441117</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revolutionary%3A+Samuel+Adams&rft.pub=Little%2C+Brown+%26+Co.&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780316441117&rft.aulast=Schiff&rft.aufirst=Stacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTyler1986" class="citation book cs1">Tyler, John W. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QZx2AAAAMAAJ">Tyler, 'Smugglers & Patriots: Boston Merchants:Boston Mechants and the Advent of the American Revolution</a>. Northeastern University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9303-50765" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9303-50765"><bdi>978-0-9303-50765</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tyler%2C+%27Smugglers+%26+Patriots%3A+Boston+Merchants%3ABoston+Mechants+and+the+Advent+of+the+American+Revolution&rft.pub=Northeastern+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-9303-50765&rft.aulast=Tyler&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQZx2AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Samuel_Adams" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Samuel_Adams" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Samuel_Adams" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_CongressA000045" class="citation web cs1">United States Congress. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=A000045">"Samuel Adams (id: A000045)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biographical_Directory_of_the_United_States_Congress" title="Biographical Directory of the United States Congress">Biographical Directory of the United States Congress</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Directory+of+the+United+States+Congress&rft.atitle=Samuel+Adams+%28id%3A+A000045%29&rft.au=United+States+Congress&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbioguide.congress.gov%2Fscripts%2Fbiodisplay.pl%3Findex%3DA000045&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.samuel-adams-heritage.com/">Samuel Adams Heritage Society</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Samuel_Adams">"Samuel Adams" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. I (9th ed.). 1878. p. 143.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Samuel+Adams&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=143&rft.edition=9th&rft.date=1878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASamuel+Adams" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Adams,+Samuel">Works by Samuel Adams</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Adams%2C%20Samuel%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Samuel%20Adams%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Adams%2C%20Samuel%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Samuel%20Adams%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Adams%2C%20S%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Samuel%20Adams%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Adams%2C%20Samuel%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Samuel%20Adams%22%29%20OR%20%28%221722-1803%22%20AND%20Adams%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about Samuel Adams</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/15153">Works by Samuel Adams</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060501181057/http://quotes.liberty-tree.ca/quotes_by/samuel+adams">Samuel Adams quotes at Liberty-Tree.ca</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #cccccc"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Senate" title="Massachusetts Senate">Massachusetts Senate</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Powell" title="Jeremiah Powell">Jeremiah Powell</a> <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Phillips,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Phillips, Jr.">Samuel Phillips, Jr.</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Massachusetts_Senate" title="President of the Massachusetts Senate">President of the Massachusetts Senate</a> 1782–1785 1787–1788 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Phillips,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Phillips, Jr.">Samuel Phillips, Jr.</a></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid #ccccff;">Political offices </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lincoln" title="Benjamin Lincoln">Benjamin Lincoln</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts">Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts</a> 1789–1794 Acting Governor, 1793–1794 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Moses_Gill" title="Moses Gill">Moses Gill</a></div> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1"> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">Governor of Massachusetts</a> 1794 – June 2, 1797 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Increase_Sumner" title="Increase Sumner">Increase Sumner</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Samuel_Adams" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:Samuel_Adams" title="Template:Samuel Adams"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Samuel_Adams" title="Template talk:Samuel Adams"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Samuel_Adams" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Samuel Adams"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Samuel_Adams" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samuel Adams</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">4th Governor of Massachusetts, 1794–1797</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress, 1775–1781</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress, 1774</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_House_of_Representatives" title="Massachusetts House of Representatives">Clerk of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, 1766–1774</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">United States founding events</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Independent_Advertiser" title="The Independent Advertiser">The Independent Advertiser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Caucus" title="Boston Caucus">Boston Caucus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Sugar_Act">1764 Sugar Act response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_Act#Effect_on_the_American_colonies" title="Sugar Act">protests</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Circular_Letter" title="Massachusetts Circular Letter">1768 Massachusetts Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Occurrences" title="Journal of Occurrences">Probable author, 1768–1769 "Journal of Occurrences"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Seider" title="Christopher Seider">Arranged Christopher Seider funeral, 1770</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Pamphlet" title="Boston Pamphlet">Co-author, 1772 Boston Pamphlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committees_of_correspondence" title="Committees of correspondence">Committees of correspondence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_correspondence#Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee of correspondence">Boston, 1772</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutchinson_letters_affair" title="Hutchinson letters affair">Hutchinson letters affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Tea_Party" title="Boston Tea Party">Co-inspired and publicized, Boston Tea Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Signed, 1774 Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Provincial_Congress" title="Massachusetts Provincial Congress">Massachusetts Provincial Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_to_the_inhabitants_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Letters to the inhabitants of Canada">Co-author, 1775 "Letter to the inhabitants of Canada"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Signed, United States Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Signed, Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">1788 Massachusetts Compromise</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Early_life">Early life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Hall_(Harvard_University)" title="Massachusetts Hall (Harvard University)">Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty" title="Sons of Liberty">Sons of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections,_1789#Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States House of Representatives elections, 1789">1789 U.S. House election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796 presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams_and_Paul_Revere_time_capsule" title="Samuel Adams and Paul Revere time capsule">Samuel Adams and Paul Revere time capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granary_Burying_Ground" title="Granary Burying Ground">Granary Burying Ground</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">American republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Gazette" title="Boston Gazette">Boston Gazette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faneuil_Hall" title="Faneuil Hall">Faneuil Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_South_Meeting_House" title="Old South Meeting House">Old South Meeting House</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Samuel_Adams" title="Statue of Samuel Adams">Samuel Adams (Whitney)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams,_Massachusetts" title="Adams, Massachusetts">Adams, Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty%27s_Kids" title="Liberty's Kids">Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)">John Adams (2008 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty_(miniseries)" title="Sons of Liberty (miniseries)">Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Revolutionary:_Samuel_Adams" title="The Revolutionary: Samuel Adams">The Revolutionary: Samuel Adams (2022 book)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adams_political_family" title="Adams political family">Adams family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Adams_Sr." title="Samuel Adams Sr.">Samuel Adams Sr. (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams (second cousin)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Continental_Association" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Continental_Association" title="Template:Continental Association"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Continental_Association" title="Template talk:Continental Association"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Continental_Association" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Continental Association"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Continental_Association" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Signatories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">President of Congress</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peyton_Randolph" title="Peyton