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<span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources for the conquest of Mesoamerica subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources_for_the_conquest_of_Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aztec_omens_for_the_conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aztec_omens_for_the_conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Aztec omens for the conquest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aztec_omens_for_the_conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cortés_and_Quetzalcoatl" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cortés_and_Quetzalcoatl"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Cortés and Quetzalcoatl</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cortés_and_Quetzalcoatl-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_expeditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_expeditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Spanish expeditions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Spanish_expeditions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Spanish expeditions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Spanish_expeditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Spanish_expeditions_to_Yucatán" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Spanish_expeditions_to_Yucatán"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Early Spanish expeditions to Yucatán</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Spanish_expeditions_to_Yucatán-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cortés's_expedition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cortés's_expedition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Cortés's expedition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cortés's_expedition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commissioning_the_expedition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commissioning_the_expedition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Commissioning the expedition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commissioning_the_expedition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revoking_the_commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revoking_the_commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Revoking the commission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revoking_the_commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cortés_gains_two_translators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cortés_gains_two_translators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Cortés gains two translators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cortés_gains_two_translators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundation_of_Veracruz" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundation_of_Veracruz"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Foundation of Veracruz</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundation_of_Veracruz-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scuttling_the_fleet_and_aftermath" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scuttling_the_fleet_and_aftermath"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>Scuttling the fleet and aftermath</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scuttling_the_fleet_and_aftermath-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alliance_with_Tlaxcala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alliance_with_Tlaxcala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.6</span> <span>Alliance with Tlaxcala</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alliance_with_Tlaxcala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cortés_marches_to_Cholula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cortés_marches_to_Cholula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7</span> <span>Cortés marches to Cholula</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cortés_marches_to_Cholula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Massacre_of_Cholula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Massacre_of_Cholula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.8</span> <span>Massacre of Cholula</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Massacre_of_Cholula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entry_into_Tenochtitlan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entry_into_Tenochtitlan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.9</span> <span>Entry into Tenochtitlan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entry_into_Tenochtitlan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cortés_welcomed_by_Moctezuma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cortés_welcomed_by_Moctezuma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.10</span> <span>Cortés welcomed by Moctezuma</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cortés_welcomed_by_Moctezuma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Defeat_of_Narváez" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Defeat_of_Narváez"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.11</span> <span>Defeat of Narváez</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Defeat_of_Narváez-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Aztec_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Aztec_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.12</span> <span>The Aztec response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Aztec_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Spanish_retreat_from_Tenochtitlan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Spanish_retreat_from_Tenochtitlan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.13</span> <span>The Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Spanish_retreat_from_Tenochtitlan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spaniards_find_refuge_in_Tlaxcala" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spaniards_find_refuge_in_Tlaxcala"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.14</span> <span>Spaniards find refuge in Tlaxcala</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spaniards_find_refuge_in_Tlaxcala-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Siege_and_fall_of_Tenochtitlan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Siege_and_fall_of_Tenochtitlan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.15</span> <span>Siege and fall of Tenochtitlan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Siege_and_fall_of_Tenochtitlan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_Spanish_Wars_of_Conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_Spanish_Wars_of_Conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Further Spanish Wars of Conquest</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_Spanish_Wars_of_Conquest-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further Spanish Wars of Conquest subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_Spanish_Wars_of_Conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Michoacan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Michoacan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Michoacan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Michoacan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Yucatán_Peninsula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conquest_of_the_Yucatán_Peninsula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conquest_of_the_Yucatán_Peninsula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chichimec_Wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chichimec_Wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Chichimec Wars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chichimec_Wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Aztecs_under_Spanish_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Aztecs_under_Spanish_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The Aztecs under Spanish rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Aztecs_under_Spanish_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_depictions_of_the_Aztecs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_depictions_of_the_Aztecs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Cultural depictions of the Aztecs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_depictions_of_the_Aztecs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Secondary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.3</span> <span>Additional bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaanse_verowering_van_die_Asteekse_Ryk" title="Spaanse verowering van die Asteekse Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Spaanse verowering van die Asteekse Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%B2%D9%88_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A2%D8%B2%D8%AA%D9%83" title="الغزو الإسباني لإمبراطورية الآزتك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الغزو الإسباني لإمبراطورية الآزتك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_de_M%C3%A9xicu" title="Conquista de Méxicu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Conquista de Méxicu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B2%D8%AA%DA%A9_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86_%D8%A2%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="آزتک ایمپراتورلوغونون ایسپانیوللار طرفیندن آلینماسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آزتک ایمپراتورلوغونون ایسپانیوللار طرفیندن آلینماسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%90%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Завладяване на Ацтекската империя – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Завладяване на Ацтекската империя" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquesta_de_l%27Imperi_Asteca" title="Conquesta de l'Imperi Asteca – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Conquesta de l'Imperi Asteca" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dob%C3%BDv%C3%A1n%C3%AD_Azt%C3%A9ck%C3%A9_%C5%99%C3%AD%C5%A1e" title="Dobývání Aztécké říše – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dobývání Aztécké říše" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanische_Eroberung_Mexikos" title="Spanische Eroberung Mexikos – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spanische Eroberung Mexikos" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_de_M%C3%A9xico" title="Conquista de México – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Conquista de México" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkero_de_Meksiko" title="Konkero de Meksiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Konkero de Meksiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inperio_Aztekako_konkista" title="Inperio Aztekako konkista – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Inperio Aztekako konkista" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%B2%D8%AA%DA%A9_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="فتح امپراتوری آزتک توسط اسپانیا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فتح امپراتوری آزتک توسط اسپانیا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chute_de_l%27Empire_azt%C3%A8que" title="Chute de l'Empire aztèque – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chute de l'Empire aztèque" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_do_Imperio_Azteca" title="Conquista do Imperio Azteca – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Conquista do Imperio Azteca" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A9%95%EC%8B%9C%EC%BD%94_%EC%A0%95%EB%B3%B5" title="멕시코 정복 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="멕시코 정복" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0panjolsko_osvajanje_Meksika" title="Španjolsko osvajanje Meksika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Španjolsko osvajanje Meksika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penaklukan_Kekaisaran_Aztek_oleh_Spanyol" title="Penaklukan Kekaisaran Aztek oleh Spanyol – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penaklukan Kekaisaran Aztek oleh Spanyol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_dell%27impero_azteco" title="Conquista dell'impero azteco – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Conquista dell'impero azteco" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9B%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A9_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%99_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A6%D7%98%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%AA" title="הכיבוש הספרדי של האימפריה האצטקית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הכיבוש הספרדי של האימפריה האצטקית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A7%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="აცტეკების იმპერიის დაპყრობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="აცტეკების იმპერიის დაპყრობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meksikos_u%C5%BEkariavimas" title="Meksikos užkariavimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Meksikos užkariavimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexik%C3%B3_spanyol_megh%C3%B3d%C3%ADt%C3%A1sa" title="Mexikó spanyol meghódítása – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mexikó spanyol meghódítása" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penaklukan_Empayar_Aztek_oleh_Sepanyol" title="Penaklukan Empayar Aztek oleh Sepanyol – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penaklukan Empayar Aztek oleh Sepanyol" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaanse_verovering_van_het_Azteekse_Rijk" title="Spaanse verovering van het Azteekse Rijk – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Spaanse verovering van het Azteekse Rijk" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B9%E3%83%9A%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%81%AB%E3%82%88%E3%82%8B%E3%82%A2%E3%82%B9%E3%83%86%E3%82%AB%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E5%BE%81%E6%9C%8D" title="スペインによるアステカ帝国の征服 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="スペインによるアステカ帝国の征服" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%B9%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%DB%81%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD" title="ازٹیک سلطنت دی ہسپانوی فتح – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ازٹیک سلطنت دی ہسپانوی فتح" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podb%C3%B3j_Meksyku_przez_Hiszpan%C3%B3w" title="Podbój Meksyku przez Hiszpanów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Podbój Meksyku przez Hiszpanów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquista_do_Imp%C3%A9rio_Asteca" title="Conquista do Império Asteca – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conquista do Império Asteca" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cucerirea_spaniol%C4%83_a_Imperiului_Aztec" title="Cucerirea spaniolă a Imperiului Aztec – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cucerirea spaniolă a Imperiului Aztec" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8F_%D0%90%D0%B7%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Добытя Азтецкой империи Испанцями – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Добытя Азтецкой империи Испанцями" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Завоевание Мексики – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Завоевание Мексики" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Шпанско освајање Мексика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Шпанско освајање Мексика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteekkivaltakunnan_valloitus" title="Asteekkivaltakunnan valloitus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Asteekkivaltakunnan valloitus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="அசுடெக் பேரரசை எசுப்பானியர் கைப்பற்றுதல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அசுடெக் பேரரசை எசுப்பானியர் கைப்பற்றுதல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%99" title="การพิชิตจักรวรรดิแอซเท็กของสเปน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การพิชิตจักรวรรดิแอซเท็กของสเปน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztek_%C4%B0mparatorlu%C4%9Fu%27nun_%C4%B0spanyollar_taraf%C4%B1ndan_fethi" title="Aztek İmparatorluğu'nun İspanyollar tarafından fethi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Aztek İmparatorluğu'nun İspanyollar tarafından fethi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%B2" title="Іспанське завоювання ацтеків – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Іспанське завоювання ацтеків" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%B9%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%DB%81%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C_%D9%81%D8%AA%D8%AD" title="ازٹیک سلطنت کی ہسپانوی فتح – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ازٹیک سلطنت کی ہسپانوی فتح" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A2y_Ban_Nha_chinh_ph%E1%BB%A5c_%C4%90%E1%BA%BF_qu%E1%BB%91c_Aztec" title="Tây Ban Nha chinh phục Đế quốc Aztec – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tây Ban Nha chinh phục Đế quốc Aztec" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E7%8F%AD%E7%89%99%E5%BE%81%E6%9C%8D%E9%98%BF%E5%85%B9%E7%89%B9%E5%85%8B%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="西班牙征服阿兹特克帝国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="西班牙征服阿兹特克帝国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">16th-century Spanish invasion of Mesoamerica</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Indian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Indian Wars">Mexican Indian Wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png/300px-Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png/450px-Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png/600px-Conquista-de-M%C3%A9xico-por-Cort%C3%A9s-Tenochtitlan-Painting.png 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1702" /></a></span><br /><i>Conquest of Mexico by <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Cortés</a></i>, oil on canvas<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">Conquista de México por Cortés</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>February 1519 – 13 August 1521 against the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a>,<br />after 1529 – 17 February 1530 against the <a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_Empire" title="Purépecha Empire">Purépecha Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location"><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a> and other indigenous states (modern-day Mexico)</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Spanish-Indigenous allied victory</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> Annexation of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_Empire" title="Purépecha Empire">Purépecha Empire</a>, and others by the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a><br />Creation of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of New Spain">Kingdom of New Spain</a></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile"><img alt="Crown of Castile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/23px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/35px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/45px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburg Spain</a> </p> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile"><img alt="Crown of Castile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/23px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/35px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/45px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian Viceroyalty</a> (until 1521)</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile"><img alt="Crown of Castile" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/23px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/35px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/45px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (from 1521)</li></ul> <p><b>Indigenous allies:</b> </p> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg/16px-TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg/24px-TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg/32px-TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg 2x" data-file-width="403" data-file-height="464" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Confederacy of Tlaxcala</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tetzcoco_glyph.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Tetzcoco_glyph.svg/16px-Tetzcoco_glyph.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Tetzcoco_glyph.svg/24px-Tetzcoco_glyph.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Tetzcoco_glyph.svg/32px-Tetzcoco_glyph.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1090" data-file-height="1718" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Tetzcoco_(altepetl)" title="Tetzcoco (altepetl)">Tetzcoco</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Escudo_de_armas_de_Zempoala.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Escudo_de_armas_de_Zempoala.gif/18px-Escudo_de_armas_de_Zempoala.gif" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Escudo_de_armas_de_Zempoala.gif/27px-Escudo_de_armas_de_Zempoala.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Escudo_de_armas_de_Zempoala.gif/36px-Escudo_de_armas_de_Zempoala.gif 2x" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="250" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Totonacapan" title="Totonacapan">Totonacapan</a></li> <li>Huejotzingo</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Zaachila" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Zaachila">Zaachila</a><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Zaachila"><a href="#endnote_Zaachila">a</a></sup></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png/16px-Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png/24px-Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png/32px-Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="541" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_Empire" title="Purépecha Empire">Purépecha Empire</a> <span class="nowrap">(1522-1529, since 1533)</span></li></ul> <p><b>Support or occasional allies<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Support"><a href="#endnote_Support">b</a></sup>:</b> </p> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Otomitl_glyph.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Otomitl_glyph.svg/16px-Otomitl_glyph.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Otomitl_glyph.svg/24px-Otomitl_glyph.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Otomitl_glyph.svg/32px-Otomitl_glyph.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="558" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Otomi" title="Otomi">Otomi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalco_(alt%C3%A9petl)" title="Chalco (altépetl)">Chalco</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glifo_Xochimilco.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Glifo_Xochimilco.svg/16px-Glifo_Xochimilco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Glifo_Xochimilco.svg/24px-Glifo_Xochimilco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Glifo_Xochimilco.svg/32px-Glifo_Xochimilco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="424" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Xochimilco" title="Xochimilco">Xochimilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Andr%C3%A9s_Mixquic" title="San Andrés Mixquic">Mixquic</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glifo_Iztapalapa.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Glifo_Iztapalapa.png/16px-Glifo_Iztapalapa.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Glifo_Iztapalapa.png/24px-Glifo_Iztapalapa.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Glifo_Iztapalapa.png/32px-Glifo_Iztapalapa.png 2x" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="1382" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Iztapalapa" title="Iztapalapa">Iztapalapa</a></li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire"><img alt="Aztec Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Aztec_Triple_Alliance.png/26px-Aztec_Triple_Alliance.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Aztec_Triple_Alliance.png/39px-Aztec_Triple_Alliance.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Aztec_Triple_Alliance.png/52px-Aztec_Triple_Alliance.png 2x" data-file-width="2908" data-file-height="1388" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Triple Alliance</a> <span class="nowrap">(1519–1521)</span> </p> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tenochtitlan_Glyph_ZP.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Tenochtitlan_Glyph_ZP.svg/16px-Tenochtitlan_Glyph_ZP.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Tenochtitlan_Glyph_ZP.svg/24px-Tenochtitlan_Glyph_ZP.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Tenochtitlan_Glyph_ZP.svg/32px-Tenochtitlan_Glyph_ZP.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="90" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tlatelolco_glyph.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Tlatelolco_glyph.svg/16px-Tlatelolco_glyph.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="8" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Tlatelolco_glyph.svg/24px-Tlatelolco_glyph.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Tlatelolco_glyph.svg/32px-Tlatelolco_glyph.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="135" data-file-height="70" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_(altepetl)" title="Tlatelolco (altepetl)">Tlatelolco</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chalco_Glyph_ZP.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Chalco_Glyph_ZP.svg/16px-Chalco_Glyph_ZP.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Chalco_Glyph_ZP.svg/24px-Chalco_Glyph_ZP.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Chalco_Glyph_ZP.svg/32px-Chalco_Glyph_ZP.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Chalco_(alt%C3%A9petl)" title="Chalco (altépetl)">Chalco</a></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glifo_Xochimilco.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Glifo_Xochimilco.svg/16px-Glifo_Xochimilco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Glifo_Xochimilco.svg/24px-Glifo_Xochimilco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Glifo_Xochimilco.svg/32px-Glifo_Xochimilco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="424" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Xochimilco#History" title="Xochimilco">Xochimilco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xaltocan" title="Xaltocan">Xaltocan</a></li></ul></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tlacopan_glyph.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Tlacopan_glyph.svg/16px-Tlacopan_glyph.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Tlacopan_glyph.svg/24px-Tlacopan_glyph.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Tlacopan_glyph.svg/32px-Tlacopan_glyph.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1697" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Tlacopan" title="Tlacopan">Tlacopan</a></li></ul> <p><b>Allied <a href="/wiki/Altepetl" title="Altepetl">city-states</a>:</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teotitlan_(altepetl)" class="mw-redirect" title="Teotitlan (altepetl)">Teotitlan</a></li></ul> <p><b>Independent kingdoms and <a href="/wiki/Altepetl" title="Altepetl">city-states</a>:</b> </p> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg/16px-TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg/24px-TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg/32px-TlaxcalaGlyph.jpg 2x" data-file-width="403" data-file-height="464" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Confederacy of Tlaxcala</a> <span class="nowrap">(1519)</span></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png/16px-Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png/24px-Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png/32px-Glifo_Michhuahc%C4%81n.png 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="541" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_Empire" title="Purépecha Empire">Purépecha Empire</a> <span class="nowrap">(1522)</span></li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Glifo_de_Metztitlan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Glifo_de_Metztitlan.png/16px-Glifo_de_Metztitlan.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Glifo_de_Metztitlan.png/24px-Glifo_de_Metztitlan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Glifo_de_Metztitlan.png/32px-Glifo_de_Metztitlan.png 2x" data-file-width="513" data-file-height="526" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Metztitlan_(altepetl)" class="mw-redirect" title="Metztitlan (altepetl)">Metztitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tututepec" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Tututepec">Tututepec</a> (1522)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yopitzinco" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Yopitzinco">Yopitzinco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Colliman" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Colliman">Colliman</a> (1523)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Xalisco" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Xalisco">Xalisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guamare" title="Guamare">Guamare Confederacy</a></li> <li>Other <a href="/wiki/Chichimeca" title="Chichimeca">Chichimecas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonallan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonallan Kingdom">Tonallan</a></li> <li>Various petty city-states and tribes (<a href="/wiki/File:Territorial_Organization_of_the_Aztec_Empire_1519.png" title="File:Territorial Organization of the Aztec Empire 1519.png">map</a>)</li></ul> <hr /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/23px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/35px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg/45px-Royal_Banner_of_the_Crown_of_Castille_%28Habsburg_Style%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Governorate of Cuba</a> (1520, <i><a href="#Defeat_of_Narváez">see</a></i>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p>Spanish commanders: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_de_Sandoval" title="Gonzalo de Sandoval">Gonzalo de Sandoval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_de_Olid" title="Cristóbal de Olid">Cristóbal de Olid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Ordaz" title="Diego de Ordaz">Diego de Ordaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nu%C3%B1o_de_Guzm%C3%A1n" title="Nuño de Guzmán">Nuño de Guzmán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Escalante" title="Juan de Escalante">Juan de Escalante</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li></ul> <p>Indigenous allies: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_II" title="Xicotencatl II">Xicotencatl the Younger</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_I" title="Xicotencatl I">Xicotencatl the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxixcatl" title="Maxixcatl">Maxixcatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chichimecatecuhtli" title="Chichimecatecuhtli">Chichimecatecuhtli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xicomecoatl" title="Xicomecoatl">Xicomecoatl</a> of Cempoala</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosijopii_I" title="Cosijopii I">Cosijopii I</a> of Zaachila</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ixtlilxochitl_II" title="Ixtlilxochitl II">Ixtlilxochitl II</a> of Texcoco</li></ul></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p>Aztec commanders: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuitl%C3%A1huac" title="Cuitláhuac">Cuitláhuac</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc" title="Cuauhtémoc">Cuauhtémoc</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itzquauhtzin" title="Itzquauhtzin">Itzquauhtzin</a> of Tlatelolco <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cacamatzin" title="Cacamatzin">Cacamatzin</a> of Texcoco <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coanacoch" title="Coanacoch">Coanacoch</a> of Texcoco <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetlepanquetzal" title="Tetlepanquetzal">Tetlepanquetzal</a> of Tlacopan <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li></ul> <hr /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tangaxuan_II" title="Tangaxuan II">Tangaxuan II</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment" title="Executed"><img alt="Executed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/14px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/21px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Skull_and_Crossbones.svg/28px-Skull_and_Crossbones.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="510" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li>Various local rulers and chieftains</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wounded_in_action" title="Wounded in action"><abbr title="Wounded in action">WIA</abbr></a>) (<a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war"><abbr title="Prisoner of war">POW</abbr></a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spaniards</a> (total): </p> <ul><li>~2,500–3,000 infantry<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas,_Hugh_1993_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas,_Hugh_1993-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>90–100 cavalry</li> <li>32 guns</li> <li>13 <a href="/wiki/Brigantine" title="Brigantine">brigantines</a></li></ul> ~80,000–200,000 <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcaltec" title="Tlaxcaltec">Tlaxcaltecs</a><br />~10,000 <a href="/wiki/Totonac" title="Totonac">Totonac</a> (~8,400 followed Cortés from <a href="/wiki/Cempoala" title="Cempoala">Cempoala</a>)<br />and high number of other <a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">indigenous allies</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li>200,000 <a href="/wiki/Mexica" title="Mexica">Mexica</a>-<a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li>100,000 <a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha" title="Purépecha">Purépecha</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li>Unknown number of other natives</li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li>900 Spaniards at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cempoala" title="Battle of Cempoala">Battle of Cempoala</a> (1520)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p>1,800 Spaniards dead<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas,_Hugh_1993_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas,_Hugh_1993-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>1,000 killed in battle<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>15+ cannons lost<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> Tens of thousands of <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcaltec" title="Tlaxcaltec">Tlaxcaltecs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">indigenous allies</a> dead<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <p>200,000 Aztecs dead (including civilians)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>300 war canoes sunk<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <hr />Unknown casualties of other natives<hr />15 Spaniards dead, many wounded at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cempoala" title="Battle of Cempoala">Battle of Cempoala</a> (1520)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-top:1px dotted #aaa;"> 10,500,000 deaths as a result of the conquest (87.5% of the population of the modern day territory of Mexico)<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_Zaachila"><b><a href="#ref_Zaachila">^</a></b></span> a. Formed an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> against <a href="/wiki/Mixtecos" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixtecos">Mixtecos</a>.</li></ul></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_Zaachila"><b><a href="#ref_Zaachila">^</a></b></span> b. Primarily military support against <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan and joined the siege</a> (1521).