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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upwelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upwelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Upwelling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upwelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_global_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_global_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Effects on global climate</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_on_global_climate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects on global climate subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_global_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slowdown_or_collapse_of_AMOC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slowdown_or_collapse_of_AMOC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Slowdown or collapse of AMOC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slowdown_or_collapse_of_AMOC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slowdown_or_collapse_of_SMOC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slowdown_or_collapse_of_SMOC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Slowdown or collapse of SMOC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slowdown_or_collapse_of_SMOC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Thermohaline circulation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohaliene_sirkulasie" title="Termohaliene sirkulasie – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Termohaliene sirkulasie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%85%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="دورة حرارية ملحية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="دورة حرارية ملحية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulaci%C3%B3n_termohalina" title="Circulación termohalina – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Circulación termohalina" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F" title="Тэрмахалінная цыркуляцыя – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Тэрмахалінная цыркуляцыя" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulaci%C3%B3_termohalina" title="Circulació termohalina – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Circulació termohalina" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohalinn%C3%AD_v%C3%BDm%C4%9Bn%C3%ADk" title="Termohalinní výměník – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Termohalinní výměník" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den_termohaline_cirkulation" title="Den termohaline cirkulation – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Den termohaline cirkulation" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermohaline_Zirkulation" title="Thermohaline Zirkulation – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Thermohaline Zirkulation" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohaliinne_tsirkulatsioon" title="Termohaliinne tsirkulatsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Termohaliinne tsirkulatsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BC%CF%8C%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%B7_%CE%BA%CF%85%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Θερμόαλη κυκλοφορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θερμόαλη κυκλοφορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulaci%C3%B3n_termohalina" title="Circulación termohalina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Circulación termohalina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceana_transportbendo" title="Oceana transportbendo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Oceana transportbendo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zirkulazio_termohalino" title="Zirkulazio termohalino – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zirkulazio termohalino" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B4_%D8%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="گردش دماشوری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گردش دماشوری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulation_thermohaline" title="Circulation thermohaline – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Circulation thermohaline" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imshruth%C3%BA_teirmeahail%C3%ADneach" title="Imshruthú teirmeahailíneach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Imshruthú teirmeahailíneach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulaci%C3%B3n_termohalina" title="Circulación termohalina – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Circulación termohalina" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B4%EC%97%BC%EC%88%9C%ED%99%98" title="열염순환 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="열염순환" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohalinska_pokretna_traka" title="Termohalinska pokretna traka – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Termohalinska pokretna traka" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arus_termohalin" title="Arus termohalin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Arus termohalin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circolazione_termoalina" title="Circolazione termoalina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Circolazione termoalina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A2_%D7%94%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99" title="המסוע הימי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המסוע הימי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohalin%C4%97_cirkuliacija" title="Termohalinė cirkuliacija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Termohalinė cirkuliacija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Термохалинско кружење – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Термохалинско кружење" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peredaran_termohalin" title="Peredaran termohalin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Peredaran termohalin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermohaliene_circulatie" title="Thermohaliene circulatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Thermohaliene circulatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%86%B1%E5%A1%A9%E5%BE%AA%E7%92%B0" title="熱塩循環 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="熱塩循環" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohalin_sirkulasjon" title="Termohalin sirkulasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Termohalin sirkulasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohalin_sirkulasjon" title="Termohalin sirkulasjon – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Termohalin sirkulasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulacion_termoalina" title="Circulacion termoalina – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Circulacion termoalina" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulacion_termohalino" title="Circulacion termohalino – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Circulacion termohalino" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrkulacja_termohalinowa" title="Cyrkulacja termohalinowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Cyrkulacja termohalinowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circula%C3%A7%C3%A3o_termoalina" title="Circulação termoalina – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Circulação termoalina" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Термохалинная циркуляция – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Термохалинная циркуляция" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Термохалинска покретна трака – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Термохалинска покретна трака" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohalinska_pokretna_traka" title="Termohalinska pokretna traka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Termohalinska pokretna traka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohaliinikierto" title="Termohaliinikierto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Termohaliinikierto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohalin_cirkulation" title="Termohalin cirkulation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Termohalin cirkulation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasnisnit_Tamatut_n_Ugaraw" title="Tasnisnit Tamatut n Ugaraw – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tasnisnit Tamatut n Ugaraw" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Termohalin_d%C3%B6ng%C3%BC" title="Termohalin döngü – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Termohalin döngü" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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href="/w/index.php?title=Halothermal_circulation&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Halothermal circulation">Halothermal circulation</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Part of large-scale ocean circulation</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png/350px-Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png/525px-Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png/700px-Thermohaline_Circulation_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>A summary of the path of the thermohaline circulation. Blue paths represent deep-water currents, while red paths represent surface currents.