Randolph">Peyton Randolph</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Sullivan_(general)" title="John Sullivan (general)">John Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Folsom" title="Nathaniel Folsom">Nathaniel Folsom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts Bay</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cushing" title="Thomas Cushing">Thomas Cushing</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samuel Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Treat_Paine" title="Robert Treat Paine">Robert Treat Paine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhode Island</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hopkins_(politician)" title="Stephen Hopkins (politician)">Stephen Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Ward_(Rhode_Island_politician)" title="Samuel Ward (Rhode Island politician)">Samuel Ward</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliphalet_Dyer" title="Eliphalet Dyer">Eliphalet Dyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silas_Deane" title="Silas Deane">Silas Deane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Low" title="Isaac Low">Isaac Low</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Alsop" title="John Alsop">John Alsop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Duane" title="James Duane">James Duane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Livingston" title="Philip Livingston">Philip Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Floyd" title="William Floyd">William Floyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wisner" title="Henry Wisner">Henry Wisner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Boerum" title="Simon Boerum">Simon Boerum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Kinsey" title="James Kinsey">James Kinsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Crane_(Continental_Congress)" title="Stephen Crane (Continental Congress)">Stephen Crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Smith_(Continental_Congress)" title="Richard Smith (Continental Congress)">Richard Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_De_Hart" title="John De Hart">John De Hart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Galloway" title="Joseph Galloway">Joseph Galloway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Humphreys" title="Charles Humphreys">Charles Humphreys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Biddle" title="Edward Biddle">Edward Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morton_(American_politician)" title="John Morton (American politician)">John Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ross_(American_politician)" title="George Ross (American politician)">George Ross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The Lower Counties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_Rodney" title="Caesar Rodney">Caesar Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_McKean" title="Thomas McKean">Thomas McKean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tilghman" title="Matthew Tilghman">Matthew Tilghman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Johnson_(jurist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Johnson (jurist)">Thomas Johnson, Junr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paca" title="William Paca">William Paca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry, Junr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bland" title="Richard Bland">Richard Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_V" title="Benjamin Harrison V">Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pendleton" title="Edmund Pendleton">Edmund Pendleton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Hooper" title="William Hooper">William Hooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hewes" title="Joseph Hewes">Joseph Hewes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Caswell" title="Richard Caswell">Richard Caswell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Middleton" title="Henry Middleton">Henry Middleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lynch_(statesman)" title="Thomas Lynch (statesman)">Thomas Lynch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Gadsden" title="Christopher Gadsden">Christopher Gadsden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Rutledge" title="Edward Rutledge">Edward Rutledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Association" title="Virginia Association">Virginia Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fairfax_Resolves" title="Fairfax Resolves">Fairfax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffolk_Resolves" title="Suffolk Resolves">Suffolk Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_and_Resolves_of_the_First_Continental_Congress" title="Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress">Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson" title="Charles Thomson">Charles Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journals_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="Journals of the Continental Congress">Journals of the Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpenters%27_Hall" title="Carpenters' Hall">Carpenters' Hall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Template:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Template talk:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States Declaration of Independence"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_history_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence">Physical history of the Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary author</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="President of the Continental Congress">President of Congress</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a> (Massachusetts)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Bartlett" title="Josiah Bartlett">Josiah Bartlett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Whipple" title="William Whipple">William Whipple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Thornton" title="Matthew Thornton">Matthew Thornton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samuel Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Treat_Paine" title="Robert Treat Paine">Robert Treat Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhode Island</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hopkins_(politician)" title="Stephen Hopkins (politician)">Stephen Hopkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Ellery" title="William Ellery">William Ellery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Huntington_(Connecticut_politician)" title="Samuel Huntington (Connecticut politician)">Samuel Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Williams_(Connecticut_politician)" title="William Williams (Connecticut politician)">William Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott" title="Oliver Wolcott">Oliver Wolcott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Floyd" title="William Floyd">William Floyd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Livingston" title="Philip Livingston">Philip Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lewis" title="Francis Lewis">Francis Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_Morris" title="Lewis Morris">Lewis Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Stockton_(Continental_Congressman)" title="Richard Stockton (Continental Congressman)">Richard Stockton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Witherspoon" title="John Witherspoon">John Witherspoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Hopkinson" title="Francis Hopkinson">Francis Hopkinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hart_(New_Jersey_politician)" title="John Hart (New Jersey politician)">John Hart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Clark" title="Abraham Clark">Abraham Clark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morton_(American_politician)" title="John Morton (American politician)">John Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Smith_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="James Smith (Pennsylvania politician)">James Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Taylor_(Pennsylvania_politician)" title="George Taylor (Pennsylvania politician)">George Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ross_(American_politician)" title="George Ross (American politician)">George Ross</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_Rodney" title="Caesar Rodney">Caesar Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_McKean" title="Thomas McKean">Thomas McKean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Chase" title="Samuel Chase">Samuel Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paca" title="William Paca">William Paca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stone" title="Thomas Stone">Thomas Stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Carroll_of_Carrollton" title="Charles Carroll of Carrollton">Charles Carroll of Carrollton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Wythe" title="George Wythe">George Wythe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Harrison_V" title="Benjamin Harrison V">Benjamin Harrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nelson_Jr." title="Thomas Nelson Jr.">Thomas Nelson Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lightfoot_Lee" title="Francis Lightfoot Lee">Francis Lightfoot Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carter_Braxton" title="Carter Braxton">Carter Braxton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Hooper" title="William Hooper">William Hooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hewes" title="Joseph Hewes">Joseph Hewes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Penn_(North_Carolina_politician)" title="John Penn (North Carolina politician)">John Penn</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Rutledge" title="Edward Rutledge">Edward Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heyward_Jr." title="Thomas Heyward Jr.">Thomas Heyward Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lynch_Jr." title="Thomas Lynch Jr.">Thomas Lynch Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Middleton" title="Arthur Middleton">Arthur Middleton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Button_Gwinnett" title="Button Gwinnett">Button Gwinett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyman_Hall" title="Lyman Hall">Lyman Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Walton" title="George Walton">George Walton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delegates voting for Independence (did not sign)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">New York: <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Livingston" title="Robert R. Livingston">Robert R. Livingston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Wisner" title="Henry Wisner">Henry Wisner</a> Maryland: <a href="/wiki/John_Rogers_(Continental_Congress)" title="John Rogers (Continental Congress)">John Rogers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Tilghman" title="Matthew Tilghman">Matthew Tilghman</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Declaration_of_Rights" title="Virginia Declaration of Rights">Virginia Declaration of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/All_men_are_created_equal" title="All men are created equal">All men are created equal</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Life,_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness" title="Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness">Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness</a>"</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">Consent of the governed</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grievances_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Grievances of the United States Declaration of Independence">27 grievances</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_history_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Physical history of the United States Declaration of Independence">Document's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Signing of the United States Declaration of Independence">signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson" title="Charles Thomson">Charles Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Matlack" title="Timothy Matlack">Timothy Matlack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journals_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="Journals of the Continental Congress">Journals of the Continental Congress</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Day_(United_States)" title="Independence Day (United States)">Independence Day</a></li> <li>Anniversaries <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centennial_Exposition" title="Centennial Exposition">Centennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesquicentennial_Exposition" title="Sesquicentennial Exposition">Sesquicentennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bicentennial" title="United States Bicentennial">Bicentennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Semiquincentennial" title="United States Semiquincentennial">Semiquincentennial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a> (Washington, D.C.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signers_Monument" title="Signers Monument">Signers Monument (Georgia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Voting_Independence" title="Congress Voting Independence">Pine portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Independence_(painting)" title="Declaration of Independence (painting)">Trumbull portrait</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Articles_of_Confederation_and_Perpetual_Union" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Articles_of_Confederation_and_Perpetual_Union" title="Template:Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Articles_of_Confederation_and_Perpetual_Union" title="Template talk:Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Articles_of_Confederation_and_Perpetual_Union" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Articles_of_Confederation_and_Perpetual_Union" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Signatories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary drafter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Bartlett" title="Josiah Bartlett">Josiah Bartlett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wentworth_Jr." title="John Wentworth Jr.">John Wentworth Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">John Hancock</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samuel Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Dana" title="Francis Dana">Francis Dana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lovell_(politician)" title="James Lovell (politician)">James Lovell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Holten" title="Samuel Holten">Samuel Holten</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rhode Island</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Ellery" title="William Ellery">William Ellery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Marchant" title="Henry Marchant">Henry Marchant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Collins_(Continental_Congress)" title="John Collins (Continental Congress)">John Collins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Huntington_(Connecticut_politician)" title="Samuel Huntington (Connecticut politician)">Samuel Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wolcott" title="Oliver Wolcott">Oliver Wolcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Hosmer" title="Titus Hosmer">Titus Hosmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Adams_(politician)" title="Andrew Adams (politician)">Andrew Adams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Duane" title="James Duane">James Duane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lewis" title="Francis Lewis">Francis Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Duer_(Continental_congressman)" title="William Duer (Continental congressman)">William Duer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Witherspoon" title="John Witherspoon">John Witherspoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Scudder" title="Nathaniel Scudder">Nathaniel Scudder</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Roberdeau" title="Daniel Roberdeau">Daniel Roberdeau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bayard_Smith" title="Jonathan Bayard Smith">Jonathan Bayard Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Clingan" title="William Clingan">William Clingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Reed_(politician)" title="Joseph Reed (politician)">Joseph Reed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_McKean" title="Thomas McKean">Thomas McKean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Van_Dyke_(politician,_born_1738)" title="Nicholas Van Dyke (politician, born 1738)">Nicholas Van Dyke</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Hanson" title="John Hanson">John Hanson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Henry_Lee" title="Richard Henry Lee">Richard Henry Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Banister_(lawyer)" title="John Banister (lawyer)">John Banister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Adams_(politician)" title="Thomas Adams (politician)">Thomas Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Harvie" title="John Harvie">John Harvie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Lightfoot_Lee" title="Francis Lightfoot Lee">Francis Lightfoot Lee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Penn_(North_Carolina_politician)" title="John Penn (North Carolina politician)">John Penn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Harnett" title="Cornelius Harnett">Cornelius Harnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Williams_(Continental_Congress)" title="John Williams (Continental Congress)">John Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Laurens" title="Henry Laurens">Henry Laurens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Drayton" title="William Henry Drayton">William Henry Drayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mathews_(lawyer)" title="John Mathews (lawyer)">John Mathews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Hutson" title="Richard Hutson">Richard Hutson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heyward_Jr." title="Thomas Heyward Jr.">Thomas Heyward Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Walton_(Continental_Congress)" title="John Walton (Continental Congress)">John Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Telfair" title="Edward Telfair">Edward Telfair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Langworthy_(Founding_Father)" title="Edward Langworthy (Founding Father)">Edward Langworthy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_the_Confederation" title="Congress of the Confederation">Congress of the Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson" title="Charles Thomson">Charles Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journals_of_the_Continental_Congress" title="Journals of the Continental Congress">Journals of the Continental Congress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Governors_of_Massachusetts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Governors_of_Massachusetts" title="Template:Governors of Massachusetts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Governors_of_Massachusetts" title="Template talk:Governors of Massachusetts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Governors_of_Massachusetts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Governors of Massachusetts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Governors_of_Massachusetts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">Governors of Massachusetts</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Colony (1629–1686)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Endecott" title="John Endecott">Endecott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Winthrop" title="John Winthrop">Winthrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dudley" title="Thomas Dudley">T. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Haynes_(governor)" title="John Haynes (governor)">Haynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Vane_the_Younger" title="Henry Vane the Younger">Vane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Winthrop" title="John Winthrop">Winthrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dudley" title="Thomas Dudley">T. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bellingham" title="Richard Bellingham">Bellingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Winthrop" title="John Winthrop">Winthrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Endecott" title="John Endecott">Endecott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dudley" title="Thomas Dudley">T. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Winthrop" title="John Winthrop">Winthrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Endecott" title="John Endecott">Endecott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dudley" title="Thomas Dudley">T. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Endecott" title="John Endecott">Endecott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bellingham" title="Richard Bellingham">Bellingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Endecott" title="John Endecott">Endecott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bellingham" title="Richard Bellingham">Bellingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Leverett" title="John Leverett">Leverett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Bradstreet" title="Simon Bradstreet">Bradstreet</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Seal_of_the_Governor_of_Massachusetts.svg/75px-Seal_of_the_Governor_of_Massachusetts.