</td></tr></tbody></table><div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Conquest_of_Mexico" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Conquest of Mexico"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><span class="wrap">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potonchan" class="mw-redirect" title="Potonchan">Potonchan</a> (1519)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Centla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Centla (page does not exist)">Centla</a> (1519)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cempoala" title="Cempoala">Cempoala</a> (1519)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Tlaxcala</a> (1519)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholula_massacre" title="Cholula massacre">Cholula</a> (1519)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Nautla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Battle of Nautla (page does not exist)">Nautla</a> (1519)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cempoala" title="Battle of Cempoala">Narvaez's Expedition</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massacre_in_the_Great_Temple_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Massacre in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan Massacre</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Otumba" title="Battle of Otumba">Otumba</a> (1520)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Colhuacatonco" title="Battle of Colhuacatonco">Colhuacatonco</a> (1521)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> (1521)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_colonial_campaigns" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Spanish_colonial_campaigns" title="Template:Campaignbox Spanish colonial campaigns"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Spanish_colonial_campaigns" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Spanish colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Spanish_colonial_campaigns" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Spanish colonial campaigns"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_colonial_campaigns" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire"><span class="wrap">Spanish colonial campaigns</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <dl><dt>15th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands (1402–96)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_la_Mar_Peque%C3%B1a" title="Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña">Santa Cruz de la Mar Pequeña (1478)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guinea" title="Battle of Guinea">Guinea (1478)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1497)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Mers-el-Kébir (1497)">Algeria (1497)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Melilla" title="Conquest of Melilla"> Melilla (1497)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>16th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1505)" title="Capture of Mers-el-Kébir (1505)">Algeria (1505)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mers-el-K%C3%A9bir_(1507)" title="Battle of Mers-el-Kébir (1507)">Algeria (1507)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera_(1508)" title="Conquest of the Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera (1508)">Morocco (1508)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1509)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1509)">Algeria (1509)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa_(1510)" title="Capture of Béjaïa (1510)">Algeria (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Tripoli" title="Spanish conquest of Tripoli">Tripoli (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_Djerba_(1510)" title="Spanish assault on Djerba (1510)">Tunisia (1510)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Ta%C3%ADno_War_of_San_Juan%E2%80%93Borik%C3%A9n" title="Spanish–Taíno War of San Juan–Borikén">Puerto Rico (1511–29)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1516)" title="Algiers expedition (1516)">Algeria (1516)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tlemcen_(1518)" title="Fall of Tlemcen (1518)">Algeria (1517–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_Indian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican Indian Wars">Mexico (1519–1821)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mexico (1519–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1519)" title="Algiers expedition (1519)">Algeria (1519)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_Djerba_(1520)" title="Spanish assault on Djerba (1520)">Tunisia (1520)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas (1523–1695)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala (1524–1697)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador (1524–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras (1524–39)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera_expedition_(1525)" title="Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera expedition (1525)">Morocco (1525)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán (1527–1697)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers_(1529)" title="Capture of Peñón of Algiers (1529)">Algeria (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_Cherchell_(1531)" title="Campaign of Cherchell (1531)">Algeria (1531)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Peru (1532–72)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1534)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1534)">Tunisia (1534)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War"> Brazil (1534-36)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Tlemcen_(1535)" title="Spanish expedition to Tlemcen (1535)">Algeria (1535)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunisia (1535)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia (1537–40)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algeria (1541)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Mostaganem_(1543)" title="Expedition to Mostaganem (1543)">Algeria (1543)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Jailolo" title="Attack on Jailolo">Halmahera (1545)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arauco_War" title="Arauco War">Chile (1546–1662)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Mostaganem_(1547)" title="Expedition to Mostaganem (1547)">Algeria (1547)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Mahdia_(1550)" title="Capture of Mahdia (1550)">Tunisia (1550)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tripoli_(1551)" title="Siege of Tripoli (1551)">Libya (1551)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa_(1555)" title="Capture of Béjaïa (1555)">Algeria (1555)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Oran_(1556)" title="Siege of Oran (1556)">Algeria (1556)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_to_Mostaganem_(1558)" title="Expedition to Mostaganem (1558)">Algeria (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Tunisia (1560)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calchaqu%C3%AD_Wars" title="Calchaquí Wars">Argentine Northwest (1560–1667)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Oran_and_Mers_El_K%C3%A9bir" title="Sieges of Oran and Mers El Kébir">Algeria (1563)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera_expedition_(1563)" title="Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera expedition (1563)">Morocco (1563)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_de_V%C3%A9lez_de_la_Gomera" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera">Morocco (1564)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Philippines (1565–1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_assault_on_French_Florida" title="Spanish assault on French Florida">Florida (1565)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_revolts_against_Spain" title="Philippine revolts against Spain">Philippines (1567–72)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1573)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1573)">Tunisia (1573)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunisia (1574)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Brunei (1578)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternate_expedition_(1582)" title="Ternate expedition (1582)">Insulindia (1582)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternate_expedition_(1585)" title="Ternate expedition (1585)">Insulindia (1585)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambodian%E2%80%93Spanish_War" title="Cambodian–Spanish War">Cambodia (1593–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">Puerto Rico (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindanao_expedition" title="Mindanao expedition">Philippines (1596)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pinos" title="Battle of Pinos">Cuba (1596)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1598)" title="Battle of San Juan (1598)">Puerto Rico (1598)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_of_Visayas_(1599-1600)" class="mw-redirect" title="Raid of Visayas (1599-1600)">Philippines (1599-1600)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>17th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jolo_expedition_(1602)" title="Jolo expedition (1602)">Philippines (1602)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ternate_expedition_(1603)" title="Ternate expedition (1603)">Insulindia (1603)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hammamet" title="Battle of Hammamet">Tunisia (1605)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Moluccas" title="Spanish conquest of the Moluccas">Moluccas (1606)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehdya,_Morocco#Spanish_occupation_(1614–81)" title="Mehdya, Morocco">Morocco (1614)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén (1618–97)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Brazil (1625)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Formosa" title="Spanish expedition to Formosa">Taiwan (1626)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Kitts_(1629)" title="Battle of St. Kitts (1629)">St. Kitts <b>·</b> Nevis (1629)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jolo_expedition_(1630)" title="Jolo expedition (1630)">Philippines (1630)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Abrolhos" title="Battle of Abrolhos">Brazil (1631)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Salvador_(1638)" title="Siege of Salvador (1638)">Brazil (1638)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_occupation_of_Jolo_(1638)" title="Spanish occupation of Jolo (1638)">Philippines (1638-46)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Action_of_12%E2%80%9317_January_1640" title="Action of 12–17 January 1640">Brazil (1640)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Salvador_(1641)" title="Battle of San Salvador (1641)">Taiwan (1641)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Salvador_(1642)" title="Battle of San Salvador (1642)">Taiwan (1642)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_expedition_to_Valdivia" title="Dutch expedition to Valdivia">Chiloé <b>·</b> Valdivia (1643)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battles_of_La_Naval_de_Manila" title="Battles of La Naval de Manila">Philippines (1646)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Fort_Rocher" title="Capture of Fort Rocher">Tortuga (1654)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Santo_Domingo_(1655)" title="Siege of Santo Domingo (1655)">Hispaniola (1655)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Jamaica" title="Invasion of Jamaica">Jamaica (1655)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ocho_Rios" title="Battle of Ocho Rios">Jamaica (1657)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rio_Nuevo" title="Battle of Rio Nuevo">Jamaica (1658)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan%27s_raid_on_Porto_Bello" title="Henry Morgan's raid on Porto Bello">Porto Bello (1668)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan%27s_raid_on_Lake_Maracaibo" title="Henry Morgan's raid on Lake Maracaibo">Lake Maracaibo (1669)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morgan%27s_Panama_expedition" title="Henry Morgan's Panama expedition">Panama (1671)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Revolt" title="Pueblo Revolt">New Mexico (1680–92)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Larache_(1689)" title="Siege of Larache (1689)">Morocco (1689)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>18th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">North America (1702–13)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huilliche_uprising_of_1712" title="Huilliche uprising of 1712">Chiloé (1712)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Nassau_(1720)" title="Raid on Nassau (1720)">Bahamas (1720)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_uprising_of_1723" title="Mapuche uprising of 1723">Chile (1723–1726)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Oran_(1732)" title="Spanish conquest of Oran (1732)">Oran (1732)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Portuguese_War_(1735%E2%80%931737)" title="Spanish–Portuguese War (1735–1737)">Banda Oriental (1735–37)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">Caribbean and North America (1739–48)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantastic_War" title="Fantastic War">Iberian Peninsula and South America (1762–63)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_invasion_of_Portugal_(1762)" title="Spanish invasion of Portugal (1762)">Portugal (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Cevallos_expedition" title="First Cevallos expedition">Banda Oriental and Rio Grande do Sul (1762–63)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Havana" title="Siege of Havana">Cuba (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_for_R%C3%ADo_San_Juan_de_Nicaragua" title="Battle for Río San Juan de Nicaragua">Nicaragua (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1762)" title="Battle of Manila (1762)">Philippines (1762)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_uprising_of_1766" title="Mapuche uprising of 1766">Chile (1766–1767)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Algiers_(1775)" title="Invasion of Algiers (1775)">Algiers (1775)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Portuguese_War_(1776%E2%80%931777)" title="Spanish–Portuguese War (1776–1777)">Banda Oriental (1776–1777)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_and_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="Spain and the American Revolutionary War">North America (1779–83)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Peru (1780–82)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">New Granada (1781)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1783)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1783)">Algiers (1783)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombardment_of_Algiers_(1784)" title="Bombardment of Algiers (1784)">Algiers (1784)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huilliche_uprising_of_1792" title="Huilliche uprising of 1792">Chile (1792)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1796%E2%80%931808)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1796–1808)">Caribbean (1796–1802)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>19th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_invasions_of_the_River_Plate" title="British invasions of the River Plate">Río de la Plata (1806–07)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Spanish America (1808–33)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bolivian_War_of_Independence" title="Bolivian War of Independence">Bolivia (1809–25)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_War_of_Independence" title="Argentine War of Independence">Argentina (1810–18)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Florida_Controversy" title="West Florida Controversy">Florida (1810)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraguay_campaign" title="Paraguay campaign">Paraguay (1810–11)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican_War_of_Independence" title="Mexican War of Independence">Mexico (1810–21)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peruvian_War_of_Independence" title="Peruvian War of Independence">Peru (1811–24)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1811_Independence_Movement" title="1811 Independence Movement">El Salvador (1811)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Las_Piedras_(1811)" title="Battle of Las Piedras (1811)">Uruguay (1811)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venezuelan_War_of_Independence" title="Venezuelan War of Independence">Venezuela (1811–23)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilean_War_of_Independence" title="Chilean War of Independence">Chile (1812–27)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_reconquest_of_New_Granada" title="Spanish reconquest of New Granada">Colombia (1815–16)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bol%C3%ADvar%27s_campaign_to_liberate_New_Granada" title="Bolívar's campaign to liberate New Granada">Colombia (1819–20)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecuadorian_War_of_Independence" title="Ecuadorian War of Independence">Ecuador (1820–22)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_attempts_to_reconquer_Mexico" title="Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico">Mexico (1821–29)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Balanguingui" title="Spanish expedition to Balanguingui">Balanguingui (1848)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochinchina_campaign" title="Cochinchina campaign">Cochinchina (1858–62)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Moroccan_War_(1859%E2%80%931860)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–1860)">Morocco (1859–1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominican_Restoration_War" title="Dominican Restoration War">Dominican Republic (1863–65)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chincha_Islands_War" title="Chincha Islands War">Peru and Chile (1864–66)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grito_de_Lares" title="Grito de Lares">Puerto Rico (1868)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Years%27_War" title="Ten Years' War">Cuba (1868–78)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_War_(Cuba)" title="Little War (Cuba)">Cuba (1879–80)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Melillan_campaign" title="First Melillan campaign">Morocco (1893–94)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuban_War_of_Independence" title="Cuban War of Independence">Cuba (1895–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Revolution" title="Philippine Revolution">Philippines (1896–98)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico_campaign" title="Puerto Rico campaign">Puerto Rico (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam (1898)</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>20th century</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Melillan_campaign" title="Second Melillan campaign">Morocco (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kert_campaign" title="Kert campaign">Morocco (1911–12)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rif_War" title="Rif War">Morocco (1920–26)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifni_War" title="Ifni War">Morocco (1957–58)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_insurgency" title="Sahrawi insurgency">Western Sahara (1973–76)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_March" title="Green March">Western Sahara (1975)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width: 16em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztec civilization</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Teopanzolco_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Teopanzolco_%28cropped%29.jpg/235px-Teopanzolco_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="235" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Teopanzolco_%28cropped%29.jpg/353px-Teopanzolco_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Teopanzolco_%28cropped%29.jpg/470px-Teopanzolco_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2122" data-file-height="1384" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Aztec_society" title="Aztec society">Aztec society</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_mythology" title="Aztec mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_medicine" title="Aztec medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Aztec_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Aztec culture">Human sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Templo_Mayor" title="Templo Mayor">Templo Mayor</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Aztecs" title="History of the Aztecs">Aztec history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztl%C3%A1n" title="Aztlán">Aztlán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_warfare" title="Aztec warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_codices" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec codices">Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Tlaxcallan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Fall of Tenochtitlan</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aztecbox" title="Template:Aztecbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aztecbox" title="Template talk:Aztecbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aztecbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aztecbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire</b> was a pivotal event in the history of the Americas, marked by the collision of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Triple_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec Triple Alliance">Aztec Triple Alliance</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a>. Taking place between 1519 and 1521, this event saw the Spanish <a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">conquistador</a> <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>, and his small army of European soldiers and numerous indigenous allies, overthrowing one of the most powerful empires in <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>. </p><p>Led by the Aztec ruler <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a>, the Aztec Empire had established dominance over central Mexico through military conquest and intricate alliances. Because the Aztec Empire ruled via <a href="/wiki/Hegemon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegemon">hegemonic control</a> by maintaining local leadership and relying on the <a href="/wiki/Compellence" title="Compellence">psychological perception of Aztec power—backed by military force</a>—the Aztecs normally kept subordinate rulers compliant. This was an inherently unstable system of governance, as this situation could change with any alteration in the <a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">status quo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Aztec_Warfare:_Imperial_Expansion_and_Political_Control_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aztec_Warfare:_Imperial_Expansion_and_Political_Control-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A combination of factors including superior weaponry, strategic alliances with oppressed or <a href="/wiki/Political_opportunism" title="Political opportunism">otherwise dissatisfied or opportunistic indigenous groups</a>, and the impact of European diseases contributed to the downfall of the short rule of the Aztec civilization. </p><p>The invasion of <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlán</a>, the capital of the Aztec Empire, marked the beginning of Spanish dominance in the region and the establishment of New Spain. This conquest had profound consequences, as it led to the cultural assimilation of the Spanish culture, while also paving the way for the emergence of a new social hierarchy dominated by Spanish conquerors and their descendants. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significant_events_in_the_conquest_of_Mesoamerica">Significant events in the conquest of Mesoamerica</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Significant events in the conquest of Mesoamerica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following an earlier expedition to <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Grijalva" title="Juan de Grijalva">Juan de Grijalva</a> in 1518, Spanish conquistador <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1ndo_Cort%C3%A9s" class="mw-redirect" title="Hernándo Cortés">Hernándo Cortés</a> led an expedition (<i>entrada</i>) to Mexico. The next year, Cortés and his retinue set sail for Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-spanishwars.net_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spanishwars.net-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish campaign against the Aztec Empire had its final victory on 13 August 1521, when a coalition army of Spanish forces and native <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Tlaxcalan</a> warriors led by Cortés and <a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_II" title="Xicotencatl II">Xicotencatl the Younger</a> captured the emperor <a href="/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc" title="Cuauhtémoc">Cuauhtémoc</a> and Tenochtitlan, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Triple_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec Triple Alliance">Aztec Empire</a>. The fall of Tenochtitlan marks the beginning of Spanish rule in central Mexico, and they established their capital of <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a> on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. </p><p>Cortés made alliances with tributary city-states (<i><a href="/wiki/Altepetl" title="Altepetl">altepetl</a></i>) of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a> as well as their political rivals, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcaltec" title="Tlaxcaltec">Tlaxcaltecs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tetzcoco_(altepetl)" title="Tetzcoco (altepetl)">Tetzcocans</a>, a former partner in the Aztec Triple Alliance. Other city-states also joined, including <a href="/wiki/Cempoala" title="Cempoala">Cempoala</a> and <a href="/wiki/Huejotzingo" title="Huejotzingo">Huejotzingo</a> and polities bordering <a href="/wiki/Lake_Texcoco" title="Lake Texcoco">Lake Texcoco</a>, the inland lake system of the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Mexico" title="Valley of Mexico">Valley of Mexico</a>. Particularly important to the Spanish success was a multilingual (Nahuatl, a Maya dialect, and Spanish) Nahua-speaking woman enslaved by the Mayas, known to the Spanish conquistadors as Doña Marina, and later as <a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a>. After eight months of battles and negotiations, which overcame the diplomatic resistance of the Aztec Emperor <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a> to his visit, Cortés arrived in <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> on 8 November 1519, where he took up residence with fellow Spaniards and their indigenous allies. When news reached Cortés of the death of several of his men during the Aztec attack on the <a href="/wiki/Totonac" title="Totonac">Totonacs</a> in <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, Cortés claims that he took Motecuhzoma captive. Capturing the <a href="/wiki/Cacique" title="Cacique">cacique</a> or indigenous ruler was a standard operating procedure for Spaniards in their expansion in the Caribbean, so capturing Motecuhzoma had considerable precedent but modern scholars are skeptical that Cortés and his countrymen took Motecuhzoma captive at this time. They had great incentive to claim they did, owing to the laws of Spain at this time, but critical analysis of their personal writings suggest Motecuhzoma was not taken captive until a much later date.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Cortés left Tenochtitlan to return to the coast and deal with the threat of the expedition of <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a>, Cortés left <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> in charge of Tenochtitlan. Cortés left with a small army to the coast with the plan of attacking during the night. After defeating Narváez's fleet, Cortés convinced most of his enemy's crew to go with him by promising great riches. Upon reaching Tenochtitlan, Cortés and the new enlarged force received the message that "the Aztec had risen against the Spanish garrison" during a religious celebration.<sup id="cite_ref-Colonial_Latin_America_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colonial_Latin_America-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alvarado ordered his army to attack the unarmed crowd; he later claims that the Aztecs had used the celebration to cover up a counterattack. Cortés realized that the defeat was imminent and decided to escape yet, the Aztecs attacked. The Massacre is most known as <a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a> (the sorrowful night) about "400 Spaniards, 4000 native allies and many horses [were killed] before reaching the mainland".<sup id="cite_ref-Colonial_Latin_America_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colonial_Latin_America-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moctezuma was killed, although the sources do not agree on who killed him.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one account, when Moctezuma, now seen by the population as a mere puppet of the invading Spaniards, attempted to calm the outraged populace, he was killed by a projectile.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to an indigenous account, the Spanish killed Moctezuma.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Spanish, Tlaxcalans and reinforcements returned a year later on 13 August 1521 to a civilization that had been weakened by famine and smallpox. This made it easier to conquer the remaining Aztecs.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spaniards' victory is attributed to their help from indigenous allies, technology, and the Aztec empire's vulnerability due to the smallpox spread. As a result, the Aztec's tactics countering the Spaniard's advanced technology is understated. According to Hassig, "It is true that cannons, guns, crossbows, steel blades, horses and war dogs were advanced on the Aztecs' weaponry. But the advantage these gave a few hundred Spanish soldiers was not overwhelming."<sup id="cite_ref-Aztec_Warfare_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aztec_Warfare-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the words of Restall, "Spanish weapons were useful for breaking the offensive lines of waves of indigenous warriors, but this was no formula for conquest ... rather, it was a formula for survival, until Spanish and indigenous reinforcements arrived."<sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The integration of the indigenous allies, essentially, those from Tlaxcala and Texcoco, into the Spanish army played a crucial role in the conquest, yet other factors paved the path for the Spaniards' success. For instance, the Spaniards' timing of entry, the compelling ideologies of both groups, and the Spanish unfamiliarity with the Aztec Empire. Therefore, the Spaniards lacked a sense of danger and power structure within the empire. "A direct attack on a city as mighty as Tenochtitlan was unlikely and unexpected" from the enemy empires. As well, it was very uncommon that an attacking army would come unannounced.<sup id="cite_ref-Aztec_Warfare_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Aztec_Warfare-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, aside from the infantry and the allies' role in the Spanish conquest, cavalry was the "arm of decision in the conquest" and "the key ingredient in the Spanish forces".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of those on the Cortés expedition of 1519 had never seen combat before, including Cortés. A whole generation of Spaniards later participated in expeditions in the Caribbean and Tierra Firme (Central America), learning strategy and tactics of successful enterprises. The Spanish conquest of Mexico had antecedents with established practices.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fall of the Aztec Empire was the key event in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> overseas, with <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>, which later became <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Timeline">Timeline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1428 – Creation of the Triple Alliance of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan</li> <li>1492–93 – Columbus reaches the Caribbean; start of permanent Spanish settlements</li> <li>1493–1515 – Spanish exploration, conquest, enslavement, and settlement in the Caribbean and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a></li> <li>1502 – Moctezuma II elected <i>huey tlatoani</i>, emperor [literally: "Great Speaker"] of the Aztec Triple Alliance</li> <li>1503–09 – Moctezuma's coronation conquests</li> <li>1504 – Hernan Cortés arrives in the Caribbean</li> <li>1511– Spanish viceroy in the Caribbean appoints <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez</a> to conquer and govern Cuba</li> <li>1510~ Francisco Vazquez de Coronado was born</li> <li>1515 – Texcocan monarch <a href="/wiki/Nezahualpilli" title="Nezahualpilli">Nezahualpilli</a> dies; Cacamatzin succeeds to the throne; the rebellion of <a href="/wiki/Ixtlilxochitl_II" title="Ixtlilxochitl II">Ixtlilxochitl</a></li> <li>1517 – <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1ndez_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_expedition" title="Hernández de Córdoba expedition">Expedition of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba</a> to the Yucatán coast</li> <li>1517- City of <a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholollan</a> secedes from Tlaxcalteca Alliance, becomes a tributary state of the Aztec Triple Alliance</li> <li>1518 – Expedition of <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Grijalva" title="Juan de Grijalva">Juan de Grijalva</a> to the Yucatán and Gulf coasts; appointment of Cortés to lead a third exploratory expedition</li></ul> <p><b>1519</b> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg/220px-Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg/330px-Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg/440px-Cortez_%26_La_Malinche.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="495" /></a><figcaption>Cortés and his counselor, the Nahua woman <a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a>, meet Moctezuma in Tenochtitlan, 8 November 1519</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>10 February – Cortés expedition leaves Cuba, taking Hernández de Córdoba's route. In the process, Cortés ignores Velásquez's cancellation of the expedition</li> <li>Early 1519 – <a href="/wiki/Ger%C3%B3nimo_de_Aguilar" title="Gerónimo de Aguilar">Gerónimo de Aguilar</a>, shipwrecked Spaniard, bilingual in Yoko Ochoko, joins Cortés</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moctezuma_and_itzquauhtzin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Moctezuma_and_itzquauhtzin.jpg/220px-Moctezuma_and_itzquauhtzin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Moctezuma_and_itzquauhtzin.jpg/330px-Moctezuma_and_itzquauhtzin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Moctezuma_and_itzquauhtzin.jpg/440px-Moctezuma_and_itzquauhtzin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="685" data-file-height="1098" /></a><figcaption>The death of Moctezuma, depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>24 March – Leaders of Potoncan sue Spaniards for peace and gift the Spaniards, 20 slave women. One of the enslaved Nahua woman (known as La Malinche, Doña Marina, Malintze, and Malintzin), is multilingual and will serve as one of the main translators for the expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>21 April – Expedition lands in the Gulf coast near San Juan de Ullúa<sup id="cite_ref-thoughtco.com_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thoughtco.com-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Early June – Cortés establishes the colony of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz and relocates the company to a beach near the settlement of Quiahuiztlan.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, the Spaniards travel to Cempoala<sup id="cite_ref-thoughtco.com_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thoughtco.com-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and formalize an alliance with <a href="/wiki/Xicomecoatl" title="Xicomecoatl">Xicomecoatl</a> (also known as the Fat Chief and <a href="/wiki/Xicomecoatl" title="Xicomecoatl">Cacique Gordo</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the leader of Cempoala. At this time, Cempoala is the capital of the Totonac confederacy.</li> <li>July/August – Cortés' soldiers desecrate Cempoala <sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>16 August – Spaniards and Totonac allies embark on march toward the Valley of Tenochtitlan, passing Citlatapetl and many other notable geographic landmarks like Cofre de Perote<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>31 August – Tlaxcalteca attack Spaniards after entering the territory of Tlaxcallan. They succeed in killing two horsemen.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>September – Tlaxcalteca assault the Spanish camp by day, and the Spanish respond by raiding unarmed Tlaxcalteca towns and villages by night. Tlaxcallan brokers a peace after 18 punishing days of war, by which point the Spaniards had lost half their cavalry and 1/5 their men.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>October – March to <a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a>. Conquistadors massacre unarmed Cholulans, then Spanish-Tlaxcala combine forces to sack Cholollan, and replace Cholulan political leadership with Tlaxcallan-favoring nobles. The massacre broke out for disputed reasons, perhaps to quash an impending Cholulan attack<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or to fulfill a Tlaxcalteca plan to both exact revenge on Cholollan for its secession and to test their new Spanish allies.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>8 November 1519 – Meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma</b></li></ul> <p><b>1520</b> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg/220px-FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg/330px-FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg/440px-FlorentineCodex_BK12_F54_smallpox.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">Smallpox</a> depicted in Book XII on the conquest of Mexico in the <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>April or May – <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a> arrives on the Gulf coast, sent by Governor Velázquez to rein in Cortés</li> <li>Mid-May – <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> <a href="/wiki/Massacre_in_the_Great_Temple_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Massacre in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan">massacres Aztec elites</a> celebrating the Festival of Toxcatl</li> <li>Late May – Cortés forces attack Narvárez's forces at Cempoala; incorporation of those Spaniards into Cortés's forces</li> <li>24 June – Spanish forces return to Tenochtitlan</li> <li>Late June – Uprising in Tenochtitlan; the death of Moctezuma in unclear circumstances, perhaps killed by the Spaniards, perhaps by his own people; deaths of other leaders of the Triple Alliance</li> <li><b>30 June – "<a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a>"</b> – Evacuation of Spanish-Tlaxcalteca allied forces from Tenochtitlan; deaths of perhaps 1,000 Spaniards and 1,000 Tlaxcalans</li> <li>9 or 10 July – <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Otumba" title="Battle of Otumba">Battle of Otumba</a>, Aztec forces attack the Spanish-Tlaxcalteca forces at Otumba</li> <li>11 or 12 July – Retreat to Tlaxcala</li> <li>1 August – Spanish punitive expedition in Tepeaca in reprisal for the murder of Spaniards by its inhabitants.