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv/350px--Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="350" height="118" data-durationhint="167" data-mwtitle="Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv/Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="216" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv/Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="216" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="640" data-height="216" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/4a/Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv/Thermohaline_Circulation_using_Improved_Flow_Field.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>Thermohaline circulation</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Thermohaline circulation</b> (<b>THC</b>) is a part of the large-scale <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">ocean circulation</a> that is driven by global <a href="/wiki/Density_gradient" title="Density gradient">density gradients</a> created by surface heat and freshwater <a href="/wiki/Flux" title="Flux">fluxes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rahmstorf2003_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rahmstorf2003-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The adjective <i>thermohaline</i> derives from <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thermo-" class="extiw" title="wikt:thermo-">thermo-</a></i> referring to temperature and <i><span class="nowrap">-haline</span></i> referring to <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salt content</a>, factors which together determine the <a href="/wiki/Water_(molecule)#Density_of_saltwater_and_ice" class="mw-redirect" title="Water (molecule)">density of sea water</a>. Wind-driven surface currents (such as the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a>) travel <a href="/wiki/Polar_regions_of_Earth" title="Polar regions of Earth">polewards</a> from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean, cooling en route, and eventually sinking at high <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a> (forming <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Deep_Water" title="North Atlantic Deep Water">North Atlantic Deep Water</a>). This dense water then flows into the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean basin">ocean basins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA2017_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA2017-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the bulk of it <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwells</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>, the oldest waters (with a transit time of about 1000 years) upwell in the North Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the ocean basins, reducing differences between them and making the <a href="/wiki/World_Ocean" class="mw-redirect" title="World Ocean">Earth's oceans a global system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA2017_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA2017-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The water in these circuits transport both energy (in the form of heat) and mass (dissolved solids and gases) around the globe. As such, the state of the circulation has a large impact on the <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> of the Earth. </p><p>The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt, the great ocean conveyor, or the global conveyor belt, coined by climate scientist <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Smith_Broecker" title="Wallace Smith Broecker">Wallace Smith Broecker</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Zonal_and_meridional" class="mw-redirect" title="Zonal and meridional">meridional</a> overturning circulation, or <i>MOC</i>. This name is used because not every circulation pattern caused by temperature and salinity gradients is necessarily part of a single global circulation. Further, it is difficult to separate the parts of the circulation driven by temperature and <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a> alone from those driven by other factors, such as the wind and <a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">tidal forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This global circulation has two major limbs - <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a> (<i>AMOC</i>), centered in the north Atlantic Ocean, and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation" title="Southern Ocean overturning circulation">Southern Ocean overturning circulation</a> or <i>Southern Ocean meridional circulation</i> (<i>SMOC</i>), around <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>. Because 90% of the human population lives in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2023CollinsENSO_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2023CollinsENSO-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the AMOC has been far better studied, but both are very important for the global climate. Both of them also appear to be slowing down due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>, as the melting of the <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheet" title="Ice sheet">ice sheets</a> dilutes salty flows such as the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_bottom_water" title="Antarctic bottom water">Antarctic bottom water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NOAA2023_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NOAA2023-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GTPR2023_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GTPR2023-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Either one could outright collapse to a much weaker state, which would be an example of <a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">tipping points in the climate system</a>. The hemisphere which experiences the collapse of its circulation would experience less <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> and become drier, while the other hemisphere would become wetter. <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a> are also likely to receive fewer <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> and experience greater <a href="/wiki/Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">ocean deoxygenation</a>. In the Northern Hemisphere, AMOC's collapse would also substantially lower the temperatures in many European countries, while the east coast of North America would experience accelerated <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>. The collapse of either circulation is generally believed to be more than a century away and may only occur under high warming, but there is a lot of uncertainty about these projections.<sup id="cite_ref-GTPR2023_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GTPR2023-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Logan2023_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Logan2023-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_research">History of research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_water_freezing_temperature_and_density_maximum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Sea_water_freezing_temperature_and_density_maximum.png/293px-Sea_water_freezing_temperature_and_density_maximum.png" decoding="async" width="293" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Sea_water_freezing_temperature_and_density_maximum.png/440px-Sea_water_freezing_temperature_and_density_maximum.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Sea_water_freezing_temperature_and_density_maximum.png 2x" data-file-width="547" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Effect of temperature and salinity upon sea water density maximum and sea water freezing temperature.