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Seal_of_the_Governor_of_Massachusetts.svg/113px-Seal_of_the_Governor_of_Massachusetts.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Seal_of_the_Governor_of_Massachusetts.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_Governor_of_Massachusetts.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="527" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_England" title="Dominion of New England">Dominion (1686–1689)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dudley" title="Joseph Dudley">J. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Andros" title="Edmund Andros">Andros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Bradstreet" title="Simon Bradstreet">Bradstreet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Province (1692–1776)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Phips" title="William Phips">W. Phips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stoughton_(judge)" title="William Stoughton (judge)">Stoughton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Coote,_1st_Earl_of_Bellomont" title="Richard Coote, 1st Earl of Bellomont">Bellomont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stoughton_(judge)" title="William Stoughton (judge)">Stoughton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Governor%27s_Council" title="Massachusetts Governor's Council">Governor's Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dudley" title="Joseph Dudley">J. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Governor%27s_Council" title="Massachusetts Governor's Council">Governor's Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dudley" title="Joseph Dudley">J. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tailer" title="William Tailer">Tailer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Shute" title="Samuel Shute">Shute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Dummer" title="William Dummer">Dummer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Burnet_(colonial_administrator)" title="William Burnet (colonial administrator)">Burnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Dummer" title="William Dummer">Dummer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tailer" title="William Tailer">Tailer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Belcher" title="Jonathan Belcher">Belcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shirley" title="William Shirley">Shirley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Phips" title="Spencer Phips">S. Phips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Shirley" title="William Shirley">Shirley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Phips" title="Spencer Phips">S. Phips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Governor%27s_Council" title="Massachusetts Governor's Council">Governor's Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pownall" title="Thomas Pownall">Pownall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)" title="Thomas Hutchinson (governor)">Hutchinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Francis_Bernard,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Francis Bernard, 1st Baronet">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)" title="Thomas Hutchinson (governor)">Hutchinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Gage" title="Thomas Gage">Gage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Commonwealth (since 1776)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">Hancock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cushing" title="Thomas Cushing">Cushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bowdoin" title="James Bowdoin">Bowdoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hancock" title="John Hancock">Hancock</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Increase_Sumner" title="Increase Sumner">Sumner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Gill" title="Moses Gill">Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Governor%27s_Council" title="Massachusetts Governor's Council">Governor's Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caleb_Strong" title="Caleb Strong">Strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Sullivan_(governor)" title="James Sullivan (governor)">Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Lincoln_Sr." title="Levi Lincoln Sr.">Lincoln Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Gore" title="Christopher Gore">Gore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Gerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caleb_Strong" title="Caleb Strong">Strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brooks_(governor)" title="John Brooks (governor)">Brooks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Eustis" title="William Eustis">Eustis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Morton" title="Marcus Morton">Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Lincoln_Jr." title="Levi Lincoln Jr.">Lincoln Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Davis_(Massachusetts_governor)" title="John Davis (Massachusetts governor)">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Turell_Armstrong" title="Samuel Turell Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Everett" title="Edward Everett">Everett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Morton" title="Marcus Morton">Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Davis_(Massachusetts_governor)" title="John Davis (Massachusetts governor)">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Morton" title="Marcus Morton">Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_N._Briggs" title="George N. Briggs">Briggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_S._Boutwell" title="George S. Boutwell">Boutwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Clifford" title="John H. Clifford">Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emory_Washburn" title="Emory Washburn">E. Washburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gardner" title="Henry Gardner">Gardner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_P._Banks" title="Nathaniel P. Banks">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Albion_Andrew" title="John Albion Andrew">Andrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bullock" title="Alexander Bullock">Bullock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Claflin" title="William Claflin">Claflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Washburn" title="William B. Washburn">W. Washburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Talbot_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Thomas Talbot (Massachusetts politician)">Talbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gaston_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="William Gaston (Massachusetts politician)">Gaston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Rice" title="Alexander H. Rice">Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Talbot_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Thomas Talbot (Massachusetts politician)">Talbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Davis_Long" title="John Davis Long">Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_D._Robinson" title="George D. Robinson">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ames_(governor)" title="Oliver Ames (governor)">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Q._A._Brackett" title="John Q. A. Brackett">Brackett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Russell_(politician)" title="William E. Russell (politician)">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederic_T._Greenhalge" title="Frederic T. Greenhalge">Greenhalge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Roger Wolcott (Massachusetts politician)">Wolcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winthrop_M._Crane" title="Winthrop M. Crane">Crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_L._Bates" title="John L. Bates">Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Douglas" title="William Lewis Douglas">Douglas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Guild_Jr." title="Curtis Guild Jr.">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eben_Sumner_Draper" title="Eben Sumner Draper">Draper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Foss" title="Eugene Foss">Foss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_I._Walsh" title="David I. Walsh">Walsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_W._McCall" title="Samuel W. McCall">McCall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channing_H._Cox" title="Channing H. Cox">Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvan_T._Fuller" title="Alvan T. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_G._Allen" title="Frank G. Allen">Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._Ely" title="Joseph B. Ely">Ely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Michael_Curley" title="James Michael Curley">Curley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Hurley" title="Charles F. Hurley">Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leverett_Saltonstall" title="Leverett Saltonstall">Saltonstall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_J._Tobin" title="Maurice J. Tobin">Tobin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Bradford" title="Robert F. Bradford">Bradford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_A._Dever" title="Paul A. Dever">Dever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Herter" title="Christian Herter">Herter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_Furcolo" title="Foster Furcolo">Furcolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._Volpe" title="John A. Volpe">Volpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endicott_Peabody" title="Endicott Peabody">Peabody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_A._Volpe" title="John A. Volpe">Volpe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Sargent" title="Francis Sargent">Sargent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Dukakis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_J._King" title="Edward J. King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dukakis" title="Michael Dukakis">Dukakis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Weld" title="Bill Weld">Weld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cellucci" title="Paul Cellucci">Cellucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Swift" title="Jane Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitt_Romney" title="Mitt Romney">Romney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deval_Patrick" title="Deval Patrick">Patrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Baker" title="Charlie Baker">Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maura_Healey" title="Maura Healey">Healey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>Italics indicate acting officeholders</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lieutenant_governors_of_Massachusetts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lieutenant_governors_of_Massachusetts" title="Template:Lieutenant governors of Massachusetts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lieutenant_governors_of_Massachusetts" title="Template talk:Lieutenant governors of Massachusetts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lieutenant_governors_of_Massachusetts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lieutenant governors of Massachusetts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lieutenant_governors_of_Massachusetts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts"> Lieutenant governors of Massachusetts</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Colony (1629–1686)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Goffe_(Massachusetts)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Goffe (Massachusetts) (page does not exist)">Goffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Humphrey_(Massachusetts_colonist)" title="John Humphrey (Massachusetts colonist)">Humphrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dudley" title="Thomas Dudley">T. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Ludlow" title="Roger Ludlow">Ludlow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bellingham" title="Richard Bellingham">Bellingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Winthrop" title="John Winthrop">Winthrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dudley" title="Thomas Dudley">T. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bellingham" title="Richard Bellingham">Bellingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Endecott" title="John Endecott">Endecott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Winthrop" title="John Winthrop">Winthrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dudley" title="Thomas Dudley">T. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Endecott" title="John Endecott">Endecott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Dudley" title="Thomas Dudley">T. Dudley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Endecott" title="John Endecott">Endecott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bellingham" title="Richard Bellingham">Bellingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Willoughby_(1613%E2%80%931671)" title="Francis Willoughby (1613–1671)">Willoughby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Leverett" title="John Leverett">Leverett</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Samuel_Symonds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samuel Symonds (page does not exist)">Symonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Bradstreet" title="Simon Bradstreet">Bradstreet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Danforth" title="Thomas Danforth">Danforth</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Seal_of_Massachusetts.svg/75px-Seal_of_Massachusetts.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Seal_of_Massachusetts.svg/113px-Seal_of_Massachusetts.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Seal_of_Massachusetts.svg/150px-Seal_of_Massachusetts.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="448" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dominion_of_New_England" title="Dominion of New England">Dominion (1686–1689)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Stoughton_(judge)" title="William Stoughton (judge)">Stoughton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Nicholson" title="Francis Nicholson">Nicholson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Province (1692–1776)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Stoughton_(judge)" title="William Stoughton (judge)">Stoughton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Povey_(Massachusetts)" title="Thomas Povey (Massachusetts)">Povey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tailer" title="William Tailer">Tailer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Dummer" title="William Dummer">Dummer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tailer" title="William Tailer">Tailer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Phips" title="Spencer Phips">S. Phips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hutchinson_(governor)" title="Thomas Hutchinson (governor)">Hutchinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Oliver" title="Andrew Oliver">A. Oliver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Oliver_(lieutenant_governor)" title="Thomas Oliver (lieutenant governor)">T. Oliver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Commonwealth (since 1776)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cushing" title="Thomas Cushing">T. Cushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Lincoln" title="Benjamin Lincoln">B. Lincoln</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses_Gill" title="Moses Gill">Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Phillips_Jr." title="Samuel Phillips Jr.">S. Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Robbins" title="Edward Robbins">Robbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Lincoln_Sr." title="Levi Lincoln Sr.">L. Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Cobb_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="David Cobb (Massachusetts politician)">Cobb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gray_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="William Gray (Massachusetts politician)">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Phillips_Jr." title="William Phillips Jr.">W. Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Lincoln_Jr." title="Levi Lincoln Jr.">L. Lincoln Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Morton" title="Marcus Morton">Morton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_L._Winthrop" title="Thomas L. Winthrop">Winthrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Turell_Armstrong" title="Samuel Turell Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Hull_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="George Hull (Massachusetts politician)">Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Childs" title="Henry H. Childs">Childs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Reed_Jr." title="John Reed Jr.">Reed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Cushman" title="Henry W. Cushman">Cushman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisha_Huntington" title="Elisha Huntington">Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Plunkett" title="William C. Plunkett">Plunkett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Brown_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Simon Brown (Massachusetts politician)">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wetherby_Benchley" title="Henry Wetherby Benchley">Benchley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliphalet_Trask" title="Eliphalet Trask">Trask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Z._Goodrich" title="John Z. Goodrich">Goodrich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Nesmith" title="John Nesmith">Nesmith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Hayden" title="Joel Hayden">Hayden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Claflin" title="William Claflin">Claflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Tucker_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Joseph Tucker (Massachusetts politician)">Tucker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Talbot_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Thomas Talbot (Massachusetts politician)">Talbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horatio_G._Knight" title="Horatio G. Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Davis_Long" title="John Davis Long">Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byron_Weston" title="Byron Weston">Weston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ames_(governor)" title="Oliver Ames (governor)">Ames</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Q._A._Brackett" title="John Q. A. Brackett">Brackett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Haile" title="William H. Haile">Haile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Roger Wolcott (Massachusetts politician)">Wolcott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winthrop_M._Crane" title="Winthrop M. Crane">Crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_L._Bates" title="John L. Bates">Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Guild_Jr." title="Curtis Guild Jr.">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eben_Sumner_Draper" title="Eben Sumner Draper">Draper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_A._Frothingham" title="Louis A. Frothingham">Frothingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Luce" title="Robert Luce">Luce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_I._Walsh" title="David I. Walsh">Walsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_P._Barry" title="Edward P. Barry">Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grafton_D._Cushing" title="Grafton D. Cushing">G. Cushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">C. Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channing_H._Cox" title="Channing H. Cox">Cox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvan_T._Fuller" title="Alvan T. Fuller">Fuller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_G._Allen" title="Frank G. Allen">Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_S._Youngman" title="William S. Youngman">Youngman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_G._Bacon" title="Gaspar G. Bacon">Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Hurley" title="Joseph L. Hurley">Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_E._Kelly" title="Francis E. Kelly">Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_T._Cahill" title="Horace T. Cahill">Cahill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Bradford" title="Robert F. Bradford">Bradford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Coolidge" title="Arthur W. Coolidge">A. Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_F._Sullivan" title="Charles F. Sullivan">Sullivan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumner_G._Whittier" title="Sumner G. Whittier">Whittier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Murphy_(politician)" title="Robert F. Murphy (politician)">R. Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_F._McLaughlin_Jr." title="Edward F. McLaughlin Jr.">McLaughin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bellotti" title="Francis Bellotti">Bellotti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliot_Richardson" title="Elliot Richardson">Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Sargent" title="Francis Sargent">Sargent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Dwight" title="Donald Dwight">Dwight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_P._O%27Neill_III" title="Thomas P. O'Neill III">O'Neill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Kerry" title="John Kerry">Kerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evelyn_Murphy" title="Evelyn Murphy">E. Murphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Cellucci" title="Paul Cellucci">Cellucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Swift" title="Jane Swift">Swift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerry_Healey" title="Kerry Healey">Healey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Murray" title="Tim Murray">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karyn_Polito" title="Karyn Polito">Polito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Driscoll" title="Kim Driscoll">Driscoll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_Massachusetts_Senate" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Presidents_of_the_Massachusetts_Senate" title="Template:Presidents of the Massachusetts Senate"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Presidents_of_the_Massachusetts_Senate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Presidents of the Massachusetts Senate (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents_of_the_Massachusetts_Senate" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Presidents of the Massachusetts Senate"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_Massachusetts_Senate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_Massachusetts_Senate" title="President of the Massachusetts Senate">Presidents of the Massachusetts Senate</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cushing" title="Thomas Cushing">Cushing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremiah_Powell" title="Jeremiah Powell">Powell</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Phillips_Jr." title="Samuel Phillips Jr.">S. Phillips</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Cobb_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="David Cobb (Massachusetts politician)">Cobb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_Gray_Otis_(politician)" title="Harrison Gray Otis (politician)">Otis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bacon_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="John Bacon (Massachusetts politician)">J. Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dana_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Samuel Dana (Massachusetts politician)">S. Dana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harrison_Gray_Otis_(politician)" title="Harrison Gray Otis (politician)">Otis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Dana_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Samuel Dana (Massachusetts politician)">S. Dana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Phillips_(mayor)" title="John Phillips (mayor)">J. Phillips</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Silsbee" title="Nathaniel Silsbee">Silsbee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mills_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="John Mills (Massachusetts politician)">Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman_Leland" title="Sherman Leland">S. Leland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Lathrop" title="Samuel Lathrop">Lathrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fowler_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="James Fowler (Massachusetts politician)">Fowler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leverett_Saltonstall_I" title="Leverett Saltonstall I">Saltonstall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Thorndike" title="William Thorndike">Thorndike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_T._Pickman" title="Benjamin T. Pickman">Pickman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bliss_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="George Bliss (Massachusetts politician)">Bliss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Mann" title="Horace Mann">Mann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myron_Lawrence" title="Myron Lawrence">M. Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_P._King" title="Daniel P. King">King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Quincy_Jr." title="Josiah Quincy Jr.">Quincy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phineas_W._Leland" title="Phineas W. Leland">P. Leland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Robinson_(Massachusetts_politician)" title="Frederick Robinson (Massachusetts politician)">Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Quincy_Jr." title="Josiah Quincy Jr.">Quincy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_Lincoln_Jr." title="Levi Lincoln Jr.">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_B._Calhoun" title="William B. Calhoun">Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_Scudder" title="Zeno Scudder">Scudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_M._Bell" title="Joseph M. Bell">Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Pinckney_Wilder_(politician)" title="Marshall Pinckney Wilder (politician)">Wilder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wilson" title="Henry Wilson">Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Henry_Warren" title="Charles Henry Warren">Warren</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Edward_Cook_(politician)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Edward Cook (politician) (page does not exist)">Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Wetherby_Benchley" title="Henry Wetherby Benchley">Benchley</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Elihu_C._Baker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Elihu C. Baker (page does not exist)">Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wentworth_Upham" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Wentworth Upham">Upham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Phelps" title="Charles A. Phelps">Phelps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Claflin" title="William Claflin">Claflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Clifford" title="John H. Clifford">Clifford</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jonathan_E._Field&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jonathan E. Field (page does not exist)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Adams_Pond&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Adams Pond (page does not exist)">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_O._Brastow" title="George O. Brastow">Brastow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Carter_Pitman" title="Robert Carter Pitman">Pitman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_O._Brastow" title="George O. Brastow">Brastow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_H._Coolidge" title="Horace H. Coolidge">H. Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._Loring" title="George B. Loring">Loring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_B._D._Cogswell" title="John B. D. Cogswell">Cogswell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Bishop" title="Robert R. Bishop">Bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_G._Crocker" title="George G. Crocker">Crocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_A._Bruce" title="George A. Bruce">Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_E._Pillsbury" title="Albert E. Pillsbury">Pillsbury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halsey_J._Boardman" title="Halsey J. Boardman">Boardman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_C._Hartwell" title="Harris C. Hartwell">Hartwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_H._Sprague" title="Henry H. Sprague">Sprague</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alfred_S._Pinkerton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfred S. Pinkerton (page does not exist)">Pinkerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_M._Butler" title="William M. Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_P._Lawrence" title="George P. Lawrence">G. Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Edwin_Smith" title="George Edwin Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_A._Soule" class="mw-redirect" title="Rufus A. Soule">Soule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_R._Jones" title="George R. Jones">Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_F._Dana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William F. Dana (page does not exist)">W. Dana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_D._Chapple" title="William D. Chapple">Chapple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allen_T._Treadway" title="Allen T. Treadway">Treadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levi_H._Greenwood" title="Levi H. Greenwood">Greenwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">C. Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Gordon_Wells" title="Henry Gordon Wells">H. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_T._McKnight" title="Edwin T. McKnight">McKnight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_G._Allen" title="Frank G. Allen">Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellington_Wells" title="Wellington Wells">W. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_G._Bacon" title="Gaspar G. Bacon">G. Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erland_F._Fish" title="Erland F. Fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Moran" title="James G. Moran">Moran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_H._Wragg" title="Samuel H. Wragg">Wragg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_R._Cotton" title="Joseph R. Cotton">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angier_Goodwin" title="Angier Goodwin">Goodwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarvis_Hunt_(politician)" title="Jarvis Hunt (politician)">Hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Coolidge" title="Arthur W. Coolidge">A. Coolidge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_W._Nicholson" title="Donald W. Nicholson">Nicholson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_S._Richardson" title="Harris S. Richardson">Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_A._Dolan_Jr." title="Chester A. Dolan Jr.">Dolan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_S._Richardson" title="Harris S. Richardson">Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_I._Furbush" title="Richard I. Furbush">Furbush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newland_H._Holmes" title="Newland H. Holmes">Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_E._Powers" title="John E. Powers">Powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_A._Donahue" title="Maurice A. Donahue">Donahue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kevin_B._Harrington" title="Kevin B. Harrington">Harrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bulger" title="William Bulger">Bulger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Birmingham" title="Tom Birmingham">Birmingham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Travaglini" title="Robert Travaglini">Travaglini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therese_Murray" title="Therese Murray">Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stan_Rosenberg" title="Stan Rosenberg">Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_L._Chandler" title="Harriette L. Chandler">Chandler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Spilka" title="Karen Spilka">Spilka</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="1" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Massachusetts State Flag"><img alt="Massachusetts State Flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg/75px-Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg/113px-Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg/150px-Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="900" /></a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="(←_1792)_1796_United_States_presidential_election_(1800_→)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="Template:1796 United States presidential election"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="Template talk:1796 United States presidential election"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1796 United States presidential election"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="(←_1792)_1796_United_States_presidential_election_(1800_→)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">(<a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">← 1792</a>) <a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796 United States presidential election</a> (<a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800 →</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;font-weight:normal;;box-shadow: inset -5px 0 0 0 #EA9978;"><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nominees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>President: <a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a></li> <li>Vice President: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pinckney" title="Thomas Pinckney">Thomas Pinckney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth" title="Oliver Ellsworth">Oliver Ellsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Jay" title="John Jay">John Jay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Iredell" title="James Iredell">James Iredell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnston" title="Samuel Johnston">Samuel Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;font-weight:normal;;box-shadow: inset -5px 0 0 0 #008000;"><a href="/wiki/Democratic-Republican_Party" title="Democratic-Republican Party">Democratic-Republican Party</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nominees</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>President: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> (elected Vice President)</li> <li>Vice President: <a href="/wiki/Aaron_Burr" title="Aaron Burr">Aaron Burr</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other candidates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samuel Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clinton_(vice_president)" title="George Clinton (vice president)">George Clinton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Other 1796 elections: <a href="/wiki/1796_and_1797_United_States_House_of_Representatives_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1796 and 1797 United States House of Representatives elections">House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1796_and_1797_United_States_Senate_elections" class="mw-redirect" title="1796 and 1797 United States Senate elections">Senate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="John_Adams" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:John_Adams" title="Template:John Adams"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:John_Adams" title="Template talk:John Adams"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:John_Adams" title="Special:EditPage/Template:John Adams"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="John_Adams" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/John_Adams" title="John Adams">John Adams</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">2nd</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1797–1801)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of vice presidents of the United States">1st</a> <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President of the United States</a> (1789–1797)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom">U.S. Minister to the United Kingdom</a> (1785–1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_the_United_States_to_the_Netherlands" title="List of ambassadors of the United States to the Netherlands">U.S. Minister to the Netherlands</a> (1782–1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_delegates_to_the_Continental_Congress" title="List of delegates to the Continental Congress">Delegate</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Second_Continental_Congress" title="Second Continental Congress">Second Continental Congress</a> (1775–1778)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_delegates_to_the_Continental_Congress" title="List of delegates to the Continental Congress">Delegate</a> to the <a href="/wiki/First_Continental_Congress" title="First Continental Congress">First Continental Congress</a> (1774)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding of the United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braintree_Instructions" title="Braintree Instructions">Braintree Instructions (1765)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Massacre#Trials" title="Boston Massacre">Boston Massacre defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petition_to_the_King" title="Petition to the King">Petition to the King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoughts_on_Government" title="Thoughts on Government">Thoughts on Government (1776)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution (seconded)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams#Independence" title="John Adams">Declaration of Independence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence#May_15_preamble" title="United States Declaration of Independence">May 15 preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Five" title="Committee of Five">Committee of Five</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_Treaty" title="Model Treaty">Model Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Amity_and_Commerce_(France%E2%80%93United_States)" title="Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States)">Treaty of Amity and Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alliance_(1778)" title="Treaty of Alliance (1778)">Treaty of Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Board_of_War" title="Board of War">Board of War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy#Secretaries_of_the_Navy" title="United States Secretary of the Navy">Chairman of the Marine Committee, 1775-1779</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Navy" title="Continental Navy">Continental Navy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staten_Island_Peace_Conference" title="Staten Island Peace Conference">Staten Island Peace Conference</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conference_House" title="Conference House">Conference House</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Massachusetts" title="Constitution of Massachusetts">Constitution of Massachusetts (1780)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris, 1783</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_John_Adams" title="Diplomacy of John Adams">Diplomacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1788%E2%80%9389_United_States_presidential_election" title="1788–89 United States presidential election">United States presidential election 1788–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1792_United_States_presidential_election" title="1792 United States presidential election">1792</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1796_United_States_presidential_election" title="1796 United States presidential election">1796</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1800_United_States_presidential_election" title="1800 United States presidential election">1800</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Adams" title="Presidency of John Adams">Presidency</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inauguration_of_John_Adams" title="Inauguration of John Adams">Inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-War" title="Quasi-War">Quasi War with France</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XYZ_Affair" title="XYZ Affair">XYZ Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy" title="United States Department of the Navy">United States Department of the Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Act_further_to_protect_the_commerce_of_the_United_States" title="An Act further to protect the commerce of the United States">Commerce Protection Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">United States Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_of_1800" title="Convention of 1800">Convention of 1800</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Territory" title="Mississippi Territory">Mississippi Organic Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_and_Sedition_Acts" title="Alien and Sedition Acts">Alien and Sedition Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization_Act_of_1798" title="Naturalization Act of 1798">Naturalization Act of 1798</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Act_for_the_relief_of_sick_and_disabled_seamen" title="An Act for the relief of sick and disabled seamen">Sick and Disabled Seamen Relief Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Hospital_Service" title="Marine Hospital Service">Marine Hospital Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy_Act_of_1800" title="Bankruptcy Act of 1800">Bankruptcy Act of 1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_Territory" title="Indiana Territory">Indiana Organic Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_of_1800" title="Slave Trade Act of 1800">Slave Trade Act of 1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Organic_Act_of_1801" title="District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801">District of Columbia Organic Act of 1801</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy_Department_Library" title="Navy Department Library">Navy Department Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tellico" title="Treaty of Tellico">Treaty of Tellico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tripoli" title="Treaty