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Mid-September – Coronation of <a href="/wiki/Cuitlahuac" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuitlahuac">Cuitlahuac</a> as Moctezuma's successor</li> <li><b>Mid-October to mid-December – Smallpox epidemic</b>; death of Cuitlahuac on 4 December, perhaps of smallpox</li> <li>Late December – Spanish-Tlaxcaltec forces return to the Valley of Mexico; join with Texcoca forces of Ixtlilxochitl</li></ul> <p><b>1521</b> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_capture_of_Cuauht%C3%A9moc_(Conquest_of_Mexico)_Painting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/The_capture_of_Cuauht%C3%A9moc_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg/220px-The_capture_of_Cuauht%C3%A9moc_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/The_capture_of_Cuauht%C3%A9moc_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg/330px-The_capture_of_Cuauht%C3%A9moc_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/The_capture_of_Cuauht%C3%A9moc_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg/440px-The_capture_of_Cuauht%C3%A9moc_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2216" data-file-height="1475" /></a><figcaption><i>The Capture of Cuauhtemoc</i>, 17th century, oil on canvas.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Late January – Cuauhtemoc elected <i>huey tlatoani</i> of Tenochtitlan</li> <li>February – Combined Spanish-Tlaxcalteca-Texcoca forces attack Xaltocan and Tlacopan; Texcoco becomes the base of operations for the campaign against Tenochtitlan</li> <li>Early April – Attacks against Yautepec and Cuernavaca, following by sacking</li> <li>Mid-April – Combined forces defeated by the Xochimilcans, Tenochtitlan's ally</li> <li><b>Late April – Construction of 13 shallow-bottomed brigantines</b> by Tlaxcalteca laborers under Spanish supervision; mounted with cannon; launched into Lake Texcoco, allowing Spanish control of the inland sea</li> <li>10 May – Start of the siege of Tenochtitlan; potable water from Chapultepec cut off</li> <li>30 June – Defeat of Spanish-Tlaxcalteca forces on a causeway; capture and ritual sacrifice of the Spaniards and their horses in Tenochtitlan</li> <li>July – Spanish ships land at Veracruz with large numbers of Spaniards, munitions, and horses</li> <li>20–25 July – Battle for Tenochtitlan</li> <li>1 August – Spanish-Tlaxcalan-Texcocan forces enter the Plaza Mayor; last stand of the Aztec defenders</li> <li><b>13 August – Surrender of Aztec defenders; capture of Cuauhtemoc</b></li> <li>13–17 August – Wholesale sacking and violence against the survivors in Tenochtitlan</li></ul> <p><b>1522</b> </p> <ul><li>October – <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a> names Cortés captain-general of <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>, the Spanish name for central Mexico.</li> <li>November – Death of Cortés's wife, Catalina Suárez, in Coyoacan, where Cortés was resident while the new capital <a href="/wiki/Mexico_City" title="Mexico City">Mexico City</a> was constructed on the ruins of Tenochtitlan</li> <li>Cortés's Second Letter to the crown is published in Seville, Spain</li></ul> <p><b>1524</b> </p> <ul><li>Arrival of the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Apostles_of_Mexico" title="Twelve Apostles of Mexico">first twelve Franciscan missionaries</a> to Mexico, beginning of the "spiritual conquest" to convert the indigenous populations to Christianity<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Conqueror <a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_de_Olid" title="Cristóbal de Olid">Cristóbal de Olid</a>'s expedition to Honduras; renounces Cortés' authority; Cortés expedition to Honduras with the captive Cuauhtemoc</li></ul> <p><b>1525</b> </p> <ul><li>February – execution of the three rulers of the former Triple Alliance, including Cuauhtemoc</li> <li>Don Juan Velázquez Tlacotzin, former "viceroy" (<i>cihuacoatl</i>) appointed governor of the indigenous sector of Mexico City</li></ul> <p><b>1525–30</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Spanish conquest of Guatemala</a></li></ul> <p><b>1527–1547</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Spanish conquest of Chiapas</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_for_the_conquest_of_Mesoamerica">Sources for the conquest of Mesoamerica</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sources for the conquest of Mesoamerica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historia_verdadera_conquista_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_portada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Historia_verdadera_conquista_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_portada.jpg/220px-Historia_verdadera_conquista_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_portada.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Historia_verdadera_conquista_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_portada.jpg/330px-Historia_verdadera_conquista_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_portada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Historia_verdadera_conquista_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_portada.jpg/440px-Historia_verdadera_conquista_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_portada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4164" data-file-height="5986" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Bernal Díaz del Castillo</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_verdadera_de_la_conquista_de_la_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España">True History of the Conquest of Mexico</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The conquest of Mexico, the initial destruction of the great pre-Columbian civilizations, is a significant event in world history. The conquest was well documented by a variety of sources with differing points of view, including indigenous accounts, by both allies and opponents. Accounts by the Spanish conquerors exist from the first landfall at <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, Mexico (on <a href="/wiki/Good_Friday" title="Good Friday">Good Friday</a>, 22 April 1519) to the final victory over the Mexica in Tenochtitlan on 13 August 1521. Notably, the accounts of the conquest, Spanish and indigenous alike, have biases and exaggerations. Some, though not all, Spanish accounts downplay the support of their indigenous allies. Conquerors' accounts exaggerate individual contributions to the Conquest at the expense of their comrades, while indigenous allies' accounts stress their loyalty and importance to victory for the Spanish. These accounts are similar to Spanish conquerors' accounts contained in petitions for rewards, known as <i>benemérito</i> petitions.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two lengthy accounts from the defeated indigenous viewpoint were created under the direction of Spanish friars, Franciscan <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a> and Dominican <a href="/wiki/Diego_Dur%C3%A1n" title="Diego Durán">Diego Durán</a>, using indigenous informants.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because Nahuatl did not have a full alphabet, the majority of extant indigenous sources are recollections of Nahuatl-speakers who were subsequently introduced to Latin characters after the arrival of the Spanish. Gingerish<sup id="cite_ref-auto_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> identifies the Annals of Tlatelolco (1524?-1528) as “One of the oldest recorded manuscripts in Nahuatl, written presumably by a native who must have learned the use of Latin characters and alphabet within three or four years of the conquest.” </p><p>Lockhart,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, argues for a later post-1540 date for this manuscript, and indeed the majority of indigenous source material was recorded a generation or more after the events through interaction with and under influence of Spanish priests. As noted in,<sup id="cite_ref-auto_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> “No ‘pure’ Nahuatl text exists-with the exception of a few pre- Cortesian pictographic codices. Every written Nahuatl text was recorded after 1521 either directly by a Christian priest, by students who worked directly under priestly supervision, or by former students who had studied in Christian schools long enough to understand the necessity of the new religion. The written language was a personal possession of the noble and priestly class.” </p><p>The first Spanish account of the conquest was written by lead conqueror <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>, who sent a series of letters to the Spanish monarch <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>, giving a contemporary account of the conquest from his point of view, in which he justified his actions. These were almost immediately published in Spain and later in other parts of Europe. Much later, Spanish conqueror <a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Bernal Díaz del Castillo</a>, a well-seasoned participant in the conquest of Central Mexico, wrote what he called <i>The True History of the Conquest of New Spain</i>, countering the account by Cortés's official biographer, <a href="/wiki/Francisco_L%C3%B3pez_de_G%C3%B3mara" title="Francisco López de Gómara">Francisco López de Gómara</a>. Bernal Díaz's account had begun as a <i>benemérito</i> petition for rewards but he expanded it to encompass a full history of his earlier expeditions in the Caribbean and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Tierra_Firme" title="Province of Tierra Firme">Tierra Firme</a> and the conquest of the Aztec. A number of lower rank Spanish conquerors wrote <i>benemérito</i> petitions to the Spanish Crown, requesting rewards for their services in the conquest, including Juan Díaz, Andrés de Tapia, García del Pilar, and Fray <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Aguilar_(conquistador)" title="Francisco de Aguilar (conquistador)">Francisco de Aguilar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cortés's right-hand man, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> did not write at any length about his actions in the New World, and died as a man of action in the <a href="/wiki/Mixt%C3%B3n_War" title="Mixtón War">Mixtón War</a> in 1542. Two letters to Cortés about Alvarado's campaigns in Guatemala are published in <i>The Conquistadors</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chronicle of the so-called "Anonymous Conqueror" was written sometime in the sixteenth century, entitled in an early twentieth-century translation to English as <a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_Some_Things_of_New_Spain_and_of_the_Great_City_of_Temestitan" title="Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan">Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan</a> (i.e. Tenochtitlan). Rather than it being a petition for rewards for services, as many Spanish accounts were, the Anonymous Conqueror made observations about the indigenous situation at the time of the conquest. The account was used by eighteenth-century Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Javier_Clavijero" title="Francisco Javier Clavijero">Francisco Javier Clavijero</a> in his descriptions of the history of Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Entrada_a_Chalco.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Entrada_a_Chalco.jpg/220px-Entrada_a_Chalco.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Entrada_a_Chalco.jpg/330px-Entrada_a_Chalco.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Entrada_a_Chalco.jpg/440px-Entrada_a_Chalco.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="457" /></a><figcaption>Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish, showing their leaders, porters, as well as a Spanish warrior and a Spanish war dog. Lienzo de Tlaxcala</figcaption></figure> <p>On the indigenous side, the allies of Cortés, particularly the Tlaxcalans, wrote extensively about their services to the Spanish Crown in the conquest, arguing for special privileges for themselves. The most important of these are the pictorial <a href="/wiki/Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala" class="mw-redirect" title="Lienzo de Tlaxcala">Lienzo de Tlaxcala</a>(1585) and the <i>Historia de Tlaxcala</i> by <a href="/wiki/Diego_Mu%C3%B1oz_Camargo" title="Diego Muñoz Camargo">Diego Muñoz Camargo</a>. Less successfully, the <a href="/wiki/Nahua_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahua peoples">Nahua</a> allies from Huexotzinco (or Huejotzinco) near Tlaxcala argued that their contributions had been overlooked by the Spanish. In a letter in <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> to the Spanish Crown, the indigenous lords of Huexotzinco lay out their case in for their valorous service. The letter has been published in Nahuatl and English translation by <a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">James Lockhart</a> in <i>We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico</i> in 1991.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Texcoco patriot and member of a noble family there, Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitl, likewise petitioned the Spanish Crown, in Spanish, saying that <a href="/wiki/Texcoco_(altepetl)" class="mw-redirect" title="Texcoco (altepetl)">Texcoco</a> had not received sufficient rewards for their support of the conquistadors, particularly after the Spanish were forced out of Tenochtitlan.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The best-known indigenous account of the conquest is Book 12 of <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a>'s <i>General History of the Things of New Spain</i> and published as the <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a>, in parallel columns of <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> and Spanish, with pictorials. Less well-known is <a href="/wiki/Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Sahagún">Sahagún</a>'s 1585 revision of the conquest account, which shifts from the indigenous viewpoint entirely and inserts at crucial junctures passages lauding the Spanish and in particular Hernán Cortés.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another indigenous account compiled by a Spanish friar is Dominican <a href="/wiki/Diego_Dur%C3%A1n" title="Diego Durán">Diego Durán</a>'s <i>The History of the Indies of New Spain</i>, from 1581, with many color illustrations.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A text from the Nahua point of view, the <a href="/wiki/Anales_de_Tlatelolco" title="Anales de Tlatelolco">Anales de Tlatelolco</a>, an early indigenous account in Nahuatl, perhaps from 1540, remained in indigenous hands until it was published.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (October 2016)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> An extract of this important manuscript was published in 1991 by <a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">James Lockhart</a> in Nahuatl transcription and English translation.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A popular anthology in English for classroom use is <a href="/wiki/Miguel_Le%C3%B3n-Portilla" title="Miguel León-Portilla">Miguel León-Portilla</a>'s, <i>The Broken Spears: The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico</i> from 1992.<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not surprisingly, many publications and republications of sixteenth-century accounts of the conquest of Mexico appeared around 1992, the 500th anniversary of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>'s first voyage, when scholarly and popular interest in first encounters surged. </p><p>A popular and enduring narrative of the Spanish campaign in central Mexico is by <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>-born nineteenth-century historian <a href="/wiki/William_Hickling_Prescott" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hickling Prescott">William Hickling Prescott</a>. His <i>History of the Conquest of Mexico</i>, first published in 1843, remains an important unified narrative synthesis of the conquest. Prescott read and used all the formal writings from the sixteenth century, although few had been published by the mid-nineteenth century when he was writing. It is likely that a 1585 revision of Bernardino de Sahagún's account of the conquest survives today only in the form of a copy because it was made in Spain for Prescott's project from a now-lost original.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although scholars of the modern era point out its biases and shortcomings, "there is nowhere they can get as good a unified narrative of the main events, crises, and course of the Mexican conquest as Prescott's version."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aztec_omens_for_the_conquest">Aztec omens for the conquest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Aztec omens for the conquest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_Duran,_page_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Codex_Duran%2C_page_1.jpg/220px-Codex_Duran%2C_page_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Codex_Duran%2C_page_1.jpg/330px-Codex_Duran%2C_page_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Codex_Duran%2C_page_1.jpg/440px-Codex_Duran%2C_page_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1008" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>A comet seen by Moctezuma, interpreted as a sign of impending peril. <a href="/wiki/Diego_Dur%C3%A1n" title="Diego Durán">Diego Durán</a>'s account from indigenous informants.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the sources recorded by Franciscan <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a> and Dominican <a href="/wiki/Diego_Dur%C3%A1n" title="Diego Durán">Diego Durán</a> in the mid to late sixteenth century, there are accounts of events that were interpreted as supernatural omens of the conquest. These two accounts are full-blown narratives from the viewpoint of the Spanish opponents. Most first-hand accounts about the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a> were written by Spaniards: Hernán Cortés' letters to <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a> and the first-person narrative of <a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Bernal Díaz del Castillo</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_verdadera_de_la_conquista_de_la_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España">The True History of the Conquest of New Spain</a></i>. The primary sources from the native people affected as a result of the conquest are seldom used, because they tend to reflect the views of a particular native group, such as the Tlaxcalans. Indigenous accounts were written in pictographs as early as 1525. Later accounts were written in the native tongue of the Aztec and other native peoples of central Mexico, <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>. </p><p>The native texts of the defeated Mexica narrating their version of the conquest describe eight omens that were believed to have occurred nine years prior to the arrival of the Spanish from the Gulf of Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1510, Aztec Emperor Moctezuma II was visited by <a href="/wiki/Nezahualpilli" title="Nezahualpilli">Nezahualpilli</a>, who had a reputation as a great seer, as well as being the <i>tlatoani</i> of Texcoco. Nezahualpilli warned Moctezuma that he must be on guard, for in a few years Aztec cities would be destroyed. Before leaving, he said that there would be omens for Moctezuma to know that what he has been told is true. Over the years, and especially after Nezhualpilli's death in 1515, several supernatural omens appeared.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The eight bad omens or wonders:<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 3–11">: 3–11 </span></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png/300px-Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png/450px-Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png/600px-Aztec_Empire_c_1519.png 2x" data-file-width="1222" data-file-height="922" /></a><figcaption>Aztec empire on the eve of the Spanish Invasion</figcaption></figure> <ol><li>A column of fire that appeared from midnight until dawn, and seemed to rain fire in the year 1517 (12-House)</li> <li>Fire consuming the temple of <a href="/wiki/Huitzilopochtli" class="mw-redirect" title="Huitzilopochtli">Huitzilopochtli</a></li> <li>A lightning bolt destroying the straw temple of <a href="/wiki/Xiuhtecuhtli" title="Xiuhtecuhtli">Xiuhtecuhtli</a></li> <li>The appearance of fire, or comets, streaming across the sky in threes during the day</li> <li>The "boiling deep," and water flooding, of a lake nearby Tenochtitlan</li> <li>A woman, <a href="/wiki/Cihuatcoatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Cihuatcoatl">Cihuatcoatl</a>, weeping in the middle of the night for them (the Aztecs) to "flee far away from this city"</li> <li>Montezuma II saw the stars of <a href="/wiki/Taurus_(constellation)" title="Taurus (constellation)"><i>mamalhuatztli</i></a>, and images of fighting men riding "on the backs of animals resembling deer", in a mirror on the crown of a bird caught by fishermen</li> <li>A two headed man, <i>tlacantzolli</i>, running through the streets</li></ol> <p>Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala" title="Tlaxcala">Tlaxcala</a> saw a "radiance that shone in the east every morning three hours before sunrise", and a "whirlwind of dust" from the volcano <a href="/wiki/Matlalcueitl_(volcano)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matlalcueitl (volcano)">Matlalcueye</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 11">: 11 </span></sup> According to Diaz, "These <i>Caciques</i> also told us of a tradition they had heard from their ancestors, that one of the idols which they particularly worshipped had prophesied the coming of men from distant lands in the direction of the sunrise, who would conquer them and rule them."<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 181">: 181 </span></sup> Some accounts would claim that this idol or deity was Quetzalcoatl, and that the Aztecs were defeated because they believed the Spanish were supernatural and didn't know how to react, although whether or not the Aztecs really believed that is debatable.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Omens were extremely important to the Aztecs, who believed that history repeated itself. A number of modern scholars cast doubt on whether such omens occurred or whether they were <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex post facto">ex post facto</a></i> (retrospective) creations to help the Mexica explain their defeat.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars contend that "the most likely interpretation of the story of these portents is that some, if not all, had occurred" but concede that it is very likely that "clever Mexicans and friars, writing later of the Mexican empire, were happy to link those memories with what they know occurred in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many sources depicting omens and the return of old Aztec gods, including those supervised by Spanish priests, were written after the fall of Tenochtitlan in 1521.<sup id="cite_ref-Inventing_a_God_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inventing_a_God-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spanish accounts tended to incorporate omens to emphasize what they saw as the preordained nature of the conquest and their success as Spanish destiny. This influenced some natives writing under the tutelage of the Franciscan friars. Other explanations include a desire to please the Spaniards or resentment toward the failure of Montezuma and Tenochtitlan warriors."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cortés_and_Quetzalcoatl"><span id="Cort.C3.A9s_and_Quetzalcoatl"></span>Cortés and Quetzalcoatl</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cortés and Quetzalcoatl"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Thomas,_Baron_Thomas_of_Swynnerton" title="Hugh Thomas, Baron Thomas of Swynnerton">Hugh Thomas</a> writes that Moctezuma was debating whether Cortés was a god or the ambassador of a great king in another land.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the Spaniards arrived in 1519, Moctezuma knew this was the year of Ce Acatl, which is the year <a href="/wiki/Quetzalcoatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Quetzalcoatl">Quetzalcoatl</a> was promised to return. Previously, during <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Grijalva" title="Juan de Grijalva">Juan de Grijalva</a>'s expedition, Moctezuma believed that those men were heralds of Quetzalcoatl, as Moctezuma, as well as everyone else in the Aztec Empire, were to believe that eventually, Quetzalcoatl will return. Moctezuma even had glass beads that were left behind by Grijalva brought to Tenochtitlan and they were regarded as sacred religious relics.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, some ethnohistorians say the Aztec leaders did not view the Spaniards as supernatural in any sense but rather as simply another group of powerful outsiders.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They believe that Moctezuma responded rationally to the Spanish invasion and did not think the Spanish were supernatural.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his own letters written on the spot, Cortés never claimed that he was perceived as a god. The idea appears to emerge only in the 1540s, in writings by Europeans. Nonetheless, it was repeated in many sources, even among Indians, especially those who had become students of the Franciscan friars and were searching for an explanation for how the Aztecs had fallen. This was complicated by the word <i>teules</i> that the <a href="/wiki/Nahuas" title="Nahuas">Nahuas</a> used to refer to the Spaniards, who claimed to represent their Christian god and originated from a land unknown to the natives. "Teules" is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> word <i>teotl</i> for god but with its meaning changed to representative of god, sometimes implying mysterious and supernatural power.<sup id="cite_ref-Inventing_a_God_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Inventing_a_God-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spanish_expeditions">Spanish expeditions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Spanish expeditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Spanish had established a permanent settlement on the island of <a href="/wiki/Hispaniola" title="Hispaniola">Hispaniola</a> in 1493 on the second voyage of <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>. There were further Spanish explorations and settlements in the Caribbean and the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Main" title="Spanish Main">Spanish Main</a>, seeking wealth in the form of gold and access to indigenous labor to mine gold and other manual labor. Twenty-five years after the first Spanish settlement in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>, expeditions of exploration were sent to the coast of Mexico.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Spanish_expeditions_to_Yucatán"><span id="Early_Spanish_expeditions_to_Yucat.C3.A1n"></span>Early Spanish expeditions to Yucatán</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early Spanish expeditions to Yucatán"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DiegoVelazquezCuellar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/DiegoVelazquezCuellar.jpg/170px-DiegoVelazquezCuellar.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/DiegoVelazquezCuellar.jpg/255px-DiegoVelazquezCuellar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/DiegoVelazquezCuellar.jpg/340px-DiegoVelazquezCuellar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1615" data-file-height="2075" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego de Velázquez</a>, who commissioned Cortés's limited expedition of exploration in 1519</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1517, Cuban governor <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez</a> commissioned a fleet of three ships under the command of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Hern%C3%A1ndez_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_(Yucat%C3%A1n_conquistador)" title="Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (Yucatán conquistador)">Hernández de Córdoba</a> to sail west and explore the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán</a> peninsula. Córdoba reached the coast of Yucatán. The <a href="/wiki/Mayans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayans">Mayans</a> at <a href="/wiki/Cabo_Catoche" title="Cabo Catoche">Cape Catoche</a> invited the Spanish to land, and the conquistadors read the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Requirement_of_1513" title="Spanish Requirement of 1513">Requirement of 1513</a> to them, which offered the natives the protection of the King of Spain, if they would submit to him. Córdoba took two prisoners, who adopted the baptized names of Melchor and Julián and became interpreters. Later, the two prisoners, being misled or misinterpreting the language gave information to the Spanish conquistadors that there was plenty of gold up for grabs.<sup id="cite_ref-spanishwars.net_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-spanishwars.net-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the western side of the Yucatán Peninsula, the Spanish were attacked at night by Maya chief Mochcouoh, a battle in which 50 men were killed. Córdoba was mortally wounded and only a remnant of his crew returned to <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 15–26">: 15–26 </span></sup> </p><p>At that time, Yucatán was briefly explored by the conquistadors, but the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish conquest of Yucatán</a> with its many independent city-state <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polities</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Late Postclassic</a> <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> came many years after the Spaniards' and their loyal indigenous allies' rapid conquest of Central Mexico (1519–21). With the help of tens of thousands of Xiu Mayan warriors, it would take more than 170 years for the Spanish to establish full control of the Maya homelands, which extended from northern Yucatán to the central lowlands region of <a href="/wiki/El_Pet%C3%A9n" class="mw-redirect" title="El Petén">El Petén</a> and the southern Guatemalan highlands. The end of this latter campaign is generally marked by the downfall of the Maya state based at <a href="/wiki/Tayasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Tayasal">Tayasal</a> in the Petén region, in 1697. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cortés's_expedition"><span id="Cort.C3.A9s.27s_expedition"></span>Cortés's expedition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cortés's expedition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Morzillo" title="Morzillo">Morzillo</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Commissioning_the_expedition">Commissioning the expedition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Commissioning the expedition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Capit%C3%A1n_general,_Copia_de_un_retrato_de_Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s,_~1485_-_2-12-1547,_retrato_an%C3%B3nimo_(1525).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Capit%C3%A1n_general%2C_Copia_de_un_retrato_de_Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s%2C_~1485_-_2-12-1547%2C_retrato_an%C3%B3nimo_%281525%29.jpg/200px-Capit%C3%A1n_general%2C_Copia_de_un_retrato_de_Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s%2C_~1485_-_2-12-1547%2C_retrato_an%C3%B3nimo_%281525%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Capit%C3%A1n_general%2C_Copia_de_un_retrato_de_Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s%2C_~1485_-_2-12-1547%2C_retrato_an%C3%B3nimo_%281525%29.jpg/300px-Capit%C3%A1n_general%2C_Copia_de_un_retrato_de_Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s%2C_~1485_-_2-12-1547%2C_retrato_an%C3%B3nimo_%281525%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Capit%C3%A1n_general%2C_Copia_de_un_retrato_de_Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s%2C_~1485_-_2-12-1547%2C_retrato_an%C3%B3nimo_%281525%29.jpg/400px-Capit%C3%A1n_general%2C_Copia_de_un_retrato_de_Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s%2C_~1485_-_2-12-1547%2C_retrato_an%C3%B3nimo_%281525%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="996" data-file-height="1442" /></a><figcaption>Hernán Cortés in his later years; his coat of arms on the upper right corner (16th century).</figcaption></figure> <p>Even before <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Grijalva" title="Juan de Grijalva">Juan de Grijalva</a> returned to <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, Velázquez decided to send a third and even larger expedition to explore the Mexican coast.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassig94_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassig94-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>, then one of Velázquez's favorites and brother-in-law, was named as the commander, which created envy and resentment among the Spanish contingent in the Spanish colony.<sup id="cite_ref-Hassig94_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hassig94-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Licenses for expeditions allowed the Crown to retain sovereignty over newly conquered lands while not risking its own assets in the enterprise. Anyone willing to make a financial contribution could potentially gain even more wealth and power. Men who brought horses, <i>caballeros</i>, received two shares of the spoils, one for military service, another because of the horse.<sup id="cite_ref-Ida_Altman_2003,_p._54_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ida_Altman_2003,_p._54-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cortés invested a considerable part of his personal fortune and probably went into debt to borrow additional funds. Velázquez may have personally contributed nearly half the cost of the expedition. </p><p>In an agreement signed on 23 October 1518, Governor Velázquez restricted the expedition led by Cortés to exploration and trade, so that conquest and settlement of the mainland might occur under his own command, once he had received the permission necessary to do so which he had already requested from the Crown. In this way, Velázquez sought to ensure title to the riches and laborers discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, armed with the knowledge of Castilian law that he had likely gained as a notary in <a href="/wiki/Valladolid" title="Valladolid">Valladolid</a>, Cortés managed to free himself of Velázquez's authority by presenting Velázquez as a tyrant acting in his own self-interest, and not in the interest of the Crown.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The men under Cortés also named him military leader and chief magistrate (judge) of the expedition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revoking_the_commission">Revoking the commission</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Revoking the commission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conquest_mexico_1519_21.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Conquest_mexico_1519_21.png/300px-Conquest_mexico_1519_21.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Conquest_mexico_1519_21.png/450px-Conquest_mexico_1519_21.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Conquest_mexico_1519_21.png/600px-Conquest_mexico_1519_21.png 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption>Map depicting Cortés' conquest route</figcaption></figure> <p>Velázquez himself must have been keenly aware that whoever conquered the mainland for Spain would gain fame, glory and fortune to eclipse anything that could be achieved in <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>. Thus, as the preparations for departure drew to a close, the governor became suspicious that Cortés would be disloyal to him and try to commandeer the expedition for his own purposes,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> namely to establish himself as governor of the colony, independent of Velázquez's control. </p><p>Therefore, Velázquez sent Luis de Medina with orders to replace Cortés. However, Cortés's brother-in-law allegedly had Medina intercepted and killed. The papers that Medina had been carrying were sent to Cortés. Thus warned, Cortés accelerated the organization and preparation of his expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Velázquez arrived at the dock in <a href="/wiki/Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a> in person, "he and Cortés again embraced, with a great exchange of compliments", before Cortés set sail for <a href="/wiki/Trinidad,_Cuba" title="Trinidad, Cuba">Trinidad, Cuba</a>. Velázquez then sent orders for the fleet to be held and Cortés taken prisoner. Nevertheless, Cortés set sail, beginning his expedition with the legal status of a <a href="/wiki/Mutiny" title="Mutiny">mutineer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 49, 51, 55–56">: 49, 51, 55–56 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés's contingent consisted of 11 ships carrying about 630 men (including 30 crossbowmen and 12 <a href="/wiki/Arquebusiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Arquebusiers">arquebusiers</a>, an early form of firearm), a doctor, several carpenters, at least eight women, a few hundred <a href="/wiki/Arawak" title="Arawak">Arawaks</a> from Cuba and some Africans, both freedmen and slaves. Although modern usage often calls the European participants "soldiers", the term was never used by these men themselves in any context, something that <a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">James Lockhart</a> realized when analyzing sixteenth-century legal records from conquest-era <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cortés_gains_two_translators"><span id="Cort.C3.A9s_gains_two_translators"></span>Cortés gains two translators</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cortés gains two translators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cortés spent some time at the island of <a href="/wiki/Cozumel" title="Cozumel">Cozumel</a>, on the east coast of Yucatán, trying to convert the locals to Christianity, something that provided mixed results. While at Cozumel, Cortés heard reports of other white men living in the Yucatán. Cortés sent messengers to these reported Spaniards, who turned out to be the survivors of a Spanish shipwreck that had occurred in 1511, <a href="/wiki/Ger%C3%B3nimo_de_Aguilar" title="Gerónimo de Aguilar">Gerónimo de Aguilar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Guerrero" title="Gonzalo Guerrero">Gonzalo Guerrero</a>. </p><p>Aguilar petitioned his Maya chieftain to be allowed to join his former countrymen, and he was released and made his way to Cortés's ships. Now quite fluent in <a href="/wiki/Yucatec_Maya_language" title="Yucatec Maya language">Maya</a>, as well as some other <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_languages" title="Mesoamerican languages">indigenous languages</a>, proved to be a valuable asset for Cortés as a translator – a skill of particular significance to the later conquest of the Aztec Empire that was to be the result of Cortés's expedition. According to <a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Bernal Díaz</a>, Aguilar relayed that before coming, he had attempted to convince Guerrero to leave as well. Guerrero declined on the basis that he was by now well-assimilated with the Maya culture, had a Maya wife and three children, and he was looked upon as a figure of rank within the Maya state of <a href="/wiki/Chetumal_Province" title="Chetumal Province">Chetumal</a>, where he lived.