</figcaption></figure> <p>It has long been known that wind can drive ocean currents, but only at the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt2005_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt2005-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 19th century, some <a href="/wiki/Oceanographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanographer">oceanographers</a> suggested that the <a href="/wiki/Convection_(heat_transfer)" title="Convection (heat transfer)">convection of heat</a> could drive deeper currents. In 1908, <a href="/wiki/Johan_Sandstr%C3%B6m" title="Johan Sandström">Johan Sandström</a> performed a series of experiments at a <a href="/wiki/Born%C3%B6_Marine_Research_Station" title="Bornö Marine Research Station">Bornö Marine Research Station</a> which proved that the currents driven by <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> transfer exist, but require that "heating occurs at a greater depth than cooling".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rahmstorf2003_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rahmstorf2003-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Normally, the opposite occurs, because ocean water is heated from above by the Sun and becomes less dense, so the surface layer floats on the surface above the cooler, denser layers, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">ocean stratification</a>. However, wind and <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a> cause mixing between these water layers, with <a href="/wiki/Diapycnal_mixing" class="mw-redirect" title="Diapycnal mixing">diapycnal mixing</a> caused by tidal currents being one example.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This mixing is what enables the convection between ocean layers, and thus, deep water currents.<sup id="cite_ref-Rahmstorf2003_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rahmstorf2003-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1920s, Sandström's framework was expanded by accounting for the role of <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a> in ocean layer formation.<sup id="cite_ref-Rahmstorf2003_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rahmstorf2003-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salinity is important because like temperature, it affects water <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a>. Water becomes less dense as its temperature increases and the distance between its <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> expands, but more dense as the salinity increases, since there is a larger mass of salts dissolved within that water.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, while fresh water is at its most dense at 4 °C, <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> only gets denser as it cools, up until it reaches the freezing point. That freezing point is also lower than for fresh water due to salinity, and can be below −2 °C, depending on salinity and pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Thermohaline_circulation.svg"><img resource="/wiki/File:Conveyor_belt.svg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Conveyor_belt.svg/275px-Conveyor_belt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="275" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Conveyor_belt.svg/413px-Conveyor_belt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Conveyor_belt.svg/550px-Conveyor_belt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="313" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>The global conveyor belt on a continuous-ocean map <a class="external text" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Thermohaline_circulation.svg">(animation)</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>These density differences caused by temperature and salinity ultimately separate ocean water into distinct <a href="/wiki/Water_mass" title="Water mass">water masses</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Deep_Water" title="North Atlantic Deep Water">North Atlantic Deep Water</a> (NADW) and <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Bottom_Water" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic Bottom Water">Antarctic Bottom Water</a> (AABW). These two waters are the main drivers of the circulation, which was established in 1960 by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Stommel" title="Henry Stommel">Henry Stommel</a> and Arnold B. Arons.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have chemical, temperature and isotopic ratio signatures (such as <a href="/wiki/Isotope_geochemistry" title="Isotope geochemistry"><sup>231</sup>Pa / <sup>230</sup>Th</a> ratios) which can be traced, their flow rate calculated, and their age determined. NADW is formed because North Atlantic is a rare place in the ocean where <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>, which adds fresh water to the ocean and so reduces its salinity, is outweighed by <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>, in part due to high windiness. When water evaporates, it leaves salt behind, and so the surface waters of the North Atlantic are particularly salty. North Atlantic is also an already cool region, and <a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaporative cooling">evaporative cooling</a> reduces water temperature even further. Thus, this water sinks downward in the <a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Sea" title="Norwegian Sea">Norwegian Sea</a>, fills the Arctic Ocean Basin and spills southwards through the Greenland-Scotland-Ridge – crevasses in the <a href="/wiki/Submarine_sill" class="mw-redirect" title="Submarine sill">submarine sills</a> that connect <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a> and Great Britain. It cannot flow towards the Pacific Ocean due to the narrow shallows of the <a href="/wiki/Bering_Strait" title="Bering Strait">Bering Strait</a>, but it does slowly flow into the deep <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plains</a> of the south Atlantic.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a>, strong <a href="/wiki/Katabatic_wind" title="Katabatic wind">katabatic winds</a> blowing from the Antarctic continent onto the <a href="/wiki/Ice_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice shelves">ice shelves</a> will blow the newly formed <a href="/wiki/Sea_ice" title="Sea ice">sea ice</a> away, opening <a href="/wiki/Polynyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Polynyas">polynyas</a> in locations such as <a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea" title="Ross Sea">Ross Seas</a>, off the <a href="/wiki/Ad%C3%A9lie_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Adélie Coast">Adélie Coast</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Cape_Darnley_(Mac._Robertson_Land)" title="Cape Darnley (Mac. Robertson Land)">Cape Darnley</a>. The ocean, no longer protected by sea ice, suffers a brutal and strong cooling (see <a href="/wiki/Polynya" title="Polynya">polynya</a>). Meanwhile, sea ice starts reforming, so the surface waters also get saltier, hence very dense. In fact, the formation of sea ice contributes to an increase in surface seawater salinity; saltier <a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">brine</a> is left behind as the sea ice forms around it (pure water preferentially being frozen). Increasing salinity lowers the freezing point of seawater, so cold liquid brine is formed in inclusions within a honeycomb of ice. The brine progressively melts the ice just beneath it, eventually dripping out of the ice matrix and sinking. This process is known as <a href="/wiki/Brine_rejection" title="Brine rejection">brine rejection</a>. The resulting Antarctic bottom water sinks and flows north and east. It is denser than the NADW, and so flows beneath it. AABW formed in the <a href="/wiki/Weddell_Sea" title="Weddell Sea">Weddell Sea</a> will mainly fill the Atlantic and Indian Basins, whereas the AABW formed in the <a href="/wiki/Ross_Sea" title="Ross Sea">Ross Sea</a> will flow towards the Pacific Ocean. At the Indian Ocean, a vertical exchange of a lower layer of cold and salty water from the Atlantic and the warmer and fresher upper ocean water from the tropical Pacific occurs, in what is known as <b>overturning</b>. In the Pacific Ocean, the rest of the cold and salty water from the Atlantic undergoes haline forcing, and becomes warmer and fresher more quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm/330px--Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="330" height="186" data-durationhint="84" data-mwtitle="Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_(NASA).webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_(NASA).webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8f/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8f/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8f/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8f/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/8f/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm/Thermohaline_conveyor_belt_%28NASA%29.