of Tripoli">Treaty of Tripoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midnight_Judges_Act" title="Midnight Judges Act">Midnight Judges Act</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1797_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1797 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address (1797</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1798_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1798 State of the Union Address">1798</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1799_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1799 State of the Union Address">1799</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1800_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1800 State of the Union Address">1800)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Thomas_Jefferson" class="mw-redirect" title="Presidential transition of Thomas Jefferson">Presidential transition of Thomas Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams#Administration_and_cabinet" title="John Adams">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_John_Adams" title="List of federal judges appointed by John Adams">Federal judiciary appointments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Historical_Society#Collections" title="Massachusetts Historical Society">Massachusetts Historical Society holdings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adams_Papers_Editorial_Project" title="Adams Papers Editorial Project">Adams Papers Editorial Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Defence_of_the_Constitutions_of_Government_of_the_United_States_of_America" title="A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America">A Defence of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_of_Mrs._Adams,_the_Wife_of_John_Adams" title="Letters of Mrs. Adams, the Wife of John Adams">Letters of Mrs. Adams, the Wife of John Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founders_Online" title="Founders Online">Founders Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_v._Pitts" title="Gray v. Pitts">Gray v. Pitts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life and homes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams#Early_life_and_education" title="John Adams">Early life and education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_National_Historical_Park" title="Adams National Historical Park">Adams National Historical Park</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Birthplace" title="John Adams Birthplace">John Adams Birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_Birthplace" title="John Quincy Adams Birthplace">Family home and John Quincy Adams birthplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacefield" title="Peacefield">Peacefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_National_Historical_Park#Stone_Library" title="Adams National Historical Park">Stone Library</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Hall_(Harvard_University)" title="Massachusetts Hall (Harvard University)">Massachusetts Hall, Harvard University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President%27s_House_(Philadelphia)" title="President's House (Philadelphia)">Presidents House, Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="American Academy of Arts and Sciences">Co-founder and second president, American Academy of Arts and Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_First_Parish_Church" title="United First Parish Church">United First Parish Church and gravesite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_John_Adams" title="Bibliography of John Adams">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_John_Adams" title="List of memorials to John Adams">List of memorials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_Memorial" title="Adams Memorial">Adams Memorial</a> (proposed)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Building" title="John Adams Building">John Adams Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffolk_County_Courthouse" title="Suffolk County Courthouse">John Adams Courthouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Memorial#Exterior" title="Jefferson Memorial">Jefferson Memorial pediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#John_Adams" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(painting)" title="Treaty of Paris (painting)">Treaty of Paris</a> (1783 painting)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Adams_(1799)" title="USS Adams (1799)">USS Adams</a> (1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_John_Adams_(1799)" title="USS John Adams (1799)">USS John Adams</a> (1799)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Adams_(1874)" title="USS Adams (1874)">USS Adams</a> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_President_Adams_(APA-19)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS President Adams (APA-19)">USS President Adams</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_John_Adams_(SSBN-620)" title="USS John Adams (SSBN-620)">USS John Adams</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams_House_(Harvard_College)" title="Adams House (Harvard College)">Adams House at Harvard University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Adams_(New_Hampshire)" title="Mount Adams (New Hampshire)">Mount Adams (New Hampshire,</a> <a href="/wiki/Mount_Adams_(Washington)" title="Mount Adams (Washington)">Washington)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_to_the_56_Signers_of_the_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence">Memorial to the 56 Signers of the Declaration of Independence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage_(TV_series)" title="Profiles in Courage (TV series)">Profiles in Courage (1964 series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Primitive" title="American Primitive">American Primitive (1969 play)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1776_(musical)" title="1776 (musical)">1776 (1969 musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1776_(film)" title="1776 (film)">1972 film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Adams_Chronicles" title="The Adams Chronicles">The Adams Chronicles (1976 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty!" title="Liberty!">Liberty! (1997 documentary series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty%27s_Kids" title="Liberty's Kids">Liberty's Kids (2002 animated series)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(book)" title="John Adams (book)">John Adams (2001 book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_(miniseries)" title="John Adams (miniseries)">2008 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_and_Abigail_Adams" title="John and Abigail Adams">John and Abigail Adams (2006 documentary film)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Liberty_(miniseries)" title="Sons of Liberty (miniseries)">Sons of Liberty (2015 miniseries)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_(miniseries)" title="Franklin (miniseries)">Franklin (2024 miniseries)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adams_and_Liberty" title="Adams and Liberty">"Adams and Liberty" campaign song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boston_Public_Library#Overview" title="Boston Public Library">Adams' personal library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Enlightenment" title="American Enlightenment">American Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Hall" title="Congress Hall">Congress Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Party" title="Federalist Party">Federalist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Party_System" title="First Party System">First Party System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">republicanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gazette_of_the_United_States" title="Gazette of the United States">Gazette of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_American_Museum_(magazine)" title="The American Museum (magazine)">The American Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patriot_(American_Revolution)" title="Patriot (American Revolution)">patriots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adams_political_family" title="Adams political family">Adams political family</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams" title="Abigail Adams">Abigail Adams</a> <ul><li>wife</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quincy_political_family" title="Quincy political family">Quincy political family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abigail_Adams_Smith" title="Abigail Adams Smith">Abigail Adams Smith</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams" title="John Quincy Adams">John Quincy Adams</a> <ul><li>son</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_John_Quincy_Adams" title="Presidency of John Quincy Adams">presidency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Adams_(1770%E2%80%931800)" title="Charles Adams (1770–1800)">Charles Adams</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Boylston_Adams_(1772%E2%80%931832)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Boylston Adams (1772–1832)">Thomas Boylston Adams</a> (son)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Adams" title="George Washington Adams">George Washington Adams</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Charles Francis Adams Sr.</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_II" title="John Adams II">John Adams II</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_II" title="John Quincy Adams II">John Quincy Adams II</a> (great-grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Adams" title="Henry Adams">Henry Adams</a> (great-grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks_Adams" title="Brooks Adams">Brooks Adams</a> (great-grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Adams_Sr." title="John Adams Sr.">John Adams Sr.</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Boylston" title="Susanna Boylston">Susanna Boylston</a> (mother)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Samuel Adams</a> (second cousin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisa_Adams" title="Louisa Adams">Louisa Adams</a> (daughter-in-law, <a href="/wiki/List_of_first_ladies_of_the_United_States" title="List of first ladies of the United States">first lady</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">← George Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson →</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Thomas Jefferson →</li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:John_Adams" title="Category:John Adams">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212963#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212963#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q212963#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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