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Guerrero's later fate is somewhat uncertain, it appears that for some years he continued to fight alongside the Maya forces against Spanish incursions, providing military counsel and encouraging resistance; it is speculated that he may have been killed in a later battle. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex_azcatitlan222.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Codex_azcatitlan222.jpg/300px-Codex_azcatitlan222.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Codex_azcatitlan222.jpg/450px-Codex_azcatitlan222.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Codex_azcatitlan222.jpg/600px-Codex_azcatitlan222.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4278" data-file-height="3074" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Codex_Azcatitlan" title="Codex Azcatitlan">Codex Azcatitlan</a> depicting the Spanish-<a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Tlaxcalan</a> army, with Cortés and La Malinche, along with an African slave in front the meeting with <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma</a>. The facing page is no longer extant.</figcaption></figure> <p>After leaving Cozumel, Cortés continued round the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula and landed at <a href="/wiki/Potonch%C3%A1n" title="Potonchán">Potonchán</a>, where there was little gold. After defeating the local natives in two battles, he discovered a far more valuable asset in the form of a woman whom Cortés would have christened Marina. She is often known as <a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a> and also sometimes called "<a href="/wiki/Malintzin" class="mw-redirect" title="Malintzin">Malintzin</a>" or Malinalli.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, the Aztecs would come to call Cortés "Malintzin" or La Malinche by dint of his close association with her.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Bernal Díaz del Castillo</a> wrote in his account <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_verdadera_de_la_conquista_de_la_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España">The True History of the Conquest of New Spain</a></i> that Marina was "truly a great princess". Later, the honorific Spanish title of <i>doña</i> would be added to her baptized name.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 80, 82">: 80, 82 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés had stumbled upon one of the keys to realizing his ambitions. He would speak to <a href="/wiki/Ger%C3%B3nimo_de_Aguilar" title="Gerónimo de Aguilar">Gerónimo de Aguilar</a> in Spanish who would then translate into Mayan for Marina. She would then translate from Mayan to <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>. With this pair of translators, Cortés could now communicate to the Aztecs.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 86–87">: 86–87 </span></sup> How effectively is still a matter of speculation, since Marina did not speak the dialect of the Aztecs, nor was she familiar with the protocols of the Aztec nobility, who were renowned for their flowery, flattering talk. Doña Marina quickly learned Spanish, and became Cortés's primary interpreter, confidant, consort, cultural translator, and the mother of his first son, <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Cort%C3%A9s_(son_of_Malinche)" title="Martín Cortés (son of Malinche)">Martin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 82">: 82 </span></sup> Until Cortés's marriage to his second wife, a union which produced a legitimate son whom he also named <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Cort%C3%A9s,_2nd_Marquess_of_the_Valley_of_Oaxaca" title="Martín Cortés, 2nd Marquess of the Valley of Oaxaca">Martin</a>, Cortés's natural son with Marina was the heir of his envisaged fortunes. </p><p>Native speakers of the Nahuatl community would call her "Malintzin," making her name a part of their own language, trying their best to make it similar to the Spanish "Marina." Over time, "<a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a>" (the modern Spanish cognate of <i>Malintzin</i>) became a term for a traitor to one's people. To this day, the word <i><a href="/wiki/Malinchista" class="mw-redirect" title="Malinchista">malinchista</a></i> is used by Mexicans to denote one who apes the language and customs of another country.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would not be until the late 20th century that a few feminist writers and academics in Mexico would attempt to rehabilitate <a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a> as a woman who made the best of her situation and became, in many respects, a powerful woman.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foundation_of_Veracruz">Foundation of Veracruz</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Foundation of Veracruz"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VillaRicaCoatArmsDF.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/VillaRicaCoatArmsDF.JPG/170px-VillaRicaCoatArmsDF.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/VillaRicaCoatArmsDF.JPG/255px-VillaRicaCoatArmsDF.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/VillaRicaCoatArmsDF.JPG/340px-VillaRicaCoatArmsDF.JPG 2x" data-file-width="934" data-file-height="1378" /></a><figcaption>Coat of arms of Villa Rica, Veracruz; the first town council founded by the Spanish. The tile mosaic is located in <a href="/wiki/Federal_District_buildings" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal District buildings">Mexico City</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cortés landed his expedition force on the coast of the modern day state of <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a> in April 1519. During this same period, soon after he arrived, Cortés was welcomed by representatives of the Aztec Emperor, <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma II</a>. Gifts were exchanged, and Cortés attempted to frighten the Aztec delegation with a display of his firepower.<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 26">: 26 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 89–91">: 89–91 </span></sup> </p><p>Faced with imprisonment or death for defying the governor, Cortés' only alternative was to continue his enterprise in the hope of redeeming himself and his men with the Spanish Crown. To do this, his men established a settlement called <a href="/wiki/Veracruz_(city)" title="Veracruz (city)">La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz</a>, or "True Cross", since they arrived on <a href="/wiki/Maundy_Thursday" title="Maundy Thursday">Maundy Thursday</a> and landed on <a href="/wiki/Good_Friday" title="Good Friday">Good Friday</a>. The legally constituted "<a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">town council</a> of Villa Rica" then promptly offered him the position of <a href="/wiki/Adelantado" title="Adelantado">adelantado</a>, or Chief Justice and <a href="/wiki/Captain_general" title="Captain general">Captain-General</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 102">: 102 </span></sup> </p><p>This strategy was not unique.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Velásquez had used this same legal mechanism to free himself from <a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a>' authority in Cuba. In being named <i>adelantado</i> by a duly constituted <a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">cabildo</a>, Cortés was able to free himself from Velásquez's authority and continue his expedition. To ensure the legality of this action, several members of his expedition, including <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Montejo" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Montejo">Francisco Montejo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alonso_Hernandez_Puertocarrero" class="mw-redirect" title="Alonso Hernandez Puertocarrero">Alonso Hernandez Puertocarrero</a>, returned to Spain to seek acceptance of the cabildo's declaration with <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">King Charles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 127–28">: 127–28 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés learned of an indigenous settlement called <a href="/wiki/Cempoala" title="Cempoala">Cempoala</a> and marched his forces there. On their arrival in Cempoala, they were greeted by 20 dignitaries and cheering townsfolk.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 88, 107">: 88, 107 </span></sup> Cortés quickly persuaded the <a href="/wiki/Totonac" title="Totonac">Totonac</a> chiefs to rebel against the Aztecs, taking prisoner five of Moctezuma's tax collectors.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 111–13">: 111–13 </span></sup> The Totonacs also helped Cortés build the town of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, which was the starting point for his attempt to conquer the Aztec Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 114">: 114 </span></sup> </p><p>Hearing of the rebellion, more ambassadors from the Aztec Emperor returned to see Cortés, bearing gifts of "gold and cloth", in thankfulness for Cortés freeing his tax collectors. Moctezuma also told Cortés, he was certain the Spanish were of "his own race" and had arrived as "his ancestors had foretold". As Cortés told his men, the natives "think of us as gods, or godlike beings."<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13, 21, 25, 33, 35">: 13, 21, 25, 33, 35 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 115–17">: 115–17 </span></sup> </p><p>Although they attempted to dissuade Cortés from visiting <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>, the lavish gifts and the polite, welcoming remarks only encouraged <i>El <a href="/wiki/Caudillo" title="Caudillo">Caudillo</a></i> to continue his march towards the capital of the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 96, 166">: 96, 166 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scuttling_the_fleet_and_aftermath">Scuttling the fleet and aftermath</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Scuttling the fleet and aftermath"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ScuttleFleetNHMDF.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/ScuttleFleetNHMDF.JPG/220px-ScuttleFleetNHMDF.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/ScuttleFleetNHMDF.JPG/330px-ScuttleFleetNHMDF.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/ScuttleFleetNHMDF.JPG/440px-ScuttleFleetNHMDF.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3432" data-file-height="1959" /></a><figcaption>Cortés scuttling fleet off Veracruz coast</figcaption></figure> <p>Men still loyal to the governor of Cuba planned to seize a ship and escape to Cuba, but Cortés moved swiftly to squash their plans. Two leaders were condemned to be hanged; two were lashed, and one had his foot mutilated. To make sure such a mutiny did not happen again, he decided to <a href="/wiki/Scuttling" title="Scuttling">scuttle</a> his ships.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 128–30">: 128–30 </span></sup> </p><p>There is a popular misconception that the ships were burned rather than sunk. This misconception has been attributed to the reference made by Cervantes de Salazár in 1546, as to Cortés burning his ships.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This may have also come from a mistranslation of the version of the story written in Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With all of his ships scuttled, Cortés effectively stranded the expedition in central Mexico. However, it did not completely end the aspirations of those members of his company who remained loyal to the governor of Cuba. Cortés then led his band inland towards Tenochtitlan. </p><p>In addition to the Spaniards, Cortés' force now included 40 <a href="/wiki/Cempoala" title="Cempoala">Cempoalan</a> warrior chiefs and at least 200 other natives whose task was to drag the cannon and carry supplies.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 134">: 134 </span></sup> The Cempoalans were accustomed to the hot climate of the coast, but they suffered immensely from the cold of the mountains, the rain, and the hail as they marched towards Tenochtitlan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alliance_with_Tlaxcala">Alliance with Tlaxcala</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Alliance with Tlaxcala"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xicotencatl-Cortes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Xicotencatl-Cortes.jpg/220px-Xicotencatl-Cortes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Xicotencatl-Cortes.jpg/330px-Xicotencatl-Cortes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Xicotencatl-Cortes.jpg/440px-Xicotencatl-Cortes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2318" /></a><figcaption>Meeting of Cortés and Xicotencatl</figcaption></figure> <p>Cortés soon arrived at <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala_(Nahua_state)" title="Tlaxcala (Nahua state)">Tlaxcala</a>, a confederacy of about 200 towns and different tribes, but without central government. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Otomi_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Otomi people">Otomi</a> initially, and then the <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcalans" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlaxcalans">Tlaxcalans</a>, fought the Spanish in a series of three battles from 2 to 5 September 1519, and at one point Diaz remarked, "they surrounded us on every side". After Cortés continued to release prisoners with messages of peace, and realizing the Spanish were enemies of Moctezuma, <a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Xicotencatl the Elder">Xicotencatl the Elder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maxixcatzin" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxixcatzin">Maxixcatzin</a> persuaded the Tlaxcalan warleader, <a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Xicotencatl the Younger">Xicotencatl the Younger</a>, that it would be better to ally with the newcomers than to kill them.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 143–55, 171">: 143–55, 171 </span></sup> </p><p>The Tlaxcalans' main city was Tlaxcala. After almost a century of fighting the <a href="/wiki/Flower_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Flower Wars">Flower Wars</a>, a great deal of hatred and bitterness had developed between the Tlaxcalans and the Aztecs. The Aztecs had already conquered most of the territory around Tlaxcala, and waged war on them every year.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 154">: 154 </span></sup> It has been suggested that the Aztecs left Tlaxcala independent so that they would have a constant supply of war captives to sacrifice to their gods.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 23 September 1519, Cortés arrived in Tlaxcala and was greeted with joy by the rulers, who saw the Spanish as an ally against the Aztecs. Due to a commercial blockade by the Aztecs, Tlaxcala was poor, lacking, among other things, salt and cotton cloths, so they could only offer Cortés and his men food and slaves. Cortés stayed twenty days in Tlaxcala, giving his men time to recover from their wounds from the battles. Cortés seems to have won the true friendship and loyalty of the senior leaders of Tlaxcala, among them <a href="/wiki/Maxixcatzin" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxixcatzin">Maxixcatzin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_the_Elder" class="mw-redirect" title="Xicotencatl the Elder">Xicotencatl the Elder</a>, although he could not win the heart of <a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_the_Younger" class="mw-redirect" title="Xicotencatl the Younger">Xicotencatl the Younger</a>. The Spaniards agreed to respect parts of the city, like the temples, and reportedly took only the things that were offered to them freely.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 172–74">: 172–74 </span></sup> </p><p>As before with other native groups, Cortés preached to the Tlaxcalan leaders about the benefits of Christianity. The <i>Caciques</i> gave Cortés "the most beautiful of their daughters and nieces". Xicotencatl the Elder's daughter was baptized as Doña Luisa, and Maxixcatzin's daughter as Doña Elvira. They were given by Cortés to <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juan_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Velázquez de León">Juan Velázquez de León</a> respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 176–78">: 176–78 </span></sup> </p><p>Legends say that he convinced the four leaders of Tlaxcala to become baptized. Maxixcatzin, Xicotencatl the Elder, Citalpopocatzin, and Temiloltecutl received the names of Don Lorenzo, Don Vicente, Don Bartolomé, and Don Gonzalo. It is impossible to know if these leaders understood the Catholic faith. In any case, they apparently had no problems in adding the Christian "Dios" (<a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> in Spanish), the lord of the heavens, to their already complex <a href="/wiki/Aztec_mythology" title="Aztec mythology">pantheon of gods</a>. An exchange of gifts was made and thus began the highly significant and effective alliance between Cortés and Tlaxcala.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cortés_marches_to_Cholula"><span id="Cort.C3.A9s_marches_to_Cholula"></span>Cortés marches to Cholula</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cortés marches to Cholula"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meanwhile, Moctezuma's ambassadors, who had been in the Spanish camp after the battles with the Tlaxcalans, continued to press Cortés to take the road to Mexico via <a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a>, which was under Aztec control, rather than over <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huejoztinco" class="extiw" title="es:Huejoztinco">Huexotzinco</a>, which was an ally of Tlaxcala. They were surprised Cortés had stayed in <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala" title="Tlaxcala">Tlaxcala</a> so long "among a poor and ill-bred people".<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 166, 185–86">: 166, 185–86 </span></sup> </p><p>Cholula was one of the most important cities of Mesoamerica, the second largest, and probably the most sacred.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Its huge pyramid (larger in volume than the great pyramids of Egypt)<sup id="cite_ref-Evans_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evans-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made it one of the most prestigious places of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec religion</a>. However, it appears that Cortés perceived Cholula more as a military threat to his rear guard than a religious center, as he marched to Tenochtitlan. He sent emissaries ahead to try a diplomatic solution to enter the city. </p><p>Cortés, who had not yet decided to start a war with the Aztec Empire, decided to offer a compromise. He accepted the gifts of the Aztec ambassadors, and at the same time accepted the offer of the Tlaxcalan allies to provide porters and 1,000 warriors on his march to Cholula. He also sent two men, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> and <a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernardino_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Tapia" class="extiw" title="es:Bernardino Vázquez de Tapia">Bernardino Vázquez de Tapia</a>, directly to Tenochtitlan, as ambassadors and to scout for an appropriate route.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 186–88">: 186–88 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Massacre_of_Cholula">Massacre of Cholula</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Massacre of Cholula"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cholula_massacre" title="Cholula massacre">Cholula massacre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matanza_de_Cholula_por_conquistadores_espa%C3%B1oles_Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Matanza_de_Cholula_por_conquistadores_espa%C3%B1oles_Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala.jpg/220px-Matanza_de_Cholula_por_conquistadores_espa%C3%B1oles_Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Matanza_de_Cholula_por_conquistadores_espa%C3%B1oles_Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala.jpg/330px-Matanza_de_Cholula_por_conquistadores_espa%C3%B1oles_Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Matanza_de_Cholula_por_conquistadores_espa%C3%B1oles_Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala.jpg/440px-Matanza_de_Cholula_por_conquistadores_espa%C3%B1oles_Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1046" data-file-height="950" /></a><figcaption>The massacre of Cholula. Lienzo de Tlaxcala</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg/220px-Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg/330px-Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg/440px-Felix_Parra_Episodios_de_la_conquista_La_matanza_de_Cholula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2026" data-file-height="1252" /></a><figcaption>Cholula Massacre, by <a href="/wiki/Felix_Parra" class="mw-redirect" title="Felix Parra">Felix Parra</a>, 1877.</figcaption></figure> <p>There are contradictory reports about what happened at <a href="/wiki/Cholula_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Cholula (Mesoamerican site)">Cholula</a>. <a href="/wiki/Moctezuma_II" title="Moctezuma II">Moctezuma</a> had apparently decided to resist with force the advance of Cortés and his troops, and it seems that Moctezuma ordered the leaders of Cholula to try to stop the Spanish. Cholula had a very small army, because as a sacred city they put their confidence in their prestige and their gods. According to the chronicles of the <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcaltec" title="Tlaxcaltec">Tlaxcalteca</a>, the priests of Cholula expected to use the power of <a href="/wiki/Quetzalcoatl" class="mw-redirect" title="Quetzalcoatl">Quetzalcoatl</a>, their primary god, against the invaders.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 193, 199">: 193, 199 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés and his men entered Cholula without active resistance. However, they were not met by the city leaders and were not given food and drink on the third day.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 192">: 192 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cempoala" title="Cempoala">Cempoalans</a> reported that fortifications were being constructed around the city and the Tlaxcalans were warning the Spaniards.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 193">: 193 </span></sup> Finally, <a href="/wiki/La_Malinche" title="La Malinche">La Malinche</a> informed Cortés, after talking to the wife of one of the lords of Cholula, that the locals planned to murder the Spanish in their sleep.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 196">: 196 </span></sup> Although he did not know if the rumor was true or not, Cortés ordered a <a href="/wiki/Pre-emptive_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-emptive strike">pre-emptive strike</a>, urged by the Tlaxcalans, the enemies of the Cholulans. Cortés confronted the city leaders in the main temple alleging that they were planning to attack his men. They admitted that they had been ordered to resist by Moctezuma, but they claimed they had not followed his orders. Regardless, on command, the Spaniards seized and killed many of the local nobles to serve as a lesson.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 199">: 199 </span></sup> </p><p>They captured the Cholulan leaders Tlaquiach and Tlalchiac and then ordered the city to be set on fire. The troops started in the palace of Xacayatzin, and then on to Chialinco and Yetzcoloc. In letters to his King, Cortés claimed that in three hours time his troops (helped by the Tlaxcalans) killed 3,000 people and had burned the city.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another witness, Vázquez de Tapia, claimed the death toll was as high as 30,000. However, since the women and children, and many men, had already fled the city,<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 200–01">: 200–01 </span></sup> it is unlikely that so many were killed. Regardless, the massacre of the nobility of Cholula was a notorious chapter in the conquest of Mexico. </p><p>The Azteca and Tlaxcalteca histories of the events leading up to the massacre vary; the Tlaxcalteca claimed that their ambassador Patlahuatzin was sent to Cholula and had been tortured by the Cholula. Thus, Cortés was avenging him by attacking Cholula.<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 46–47">: 46–47 </span></sup>(Historia de Tlaxcala, por Diego Muñoz Camargo, lib. II cap. V. 1550). The Azteca version put the blame on the Tlaxcalteca, claiming that they resented Cortés going to Cholula instead of <a href="/wiki/Huejotzingo" title="Huejotzingo">Huexotzingo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The massacre had a chilling effect on the other city states and groups affiliated with the Aztecs, as well as the Aztecs themselves. Tales of the massacre convinced the other cities in the Aztec Empire to entertain seriously Cortés' proposals rather than risk the same fate.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 203">: 203 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés then sent emissaries to Moctezuma with the message that the people of Cholula had treated him with trickery and had therefore been punished.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 204">: 204 </span></sup> </p><p>In one of his responses to Cortés, Moctezuma blamed the commanders of the local Aztec garrison for the resistance in Cholula, and recognizing that his long-standing attempts to dissuade Cortés from coming to Tenochtitlan with gifts of gold and silver had failed, Moctezuma finally invited the conquistadors to visit his capital city, according to Spanish sources, after feeling as though nothing else could be done.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 205–06">: 205–06 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Entry_into_Tenochtitlan">Entry into Tenochtitlan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Entry into Tenochtitlan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lake_Texcoco_c_1519.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Lake_Texcoco_c_1519.png/220px-Lake_Texcoco_c_1519.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="297" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Lake_Texcoco_c_1519.png/330px-Lake_Texcoco_c_1519.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Lake_Texcoco_c_1519.png/440px-Lake_Texcoco_c_1519.png 2x" data-file-width="1330" data-file-height="1794" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_Mexico" title="Valley of Mexico">Valley of Mexico</a> on the eve of the Spanish conquest</figcaption></figure> <p>On 8 November 1519, after the fall of Cholula, Cortés and his forces entered <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>, the island capital of the Mexica-Aztecs.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 219">: 219 </span></sup> It is believed that the city was one of the largest in the world at that time, and the largest in the Americas up to that point.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_2011_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell_2011-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common estimates put the population at around 60,000 to over 300,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Denevan_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denevan-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the population of Tenochtitlan was 250,000 in 1519, then Tenochtitlan would have been larger than every city in Europe except perhaps <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a> and <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, and four times the size of <a href="/wiki/Seville" title="Seville">Seville</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_2011_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell_2011-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To the Aztecs, Tenochtitlan was the "altar" for the Empire, as well as being the city that Quetzalcoatl would eventually return to.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cortés_welcomed_by_Moctezuma"><span id="Cort.C3.A9s_welcomed_by_Moctezuma"></span>Cortés welcomed by Moctezuma</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Cortés welcomed by Moctezuma"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Upon meeting, Hernan Cortés claimed to be the representative of the queen, <a href="/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile" title="Joanna of Castile">Doña Juana of Castile</a>, and her son, King Carlos I of Castile and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, all Spanish royalty, had then made an appearance.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Sahagún</a> reports that Moctezuma welcomed Cortés to Tenochtitlan on the Great Causeway, Xolac.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 216–17">: 216–17 </span></sup> "The chiefs who accompanied Moctezuma were: <a href="/wiki/Cacamatzin" title="Cacamatzin">Cacamatzin</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Tetzcoco_(altepetl)" title="Tetzcoco (altepetl)">Tetzcoco</a>; <a href="/wiki/Tetlepanquetzal" title="Tetlepanquetzal">Tetlepanquetzaltin</a>, king of <a href="/wiki/Tlacopan" title="Tlacopan">Tlacopan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Itzquauhtzin" title="Itzquauhtzin">Itzcuauhtzin</a> the <a href="/wiki/Tlacochcalcatl" title="Tlacochcalcatl">Tlacochcalcatl</a>, lord of <a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_(altepetl)" title="Tlatelolco (altepetl)">Tlatelolco</a>; and Topantemoc, Motechzoma's treasurer in Tlatelolco."<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 65">: 65 </span></sup> Moctezuma and his chiefs were adorned with blazing gold on their shoulders with feathers and jewels.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the causeway where the two groups met, enormous numbers of people from Tenochtitlan watched the exchange.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moctezuma went to greet Cortés with his brother, <a href="/wiki/Cuitl%C3%A1huac" title="Cuitláhuac">Cuitláhuac</a>, and his nephew, <a href="/wiki/Cacamatzin" title="Cacamatzin">Cacamatzin</a>. Cortés strode ahead of his commanders and attempted to embrace Moctezuma, but was restrained by Cuitlahuac and Cacamatzin.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cortés was not permitted to touch the emperor; no one was allowed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Conquista_de_M%C3%A9xico_(Tabla_10)_-_Reciviento_de_Motecuhzuma,_danzas_de_los_mexicanos,_Miguel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%26_Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_(1698).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Conquista_de_M%C3%A9xico_%28Tabla_10%29_-_Reciviento_de_Motecuhzuma%2C_danzas_de_los_mexicanos%2C_Miguel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%26_Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%281698%29.png/178px-Conquista_de_M%C3%A9xico_%28Tabla_10%29_-_Reciviento_de_Motecuhzuma%2C_danzas_de_los_mexicanos%2C_Miguel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%26_Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%281698%29.png" decoding="async" width="178" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Conquista_de_M%C3%A9xico_%28Tabla_10%29_-_Reciviento_de_Motecuhzuma%2C_danzas_de_los_mexicanos%2C_Miguel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%26_Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%281698%29.png/267px-Conquista_de_M%C3%A9xico_%28Tabla_10%29_-_Reciviento_de_Motecuhzuma%2C_danzas_de_los_mexicanos%2C_Miguel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%26_Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%281698%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Conquista_de_M%C3%A9xico_%28Tabla_10%29_-_Reciviento_de_Motecuhzuma%2C_danzas_de_los_mexicanos%2C_Miguel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%26_Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%281698%29.png/356px-Conquista_de_M%C3%A9xico_%28Tabla_10%29_-_Reciviento_de_Motecuhzuma%2C_danzas_de_los_mexicanos%2C_Miguel_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%26_Juan_Gonz%C3%A1lez_%281698%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1044" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>"Motecuhzuma receives Cortés. Mexican dances in the lake." by Juan González and Miguel González. 1698</figcaption></figure> <p>After greetings, Moctezuma personally dressed only Cortés in a priceless feather-work flower, a golden jewelry studded necklace and a garland of flowers. Moctezuma then brought Cortés to the shrine of the goddess <a href="/wiki/Toci" title="Toci">Toci</a>, where he gave him a more private greeting, in which he practically gave the Aztec Empire to Cortés,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as he reportedly said that it was his "desire to serve."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_82-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A fragment of the greetings of Moctezuma says: "My lord, you have become fatigued, you have become tired: to the land you have arrived. You have come to your city: Mexico, here you have come to sit on your place, on your throne. Oh, it has been reserved to you for a small time, it was conserved by those who have gone, your substitutes ... This is what has been told by our rulers, those of whom governed this city, ruled this city. That you would come to ask for your throne, your place, that you would come here. Come to the land, come and rest: take possession of your royal houses, give food to your body."<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 64">: 64 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Moctezuma had the royal palace of <a href="/wiki/Axayacatl" title="Axayacatl">Axayácatl</a>, Moctezuma's father, prepared for Cortés.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 218">: 218 </span></sup> On the same day that the Spanish expedition and their allies entered Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma came to visit Cortés and his men. What happened in this second meeting remains controversial. According to several Spanish versions, some written years or decades later, Moctezuma first repeated his earlier, flowery welcome to Cortés on the Great Causeway, but then went on to explain his view of what the Spanish expedition represented in terms of Aztec tradition and lore, including the idea that Cortés and his men (pale, bearded men from the east) were the return of characters from Aztec legend.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 220–21">: 220–21 </span></sup> At the end of this explanation, the Emperor pledged his loyalty to the King of Spain and accepted Cortés as the King's representative. According to Diaz, Moctezuma said to Cortés, "As for your great King, I am in his debt and will give him of what I possess."<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 223">: 223 </span></sup> </p><p>While in the Axayacatl palace, the conquistadors discovered the secret room where Moctezuma kept the treasure he had inherited from his father. The treasure consisted of a "quantity of golden objects – jewels and plates and ingots". Diaz noted, "The sight of all that wealth dumbfounded me."<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 218, 242">: 218, 242 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés later asked Moctezuma to allow him to erect a cross and an image of <a href="/wiki/Blessed_Virgin_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Blessed Virgin Mary">Virgin Mary</a> next to the two large idols of <a href="/wiki/Huichilobos" class="mw-redirect" title="Huichilobos">Huichilobos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tezcatlipoca" title="Tezcatlipoca">Tezcatlipoca</a>, after climbing the one hundred and fourteen steps to the top of the <a href="/wiki/Templo_Mayor" title="Templo Mayor">main temple pyramid</a>, a central place for religious authority.