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Surface water flows north and sinks in the dense ocean near Iceland and Greenland. It joins the global thermohaline circulation into the Indian Ocean, and the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The out-flowing undersea of cold and salty water makes the sea level of the Atlantic slightly lower than the Pacific and salinity or halinity of water at the Atlantic higher than the Pacific. This generates a large but slow flow of warmer and fresher upper ocean water from the tropical Pacific to the Indian Ocean through the <a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Archipelago" class="mw-redirect" title="Indonesian Archipelago">Indonesian Archipelago</a> to replace the cold and salty <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Bottom_Water" class="mw-redirect" title="Antarctic Bottom Water">Antarctic Bottom Water</a>. This is also known as 'haline forcing' (net high latitude freshwater gain and low latitude evaporation). This warmer, fresher water from the Pacific flows up through the South Atlantic to <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, where it cools off and undergoes <a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaporative cooling">evaporative cooling</a> and sinks to the ocean floor, providing a continuous thermohaline circulation.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Upwelling">Upwelling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Upwelling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the deep waters sink into the ocean basins, they displace the older deep-water masses, which gradually become less dense due to continued ocean mixing. Thus, some water is rising, in what is known as <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a>. Its speeds are very slow even compared to the movement of the bottom water masses. It is therefore difficult to measure where upwelling occurs using current speeds, given all the other wind-driven processes going on in the surface ocean. Deep waters have their own chemical signature, formed from the breakdown of particulate matter falling into them over the course of their long journey at depth. A number of scientists have tried to use these tracers to infer where the upwelling occurs. <a href="/wiki/Wallace_S._Broecker" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace S. Broecker">Wallace Broecker</a>, using box models, has asserted that the bulk of deep upwelling occurs in the North Pacific, using as evidence the high values of silicon found in these waters. Other investigators have not found such clear evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Computer models of ocean circulation increasingly place most of the deep upwelling in the Southern Ocean, associated with the strong winds in the open latitudes between South America and Antarctica.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Direct estimates of the strength of the thermohaline circulation have also been made at 26.5°N in the North Atlantic, by the UK-US RAPID programme. It combines direct estimates of ocean transport using current meters and subsea cable measurements with estimates of the <a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">geostrophic current</a> from temperature and salinity measurements to provide continuous, full-depth, basin-wide estimates of the meridional overturning circulation. However, it has only been operating since 2004, which is too short when the timescale of the circulation is measured in centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_on_global_climate">Effects on global climate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Effects on global climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The thermohaline circulation plays an important role in supplying heat to the polar regions, and thus in regulating the amount of sea ice in these regions, although poleward heat transport outside the tropics is considerably larger in the atmosphere than in the ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes in the thermohaline circulation are thought to have significant impacts on the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Radiation_budget" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation budget">radiation budget</a>. </p><p>Large influxes of low-density meltwater from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Agassiz" title="Lake Agassiz">Lake Agassiz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deglaciation" title="Deglaciation">deglaciation</a> in North America are thought to have led to a shifting of deep water formation and subsidence in the extreme North Atlantic and caused the climate period in Europe known as the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Broecker_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Broecker-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slowdown_or_collapse_of_AMOC">Slowdown or collapse of AMOC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Slowdown or collapse of AMOC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sgubin2017_spg_amoc_collapse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Sgubin2017_spg_amoc_collapse.jpg/220px-Sgubin2017_spg_amoc_collapse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Sgubin2017_spg_amoc_collapse.jpg/330px-Sgubin2017_spg_amoc_collapse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Sgubin2017_spg_amoc_collapse.jpg/440px-Sgubin2017_spg_amoc_collapse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="1273" /></a><figcaption>Modelled 21st century warming under the "intermediate" global warming scenario (top). The potential <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Current#Climate_change" title="North Atlantic Current">collapse of the subpolar gyre</a> in this scenario (middle). The collapse of the entire Atlantic Meriditional Overturning Circulation (bottom).</figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation#Major_review_studies" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation § Major review studies</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation&action=edit#Major_review_studies">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>In 2021, the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a> again said the AMOC is "very likely" to decline within the 21st century and that there was a "high confidence" changes to it would be reversible within centuries if warming was reversed.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_SROCC_SPM_20190925_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_SROCC_SPM_20190925-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 19">: 19 </span></sup> Unlike the Fifth Assessment Report, it had only "medium confidence" rather than "high confidence" in the AMOC avoiding a collapse before the end of the 21st century. This reduction in confidence was likely influenced by several review studies that draw attention to the circulation stability bias within <a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">general circulation models</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and simplified ocean-modelling studies suggesting the AMOC may be more vulnerable to abrupt change than larger-scale models suggest.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_Lohmann2021_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_Lohmann2021-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> In 2022, an extensive assessment of all potential <a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">climate tipping points</a> identified 16 plausible climate tipping points, including a collapse of the AMOC. It said a collapse would most likely be triggered by 4 °C (7.2 °F) of global warming but that there is enough uncertainty to suggest it could be triggered at warming levels of between 1.4 °C (2.5 °F) and 8 °C (14 °F). The assessment estimates once AMOC collapse is triggered, it would occur between 15 and 300 years, and most likely at around 50 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_ArmstrongMcKay2022_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_ArmstrongMcKay2022-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_ArmstrongMcKayExplainer_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The assessment also treated the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Current" title="North Atlantic Current">Northern Subpolar Gyre</a> as a separate tipping point that could tip at between 1.1 °C (2.0 °F) degrees and 3.8 °C (6.8 °F), although this is only simulated by a fraction of climate models. The most likely tipping point for the collapse of Northern Subpolar Gyre is 1.8 °C (3.2 °F) and once triggered, the collapse of the gyre would occur between 5 and 50 years, and most likely at 10 years. The loss of this convection is estimated to lower the global temperature by 0.5 °C (0.90 °F) while the average temperature in Europe would decrease by around 3 °C (5.4 °F). There would also be substantial effects on regional precipitation levels.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_ArmstrongMcKay2022_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_ArmstrongMcKay2022-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_ArmstrongMcKayExplainer_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_ArmstrongMcKayExplainer-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation#Effects_of_AMOC_slowdown" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation § Effects of AMOC slowdown</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation&action=edit#Effects_of_AMOC_slowdown">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>As of 2024<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, there is no consensus on whether a consistent slowing of the AMOC circulation has occurred but there is little doubt it will occur in the event of continued climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_AR6_WG1_Chapter92_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_AR6_WG1_Chapter92-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the IPCC, the most-likely effects of future AMOC decline are reduced precipitation in mid-latitudes, changing patterns of strong precipitation in the tropics and Europe, and strengthening storms that follow the North Atlantic track.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_AR6_WG1_Chapter92_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_AR6_WG1_Chapter92-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2020, research found a weakened AMOC would slow <a href="/wiki/Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">the decline in Arctic sea ice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_Liu2020_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_Liu2020-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and result in atmospheric trends similar to those that likely occurred during the <a href="/wiki/Younger_Dryas" title="Younger Dryas">Younger Dryas</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.8_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.8-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as a southward displacement of <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a>. Changes in precipitation under high-emissions scenarios would be far larger.<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_Liu2020_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_Liu2020-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> A decline in the AMOC would be accompanied by an acceleration of sea level rise along the <a href="/wiki/U.S._East_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. East Coast">U.S. East Coast</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_AR6_WG1_Chapter92_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation_AR6_WG1_Chapter92-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at least one such event has been connected to a temporary slowing of the AMOC.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effect would be caused by increased warming and thermal expansion of coastal waters, which would transfer less of their heat toward Europe; it is one of the reasons sea level rise along the U.S. East Coast is estimated to be three-to-four times higher than the global average.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slowdown_or_collapse_of_SMOC">Slowdown or collapse of SMOC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Slowdown or collapse of SMOC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation#Climate_change_impacts" title="Southern Ocean overturning circulation">Southern Ocean overturning circulation § Climate change impacts</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation&action=edit#Climate_change_impacts">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>Additionally, the main controlling pattern of the extratropical Southern Hemisphere's climate is the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Annular_Mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Annular Mode">Southern Annular Mode</a> (SAM), which has been spending more and more years in its positive phase due to climate change (as well as the aftermath of <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a>), which means more warming and more <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> over the ocean due to stronger <a href="/wiki/Westerlies" title="Westerlies">westerlies</a>, freshening the Southern Ocean further.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Stewart2020_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Stewart2020-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1240">: 1240 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate models</a> currently disagree on whether the Southern Ocean circulation would continue to respond to changes in SAM the way it does now, or if it will eventually adjust to them. As of early 2020s, their best, limited-confidence estimate is that the lower cell would continue to weaken, while the upper cell may strengthen by around 20% over the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_IPCC_AR6_WG1_Ch.9-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A key reason for the uncertainty is the poor and inconsistent representation of <a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">ocean stratification</a> in even the <a href="/wiki/Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">CMIP6</a> models – the most advanced generation available as of early 2020s.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Bourgeois2022_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Bourgeois2022-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the largest long-term role in the state of the circulation is played by Antarctic meltwater,<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Li2023_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Li2023-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Antarctic ice loss had been the least-certain aspect of future <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> projections for a long time.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Similar processes are taking place with <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a> (AMOC), which is also affected by the ocean warming and by meltwater flows from the declining <a href="/wiki/Greenland_ice_sheet" title="Greenland ice sheet">Greenland ice sheet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible that both circulations may not simply continue to weaken in response to increased warming and freshening, but eventually collapse to a much weaker state outright, in a way which would be difficult to reverse and constitute an example of <a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">tipping points in the climate system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_GTPR2023_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_GTPR2023-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoclimate">paleoclimate</a> evidence for the overturning circulation being substantially weaker than now during past periods that were both warmer and colder than now.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Huang2020_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Huang2020-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a> is only inhabited by 10% of the world's population, and the Southern Ocean overturning circulation has historically received much less attention than the AMOC. Consequently, while multiple studies have set out to estimate the exact level of global warming which could result in AMOC collapsing, the timeframe over which such collapse may occur, and the regional impacts it would cause, much less equivalent research exists for the Southern Ocean overturning circulation as of the early 2020s. There has been a suggestion that its collapse may occur between 1.7 °C (3.1 °F) and 3 °C (5.4 °F), but this estimate is much less certain than for many other tipping points.