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moctezuma and his <i>papas</i> were furious at the suggestion, with Moctezuma claiming his idols, "give us health and rain and crops and weather, and all the victories we desire."<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 237">: 237 </span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ROHM_D201_The_conquistadors_enter_tenochtitlan_to_the_sounds_of_martial_music.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/ROHM_D201_The_conquistadors_enter_tenochtitlan_to_the_sounds_of_martial_music.jpg/200px-ROHM_D201_The_conquistadors_enter_tenochtitlan_to_the_sounds_of_martial_music.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/ROHM_D201_The_conquistadors_enter_tenochtitlan_to_the_sounds_of_martial_music.jpg/300px-ROHM_D201_The_conquistadors_enter_tenochtitlan_to_the_sounds_of_martial_music.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/ROHM_D201_The_conquistadors_enter_tenochtitlan_to_the_sounds_of_martial_music.jpg/400px-ROHM_D201_The_conquistadors_enter_tenochtitlan_to_the_sounds_of_martial_music.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1730" data-file-height="2417" /></a><figcaption>Conquistadors and their <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcalan" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlaxcalan">Tlaxcalan</a> allies enter Tenochtitlan</figcaption></figure> <p>After Cortés' request surrounding the questioning of raising the cross and the image of the Virgin Mary, the Mexica then killed seven Spanish soldiers Cortés had left on the coast, including Cortés' Villa Rica Constable <a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Escalante" title="Juan de Escalante">Juan de Escalante</a>, and many Totonacs. Cortés along with five of his captains and Doña Marina and Aguilar, convinced Moctezuma to "come quietly with us to our quarters, and make no protest ... if you cry out, or raise any commotion, you will immediately be killed." Moctezuma was later implicated by <a href="/wiki/Qualpopoca" title="Qualpopoca">Qualpopoca</a> and his captains, who had killed the Spanish soldiers. Though these captains of Moctezuma were sentenced to be "burned to death", Moctezuma continued to remain a prisoner, fearing a "rebellion in his city" or that the Spanish may "try to set up another prince in his place." This, despite Moctezuma's chieftains, nephews and relations suggesting they should attack the Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 243–49">: 243–49 </span></sup> </p><p>As of 14 November 1519, Moctezuma was Cortés' prisoner as insurance against any further resistance, until the end of May 1520, Moctezuma lived with Cortés in the palace of <a href="/wiki/Axayacatl" title="Axayacatl">Axayácatl</a>. </p><p>However, Moctezuma continued to act as Emperor, subject to Cortés' overall control.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 248">: 248 </span></sup> During the period of his imprisonment, Moctezuma stated "he was glad to be a prisoner, since either our gods gave us power to confine him or <a href="/wiki/Huichilobos" class="mw-redirect" title="Huichilobos">Huichilobos</a> permitted it." He would even play the game of <i>totoloque</i> with Cortés.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 252">: 252 </span></sup> After the treason of <a href="/wiki/Cacamatzin" title="Cacamatzin">Cacamatzin</a>, Moctezuma and his <i>caciques</i>, were forced to take a more formal oath of allegiance to the King of Spain, though Moctezuma "could not restrain his tears".<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 265">: 265 </span></sup> Moctezuma told his <i>caciques</i> that "their ancestral tradition, set down in their books of records, <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that men would come from the direction of the sunrise to rule these lands" and that "He believed ... we were these men."<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 264">: 264 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés sent expeditions to investigate the Aztec sources of gold in the provinces of Zacatula, <a href="/wiki/Tuxtepec" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuxtepec">Tuxtepec</a>, and the land of the <a href="/wiki/Chinantec" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinantec">Chinantec</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 265–69">: 265–69 </span></sup> Moctezuma was then made to pay a tribute to the Spanish King, which included his father's treasure. These treasures, the Spaniards melted down to form gold bars stamped with an iron die.<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 66–68">: 66–68 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 270–72">: 270–72 </span></sup> Finally, Moctezuma let the Catholic conquistadors build an altar on their temple, next to the Aztec idols.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 277">: 277 </span></sup> </p><p>Finally, the Aztec gods allegedly told the Mexican <i>papas</i>, or priests, they would not stay unless the Spaniards were killed and driven back across the sea.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Moctezuma warned Cortés to leave at once, as their lives were at risk.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 278–79">: 278–79 </span></sup> Many of the nobility rallied around <a href="/wiki/Cuitl%C3%A1huac" title="Cuitláhuac">Cuitláhuac</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 294">: 294 </span></sup> the brother of Moctezuma and his heir-apparent; however, most of them could take no overt action against the Spanish unless the order was given by the Emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 247">: 247 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Defeat_of_Narváez"><span id="Defeat_of_Narv.C3.A1ez"></span>Defeat of Narváez</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Defeat of Narváez"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cempoala" title="Battle of Cempoala">Battle of Cempoala</a></div> <p>In April 1520, Cortés was told by Moctezuma that a much larger party of Spanish troops had arrived, consisting of nineteen ships and fourteen hundred soldiers under the command of <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a>. Narváez had been sent by Governor <a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Velázquez</a> from Cuba to kill or capture Cortés, who had defied Velazquez's orders.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 281">: 281 </span></sup> </p><p>Leaving his "least reliable soldiers" under the command of the headstrong <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a> to guard Moctezuma, Cortés set out against Narváez, who had advanced onto Cempoala. Cortés surprised his antagonist with a night attack, during which his men wounded Narváez in the eye and took him prisoner. After Cortés permitted the defeated soldiers to settle in the country, they "passed with more or less willingness to Cortés' side." Hernán Cortés gained their support when he "promised to make them rich and give them commands [rewards]." Cortés then made a rapid return to Tenochtitlan to relieve the besieged Alvarado and the other invaders.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 282–84">: 282–84 </span></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Cortés led his combined forces on an arduous trek back over the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Madre_Oriental" title="Sierra Madre Oriental">Sierra Madre Oriental</a>, returning to Mexico on <a href="/wiki/Midsummer" title="Midsummer">St. John's Day</a> June 1520, with 1,300 soldiers and 96 horses, plus 2,000 Tlaxcalan warriors.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 284">: 284 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Aztec_response">The Aztec response</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: The Aztec response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Massacre_in_the_Great_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Massacre in the Great Temple">Massacre in the Great Temple</a></div> <p>When Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan in late May, he found that Alvarado and his men had attacked and killed many of the Aztec nobility in the <a href="/wiki/Massacre_in_the_Great_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="Massacre in the Great Temple">Massacre in the Great Temple</a>, that happened during a religious festival organized by the Aztecs. The <a href="/wiki/Templo_Mayor" title="Templo Mayor">Great Temple</a> was central to the Aztecs' cosmological views; the temple served as a burial ground for the offerings made to different gods, such as the gods of fertility, mountains, rain, and earth.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Considering the centrality and the importance of the Great Temple as a religious and cultural monument could potentially have influenced the decision to attack a location such as this. Alvarado's explanation to Cortés was that the Spaniards had learned that the Aztecs planned to attack the Spanish garrison in the city once the festival was complete, so he had launched a preemptive attack.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 286">: 286 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Spanish_retreat_from_Tenochtitlan">The Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Sad_Night_(Noche_Triste)_(Conquest_of_Mexico)_Painting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/The_Sad_Night_%28Noche_Triste%29_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg/220px-The_Sad_Night_%28Noche_Triste%29_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/The_Sad_Night_%28Noche_Triste%29_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg/330px-The_Sad_Night_%28Noche_Triste%29_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/The_Sad_Night_%28Noche_Triste%29_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg/440px-The_Sad_Night_%28Noche_Triste%29_%28Conquest_of_Mexico%29_Painting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1895" data-file-height="1250" /></a><figcaption><i>La Noche Triste</i> depicted in the 17th century</figcaption></figure> <p>In any event, the population of the city rose <i>en masse</i> after the Spanish attack, which the Spanish did not expect.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2016)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Fierce fighting ensued, and the Aztec troops besieged the palace housing the Spaniards and Moctezuma. Alvarado and the rest of the Spanish were held hostage by the Aztecs for a month.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nobility of Tenochtitlan chose <a href="/wiki/Cuitl%C3%A1huac" title="Cuitláhuac">Cuitláhuac</a> as <a href="/wiki/Huey_Tlatoani" class="mw-redirect" title="Huey Tlatoani">Huey Tlatoani</a> (Emperor). Cortés ordered Moctezuma to speak to his people from a palace balcony and persuade them to let the Spanish return to the coast in peace. Moctezuma was jeered and stones were thrown at him, mortally wounding him.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 287–94">: 287–94 </span></sup> Aztec sources state the Spaniards killed him.<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 90">: 90 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés had formed an alliance with Tlaxcala. This alliance had many victories, including the overtaking of the Aztec Capital <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>. Their capital was used as a cosmic center, where they fed <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Aztec_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Aztec culture">sacrifices</a> to the gods through both human bodies and bloodletting. The capital was also used for central and imperialistic governmental control. Preparations for war began in their capital.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Spanish and their allies, including the Tlaxcala, had to flee the central city, as the people of Tenochtitlan had risen against them. The Spaniards' situation could only deteriorate. Because the Aztecs had removed the bridges over the gaps in the causeways that linked the city to the surrounding lands, Cortés' men constructed a portable bridge to cross the water of the lake. On the rainy night of 10 July 1520, the Spaniards and their allies set out for the mainland via the causeway to <a href="/wiki/Tlacopan" title="Tlacopan">Tlacopan</a>. They placed the portable bridge in the first gap, but at that moment their movement was detected and Aztec forces attacked, both along the causeway and by means of canoes on the lake. The Spanish were thus caught on a narrow road with water or buildings on both sides.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 297–99, 305">: 297–99, 305 </span></sup> </p><p>The retreat quickly turned into a rout. The Spanish discovered that they could not remove their portable bridge unit from the first gap, and so had no choice but to leave it behind. The bulk of the Spanish infantry, left behind by Cortés and the other horsemen, had to cut their way through the masses of Aztec warriors opposing them. Many of the Spaniards, weighed down by their armor and booty, drowned in the causeway gaps or were killed by the Aztecs. Much of the wealth the Spaniards had acquired in Tenochtitlan was lost. The bridge was later called "Alvarado's Leap".<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 299–300, 306">: 299–300, 306 </span></sup> </p><p>The channel is now a street in Mexico City, called "Puente de Alvarado" (Alvarado's Bridge), because it seemed Alvarado escaped across an invisible bridge (He may have been walking on the bodies of those soldiers and attackers who had preceded him, given the shallowness of the lake.).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>It is said that Cortés, upon reaching the mainland at Tlacopan, wept over their losses. This episode is called "<a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a>" (The Night of Sorrows), and the old tree ("El árbol de la noche triste") where Cortés allegedly cried, is still a monument in Mexico City. </p><p>The Aztecs pursued and harassed the Spanish, who, guided by their Tlaxcalan allies, moved around Lake <a href="/wiki/Zumpango" title="Zumpango">Zumpango</a> towards a sanctuary in Tlaxcala. On 14 July 1520, the Aztecs attempted to destroy the Spanish for good at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Otumba" title="Battle of Otumba">Battle of Otumba</a>. Although hard-pressed, the Spanish infantry was able to hold off the overwhelming numbers of enemy warriors, while the Spanish cavalry under the leadership of Cortés charged through the enemy ranks again and again. When Cortés and his men killed one of the Aztec leaders, the Aztecs broke off the battle and left the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 303–05">: 303–05 </span></sup> </p><p>In this retreat, the Spaniards suffered heavy casualties, losing 860 soldiers, 72 other Spanish members of Cortés' group, including five women, and 1,000 Tlaxcalan warriors. Several Aztec noblemen loyal to Cortés, including <a href="/wiki/Cacamatzin" title="Cacamatzin">Cacamatzin</a>, and their families also perished, including Moctezuma's son and two daughters.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 302, 305–06">: 302, 305–06 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Spaniards_find_refuge_in_Tlaxcala">Spaniards find refuge in Tlaxcala</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Spaniards find refuge in Tlaxcala"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temalacatitlan_-_batalla_de_Otumba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Temalacatitlan_-_batalla_de_Otumba.jpg/220px-Temalacatitlan_-_batalla_de_Otumba.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Temalacatitlan_-_batalla_de_Otumba.jpg/330px-Temalacatitlan_-_batalla_de_Otumba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Temalacatitlan_-_batalla_de_Otumba.jpg/440px-Temalacatitlan_-_batalla_de_Otumba.jpg 2x" data-file-width="587" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption>A page from the <i><a href="/wiki/Lienzo_de_Tlaxcala" class="mw-redirect" title="Lienzo de Tlaxcala">Lienzo de Tlaxcala</a></i>, depicting the battle of Otumba</figcaption></figure> <p>The Spanish were able to complete their escape to Tlaxcala. There, they were given assistance, since all 440 of them were wounded, with only 20 horses left. <a href="/wiki/Maxixcatl" title="Maxixcatl">Maxixcatzin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_I" title="Xicotencatl I">Xicotencatl the Elder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chichimecatecuhtli" title="Chichimecatecuhtli">Chichimecatecuhtli</a> told Cortés' men: "Consider yourselves at home. Rest ... do not think it a small thing that you have escaped with your lives from that strong city ... if we thought of you as brave men before, we consider you much braver now."<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 306–07">: 306–07 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés got reinforcements when the <a href="/wiki/Panuco_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Panuco River">Panuco River</a> settlement was abandoned, and supply ships arrived from Cuba and Spain. Cortés also had built 13 <a href="/wiki/Brigantine" title="Brigantine">brigantines</a> and had them mounted with cannons, turning <a href="/wiki/Lake_Texcoco" title="Lake Texcoco">Lake Texcoco</a> into a strategic body of water to assault Tenochtitlan. <a href="/wiki/Xicotencatl_II" title="Xicotencatl II">Xicotencatl the Younger</a>, however, sought an alliance with the Mexicans, but was opposed.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 309–11">: 309–11 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés sent <a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Ordaz" title="Diego de Ordaz">Diego de Ordaz</a> and the remnants of Narvaez's men, on a ship to Spain, and <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Montejo" class="mw-redirect" title="Francisco Montejo">Francisco Montejo</a> on a ship to <a href="/wiki/Santo_Domingo" title="Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a> to represent his case in the Royal Courts.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 311">: 311 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés was able to pacify the country, after the indigenous realized the Spaniards put "an end to the rape and robbery that the Mexicans practised.". Finally, Xicotencatl the Elder, baptized as Don Lorenzo de Vargas, agreed to support Cortés' expedition against <a href="/wiki/Texcoco_(altepetl)" class="mw-redirect" title="Texcoco (altepetl)">Texcoco</a>. According to Bernal Diaz, he sent more than 10,000 warriors under the command of Chichimecatecuhtli as Cortés marched on the day after Christmas 1520.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 309, 311–12">: 309, 311–12 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Siege_and_fall_of_Tenochtitlan">Siege and fall of Tenochtitlan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Siege and fall of Tenochtitlan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan#Siege_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Fall of Tenochtitlan § Siege of Tenochtitlan</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LastDaysofTenochtitlanB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/LastDaysofTenochtitlanB.jpg/250px-LastDaysofTenochtitlanB.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/LastDaysofTenochtitlanB.jpg/375px-LastDaysofTenochtitlanB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/LastDaysofTenochtitlanB.jpg/500px-LastDaysofTenochtitlanB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2770" data-file-height="1574" /></a><figcaption>"The Last Days of Tenochtitlan, Conquest of Mexico by Cortez", a 19th-century painting by <a href="/wiki/William_de_Leftwich_Dodge" title="William de Leftwich Dodge">William de Leftwich Dodge</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Aztecs were struck by a <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> plague starting in September 1520, which lasted seventy days. Many were killed, including their new leader, the Emperor <a href="/wiki/Cuitl%C3%A1huac" title="Cuitláhuac">Cuitlahuac</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Miguel_44-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 92–93">: 92–93 </span></sup> </p><p>The joint forces of Tlaxcala and Cortés proved to be formidable. One by one they took over most of the cities under Aztec control, some in battle, others by diplomacy. In the end, only Tenochtitlan and the neighboring city of <a href="/wiki/Tlatelolco_(altepetl)" title="Tlatelolco (altepetl)">Tlatelolco</a> remained unconquered or not allied with the Spaniards.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 326–52">: 326–52 </span></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antoni_G%C3%B3mez_i_Cros_-_Hernan_Cort%C3%A9s_lluita_amb_dos_indis_-_876.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Antoni_G%C3%B3mez_i_Cros_-_Hernan_Cort%C3%A9s_lluita_amb_dos_indis_-_876.jpg/170px-Antoni_G%C3%B3mez_i_Cros_-_Hernan_Cort%C3%A9s_lluita_amb_dos_indis_-_876.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Antoni_G%C3%B3mez_i_Cros_-_Hernan_Cort%C3%A9s_lluita_amb_dos_indis_-_876.jpg/255px-Antoni_G%C3%B3mez_i_Cros_-_Hernan_Cort%C3%A9s_lluita_amb_dos_indis_-_876.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Antoni_G%C3%B3mez_i_Cros_-_Hernan_Cort%C3%A9s_lluita_amb_dos_indis_-_876.jpg/340px-Antoni_G%C3%B3mez_i_Cros_-_Hernan_Cort%C3%A9s_lluita_amb_dos_indis_-_876.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="1482" /></a><figcaption>Hernan Cortés fight with two Aztecs.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cortés then approached Tenochtitlan and mounted a siege of the city that involved cutting the causeways from the mainland and controlling the lake with armed <a href="/wiki/Brigantine" title="Brigantine">brigantines</a> constructed by the Spanish and transported overland to the lake. The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tenochtitlan" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Tenochtitlan">Siege of Tenochtitlan</a> lasted eight months. The besiegers cut off the supply of food and destroyed the aqueduct carrying water to the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 359, 368">: 359, 368 </span></sup> </p><p>Despite the stubborn Aztec resistance organized by their new emperor, <a href="/wiki/Cuauht%C3%A9moc" title="Cuauhtémoc">Cuauhtémoc</a>, the cousin of Moctezuma II, Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco fell on 13 August 1521, during which the Emperor was captured trying to escape the city in a canoe. The siege of the city and its defense had both been brutal. Largely because he wanted to present the city to his king and emperor, Cortés had made several attempts to end the siege through diplomacy, but all offers were rejected. During the battle, the defenders cut the beating hearts from seventy Spanish prisoners-of-war at the altar to <a href="/wiki/Hu%C4%ABtzil%C5%8Dp%C5%8Dchtli" title="Huītzilōpōchtli">Huitzilopochtli</a>, an act that infuriated the Spaniards.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 386–87, 391, 401–03">: 386–87, 391, 401–03 </span></sup> </p><p>Cortés then ordered the idols of the Aztec gods in the temples to be taken down and replaced with icons of Christianity. He also announced that the temple would never again be used for human sacrifice. Human sacrifice and reports of cannibalism, common among the natives of the Aztec Empire, had been a major reason motivating Cortés and encouraging his soldiers to avoid surrender while fighting to the death.<sup id="cite_ref-Diaz_49-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tenochtitlan had been almost totally destroyed using the manpower of the Tlaxcalans plus fire and cannon fire during the siege, and once it finally fell, the Spanish continued its destruction, as they soon began to establish the foundations of what would become <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico_City" title="History of Mexico City">Mexico City</a> on the site. The surviving Aztec people were forbidden to live in Tenochtitlan and the surrounding isles, and were banished to live in Tlatelolco. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistador</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Bernal Díaz del Castillo</a> seemed remorseful after the sacking of <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a>. He said later in his book, <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_verdadera_de_la_conquista_de_la_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a" title="Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España">The True History of the Conquest of New Spain</a></i> that the <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">natives</a> had showered them with gifts, and given them rooms and food. He was dazzled by the gardens and the <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a> that flowed around the city. "When I beheld the scenes around me", said Díaz,<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "I thought within myself, this was the garden of the world. All of the wonders I beheld that day, nothing now remains. All is overthrown and lost."<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_Spanish_Wars_of_Conquest">Further Spanish Wars of Conquest</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further Spanish Wars of Conquest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Michoacan">Michoacan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Michoacan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_Empire" title="Purépecha Empire">Purépecha Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tangaxuan_II" title="Tangaxuan II">Tangaxuan II</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aztec_Indians_Mexico_Tlaxcalan_Cortez.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Aztec_Indians_Mexico_Tlaxcalan_Cortez.jpg/220px-Aztec_Indians_Mexico_Tlaxcalan_Cortez.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Aztec_Indians_Mexico_Tlaxcalan_Cortez.jpg/330px-Aztec_Indians_Mexico_Tlaxcalan_Cortez.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Aztec_Indians_Mexico_Tlaxcalan_Cortez.jpg/440px-Aztec_Indians_Mexico_Tlaxcalan_Cortez.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3845" data-file-height="3359" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nu%C3%B1o_de_Guzm%C3%A1n" title="Nuño de Guzmán">Nuño de Guzmán</a>, a rival of <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Cortés</a>, led Spanish soldiers with <a href="/wiki/Tlaxcala" title="Tlaxcala">Tlaxcalan</a> allies in the conquest of Michoacan.</figcaption></figure> <p>After hearing about the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a>, Irecha <a href="/wiki/Tangaxuan_II" title="Tangaxuan II">Tangaxuan II</a> sent emissaries to the Spanish victors (the <a href="/wiki/Tarascan_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarascan state">Purépecha empire</a> was a contemporary and enemy of the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec Empire</a>). A few Spaniards went with them to <a href="/wiki/Tzintzuntzan_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Tzintzuntzan (Mesoamerican site)">Tzintzuntzan</a>, where they were presented to the ruler and gifts were exchanged. They returned with samples of gold and Cortés' interest in the Tarascan state was awakened. </p><p>In 1522 a Spanish force under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Cristobal_de_Olid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cristobal de Olid">Cristobal de Olid</a> was sent into Purépecha territory and arrived at Tzintzuntzan within days. The imperial army numbered many thousands, perhaps as many as 100,000, but at the crucial moment they chose not to fight.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tangaxuan submitted to the Spanish administration, but for his cooperation was allowed a large degree of autonomy. This resulted in a strange arrangement where both Cortés and Tangáxuan considered themselves rulers of Michoacán for the following years: the population of the area paid tribute to them both. </p><p>In 1529, however, <a href="/wiki/Nu%C3%B1o_Beltr%C3%A1n_de_Guzm%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán">Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán</a>, then president of the first <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencia</a>, decided to march on northwestern Mexico with a force of 5,000–8,000 men in search for new populations to subdue. He arrived in <a href="/wiki/Michoac%C3%A1n" title="Michoacán">Michoacán</a> and found out that Tangaxuan was still the <i>de facto</i> ruler of his empire, for which the conquistador allied himself with Don Pedro Panza Cuinierángari against the Irecha. Tangaxuan was tried with plotting a rebellion, withholding tribute, sodomy and heresy, and he was tortured and executed.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His ashes were thrown into the <a href="/wiki/Lerma_River" title="Lerma River">Lerma River</a>. A period of violence and turbulence began until being fully calmed by <a href="/wiki/Vasco_de_Quiroga" title="Vasco de Quiroga">Vasco de Quiroga</a>, Bishop of Michoacan, in 1533. During the next decades, puppet rulers were installed by the Spanish government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conquest_of_the_Yucatán_Peninsula"><span id="Conquest_of_the_Yucat.C3.A1n_Peninsula"></span>Conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish conquest of Yucatán</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish conquest of Yucatán</a> took almost 170 years. The whole process could have taken longer were it not for three separate <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemics</a> that took a heavy toll on the Native Americans, causing the population to fall by half and weakening the traditional social structure.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chichimec_Wars">Chichimec Wars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Chichimec Wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chichimeca_War" title="Chichimeca War">Chichimeca War</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mixton_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixton War">Mixton War</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pedro_de_alvarado_telleriano_remensis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Pedro_de_alvarado_telleriano_remensis.jpg/300px-Pedro_de_alvarado_telleriano_remensis.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Pedro_de_alvarado_telleriano_remensis.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="346" data-file-height="279" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a>'s death in 1541, depicted in the indigenous <a href="/wiki/Codex_Telleriano-Remensis" title="Codex Telleriano-Remensis">Codex Telleriano-Remensis</a>. The glyph to the right of his head represents his <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahuatl language">Nahuatl</a> name, <i>Tonatiuh</i> ("Sun").</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Spanish conquest of central Mexico, expeditions were sent further northward in Mesoamerica, to the region known as <a href="/wiki/La_Gran_Chichimeca" title="La Gran Chichimeca">La Gran Chichimeca</a>. The expeditions under <a href="/wiki/Nu%C3%B1o_Beltr%C3%A1n_de_Guzm%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán">Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán</a> were particularly harsh on the <a href="/wiki/Chichimeca" title="Chichimeca">Chichimeca</a> population, causing them to rebel under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Tenamaxtli" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenamaxtli">Tenamaxtli</a> and thus launch the <a href="/wiki/Mixton_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixton War">Mixton War</a>. </p><p>In 1540, the Chichimecas fortified <a href="/wiki/Mixt%C3%B3n" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixtón">Mixtón</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nochistl%C3%A1n" title="Nochistlán">Nochistlán</a>, and other mountain towns then besieged the Spanish settlement in <a href="/wiki/Guadalajara" title="Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a>. The famous conquistador <a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a>, coming to the aid of acting governor <a href="/wiki/Crist%C3%B3bal_de_O%C3%B1ate" title="Cristóbal de Oñate">Cristóbal de Oñate</a>, led an attack on Nochistlán. However, the Chichimecas counter-attacked and Alvarado's forces were routed. Under the leadership of Viceroy Don <a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Mendoza" title="Antonio de Mendoza">Antonio de Mendoza</a>, the Spanish forces and their Indigenous allies ultimately succeeded in recapturing the towns and suppressing resistance. However, fighting did not completely come to a halt in the ensuing years. </p><p>In 1546, Spanish authorities discovered silver in the <a href="/wiki/Zacatecas" title="Zacatecas">Zacatecas</a> region and established mining settlements in Chichimeca territory which altered the terrain and the Chichimeca traditional way of life. The Chichimeca resisted the intrusions on their ancestral lands by attacking travelers and merchants along the "silver roads." The ensuing <a href="/wiki/Chichimeca_War" title="Chichimeca War">Chichimeca War</a> (1550–1590) would become the longest and costliest conflict between Spanish forces and indigenous peoples in the Americas. The attacks intensified with each passing year. In 1554, the Chichimecas inflicted a great loss upon the Spanish when they attacked a train of sixty wagons and captured more than 30,000 pesos worth of valuables. By the 1580s, thousands had died and Spanish mining settlements in Chichimeca territory were continually under threat. In 1585, Don Alvaro Manrique de Zúñiga, Marquis of Villamanrique, was appointed viceroy. The viceroy was infuriated when he learned that some Spanish soldiers had begun supplementing their incomes by raiding the villages of peaceful Indians in order to sell them into slavery. With no military end to the conflict in sight, he was determined to restore peace to that region and launched a full-scale peace offensive by negotiating with Chichimeca leaders and providing them with lands, agricultural supplies, and other goods. This policy of "peace by purchase" finally brought an end to the Chichimeca War.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> l </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Aztecs_under_Spanish_rule">The Aztecs under Spanish rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: The Aztecs under Spanish rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Spain" title="History of New Spain">History of New Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nahuas#Colonial_Period_1521-1821" title="Nahuas">Nahuas § Colonial_Period_1521-1821</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a> was constituted in 1524 and the first <a href="/wiki/Audiencia_Real" class="mw-redirect" title="Audiencia Real">Audiencia</a> in 1527. In 1535, <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> (who was as the King of Spain known as Charles I), named the Spanish nobleman Don <a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Mendoza" title="Antonio de Mendoza">Antonio de Mendoza</a> the first Viceroy of <a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>. Mendoza was entirely loyal to the Spanish crown, unlike the conqueror of Mexico <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a>, who had demonstrated that he was independent-minded and defied official orders when he threw off the authority of Governor Velázquez in Cuba. The name "<a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a>" had been suggested by Cortés and was later confirmed officially by Mendoza. </p><p>The Aztec Empire ceased to exist with the Spanish final conquest of Tenochtitlan in August 1521. The empire had been composed of separate city-states that had either allied with or been conquered by the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, and rendered tribute to the Mexica while maintaining their internal ruling structures. Those polities now came under Spanish rule, also retaining their internal structures of ruling elites and tribute-paying commoners, as well as land holding and other economic structures being largely intact. Two key works by historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_Gibson_(historian)" title="Charles Gibson (historian)">Charles Gibson</a>, <i>Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century</i> (1952)<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his monograph <i>The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico, 1519–1810</i> (1964)<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were central in reshaping the historiography of the indigenous and their communities from the Spanish conquest to the 1810 Mexican independence era.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars who were part of a branch of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoamerican">Mesoamerican</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">ethnohistory</a>, more recently called the <a href="/wiki/New_Philology_(Latin_America)" title="New Philology (Latin America)">New Philology</a> have, using indigenous texts in the indigenous languages, been able to examine in considerable detail how the indigenous lived during the era of Spanish colonial rule. A major work that utilizes colonial-era indigenous texts as its main source is <a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">James Lockhart</a>'s <i>The Nahuas After the Conquest: Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The key to understanding how considerable continuity of pre-Conquest indigenous structures was possible was the Spanish colonial utilization of the indigenous nobility. In the colonial era, the indigenous nobility were largely recognized as nobles by the Spanish colonial regime, with privileges including the noble Spanish title <i>don</i> for noblemen and <i>doña</i> for noblewomen. To this day, the title of Duke of Moctezuma is held by a Spanish noble family. A few of the indigenous nobility learned Spanish. Spanish friars taught indigenous tribes to write their own languages in Latin letters, which soon became a self-perpetuating tradition at the local level.