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_GTPR2023_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_GTPR2023-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_multidecadal_oscillation" title="Atlantic multidecadal oscillation">Atlantic multidecadal oscillation</a> – Climate cycle that affects the surface temperature of the North Atlantic</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brunt-V%C3%A4is%C3%A4l%C3%A4_frequency" class="mw-redirect" title="Brunt-Väisälä frequency">Brunt-Väisälä frequency</a> – Measure of fluid stability against vertical displacement<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a> – Type of sedimentary deposit</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a> – Process of accumulation and sinking of higher density material beneath lower density material</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halothermal_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Halothermal circulation">Halothermal circulation</a> – Part of large-scale ocean circulation<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a> – Circulation of water driven by heat exchange</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-salinity_diagram" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperature-salinity diagram">Temperature-salinity diagram</a> – Diagrams used to identify water masses<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Rahmstorf2003-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rahmstorf2003_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rahmstorf2003_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rahmstorf2003_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rahmstorf2003_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRahmstorf2003" class="citation journal cs1">Rahmstorf, S (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pik-potsdam.de/~stefan/Publications/Nature/nature_concept_03.pdf">"The concept of the thermohaline circulation"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>421</b> (6924): 699. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.421..699R">2003Natur.421..699R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F421699a">10.1038/421699a</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12610602">12610602</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4414604">4414604</a>.</cite><span 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University of Exeter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=The+Global+Tipping+Points+Report+2023&rft.pub=University+of+Exeter&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Lenton&rft.aufirst=T.+M.&rft.au=Armstrong+McKay%2C+D.I.&rft.au=Loriani%2C+S.&rft.au=Abrams%2C+J.F.&rft.au=Lade%2C+S.J.&rft.au=Donges%2C+J.F.&rft.au=Milkoreit%2C+M.&rft.au=Powell%2C+T.&rft.au=Smith%2C+S.R.&rft.au=Zimm%2C+C.&rft.au=Buxton%2C+J.E.&rft.au=Daube%2C+Bruce+C.&rft.au=Krummel%2C+Paul+B.&rft.au=Loh%2C+Zo%C3%AB&rft.au=Luijkx%2C+Ingrid+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobal-tipping-points.org%2Fdownload%2F4608%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermohaline+circulation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Huang2020-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Southern_Ocean_overturning_circulation_Huang2020_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuangGutjahrEisenhauerKuhn2020" class="citation journal cs1">Huang, Huang; Gutjahr, Marcus; Eisenhauer, Anton; Kuhn, Gerhard (22 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6976697">"No detectable Weddell Sea Antarctic Bottom Water export during the Last and Penultimate Glacial Maximum"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>11</b> (1): 424. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatCo..11..424H">2020NatCo..11..424H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-020-14302-3">10.1038/s41467-020-14302-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6976697">6976697</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31969564">31969564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=No+detectable+Weddell+Sea+Antarctic+Bottom+Water+export+during+the+Last+and+Penultimate+Glacial+Maximum&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=424&rft.date=2020-01-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6976697%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31969564&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-020-14302-3&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatCo..11..424H&rft.aulast=Huang&rft.aufirst=Huang&rft.au=Gutjahr%2C+Marcus&rft.au=Eisenhauer%2C+Anton&rft.au=Kuhn%2C+Gerhard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6976697&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermohaline+circulation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_sources">Other sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApel1987" class="citation book cs1">Apel, JR (1987). <i>Principles of Ocean Physics</i>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-058866-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-058866-8"><bdi>0-12-058866-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Ocean+Physics&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-12-058866-8&rft.aulast=Apel&rft.aufirst=JR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermohaline+circulation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGnanadesikan,_A.R._D._SlaterP._S._SwathiG._K._Vallis2005" class="citation journal cs1">Gnanadesikan, A.; R. D. Slater; P. S. Swathi; G. K. Vallis (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FJCLI3436.1">"The energetics of ocean heat transport"</a>. <i>Journal of Climate</i>. <b>18</b> (14): 2604–16. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JCli...18.2604G">2005JCli...18.2604G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1175%2FJCLI3436.1">10.1175/JCLI3436.1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Climate&rft.atitle=The+energetics+of+ocean+heat+transport&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=14&rft.pages=2604-16&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1175%2FJCLI3436.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005JCli...18.2604G&rft.au=Gnanadesikan%2C+A.&rft.au=R.+D.+Slater&rft.au=P.+S.+Swathi&rft.au=G.+K.+Vallis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1175%252FJCLI3436.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermohaline+circulation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnauss1996" class="citation book cs1">Knauss, JA (1996). <i>Introduction to Physical Oceanography</i>. Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-238155-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-238155-9"><bdi>0-13-238155-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Physical+Oceanography&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-13-238155-9&rft.aulast=Knauss&rft.aufirst=JA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThermohaline+circulation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thermohaline_circulation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oceanmotion.org/html/background/ocean-conveyor-belt.htm">Ocean Conveyor Belt</a></li> <li>THOR FP7 projects <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20141126093524/http%3A//www.eu%2Dthor.eu/">http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20141126093524/http%3A//www.eu%2Dthor.eu/</a> investigates on the topic "Thermohaline overturning- at risk?" and the predictability of changes of the THC. THOR is financed by the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Atmospheric,_Oceanographic_and_Climate_Models" title="Template:Atmospheric, Oceanographic and Climate Models"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Atmospheric,_Oceanographic_and_Climate_Models" title="Template talk:Atmospheric, Oceanographic and Climate Models"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Atmospheric,_Oceanographic_and_Climate_Models" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Atmospheric, Oceanographic and Climate Models"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Atmospheric,_oceanographic,_cryospheric,_and_climate_models" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Atmospheric, oceanographic, cryospheric, and climate models</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Model_types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Model types</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_model" title="Atmospheric model">Atmospheric model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_general_circulation_model" title="Ocean general circulation model">Oceanographic model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryospheric model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_weather_prediction" title="Numerical weather prediction">Numerical weather prediction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_forecast_model" title="Tropical cyclone forecast model">Tropical cyclone forecast model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_transport_model" title="Chemical transport model">Chemical transport model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper-atmospheric_models" title="Upper-atmospheric