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their surviving writings are crucial in our knowledge of colonial era <a href="/wiki/Nahuas" title="Nahuas">Nahuas</a>. </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Mendicants" class="mw-redirect" title="Mendicants">mendicants</a> in central Mexico, particularly the Franciscans and Dominicans learned the indigenous language of <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>, in order to evangelize to the indigenous people in their native tongue. Early mendicants created texts in order to forward the project of Christianization. Particularly important were the 1571 Spanish-Nahuatl dictionary compiled by the Franciscan Fray <a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Molina" title="Alonso de Molina">Alonso de Molina</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his 1569 bilingual Nahuatl-Spanish confessional manual for priests.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major project by the Franciscans in Mexico was the compilation of knowledge on Nahua religious beliefs and culture that friar <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a> oversaw using indigenous informants, resulting in a number of important texts and culminating in a 12 volume text, <i>The General History of the Things of New Spain</i> published in English as the <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a>. The Spanish crown via the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a> and the Franciscan order in the late sixteenth century became increasingly hostile to works in the indigenous languages written by priests and clerics, concerned that they were heretical and an impediment to the Indians' true conversion.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To reward Spaniards who participated in the conquest of what is now contemporary Mexico,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the Spanish crown authorized grants of native labor, in particular the assignment of entire indigenous communities to labor via the <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a> system. The indigenous were not slaves under this system,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> chattel bought and sold or removed from their home community, but the system was still one of forced labor. The indigenous people of Central Mexico had practices rendering labor and tribute products to their polity's elites and those elites to the Mexica overlords in Tenochtitlan, so the Spanish system of encomienda was built on pre-existing patterns of labor service.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Spanish conquerors in Mexico during the early colonial era lived off the labor of the indigenous peoples. Due to some horrifying instances of abuse against the native peoples, Bishop <a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a> suggested importing black slaves to replace them. Las Casas later repented when he saw the even worse treatment given to the black slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe_Church,_Calle_69_n53_-Av.6,_Venustiano_Carranza,_Federal_District,_Mexico08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe_Church%2C_Calle_69_n53_-Av.6%2C_Venustiano_Carranza%2C_Federal_District%2C_Mexico08.jpg/220px-Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe_Church%2C_Calle_69_n53_-Av.6%2C_Venustiano_Carranza%2C_Federal_District%2C_Mexico08.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe_Church%2C_Calle_69_n53_-Av.6%2C_Venustiano_Carranza%2C_Federal_District%2C_Mexico08.jpg/330px-Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe_Church%2C_Calle_69_n53_-Av.6%2C_Venustiano_Carranza%2C_Federal_District%2C_Mexico08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe_Church%2C_Calle_69_n53_-Av.6%2C_Venustiano_Carranza%2C_Federal_District%2C_Mexico08.jpg/440px-Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe_Church%2C_Calle_69_n53_-Av.6%2C_Venustiano_Carranza%2C_Federal_District%2C_Mexico08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1012" data-file-height="753" /></a><figcaption>Evangelization of Mexico</figcaption></figure> <p>The other discovery that perpetuated this system of indigenous forced labor were the extensive silver mines discovered at <a href="/wiki/Potos%C3%AD" title="Potosí">Potosi</a>, in Higher Peru (now Bolivia) and other places in the Spanish empire in the New World that were worked for hundreds of years by forced native labor and contributed most of the wealth that flowed to Spain. </p><p>According to West, "slavery was a well-established institution among the Aztecs and their neighbors." "During the Conquest, Spaniards legally enslaved large numbers of natives – men, women and children – as booty of warfare, branding each individual on the cheek." In fact, "Cortés owned several hundred, used mainly in <a href="/wiki/Placer_mining" title="Placer mining">gold placering</a>." Indian slavery was abolished in 1542 but persisted until the 1550s.<sup id="cite_ref-Bakewell_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bakewell-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spain spent enormous amounts of this wealth hiring mercenaries to fight the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> and to halt the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Turkish invasions of Europe</a>. The silver was used to purchase commercial goods abroad, as European manufactured goods were not in demand in Asia and the Middle East. The <a href="/wiki/Manila_Galleon" class="mw-redirect" title="Manila Galleon">Manila Galleon</a> brought in far more silver direct from South American mines to China than the overland Silk Road, or even European trade routes in the Indian Ocean could. </p><p>The Aztec education system was abolished and replaced by a very limited church education. Even some foods associated with Mesoamerican religious practice, such as <a href="/wiki/Amaranth" title="Amaranth">amaranth</a>, were forbidden.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Catholic missionaries campaigned against cultural traditions of the Aztecs, and the use of <a href="/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom" title="Psilocybin mushroom">psilocybin mushrooms</a>, like other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed. In converting people to Catholicism, the Spanish pushed for a switch from <i>teonanácatl</i> to the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist. Despite this history, in some remote areas, the use of <i><a href="/wiki/Teonan%C3%A1catl" class="mw-redirect" title="Teonanácatl">teonanácatl</a></i> has persisted.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 16th century, perhaps 240,000 Spaniards entered American ports. They were joined by 450,000 in the next century.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike the English-speaking <a href="/wiki/British_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="British colonization of the Americas">colonists of North America</a>, the majority of the Spanish colonists were single men who married or made concubines of the natives,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and were even encouraged to do so by <a href="/wiki/Isabella_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Isabella of Castille">Queen Isabella I</a> during the earliest days of colonization. As a result of these unions, as well as concubinage <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and secret mistresses, mixed race individuals known as <a href="/wiki/Mestizo" title="Mestizo">mestizos</a> became the majority of the Mexican population in the centuries following the Spanish conquest. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_depictions_of_the_Aztecs">Cultural depictions of the Aztecs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Cultural depictions of the Aztecs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lorenzo_Ferrero_-_Scene_from_the_opera_La_Conquista.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Lorenzo_Ferrero_-_Scene_from_the_opera_La_Conquista.jpg/230px-Lorenzo_Ferrero_-_Scene_from_the_opera_La_Conquista.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Lorenzo_Ferrero_-_Scene_from_the_opera_La_Conquista.jpg/345px-Lorenzo_Ferrero_-_Scene_from_the_opera_La_Conquista.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Lorenzo_Ferrero_-_Scene_from_the_opera_La_Conquista.jpg/460px-Lorenzo_Ferrero_-_Scene_from_the_opera_La_Conquista.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>Scene from the opera <i><a href="/wiki/La_Conquista_(opera)" title="La Conquista (opera)">La Conquista</a></i>, 2005</figcaption></figure> <p>The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire is the subject of an opera, <i><a href="/wiki/La_Conquista_(opera)" title="La Conquista (opera)">La Conquista</a></i> (2005) and of a set of six symphonic poems, <i><a href="/wiki/La_Nueva_Espa%C3%B1a_(composition)" title="La Nueva España (composition)">La Nueva España</a></i> (1992–99) by Italian composer <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Ferrero" title="Lorenzo Ferrero">Lorenzo Ferrero</a>. </p><p>Cortés's conquest has been depicted in numerous television documentaries. These include in an episode of <a href="/wiki/Engineering_an_Empire" title="Engineering an Empire">Engineering an Empire</a> as well as in the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a> series <a href="/wiki/Heroes_and_Villains_(TV_series)" title="Heroes and Villains (TV series)">Heroes and Villains</a>, with Cortés being portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Brian_McCardie" title="Brian McCardie">Brian McCardie</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Captain_from_Castile" title="Captain from Castile">Captain from Castile</a> (1947) is about early Cortés and the Aztec. </p><p>The expedition was also partially included in the animated film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_El_Dorado" title="The Road to El Dorado">The Road to El Dorado</a></i> as the main characters Tulio and Miguel end up as stowaways on Hernán Cortés' fleet to Mexico. Here, Cortés is represented as a merciless and ambitious villain, leading a quest to find <a href="/wiki/El_Dorado" title="El Dorado">El Dorado</a>, the legendary city of gold in the New World. Hernán Cortés is voiced by <a href="/wiki/Jim_Cummings" title="Jim Cummings">Jim Cummings</a>. </p><p>The aftermath of the Spanish conquest, including the Aztecs' struggle to preserve their cultural identity, is the subject of the Mexican feature film, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Other_Conquest" title="The Other Conquest">The Other Conquest</a></i>, directed by <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Carrasco" title="Salvador Carrasco">Salvador Carrasco</a>. </p><p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Daniele_Bolelli" title="Daniele Bolelli">Daniele Bolelli</a> did an in-depth coverage of the Spanish conquest over four episodes of his <i>History on Fire</i> podcast.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mexican muralist <a href="/wiki/Diego_Rivera" title="Diego Rivera">Diego Rivera</a> (1886–1957) painted <i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morelos,_Conquest_and_Revolution" title="History of Morelos, Conquest and Revolution">History of Morelos, Conquest and Revolution</a></i> on the walls of the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Cort%C3%A9s,_Cuernavaca" title="Palace of Cortés, Cuernavaca">Cortés Palace</a> in <a href="/wiki/Cuernavaca" title="Cuernavaca">Cuernavaca</a> in 1929–1930. </p><p>An historical drama series in Mayan, Nahuatl, and Spanish entitled <i><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_(TV_series)" title="Hernán (TV series)">Hernán</a></i> was co-produced by Televisión Azteca, Dopamine, and Onza Entertainment in 2019. The plot revolves around Hernán Cortés and his cadre from his arrival at the Mexican coast until the defeat of the Mexicas. </p><p>A fictionalized version of the fall of Tenochtitlan was depicted in the 2021 <a href="/wiki/Marvel_Cinematic_Universe" title="Marvel Cinematic Universe">Marvel Cinematic Universe</a> film <i><a href="/wiki/Eternals_(film)" title="Eternals (film)">Eternals</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/28px-Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/42px-Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/56px-Latin_America_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="550" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Latin_America" title="Portal:Latin America">Latin America portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/32px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" 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data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spain" title="Portal:Spain">Spain portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_warfare" title="Aztec warfare">Aztec warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_influence_in_Spain" title="Aztec influence in Spain">Aztec influence in Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Colonial_Spanish_America" title="Historiography of Colonial Spanish America">Historiography of Colonial Spanish America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico_City" title="History of Mexico City">History of Mexico City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_smallpox_in_Mexico" title="History of smallpox in Mexico">History of smallpox in Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_by_death_toll" title="List of wars by death toll">List of wars by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Spanish conquest of Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Spanish conquest of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Spanish conquest of Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Spanish conquest of Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hInjAAAAMAAJ&dq=virrey+M%C3%A9xico+roja+gualda&pg=PA187">Teoría de la bandera.Guido Villa.1974</a> "The companies portentous discovery and conquest of the New World, met under the banners of Castile incarnate". Las portentosas empresas del descubrimiento y la conquista del Nuevo Mundo, se cumplieron bajo los encarnados pendones de Castilla.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091056/http://www.relatosehistorias.com.mx/ensayos_relatos60.html">"Indigeniso e hispanismo"</a>. Arqueología mexicana. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.relatosehistorias.com.mx/ensayos_relatos60.html">the original</a> on 4 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 October</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Indigeniso+e+hispanismo&rft.pub=Arqueolog%C3%ADa+mexicana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.relatosehistorias.com.mx%2Fensayos_relatos60.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> <b>(Spanish)</b></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas,_Hugh_1993-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas,_Hugh_1993_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thomas,_Hugh_1993_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, Hugh. <i>Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico</i>, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), 528–529.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClodfelter201732_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClodfelter2017">Clodfelter 2017</a>, p. 32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Diaz, B., 1963, The Conquest of New Spain, London: Penguin Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140441239" title="Special:BookSources/0140441239">0140441239</a>: states that Cortes's men lost all the artillery they had initially arrived with during <a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard Grunberg, "La folle aventure d'Hernan Cortés", in L'Histoire n°322, July–August 2007: states that Cortes arrived in Mexico with 15 cannons, <i>before</i> acquiring the forces of <a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Borah/Cook 1989: "El pasado de México: aspectos sociodemográficos" 218-219</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aztec_Warfare:_Imperial_Expansion_and_Political_Control-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Aztec_Warfare:_Imperial_Expansion_and_Political_Control_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss_Hassig1988" class="citation book cs1">Ross Hassig (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/4883188"><i>Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press, 1988. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806121215" title="Special:BookSources/9780806121215"><bdi>9780806121215</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aztec+Warfare%3A+Imperial+Expansion+and+Political+Control&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press%2C+1988&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=9780806121215&rft.au=Ross+Hassig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.goodreads.com%2Fbook%2Fshow%2F4883188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-spanishwars.net-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-spanishwars.net_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-spanishwars.net_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spanishwars.net/16th-century-conquest-of-the-aztec-empire-partI.html">"Conquest of the Aztec Empire Part I"</a>. <i>www.spanishwars.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 May</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.spanishwars.net&rft.atitle=Conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire+Part+I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spanishwars.net%2F16th-century-conquest-of-the-aztec-empire-partI.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Townsend, Camilla. Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico. p. 92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Colonial_Latin_America-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Colonial_Latin_America_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Colonial_Latin_America_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMark_A._Burkholder2019" class="citation book cs1">Mark A. Burkholder, Lyman L. Johnson (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://global.oup.com/ushe/product/colonial-latin-america-9780190642402?cc=us&lang=en&"><i>Colonial Latin America</i></a> (10th ed.). 2019. pp. 54–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190642402" title="Special:BookSources/9780190642402"><bdi>9780190642402</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colonial+Latin+America&rft.pages=54-57&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=2019&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780190642402&rft.aulast=Mark+A.+Burkholder&rft.aufirst=Lyman+L.+Johnson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal.oup.com%2Fushe%2Fproduct%2Fcolonial-latin-america-9780190642402%3Fcc%3Dus%26lang%3Den%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2000" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Stuart B. (2000). <i>Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico</i>. Boston: Bedford/St Martin's. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-39355-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-39355-7"><bdi>978-0-312-39355-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victors+and+Vanquished%3A+Spanish+and+Nahua+Views+of+the+Conquest+of+Mexico&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt+Martin%27s&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-312-39355-7&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Stuart+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ida Altman, et al. <i>The Early History of Greater Mexico,</i> Pearson, 2003, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartz2000" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, Stuart B. (2000). <i>Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico</i>. Boston: Bedford/St. Martins. p. 157. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-39355-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-39355-7"><bdi>978-0-312-39355-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Victors+and+Vanquished%3A+Spanish+and+Nahua+Views+of+the+Conquest+of+Mexico&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=157&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martins&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-312-39355-7&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Stuart+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerton2007" class="citation book cs1">Egerton, Douglas R.; et al. (2007). <i>The Atlantic World</i>. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88295-245-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88295-245-1"><bdi>978-0-88295-245-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+World&rft.place=Wheeling%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Harlan+Davidson%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-88295-245-1&rft.aulast=Egerton&rft.aufirst=Douglas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Aztec_Warfare-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Aztec_Warfare_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Aztec_Warfare_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss_Hassig2006" class="citation book cs1">Ross Hassig (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u2fcDIn41cIC"><i>Aztec Warfare</i></a>. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman and London. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806137933" title="Special:BookSources/978-0806137933"><bdi>978-0806137933</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 December</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aztec+Warfare&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press%3A+Norman+and+London&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0806137933&rft.au=Ross+Hassig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du2fcDIn41cIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRestall,_Matthew2019" class="citation book cs1">Restall, Matthew (15 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1042102952"><i>When Montezuma met Cortés : the true story of the meeting that changed history</i></a>. HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-242727-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-242727-4"><bdi>978-0-06-242727-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1042102952">1042102952</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Montezuma+met+Cort%C3%A9s+%3A+the+true+story+of+the+meeting+that+changed+history&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2019-01-15&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1042102952&rft.isbn=978-0-06-242727-4&rft.au=Restall%2C+Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1042102952&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas1992" class="citation journal cs1">Douglas, Daniel (1992). "Tactical Factors in the Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs". <i>Anthropological Quarterly</i>. <b>65</b> (4): 187–194. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3317246">10.2307/3317246</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3317246">3317246</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73637531">73637531</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anthropological+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Tactical+Factors+in+the+Spanish+Conquest+of+the+Aztecs&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=187-194&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73637531%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3317246%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3317246&rft.aulast=Douglas&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lockhart and Schwartz, <i>Early Latin America</i> (1983). See especially chapter 3, "From islands to the mainland: the Caribbean phase and subsequent conquests."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Townsend, Camilla. "Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico" University of New Mexico Press, 2006. p, 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thoughtco.com-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thoughtco.com_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thoughtco.com_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Timeline of Hernan Cortes' Conquest of the Aztecs, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.thoughtco.com/hernan-cortes-conquest-of-aztecs-timeline-2136533">https://www.thoughtco.com/hernan-cortes-conquest-of-aztecs-timeline-2136533</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, Hugh. “Conquest.” Apple Books <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/conquest/id593921773?mt=11">https://itunes.apple.com/us/book/conquest/id593921773?mt=11</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cempoala <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.mexicoarcheology.com/cempoala/">http://www.mexicoarcheology.com/cempoala/</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levy, Buddy. Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. p. 55-56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levy, Buddy. Conquistador: Hernan Cortes, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs. p 62-64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico. p. 237</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Montezuma, Cortes, and the Fall of Old Mexico. p. 237-246</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Townsend, Camilla. Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico. p. 60-62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Spaniards Attack Cholulans From Díaz del Castillo, Vol. 2, Chapter 83". American Historical Association. Archived from the original on 2012-10-08. Retrieved 2012-04-08.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Díaz del Castillo, Bernal; "Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España" cap CXXX pp.104-108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Ricard, <i>The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico</i>. Translated by Lesley Byrd Simpson. Berkeley: University of California Press 1966.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sarah Cline, "Conquest Narratives," in <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerica</i>, David Carrasco, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2001, vol. 1, p. 248</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ida Altman, Sarah Cline, and Javier Pescador, <i>The Early History of Greater Mexico</i>, chapter 4, "Narratives of the Conquest". Pearson, 2003, pp. 73–96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">A BIBLIOGRAPHIC INTRODUCTION TO TWENTY MANUSCRIPTS OF CLASSICAL NAHUATL LITERATURE Willard P. Gingerich University of Pittsburgh 1975 <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2502581">https://www.jstor.org/stable/2502581</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Lockhart, We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico, translated and edited. University of California Press, 1991, p. 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patricia de Fuentes, ed. <i>The Conquistadors: First-Person Accounts the Conquest of Mexico,</i> Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993. Previously published by Orion Press 1963.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Two Letters of Pedro de Alvarado" in <i>The Conquistadors,</i> Patricia de Fuente, editor and translator. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993, pp. 182–96</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Cronicle of the Anonymous Conquistador" in <i>The Conquistadors: First-person Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico</i> Patricia de Fuente, (editor and trans). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993, pp. 165–81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Lockhart, <i>We People Here</i>, University of California Press 1991, pp. 289–97</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fernando Alva Ixtlilxochitil, <i>Ally of Cortés: Account 13 of the Coming of the Spaniards and the Beginning of the Evangelical Law</i>. Douglass K. Ballentine, translator. El Paso: Texas Western Press 1969</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, <i>The Conquest of New Spain, 1585 Revision</i> translated by Howard F. Cline, with an introduction by S.L. Cline. University of Utah Press 1989.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fray Diego Durán, <i>The History of the Indies of New Spain</i> [1581], Trans., annotated, and with an introduction by Doris Heyden. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Lockhart, <i>We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico</i>, University of California Press 1991, pp. 256–73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miguel-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miguel_44-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">León-Portilla, M. 1992, <i>The <a href="/wiki/Broken_Spears" class="mw-redirect" title="Broken Spears">Broken Spears</a>: The Aztec Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico.</i> Boston: Beacon Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0807055014" title="Special:BookSources/978-0807055014">978-0807055014</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S.L. Cline "Introduction," <i>History of the Conquest of New Spain, 1585 Revision by Bernardino de Sahagún,</i> Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press 1989.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">Lockhart, James</a>, "Introduction" to William Hickling Prescott, <i>History of the Conquest of Mexico</i>, New York: The Modern Library, 2001, p. xxv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, <i>General History of the Things of New Spain</i> (The Florentine Codex). Book 12. Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, translators. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsouras2005" class="citation book cs1">Tsouras, Peter (2005). <i>Moctezuma: Warlord of the Aztecs</i>. Washington, DC: University of Nebraska Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moctezuma%3A+Warlord+of+the+Aztecs&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Tsouras&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Diaz-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-19"><sup><i><b>t</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-20"><sup><i><b>u</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-21"><sup><i><b>v</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-22"><sup><i><b>w</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-23"><sup><i><b>x</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-24"><sup><i><b>y</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-25"><sup><i><b>z</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-26"><sup><i><b>aa</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-27"><sup><i><b>ab</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-28"><sup><i><b>ac</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-29"><sup><i><b>ad</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-30"><sup><i><b>ae</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-31"><sup><i><b>af</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-32"><sup><i><b>ag</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-33"><sup><i><b>ah</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-34"><sup><i><b>ai</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-35"><sup><i><b>aj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-36"><sup><i><b>ak</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-37"><sup><i><b>al</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-38"><sup><i><b>am</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-39"><sup><i><b>an</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-40"><sup><i><b>ao</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-41"><sup><i><b>ap</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-42"><sup><i><b>aq</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-43"><sup><i><b>ar</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-44"><sup><i><b>as</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-45"><sup><i><b>at</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-46"><sup><i><b>au</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-47"><sup><i><b>av</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-48"><sup><i><b>aw</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-49"><sup><i><b>ax</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-50"><sup><i><b>ay</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-51"><sup><i><b>az</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-52"><sup><i><b>ba</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-53"><sup><i><b>bb</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-54"><sup><i><b>bc</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-55"><sup><i><b>bd</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-56"><sup><i><b>be</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-57"><sup><i><b>bf</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-58"><sup><i><b>bg</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-59"><sup><i><b>bh</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-60"><sup><i><b>bi</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-61"><sup><i><b>bj</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-62"><sup><i><b>bk</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-63"><sup><i><b>bl</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-64"><sup><i><b>bm</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Diaz_49-65"><sup><i><b>bn</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Diaz, B., 1963, <i>The Conquest of New Spain</i>, London: Penguin Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140441239" title="Special:BookSources/0140441239">0140441239</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerton2007" class="citation book cs1">Egerton, Douglas R.; et al. (2007). <i>The Atlantic World</i>. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc. p. 97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88295-245-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88295-245-1"><bdi>978-0-88295-245-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+World&rft.place=Wheeling%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=97&rft.pub=Harlan+Davidson%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-88295-245-1&rft.aulast=Egerton&rft.aufirst=Douglas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Camilla Townsend, "Burying the White Gods: New Perspectives on the Conquest of Mexico" <i>The American Historical Review</i> Vol. 108, No. 3 (June 2003), pp. 659–87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Levy, Thomas. Conquest: Cortes, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico. p. 43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Inventing_a_God-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Inventing_a_God_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Inventing_a_God_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTownsend2019" class="citation web cs1">Townsend, Camilla (7 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.laphamsquarterly.org/roundtable/inventing-god">"Inventing a God"</a>. <i>Roundtable</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Roundtable&rft.atitle=Inventing+a+God&rft.date=2019-11-07&rft.aulast=Townsend&rft.aufirst=Camilla&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.laphamsquarterly.org%2Froundtable%2Finventing-god&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schwartz, Stuart B., ed. <i>Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico</i>. Boston: Bedforf, 2000.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, Hugh. <i>Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico</i> p. 192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen1972" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, Sara E. (March 1972). "How the Aztecs Appraised Montezuma". <i>The History Teacher</i>. <b>5</b> (3): 21–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F491417">10.2307/491417</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/491417">491417</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+History+Teacher&rft.atitle=How+the+Aztecs+Appraised+Montezuma&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=21-30&rft.date=1972-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F491417&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F491417%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Sara+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Restall, Matthew. <i>Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> (2003), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516077-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516077-0">0-19-516077-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hassig94-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hassig94_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hassig94_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hassig, Ross, <i>Mexico and the Spanish Conquest</i>. Longman: London and New York, 1994. p. 45</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ida_Altman_2003,_p._54-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ida_Altman_2003,_p._54_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ida Altman, S.L. (Sarah) Cline, <i>The Early History of Greater Mexico</i>, Pearson, 2003, p. 54</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David A. Boruchoff, "Hernán Cortés," <i>International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences</i>, 2nd ed. (Detroit: Macmillan, 2008), vol. 2, pp. 146–49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Boruchoff, "Hernán Cortés."