models">Upper-atmospheric models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ensemble_forecasting" title="Ensemble forecasting">Ensemble forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_output_statistics" title="Model output statistics">Model output statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteorological_reanalysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteorological reanalysis">Meteorological reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parametrization_(atmospheric_modeling)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parametrization (atmospheric modeling)">Parametrization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Specific_models" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Specific models</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Climate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_General_Circulation_Model" title="Intermediate General Circulation Model">IGCM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HadCM3" title="HadCM3">HadCM3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HadGEM1" title="HadGEM1">HadGEM1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GFDL_CM2.X" class="mw-redirect" title="GFDL CM2.X">GFDL CM2.X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CGCM" class="mw-redirect" title="CGCM">CGCM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Climate_System_Model" title="Community Climate System Model">CCSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_Earth_System_Model" title="Community Earth System Model">CESM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_Forecast_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate Forecast System">CFSv2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ECHAM" title="ECHAM">ECHAM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Global weather</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Forecast_System" title="Integrated Forecast System">IFS (ECMWF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow-following,_finite-volume_Icosahedral_Model" title="Flow-following, finite-volume Icosahedral Model">FIM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Environmental_Multiscale_Model" title="Global Environmental Multiscale Model">GEM / GDPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Forecast_System" title="Global Forecast System">GFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_for_Prediction_Across_Scales" title="Model for Prediction Across Scales">MPAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Ensemble_Forecast_System" title="North American Ensemble Forecast System">NAEFS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy_Global_Environmental_Model" title="Navy Global Environmental Model">NAVGEM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Model" title="Unified Model">UM</a></li> <li>JMA-GSM</li> <li><a href="/wiki/GME_of_Deutscher_Wetterdienst" title="GME of Deutscher Wetterdienst">GME / ICON</a></li> <li>ARPEGE</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional and mesoscale atmospheric</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Mesoscale_Model" title="North American Mesoscale Model">NAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_Refresh" class="mw-redirect" title="Rapid Refresh">RR / RAP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Atmospheric_Modeling_System" title="Regional Atmospheric Modeling System">RAMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_Research_and_Forecasting_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Weather Research and Forecasting model">WRF</a></li> <li>RAQMS</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIRLAM" title="HIRLAM">HIRLAM</a></li> <li>LAPS</li> <li>RPM</li> <li><a href="/wiki/HWRF" class="mw-redirect" title="HWRF">HWRF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Environmental_Multiscale_Model" title="Global Environmental Multiscale Model">RGEM</a></li> <li>HRDPS</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional and mesoscale oceanographic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>HyCOM</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Ocean_Modeling_System" title="Regional Ocean Modeling System">ROMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_ocean_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Princeton ocean model">POM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_ocean_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Modular ocean model">MOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_Volume_Community_Ocean_Model" title="Finite Volume Community Ocean Model">FVCOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MIT_General_Circulation_Model" title="MIT General Circulation Model">MITgcm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FESOM" title="FESOM">FESOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ADCIRC" title="ADCIRC">ADCIRC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Atmospheric dispersion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADMS_3" title="ADMS 3">ADMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AERMOD" title="AERMOD">AERMOD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATSTEP" title="ATSTEP">ATSTEP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AUSTAL2000" title="AUSTAL2000">AUSTAL2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CALPUFF" title="CALPUFF">CALPUFF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DISPERSION21" title="DISPERSION21">DISPERSION21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISC3" title="ISC3">ISC3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MEMO_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="MEMO Model">MEMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MERCURE" title="MERCURE">MERCURE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAME_(dispersion_model)" title="NAME (dispersion model)">NAME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_Street_Pollution_Model" title="Operational Street Pollution Model">OSPM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PUFF-PLUME" title="PUFF-PLUME">PUFF-PLUME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RIMPUFF" title="RIMPUFF">RIMPUFF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SAFE_AIR" title="SAFE AIR">SAFE AIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SILAM" title="SILAM">SILAM</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical transport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CLaMS" title="CLaMS">CLaMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MOZART_(model)" class="mw-redirect" title="MOZART (model)">MOZART</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=GEOS-Chem&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="GEOS-Chem (page does not exist)">GEOS-Chem</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=CHIMERE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CHIMERE (page does not exist)">CHIMERE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Land surface parametrization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JULES" title="JULES">JULES</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Land_Surface_Scheme" title="Canadian Land Surface Scheme">CLASS</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Interaction_Soil-Biosphere-Atmosphere&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Interaction Soil-Biosphere-Atmosphere (page does not exist)">ISBA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cryospheric models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CICE_(sea_ice_model)" title="CICE (sea ice model)">CICE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Discontinued</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Eta</li> <li>LFM</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MM5_(weather_model)" title="MM5 (weather model)">MM5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nested_Grid_Model" title="Nested Grid Model">NGM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy_Operational_Global_Atmospheric_Prediction_System" title="Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System">NOGAPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapid_Update_Cycle" title="Rapid Update Cycle">RUC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">Mathematical model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">Statistical model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">Computer simulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ocean_currents_and_gyres" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ocean" title="Template:Ocean"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ocean" title="Template talk:Ocean"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ocean_currents_and_gyres" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean currents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">gyres</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Currents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Arctic Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Greenland_Current" title="East Greenland Current">East Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Icelandic_Jet" title="North Icelandic Jet">North Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Current" title="Norwegian Current">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpolar_Drift_Stream" title="Transpolar Drift Stream">Transpolar Drift Stream</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Atlantic Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angola_Current" title="Angola Current">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antilles_Current" title="Antilles Current">Antilles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azores_Current" title="Azores Current">Azores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baffin_Island_Current" title="Baffin Island Current">Baffin Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benguela_Current" title="Benguela Current">Benguela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazil_Current" title="Brazil Current">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canary_Current" title="Canary Current">Canary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Horn_Current" title="Cape Horn Current">Cape Horn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Current" title="Caribbean Current">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Greenland_Current" title="East Greenland Current">East Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Iceland_Current" title="East Iceland Current">East Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falkland_Current" title="Falkland Current">Falkland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Current" title="Florida Current">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guinea_Current" title="Guinea Current">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irminger_Current" title="Irminger Current">Irminger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labrador_Current" title="Labrador Current">Labrador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomonosov_Current" title="Lomonosov Current">Lomonosov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Current" title="North Atlantic Current">North Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Brazil_Current" title="North Brazil Current">North Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Equatorial_Current" title="North Equatorial Current">North Equatorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Current" title="Norwegian Current">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portugal_Current" title="Portugal Current">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_Current" title="South Atlantic Current">South Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Equatorial_Current" title="South Equatorial Current">South Equatorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Greenland_Current" title="West Greenland Current">West Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Spitsbergen_Current" title="West Spitsbergen Current">West Spitsbergen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agulhas_Current" title="Agulhas Current">Agulhas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agulhas_Return_Current" title="Agulhas Return Current">Agulhas Return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Madagascar_Current" title="East Madagascar Current">East Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Counter_Current" title="Equatorial Counter Current">Equatorial Counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Monsoon_Current" title="Indian Monsoon Current">Indian Monsoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Throughflow" title="Indonesian Throughflow">Indonesian Throughflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leeuwin_Current" title="Leeuwin Current">Leeuwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madagascar_Current" title="Madagascar Current">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozambique_Current" title="Mozambique Current">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Madagascar_Current" title="North Madagascar Current">North Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_Current" title="Somali Current">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Equatorial_Current" title="South Equatorial Current">South Equatorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Australian_Current" title="West Australian Current">West Australian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pacific Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Current" title="Alaska Current">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Current" title="Aleutian Current">Aleutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Current" title="California Current">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cromwell_Current" title="Cromwell Current">Cromwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Current" title="Davidson Current">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Australian_Current" title="East Australian Current">East Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Korea_Warm_Current" title="East Korea Warm Current">East Korea Warm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_Counter_Current" title="Equatorial Counter Current">Equatorial Counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_Throughflow" title="Indonesian Throughflow">Indonesian Throughflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_Current" title="Kamchatka Current">Kamchatka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuroshio_Current" title="Kuroshio Current">Kuroshio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindanao_Current" title="Mindanao Current">Mindanao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Equatorial_Current" title="North Equatorial Current">North Equatorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea_Cold_Current" title="North Korea Cold Current">North Korea Cold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Current" title="North Pacific Current">North Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyashio_Current" title="Oyashio Current">Oyashio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Equatorial_Current" title="South Equatorial Current">South Equatorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasman_Front" title="Tasman Front">Tasman Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Ocean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasman_Outflow" title="Tasman Outflow">Tasman Outflow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Gyres</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major gyres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Gyre" title="Indian Ocean Gyre">Indian Ocean Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_Gyre" title="North Atlantic Gyre">North Atlantic Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_Gyre" title="South Atlantic Gyre">South Atlantic Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_Gyre" title="South Pacific Gyre">South Pacific Gyre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other gyres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaufort_Gyre" title="Beaufort Gyre">Beaufort Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ross_Gyre" title="Ross Gyre">Ross Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weddell_Gyre" title="Weddell Gyre">Weddell Gyre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">Marine debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">Marine garbage patches</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_garbage_patch" title="Indian Ocean garbage patch">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_garbage_patch" title="North Atlantic garbage patch">North Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_garbage_patch" title="South Pacific garbage patch">South Pacific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thermohaline circulation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/48px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/64px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a>  <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical 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scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a 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Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering 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