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hassig, Ross, <i>Mexico and the Spanish Conquest</i>. Longman: London and New York, 1994. p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas, Hugh. <i>Conquest: Montezuma, Cortés, and the Fall of Old Mexico</i> p. 141</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Lockhart, <i>Spanish Peru, 1532–1560</i>, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press 1968.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guerrero is reported to have responded, "Brother Aguilar, I am married and have three children, and they look at me as a Cacique here, and a captain in time of war ... But my face is tattooed and my ears are pierced. What would the Spaniards say if they saw me like this? And look how handsome these children of mine are!" (p. 60)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTownsend2006" class="citation book cs1">Townsend, Camilla (2006). <i>Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826334053" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826334053"><bdi>978-0826334053</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Malintzin%27s+Choices%3A+An+Indian+Woman+in+the+Conquest+of+Mexico&rft.place=Albuquerque&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0826334053&rft.aulast=Townsend&rft.aufirst=Camilla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/cortese/cortese_b00.html">"Conquistadors – Cortés"</a>. PBS<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conquistadors+%E2%80%93+Cort%C3%A9s&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fconquistadors%2Fcortese%2Fcortese_b00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frances_Karttunen" title="Frances Karttunen">Karttunen, Frances</a>. "Malinche and Malinchismo" in <i>Encyclopedia of Mexico</i>, vol. 2, p. 777-78. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuck2008" class="citation web cs1">Tuck, Jim (9 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mexconnect.com/mex_/history/jtuck/jtcortese.html">"Affirmative action and Hernán Cortés (1485–1547) : Mexico History"</a>. Mexconnect.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Affirmative+action+and+Hern%C3%A1n+Cort%C3%A9s+%281485%E2%80%931547%29+%3A+Mexico+History&rft.pub=Mexconnect.com&rft.date=2008-10-09&rft.aulast=Tuck&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mexconnect.com%2Fmex_%2Fhistory%2Fjtuck%2Fjtcortese.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frances_Karttunen" title="Frances Karttunen">Karttunen, Frances</a>. "Rethinking Malinche," in <i>Indian Women: Gender Differences and Identity in Early Mexico</i>. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See: Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. Oxford University Press: Oxford and New York, 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthew Restall, "Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest", 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/cortes/cortes_d00.html">Cortés Burns His Boats</a> pbs.org</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/cortes/cortes_d00.html">"Conquistadors – Cortés"</a>. PBS<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Conquistadors+%E2%80%93+Cort%C3%A9s&rft.pub=PBS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fconquistadors%2Fcortes%2Fcortes_d00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hugh Tomas, <i>The conquest of Mexico</i>, 1994</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Evans-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Evans_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans2001" class="citation book cs1">Evans, Susan Toby (2001). <i>Archaeology of ancient Mexico and Central America, an Encyclopedia</i>. New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc. pp. 139–41.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archaeology+of+ancient+Mexico+and+Central+America%2C+an+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York+%26+London&rft.pages=139-41&rft.pub=Garland+Publishing%2C+Inc&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=Susan+Toby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090202061155/http://library.thinkquest.org/16325/y-conq.html">"Empires Past: Aztecs: Conquest"</a>. Library.thinkquest.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.thinkquest.org/16325/y-conq.html">the original</a> on 2 February 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Empires+Past%3A+Aztecs%3A+Conquest&rft.pub=Library.thinkquest.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibrary.thinkquest.org%2F16325%2Fy-conq.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Informantes de Sahagún: Códice Florentino</i>, lib. XII, cap. X.; Spanish version by Angel Ma. Garibay K.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell_2011-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Russell_2011_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Russell_2011_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2010" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Philip L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K5xdBwAAQBAJ&q=Size+of+Tenochtitlan&pg=PA12"><i>The history of Mexico from pre-conquest to present</i></a>. New York: Routledge. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136968280" title="Special:BookSources/9781136968280"><bdi>9781136968280</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+history+of+Mexico+from+pre-conquest+to+present&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9781136968280&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Philip+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK5xdBwAAQBAJ%26q%3DSize%2Bof%2BTenochtitlan%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Denevan-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Denevan_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenevan1992" class="citation book cs1">Denevan, William M., ed. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J_wzOoGtYQoC&q=Tenochtitlan&pg=PA25"><i>The Native population of the Americas in 1492</i></a> (2nd ed.). Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 148–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780299134334" title="Special:BookSources/9780299134334"><bdi>9780299134334</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Native+population+of+the+Americas+in+1492&rft.place=Madison%2C+Wis.&rft.pages=148-49&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780299134334&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ_wzOoGtYQoC%26q%3DTenochtitlan%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrasco2000" class="citation book cs1">Carrasco, David (2000). <i>The Return of Quetzalcoatl and the Irony of Empire: Myths and Prophecies in the Aztec Tradition</i>. University Press of Colorado. p. 150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Return+of+Quetzalcoatl+and+the+Irony+of+Empire%3A+Myths+and+Prophecies+in+the+Aztec+Tradition&rft.pages=150&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Carrasco&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_82-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks1995" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Brooks, Francis J. (May 1995). "Motecuzoma Xocoyotl, Hernán Cortés, and Bernal Díaz del Castillo: The Construction of an Arrest". <i>The Hispanic American Historical Review</i>. 75. No. 2: 149–83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hispanic+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Motecuzoma+Xocoyotl%2C+Hern%C3%A1n+Cort%C3%A9s%2C+and+Bernal+D%C3%ADaz+del+Castillo%3A+The+Construction+of+an+Arrest&rft.volume=75.+No.+2&rft.pages=149-83&rft.date=1995-05&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=Francis+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrescott1873" class="citation book cs1">Prescott, William H. (1873). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyconquest03kirkgoog"><i>The History of the Conquest of Mexico</i></a>. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyconquest03kirkgoog/page/n114">82</a>–83.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Conquest+of+Mexico&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pages=82-83&rft.pub=J.B.+Lippincott&rft.date=1873&rft.aulast=Prescott&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryconquest03kirkgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerton2007" class="citation book cs1">Egerton, Douglas R.; et al. (2007). <i>The Atlantic World</i>. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88295-245-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88295-245-1"><bdi>978-0-88295-245-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+World&rft.place=Wheeling%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Harlan+Davidson%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-88295-245-1&rft.aulast=Egerton&rft.aufirst=Douglas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anonymous informants of Sahagún, Florentine Codex, book XII, chapter XVI, translation from Nahuatl by Angel Ma. Garibay</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrumfiel1990" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0023879100023487">"Review: Aztec Religion and Warfare: Past and Present Perspectives"</a>. <i>Latin American Research Review</i>. 25 N.2: 248–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0023879100023487">10.1017/S0023879100023487</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252946638">252946638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Latin+American+Research+Review&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Aztec+Religion+and+Warfare%3A+Past+and+Present+Perspectives&rft.volume=25+N.2&rft.pages=248-59&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0023879100023487&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A252946638%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Brumfiel&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0023879100023487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagao1990" class="citation journal cs1">Nagao, Debra (Winter 1990). "Reviewed Work: The Great Temple of Tenochtitlan: Center and Periphery in the Aztec World by Johanna Broda, David Carrasco, Eduardo Matos Moctezuma". <i>Ethnohistory</i>. <b>37</b> (1): 97–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F481953">10.2307/481953</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/481953">481953</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethnohistory&rft.atitle=Reviewed+Work%3A+The+Great+Temple+of+Tenochtitlan%3A+Center+and+Periphery+in+the+Aztec+World+by+Johanna+Broda%2C+David+Carrasco%2C+Eduardo+Matos+Moctezuma&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-99&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F481953&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F481953%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Nagao&rft.aufirst=Debra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerton2007" class="citation book cs1">Egerton, Douglas R.; et al. (2007). <i>The Atlantic World</i>. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, Inc. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88295-245-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88295-245-1"><bdi>978-0-88295-245-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+World&rft.place=Wheeling%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Harlan+Davidson%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-88295-245-1&rft.aulast=Egerton&rft.aufirst=Douglas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew2012" class="citation book cs1">Matthew, Laura E. (2012). <i>Memories of Conquest: Becoming Mexicano in Colonial Guatemala</i>. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-0179-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-0179-3"><bdi>978-1-4696-0179-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memories+of+Conquest%3A+Becoming+Mexicano+in+Colonial+Guatemala&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-0179-3&rft.aulast=Matthew&rft.aufirst=Laura+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDíaz_del_Castillo1800" class="citation book cs1">Díaz del Castillo, Bernal (1800). <i>The True History of the Conquest of New Spain</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+True+History+of+the+Conquest+of+New+Spain&rft.date=1800&rft.aulast=D%C3%ADaz+del+Castillo&rft.aufirst=Bernal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakim2005" class="citation book cs1">Hakim, Joy (2005). <i>The First Americans: Prehistory - 1600</i> (3rd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 110.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Americans%3A+Prehistory+-+1600&rft.pages=110&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hakim&rft.aufirst=Joy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gorenstein (1993, xiv).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gorenstein (1993, xv). According to some other sources Tangaxuan II was dragged behind a horse and then burned.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNancy_Marguerite_Farriss1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Farriss" title="Nancy Farriss">Nancy Marguerite Farriss</a> (1984). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mayasocietyunder0000farr"><i>Maya Society Under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival</i></a></span>. Princeton UP. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mayasocietyunder0000farr/page/58">58</a>–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0691101582" title="Special:BookSources/0691101582"><bdi>0691101582</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maya+Society+Under+Colonial+Rule%3A+The+Collective+Enterprise+of+Survival&rft.pages=58-59&rft.pub=Princeton+UP&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0691101582&rft.au=Nancy+Marguerite+Farriss&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmayasocietyunder0000farr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.somosprimos.com/schmal/schmal.htm">"John P. Schmal"</a>. Somosprimos.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+P.+Schmal&rft.pub=Somosprimos.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.somosprimos.com%2Fschmal%2Fschmal.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gibson" title="Charles Gibson">Charles Gibson</a>, <i>Tlaxcala in the Sixteenth Century</i>, New Haven: Yale University Press 1952</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gibson" title="Charles Gibson">Charles Gibson</a>, <i>The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule: A History of the Indians of the Valley of Mexico</i>, 1519–1810, Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Review by Benjamin Keen in <i>Hispanic American Historical Review</i> Vol. 45, No. 3 (Aug. 1965), pp. 477–80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">James Lockhart</a>, <i>The Nahuas After the Conquest: Postconquest Central Mexican History and Philology</i>, Stanford: Stanford University Press 1992.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frances_Karttunen" title="Frances Karttunen">Frances Karttunen</a>, "Aztec Literacy," in George A. Coller et al., eds. <i>The Inca and Aztec States</i>, pp. 395–417. New York: Academic Press 1982.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fray Alonso de Molina, <i>Vocabulario en lengua cstellana y mexicana y mexcana y castellana</i>(1571), Mexico: Editorial Porrúa, 1970</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fray Alonso de Molina, <i>Confessionario mayor en la lengua castellana y mexicana</i> (1569), With an introduction by Roberto Moreno. Mexico: Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicos, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricos, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Howard F. Cline, "Evolution of the Historia General" in <i>Handbook of Middle American Indians</i>, <i>Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources</i>, vol. 13, part 2, Howard F. Cline, volume editor, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1973 p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blackburn 1997: 136; Friede 1971: 165–66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bakewell-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bakewell_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest,_Robert._Early_Silver_Mining_in_New_Spain,_1531–15551997" class="citation book cs1">West, Robert. Early Silver Mining in New Spain, 1531–1555 (1997). Bakewell, Peter (ed.). <i>Mines of Silver and Gold in the Americas</i>. Aldershot: Variorum, Ashgate Publishing Limited. pp. 65–66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mines+of+Silver+and+Gold+in+the+Americas&rft.place=Aldershot&rft.pages=65-66&rft.pub=Variorum%2C+Ashgate+Publishing+Limited&rft.date=1997&rft.au=West%2C+Robert.+Early+Silver+Mining+in+New+Spain%2C+1531%E2%80%931555&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuzmán2008" class="citation journal cs1">Guzmán, Gastón (1 November 2008). "Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview". <i>Economic Botany</i>. <b>62</b> (3): 404–412. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008EcBot..62..404G">2008EcBot..62..404G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12231-008-9033-8">10.1007/s12231-008-9033-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1874-9364">1874-9364</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:22085876">22085876</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economic+Botany&rft.atitle=Hallucinogenic+Mushrooms+in+Mexico%3A+An+Overview&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=404-412&rft.date=2008-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12231-008-9033-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A22085876%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1874-9364&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008EcBot..62..404G&rft.aulast=Guzm%C3%A1n&rft.aufirst=Gast%C3%B3n&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAxtell1991" class="citation journal cs1">Axtell, James (September–October 1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080517052031/http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/AXTELL01.ART">"The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America"</a>. <i>Humanities</i>. <b>12</b> (5): 12–18. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/AXTELL01.ART">the original</a> on 17 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 October</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Humanities&rft.atitle=The+Columbian+Mosaic+in+Colonial+America&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=12-18&rft.date=1991-09%2F1991-10&rft.aulast=Axtell&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.millersville.edu%2F~columbus%2Fdata%2Fart%2FAXTELL01.ART&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historyonfirepodcast.com/episodes/2017/5/25/episode-20-the-conquest-of-mexico-part-1-people-of-the-sun">"The Conquest of Mexico"</a>. 25 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Conquest+of+Mexico&rft.date=2017-05-25&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistoryonfirepodcast.com%2Fepisodes%2F2017%2F5%2F25%2Fepisode-20-the-conquest-of-mexico-part-1-people-of-the-sun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClodfelter2017" class="citation book cs1">Clodfelter, M. (2017). <i>Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492-2015</i> (4th ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786474707" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786474707"><bdi>978-0786474707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+and+Armed+Conflicts%3A+A+Statistical+Encyclopedia+of+Casualty+and+Other+Figures%2C+1492-2015&rft.place=Jefferson%2C+North+Carolina&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0786474707&rft.aulast=Clodfelter&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_de_Alva_Cort%C3%A9s_Ixtlilx%C3%B3chitl" title="Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl">Alva Ixtlilxochitil, Fernando</a>. <i>Ally of Cortés: Account 13 of the Coming of the Spaniards and the Beginning of the Evangelical Law</i>. Douglass K. Ballentine, translator. El Paso: Texas Western Press 1969. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0874-04015-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0874-04015-9">978-0874-04015-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous_Conqueror1917" class="citation book cs1">Anonymous Conqueror, the (1917) [1550]. <a href="/wiki/Narrative_of_Some_Things_of_New_Spain_and_of_the_Great_City_of_Temestitan" title="Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan"><i>Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan</i></a>. Marshall Saville (trans). New York: The Cortés Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Narrative+of+Some+Things+of+New+Spain+and+of+the+Great+City+of+Temestitan&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Cort%C3%A9s+Society&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Anonymous+Conqueror&rft.aufirst=the&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Azcatitlan" title="Codex Azcatitlan">Codex Azcatitlan</a></i>, Introduction de Michel Graulich, commentaire de <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Barlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert H. Barlow">Robert H. Barlow</a> mis à jour par Michel Graulich [comment by Robert h. Barlow put updated by Michel Graulich] Bibliothèque nationale de France-Société des Américanistes, Paris, 1995. <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2717-71944-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2717-71944-4">978-2717-71944-4</a></li> <li>Cortés, Hernán. <i>Letters</i> – available as <i>Letters from Mexico</i> translated by <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Pagden" title="Anthony Pagden">Anthony Pagden</a> (1986) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09094-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09094-3">0-300-09094-3</a></li> <li>de Fuentes, Patricia, ed. <i>The Conquistadors: First-Person Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico</i>. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1993. Previously published by Orion Press 1963. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806-12562-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0806-12562-6">978-0806-12562-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Bernal Díaz del Castillo</a>, <i>The Conquest of New Spain</i> – available as <i>The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517–1521</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-81319-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-81319-X">0-306-81319-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Dur%C3%A1n" title="Diego Durán">Durán, Diego</a>. <i>The History of the Indies of New Spain (1581)</i>. Translated and edited by Doris Heyden. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806-14107-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0806-14107-7">978-0806-14107-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeón-Portilla,_Miguel_(Ed.)1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Miguel_Le%C3%B3n-Portilla" title="Miguel León-Portilla">León-Portilla, Miguel (Ed.)</a> (1992) [1959]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brokenspearsa00leon"><i>The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/%C3%81ngel_Mar%C3%ADa_Garibay_K." title="Ángel María Garibay K.">Ángel María Garibay K.</a> (Nahuatl-Spanish trans.), Lysander Kemp (Spanish-English trans.), Alberto Beltran (illus.) (Expanded and updated ed.). Boston: Beacon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8070-5501-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8070-5501-8"><bdi>0-8070-5501-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Broken+Spears%3A+The+Aztec+Account+of+the+Conquest+of+Mexico&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=Expanded+and+updated&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8070-5501-8&rft.au=Le%C3%B3n-Portilla%2C+Miguel+%28Ed.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbrokenspearsa00leon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpanish+conquest+of+the+Aztec+Empire" class="Z3988"></span> (textbook, anthology)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lockhart_(historian)" title="James Lockhart (historian)">Lockhart, James</a>. <i>We People Here: Nahuatl Accounts of the Conquest of Mexico</i>, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press 1991. (anthology) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1592-44681-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1592-44681-0">978-1592-44681-0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_L%C3%B3pez_de_G%C3%B3mara" title="Francisco López de Gómara">López de Gómara, Francisco</a>. <i>Cortés: The Life of the Conqueror by His Secretary,</i> Translated by Lesley Byrd Simpson. Berkeley: University of California Press 1964. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520-00491-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520-00491-7">978-0520-00491-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_L%C3%B3pez_de_G%C3%B3mara" title="Francisco López de Gómara">López de Gómara, Francisco</a>, <i>Hispania Victrix; First and Second Parts of the General History of the Indies, With the Whole Discovery and Notable Things That Have Happened Since They Were Acquired Until the Year 1551, With the Conquest of Mexico and New Spain</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Sahagún, Fray Bernardino de</a>. <i>General History of the Things of New Spain</i> (The <a href="/wiki/Florentine_Codex" title="Florentine Codex">Florentine Codex</a>). Book 12. Arthur J.O. Anderson and Charles Dibble, translators. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1607-81167-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1607-81167-1">978-1607-81167-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Sahagún, Fray Bernardino de</a>. <i>The Conquest of New Spain, 1585 Revision</i>. Trans. by <a href="/wiki/Howard_F._Cline" title="Howard F. Cline">Howard F. Cline</a>, introduction and notes by S.L. Cline. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press 1989.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0874-80311-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0874-80311-2">978-0874-80311-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_B._Schwartz" title="Stuart B. Schwartz">Schwartz, Stuart B.</a>, ed. <i>Victors and Vanquished: Spanish and Nahua Views of the Conquest of Mexico</i>. Boston: Bedford, 2000. (textbook, anthology) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312-39355-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312-39355-7">978-0312-39355-7</a></li> <li>Siepel, Kevin H. <i>Conquistador Voices: The Spanish Conquest of the Americas As Recounted Largely by the Participants</i>. vol. 1. Spruce Tree Press 2015. (textbook, anthology) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0978-64662-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0978-64662-2">978-0978-64662-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Solis" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio de Solis">Solis, Antonio de</a>. <i>The History of the Conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards</i> (1753). Trans. Thomas Townsend. 2 vols. New York: AMS Press 1973. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1385-12366-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1385-12366-9">978-1385-12366-9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Solis" class="mw-redirect" title="Antonio de Solis">Solis, Antonio de</a>. <i>Historia de la conquista de Méjico</i>. Reprint, Forgotten Books 2018. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0265-70774-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0265-70774-6">978-0265-70774-6</a></li> <li>Vázquez de Tapia, Bernardino. <i>Relación de méritos y servicios del conquistador</i>. (c. 1545). Mexico: UNAM 1972.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_sources">Secondary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Secondary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Berdan" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances Berdan">Berdan, Frances F.</a> <i>The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society</i>. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, (1982) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-03-055736-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-03-055736-4">0-03-055736-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Hassig" title="Ross Hassig">Hassig, Ross</a>. <i>Time, History, and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mexico</i>. Texas University Press (2001) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-73139-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-73139-6">0-292-73139-6</a></li> <li>Hassig, Ross. <i>Mexico and the Spanish Conquest</i>. Longman: London and New York, (1994) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-582-06828-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-582-06828-2">0-582-06828-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serge_Gruzinski" title="Serge Gruzinski">Gruzinski, Serge</a>. <i>The Conquest of Mexico: Incorporation of Indian Societies into the Western World, 16th – 18th centuries</i>. Polity Press 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0745-61226-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0745-61226-3">978-0745-61226-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Prescott" title="William H. Prescott">Prescott, William H.</a> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/PreConq.html">History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes</a></i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-75803-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-75803-8">0-375-75803-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Restall" title="Matthew Restall">Restall, Matthew</a>. <i>Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest</i>. Oxford University Press (2003) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-516077-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-516077-0">0-19-516077-0</a></li> <li>Restall, Matthew. <i>When Montezuma Met Cortés: The True Story of the Meeting that Changed History</i>. Ecco 2018. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0062-42726-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0062-42726-7">978-0062-42726-7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzvetan_Todorov" title="Tzvetan Todorov">Todorov, Tzvetan</a>. <i>The Conquest of America</i> (1996) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-132095-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-132095-1">0-06-132095-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Thomas_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Thomas (writer)">Thomas, Hugh</a> . <i>The Conquest of Mexico</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-091-77629-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-091-77629-5">0-091-77629-5</a>; (US title) <i>Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico</i> (1993) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-51104-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-51104-1">0-671-51104-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Manchip_White" title="Jon Manchip White">White, Jon Manchip</a>. <i>Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire</i> (1971) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7867-0271-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7867-0271-0">0-7867-0271-0</a></li> <li>Ward, Thomas. <i>Formation of Latin American Nations. From Late Antiquity to Early Modernity</i>. University of Oklahoma Press (2018). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780806161501" title="Special:BookSources/9780806161501">9780806161501</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_bibliography">Additional bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Additional bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>Brandt, Anthony. "Perfect storm at Tenochtitlan 1521: How Cortes's band of hidalgos destroyed the Mexica Empire." MHQ: The Quarterly Journal of Military History (2014): 58.</li> <li>Daniel, Douglas A. "Tactical Factors in the Spanish Conquest of the Aztecs." <i><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_Quarterly" title="Anthropological Quarterly">Anthropological Quarterly</a></i> (1992): 187–94.</li> <li>Raudzens, George. "So Why Were the Aztecs Conquered, and What Were the Wider Implications? Testing Military Superiority as a Cause of Europe's Pre-Industrial Colonial Conquests." War in History (1995): 87–104.</li> <li>Townsend, Camilla. <i>Malintzin's Choices: An Indian Woman in the Conquest of Mexico</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006.</li> <li>White, John Manchip. "Cortes and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire: A Study in a Conflict of Cultures." <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hispanic_American_Historical_Review" title="The Hispanic American Historical Review">The Hispanic American Historical Review</a></i> (1972): 467–68.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spanish_conquest_of_the_Aztec_Empire&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks 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</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050630075920/http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/cortes/">Hernán Cortés on the Web</a> – web directory with thumbnail galleries</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04397a.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> (1911)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/cortes/cortes_flat.html">Conquistadors, with Michael Wood</a> – website for 2001 PBS documentary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/IbrAmerTxt">Ibero-American Electronic Text Series</a> presented online by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antorcha.net/biblioteca_virtual/historia/bernal/indice.html">La Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:sky blue"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Template:Spanish colonization of the Americas"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Template talk:Spanish colonization of the Americas"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish colonization of the Americas"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Spanish colonization of the Americas</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#A0522D; color:white;">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inter_caetera" title="Inter caetera">Inter caetera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_attempt_of_the_Strait_of_Magellan" title="Spanish colonization attempt of the Strait of Magellan">Strait of Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California" title="Spanish missions in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conquistadors_in_Colombia" title="List of conquistadors in Colombia">Colombia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Muisca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aztec Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CartedAmerique.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Antique map of the Americas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/CartedAmerique.jpeg/135px-CartedAmerique.jpeg" decoding="async" width="135" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/CartedAmerique.jpeg/203px-CartedAmerique.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/CartedAmerique.jpeg/270px-CartedAmerique.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="404" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#A0522D; color:white;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernal_D%C3%ADaz_del_Castillo" title="Bernal Díaz del Castillo">Bernal Díaz del Castillo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Belalc%C3%A1zar" title="Sebastián de Belalcázar">Sebastián de Belalcázar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Carvajal_y_Cueva" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis de Carvajal y Cueva">Luis de Carvajal y Cueva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas" title="Bartolomé de las Casas">Bartolomé de las Casas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Montejo" title="Francisco de Montejo">Francisco de Montejo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_O%C3%B1ate" title="Juan de Oñate">Juan de Oñate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Orellana" title="Francisco de Orellana">Francisco de Orellana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Portocarrero_(conquistador)" title="Pedro de Portocarrero (conquistador)">Pedro de Portocarrero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hernando_de_Soto" title="Hernando de Soto">Hernando de Soto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaus_Federmann" title="Nikolaus Federmann">Nikolaus Federmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In%C3%A9s_de_Su%C3%A1rez" class="mw-redirect" title="Inés de Suárez">Inés de Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Candia" title="Pedro de Candia">Pedro de Candia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Pardo_(explorer)" title="Juan Pardo (explorer)">Juan Pardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trist%C3%A1n_de_Luna_y_Arellano" title="Tristán de Luna y Arellano">Tristán de Luna y Arellano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerigo_Vespucci" title="Amerigo Vespucci">Amerigo Vespucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#A0522D; color:white;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spanish_Empire" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spanish_Empire" title="Template talk:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish_Empire" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spanish Empire"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spanish_Empire" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Timeline–immersed" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Timeline–immersed</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">Conquest of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Asia and the Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tordesillas" title="Treaty of Tordesillas">Treaty of Tordesillas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Habsburgs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Golden_Age" title="Spanish Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_League_of_Cognac" title="War of the League of Cognac">War of the League of Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomiendas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws in favour of the indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Moriscos" title="Expulsion of the Moriscos">Expulsion of the Moriscos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Habsburg_wars" title="Ottoman–Habsburg wars">Ottoman–Habsburg wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">French Wars of Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_War" title="Castilian War">Bruneian–Spanish conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Spanish_War_(1585%E2%80%931604)" title="Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)">Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Caribbean" title="Piracy in the Caribbean">Piracy in the Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighty_Years%27_War" title="Eighty Years' War">Eighty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93Moro_conflict" title="Spanish–Moro conflict">Spanish–Moro conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Spanish_War_(1635%E2%80%931659)" title="Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)">Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Restoration_War" title="Portuguese Restoration War">Portuguese Restoration War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Spain" title="Enlightenment in Spain">Bourbons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Reforms" title="Bourbon Reforms">Bourbon Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Jenkins%27_Ear" title="War of Jenkins' Ear">War of Jenkins' Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Madrid_(13_January_1750)" title="Treaty of Madrid (13 January 1750)">Treaty of Madrid (1750)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nootka_Convention" title="Nootka Convention">Nootka Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_War" title="Peninsular War">Napoleonic invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Independence of Spanish continental Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adams%E2%80%93On%C3%ADs_Treaty" title="Adams–Onís Treaty">Adams–Onís Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Constitution_of_1812" title="Spanish Constitution of 1812">Liberal constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlist_Wars" title="Carlist Wars">Carlist Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German%E2%80%93Spanish_Treaty_(1899)" title="German–Spanish Treaty (1899)">German–Spanish Treaty (1899)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco#Independent_Morocco_(since_1956)" title="History of Morocco">Independence of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Independence of Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict" title="Western Sahara conflict">Western Sahara conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Territories" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Territories</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Europe</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castille" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown of Castille">Crown of Castille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_Union" title="Iberian Union">Union with Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern Italy (Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples#Aragonese_dynasty" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily#The_insular_kingdom_of_Sicily_under_the_Crown_of_Aragon_and_Spain" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Sicily</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sardinia#Aragonese_period" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Union with Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northernmost France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Catalonia" title="Northern Catalonia">Pyrénées-Orientales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">North America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest" title="Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest">Coastal Alaska</a>, Central United States (<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>), Western United States (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Texas" title="Spanish Texas">Spanish Texas</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Florida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kingdom of Mexico (page does not exist)">Mexico</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_M%C3%A9xico" class="extiw" title="es:Reino de México">es</a>]</span>, Central America (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucatan" class="mw-redirect" title="Captaincy General of Yucatan">Captaincy General of Yucatan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish Caribbean</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Central_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Central America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Captaincy General of Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_West_Indies" title="Spanish West Indies">Spanish West Indies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Dominican Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago#Spanish_period" title="History of Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Santiago" title="Colony of Santiago">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti#Spanish_history_(1492–1625)" title="History of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aruba#History" title="Aruba">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao#History" title="Curaçao">Curazao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaire#History" title="Bonaire">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Belize_(1506%E2%80%931862)" title="History of Belize (1506–1862)">Belize</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="South_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">South America</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Colombia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Ecuador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela, part of Guyana</a>, a northernmost portion of Brazilian Amazon)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Peru</a> (Peru, <a href="/wiki/Acre_(state)" title="Acre (state)">Acre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Argentina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a> (Bolivia), <a href="/wiki/Banda_Oriental" title="Banda Oriental">Banda Oriental</a> (Uruguay), <a href="/wiki/Misiones_Orientales" title="Misiones Orientales">Misiones Orientales</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Falkland_Islands" title="History of the Falkland Islands">Malvinas</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Asia_and_Oceania_(Spanish_East_Indies)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Asia and Oceania (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">Spanish East Indies</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Captaincy General of the Philippines</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Northern Mariana Islands">Mariana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Formosa" title="Spanish Formosa">Northern Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidore" title="Tidore">Tidore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Africa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Africa</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Guinea" title="Spanish Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li>Northern Africa (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Western Sahara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_protectorate_in_Morocco" title="Spanish protectorate in Morocco">Spanish Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Tripoli" title="Spanish Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunis#Spanish_occupation_and_Ottoman_control" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1%C3%B3n_of_Algiers" title="Peñón of Algiers">Peñón of Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oran#Spanish_period_(1509–1708,_1732–1792)" title="Oran">Oran</a>, <a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9ja%C3%AFa#Muslim_and_feudal_rulers" title="Béjaïa">Béjaïa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ifni" title="Ifni">Ifni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cape_Juby" title="Cape Juby">Cape Juby</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Antarctica" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Antarctica</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Australis,_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Terra Australis, Spain">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Organization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayuntamiento" title="Ayuntamiento">Ayuntamiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabildo_(council)" title="Cabildo (council)">Cabildo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Indies" title="Council of the Indies">Council of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germania_(guild)" title="Germania (guild)">Germania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Hermandad" title="Santa Hermandad">Santa Hermandad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exequatur" title="Exequatur">Exequatur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">Laws of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_bull" title="Papal bull">Papal bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815" title="Royal Decree of Graces of 1815">Royal Decree of Graces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Salamanca" title="School of Salamanca">School of Salamanca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trial_of_residence" title="Trial of residence">Trial of residence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Titles and positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcalde" title="Alcalde">Alcalde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corregidor_(position)" title="Corregidor (position)">Corregidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_president" title="Municipal president">Municipal president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regidor" title="Regidor">Regidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndic" title="Syndic">Syndic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vecino" title="Vecino">Vecino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Administrative_subdivisions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Administrative subdivisions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Viceroy#In_the_Americas" title="Viceroy">Viceroyalties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_Viceroyalty" title="Columbian Viceroyalty">Columbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_Peru" title="Viceroyalty of Peru">Perú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Captaincies_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Captaincies of the Spanish Empire">Captaincies General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Chile" title="Captaincy General of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Cuba" title="Captaincy General of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Guatemala" title="Captaincy General of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_the_Philippines" title="Captaincy General of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provincias_Internas" title="Provincias Internas">Provincias Internas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Captaincy General of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Captaincy General of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Captaincy General of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_the_Spanish_Empire" title="Governorates of the Spanish Empire">Governorates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castilla_de_Oro" title="Castilla de Oro">Castilla de Oro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Cuba" title="Governorate of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">La Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">La Luisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia_(1501%E2%80%931513)" title="Governorate of New Andalusia (1501–1513)">New Andalusia (1501–1513)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Andalusia" title="Governorate of New Andalusia">New Andalusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Castile" title="Governorate of New Castile">New Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Navarre" title="New Navarre">New Navarre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Spain" title="New Spain">New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_New_Toledo" title="Governorate of New Toledo">New Toledo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Paraguay" title="Governorate of Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_the_R%C3%ADo_de_la_Plata" title="Governorate of the Río de la Plata">Río de la Plata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Terra_Australis" title="Governorate of Terra Australis">Terra Australis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia" title="Real Audiencia">Audiencias</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Bogotá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Buenos_Aires" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Buenos Aires">Buenos Aires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captaincy_General_of_Venezuela" title="Captaincy General of Venezuela">Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Charcas" title="Real Audiencia of Charcas">Charcas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Concepci%C3%B3n" title="Real Audiencia of Concepción">Concepción</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Cusco" class="mw-redirect" title="Real Audiencia of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Guadalajara" title="Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara">Guadalajara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Guatemala" title="Real Audiencia of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Lima" title="Real Audiencia of Lima">Lima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Manila" title="Real Audiencia of Manila">Manila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Audiencia_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Audiencia of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Panama" title="Real Audiencia of Panama">Panamá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Quito" title="Real Audiencia of Quito">Quito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santiago" title="Real Audiencia of Santiago">Santiago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_Audiencia_of_Santo_Domingo" title="Real Audiencia of Santo Domingo">Santo Domingo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Economy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economy</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Currency_of_Spanish_America" title="Currency of Spanish America">Currencies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dollar" title="Spanish dollar">Dollar (Peso)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonial_real" title="Spanish colonial real">Real</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraved%C3%AD" title="Maravedí">Maravedí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_escudo" title="Spanish escudo">Escudo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columnarios" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnarios">Columnario</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">Doubloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manila_galleon" title="Manila galleon">Manila galleon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_treasure_fleet" title="Spanish treasure fleet">Spanish treasure fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_de_Contrataci%C3%B3n" title="Casa de Contratación">Casa de Contratación</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Road" title="Spanish Road">Spanish Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guipuzcoan_Company_of_Caracas" title="Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas">Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcelona_Trading_Company" title="Barcelona Trading Company">Barcelona Trading Company</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consulate_of_the_Sea" title="Consulate of the Sea">Consulate of the Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camino_Real_de_Tierra_Adentro" title="Camino Real de Tierra Adentro">Camino Real de Tierra Adentro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Consulate_of_Buenos_Aires" title="Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires">Commerce Consulate of Buenos Aires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Military" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Military</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tercio" title="Tercio">Tercio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Flanders" title="Army of Flanders">Army of Flanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Company_of_Volunteers_of_Catalonia" title="Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia">Free Company of Volunteers of Catalonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_auxiliaries" title="Indian auxiliaries">Indian auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ships_of_the_line_of_Spain" title="List of ships of the line of Spain">Ships of the line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royalist_(Spanish_American_independence)" title="Royalist (Spanish American independence)">Royalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Legion" title="Spanish Legion">Legión</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Africa_(Spain)" title="Army of Africa (Spain)">Army of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Strategists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_%C3%81lvarez_de_Toledo,_3rd_Duke_of_Alba" title="Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba">Duke of Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Leyva,_Duke_of_Terranova" title="Antonio de Leyva, Duke of Terranova">Antonio de Leyva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Goiti" title="Martín de Goiti">Martín de Goiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfonso_d%27Avalos" title="Alfonso d'Avalos">Alfonso d'Avalos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Toledo_Osorio,_4th_Marquis_of_Villafranca" class="mw-redirect" title="García de Toledo Osorio, 4th Marquis of Villafranca">García de Toledo Osorio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Philibert,_Duke_of_Savoy" title="Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy">Duke of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n_the_Elder" title="Álvaro de Bazán the Elder">Álvaro de Bazán the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_Austria" title="John of Austria">John of Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bonaventure_de_Longueval,_Count_of_Bucquoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Bonaventure de Longueval, Count of Bucquoy">Charles Bonaventure de Longueval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Zubiaur" title="Pedro de Zubiaur">Pedro de Zubiaur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrogio_Spinola,_1st_Marquis_of_the_Balbases" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases">Ambrosio Spinola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blas_de_Lezo" title="Blas de Lezo">Blas de Lezo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_de_G%C3%A1lvez" title="Bernardo de Gálvez">Bernardo de Gálvez</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Mariners</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinz%C3%B3n_brothers" title="Pinzón brothers">Pinzón brothers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Magellan" title="Ferdinand Magellan">Ferdinand Magellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Sebasti%C3%A1n_Elcano" title="Juan Sebastián Elcano">Juan Sebastián Elcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_la_Cosa" title="Juan de la Cosa">Juan de la Cosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ponce_de_Le%C3%B3n" title="Juan Ponce de León">Juan Ponce de León</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miguel_L%C3%B3pez_de_Legazpi" title="Miguel López de Legazpi">Miguel López de Legazpi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Men%C3%A9ndez_de_Avil%C3%A9s" title="Pedro Menéndez de Avilés">Pedro Menéndez de Avilés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_de_Ocampo" title="Sebastián de Ocampo">Sebastián de Ocampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvar_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_Cabeza_de_Vaca" title="Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca">Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ojeda" title="Alonso de Ojeda">Alonso de Ojeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasco_N%C3%BA%C3%B1ez_de_Balboa" title="Vasco Núñez de Balboa">Vasco Núñez de Balboa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Salazar" title="Alonso de Salazar">Alonso de Salazar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_de_Urdaneta" title="Andrés de Urdaneta">Andrés de Urdaneta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_de_Ulloa" title="Antonio de Ulloa">Antonio de Ulloa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_L%C3%B3pez_de_Villalobos" title="Ruy López de Villalobos">Ruy López de Villalobos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Columbus" title="Diego Columbus">Diego Columbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alonso_de_Ercilla" title="Alonso de Ercilla">Alonso de Ercilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicol%C3%A1s_de_Ovando" title="Nicolás de Ovando">Nicolás de Ovando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_de_Ayala" title="Juan de Ayala">Juan de Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebasti%C3%A1n_Vizca%C3%ADno" title="Sebastián Vizcaíno">Sebastián Vizcaíno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Fern%C3%A1ndez_(explorer)" title="Juan Fernández (explorer)">Juan Fernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Fajardo_y_Ru%C3%ADz_de_Avenda%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Fajardo y Ruíz de Avendaño">Luis Fajardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felipe_Gonz%C3%A1lez_de_Ahedo" title="Felipe González de Ahedo">Felipe González de Ahedo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Conquistador" title="Conquistador">Conquistadors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Hernán Cortés</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Pizarro" title="Francisco Pizarro">Francisco Pizarro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonzalo_Jim%C3%A9nez_de_Quesada" title="Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada">Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_P%C3%A9rez_de_Quesada" title="Hernán Pérez de Quesada">Hernán Pérez de Quesada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_V%C3%A1zquez_de_Coronado" title="Francisco Vázquez de Coronado">Francisco Vázquez de Coronado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_Vel%C3%A1zquez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar">Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Valdivia" title="Pedro de Valdivia">Pedro de Valdivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspar_de_Portol%C3%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaspar de Portolà">Gaspar de Portolà</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_Fages_i_Beleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere Fages i Beleta">Pere Fages i Beleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Orp%C3%AD" title="Joan Orpí">Joan Orpí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_de_Alvarado" title="Pedro de Alvarado">Pedro de Alvarado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_de_Urs%C3%BAa" title="Martín de Ursúa">Martín de Ursúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Almagro" title="Diego de Almagro">Diego de Almagro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1nfilo_de_Narv%C3%A1ez" title="Pánfilo de Narváez">Pánfilo de Narváez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diego_de_Mazariegos" title="Diego de Mazariegos">Diego de Mazariegos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_Luis_de_Cabrera" title="Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera">Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pere_d%27Albern%C3%AD_i_Teixidor" class="mw-redirect" title="Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor">Pere d'Alberní i Teixidor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_L%C3%B3pez_de_C%C3%A1rdenas" title="García López de Cárdenas">García López de Cárdenas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;white-space: nowrap; text-align: right;">Notable battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background: white; text-align: left;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Old World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros" title="Revolt of the Comuneros">Comuneros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bicocca" title="Battle of Bicocca">Bicocca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_(1527)" title="Sack of Rome (1527)">Rome (1527)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Landriano" title="Battle of Landriano">Landriano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pavia" title="Battle of Pavia">Pavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1535)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1535)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_M%C3%BChlberg" title="Battle of Mühlberg">Mühlberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_St._Quentin_(1557)" title="Battle of St. Quentin (1557)">St. Quentin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gravelines_(1558)" title="Battle of Gravelines (1558)">Gravelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lepanto" title="Battle of Lepanto">Lepanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Antwerp" title="Fall of Antwerp">Antwerp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ponta_Delgada" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Ponta Delgada">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Mons_(1572)" title="Siege of Mons (1572)">Mons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gembloux_(1578)" title="Battle of Gembloux (1578)">Gembloux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ostend" title="Siege of Ostend">Ostend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Armada" title="English Armada">English Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Celidonia" title="Battle of Cape Celidonia">Cape Celidonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_White_Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain">White Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Breda_(1624)" title="Siege of Breda (1624)">Breda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_N%C3%B6rdlingen_(1634)" title="Battle of Nördlingen (1634)">Nördlingen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Valenciennes_(1656)" title="Battle of Valenciennes (1656)">Valenciennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sieges_of_Ceuta_(1694%E2%80%931727)" title="Sieges of Ceuta (1694–1727)">Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bitonto" title="Battle of Bitonto">Bitonto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bail%C3%A9n" title="Battle of Bailén">Bailén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vitoria" title="Battle of Vitoria">Vitoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_T%C3%A9touan" title="Battle of Tétouan">Tetouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Capo_d%27Orso" title="Battle of Capo d'Orso">Capo d'Orso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vienna_(1529)" title="Siege of Vienna (1529)">Vienna (1529)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Preveza" title="Battle of Preveza">Preveza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Castelnuovo" title="Siege of Castelnuovo">Siege of Castelnuovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algiers_expedition_(1541)" title="Algiers expedition (1541)">Algiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ceresole" title="Battle of Ceresole">Ceresole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_invasion_of_the_Balearic_Islands_(1558)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman invasion of the Balearic Islands (1558)">Balearic Islands (1558)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Djerba" title="Battle of Djerba">Djerba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Tunis_(1574)" title="Conquest of Tunis (1574)">Tunis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Armada" title="Spanish Armada">Spanish Armada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Leiden" title="Siege of Leiden">Leiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi">Rocroi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Downs" title="Battle of the Downs">Downs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Montes_Claros" title="Battle of Montes Claros">Montes Claros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cape_Passaro" title="Battle of Cape Passaro">Passaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_Bay" title="Battle of Manila Bay">Manila Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Trafalgar" title="Battle of Trafalgar">Trafalgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Somosierra" title="Battle of Somosierra">Somosierra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Annual" title="Battle of Annual">Annual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mactan" title="Battle of Mactan">Mactan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New World</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Won</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Tenochtitlan" title="Fall of Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cajamarca" title="Battle of Cajamarca">Cajamarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Cusco" title="Siege of Cusco">Cusco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Bogotá savanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Penco" title="Battle of Penco">Penco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mataquito" title="Battle of Mataquito">Mataquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guadalupe_Island_(1595)" title="Battle of Guadalupe Island (1595)">Guadalupe Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Recife_(1595)" title="Capture of Recife (1595)">Recife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1595)" title="Battle of San Juan (1595)">San Juan (1595)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_of_Bahia" title="Recapture of Bahia">Bahia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Colonia_del_Sacramento" title="Siege of Colonia del Sacramento">Colonia del Sacramento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(Paraguay)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (Paraguay)">Comuneros (Paraguay)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Cartagena de Indias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerno_Verde" title="Cuerno Verde">Cuerno Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebellion_of_T%C3%BApac_Amaru_II" title="Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II">Túpac Amaru II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Katari" title="Túpac Katari">Túpac Katari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pensacola" title="Siege of Pensacola">Pensacola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_expedition" title="Newfoundland expedition">Newfoundland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_San_Juan_(1797)" title="Battle of San Juan (1797)">San Juan (1797)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lost</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/La_Noche_Triste" title="La Noche Triste">La Noche Triste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iguape_War" title="Iguape War">Iguape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tucapel" title="Battle of Tucapel">Tucapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raleigh%27s_El_Dorado_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="Raleigh's El Dorado Expedition">Guiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Curalaba" title="Battle of Curalaba">Curalaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolt_of_the_Comuneros_(New_Granada)" title="Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)">Comuneros (New Granada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Trinidad_(1797)" title="Invasion of Trinidad (1797)">Trinidad (1797)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chacabuco" title="Battle of Chacabuco">Chacabuco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Boyac%C3%A1" title="Battle of Boyacá">Boyacá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carabobo" title="Battle of Carabobo">Carabobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pichincha" title="Battle of Pichincha">Pichincha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho" title="Battle of Ayacucho">Ayacucho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Guam" title="Capture of Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Santiago_de_Cuba" title="Battle of Santiago de Cuba">Santiago de Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Campaign#Battle_of_Asomante" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerto Rican Campaign">Asomante</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Spanish_conquests" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Spanish conquests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_the_Canary_Islands" title="Conquest of the Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Spanish colonization of the Americas">The Americas</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Maya" title="Spanish conquest of the Maya">Maya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Chiapas" title="Spanish conquest of Chiapas">Chiapas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Spanish conquest of Yucatán">Yucatán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Guatemala" title="Spanish conquest of Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Pet%C3%A9n" title="Spanish conquest of Petén">Petén</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_El_Salvador" title="Spanish conquest of El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Honduras" title="Spanish conquest of Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Nicaragua" title="Spanish conquest of Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Chibchan_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of the Chibchan Nations">Chibchan Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Chile" title="Conquest of Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Inca_Empire" title="Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines_(1521%E2%80%931898)#Spanish_expeditions_and_colonization" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Philippines (1521–1898)">Philippines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Other_civil_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other civil topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_the_Americas" title="Spanish missions in the Americas">Spanish missions in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Colonial_architecture" title="Spanish Colonial architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Codices" title="Mesoamerican Codices">Mesoamerican Codices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusco_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusco School">Cusco painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indochristian_art" title="Indochristian art">Indochristian painting in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quito_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Quito School">Quito painting tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapada_lime%C3%B1a" title="Tapada limeña">Tapada limeña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academia_Ant%C3%A1rtica" title="Academia Antártica">Academia Antártica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colonial_universities_in_Hispanic_America" title="List of colonial universities in Hispanic America">Colonial universities in Hispanic America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_oldest_schools_in_the_Philippines" title="List of the oldest schools in the Philippines">Colonial universities in the Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Archive_of_the_Indies" title="General Archive of the Indies">General Archive of the Indies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_Spanish_Horse" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Spanish Horse">Colonial Spanish Horse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mustang" title="Mustang">Mustang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">Castas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people#Spanish_colonial_caste_system" title="Criollo people">Criollos in the colonial society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Old inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Spanish_New_World_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies">Slavery in Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asiento" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiento">Asiento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans#Colonial_era" title="African Americans">Law of coartación (which allowed slaves to buy their freedom, and that of others)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Potos%C3%AD_Mint_Fraud_of_1649" title="Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649">Great Potosí Mint Fraud of 1649</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a 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