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</li> <li id="toc-Succession_and_legitimacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Succession_and_legitimacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Succession and legitimacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Succession_and_legitimacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Later developments </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Later_developments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Later developments subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Later_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Byzantine_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Byzantine period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Titles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Titles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Titles </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Titles-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Titles subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Titles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Imperator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Imperator </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caesar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caesar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Caesar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caesar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Augustus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Augustus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Augustus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Augustus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Princeps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Princeps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Princeps </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Princeps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Basileus_/_autokrator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basileus_/_autokrator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Basileus / autokrator </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basileus_/_autokrator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_assertions_to_the_title" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_assertions_to_the_title"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Later assertions to the title </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_assertions_to_the_title-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Number_of_emperors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Number_of_emperors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Number of emperors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Number_of_emperors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Roman emperor</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" > 54 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C5%8Dm%C4%81nisc_C%C4%81sere" title="Rōmānisc Cāsere – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Rōmānisc Cāsere" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%85%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="إمبراطور روماني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إمبراطور روماني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperador_romanu" title="Emperador romanu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Emperador romanu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roma_imperatoru" title="Roma imperatoru – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Roma imperatoru" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9F" title="রোমের সম্রাট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রোমের সম্রাট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B4-m%C3%A1_h%C3%B4ng-t%C3%A8" title="Lô-má hông-tè – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lô-má hông-tè" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanong_Emperador" title="Romanong Emperador – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Romanong Emperador" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperador_rom%C3%A0" title="Emperador romà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Emperador romà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperador_sa_Roma" title="Emperador sa Roma – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Emperador sa Roma" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%98%C3%ADmsk%C3%BD_c%C3%ADsa%C5%99" title="Římský císař – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Římský císař" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kejser_(Rom)" title="Kejser (Rom) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kejser (Rom)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rooma_keiser" title="Rooma keiser – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rooma keiser" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A1%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ρωμαίος αυτοκράτορας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ρωμαίος αυτοκράτορας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperador_romano" title="Emperador romano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Emperador romano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romia_imperiestro" title="Romia imperiestro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Romia imperiestro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85" title="امپراتور روم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="امپراتور روم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empereur_romain" title="Empereur romain – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empereur romain" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A1%9C%EB%A7%88_%ED%99%A9%EC%A0%9C" title="로마 황제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="로마 황제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarakunan_Romawa" title="Sarakunan Romawa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Sarakunan Romawa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimski_car" title="Rimski car – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rimski car" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaisar_Romawi" title="Kaisar Romawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kaisar Romawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B3markeisari" title="Rómarkeisari – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rómarkeisari" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperatore_romano" title="Imperatore romano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Imperatore romano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A8_%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%90" title="קיסר רומא – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קיסר רומא" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaisar_Romawi" title="Kaisar Romawi – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kaisar Romawi" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98" title="რომის იმპერატორი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="რომის იმპერატორი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator_Romanus" title="Imperator Romanus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Imperator Romanus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romos_imperatorius" title="Romos imperatorius – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Romos imperatorius" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperor_roman" title="Imperor roman – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Imperor roman" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Римски цар – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Римски цар" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F" title="रोमन सम्राट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="रोमन सम्राट" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharaja_Rom" title="Maharaja Rom – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Maharaja Rom" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9F" title="रोमन सम्राट – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रोमन सम्राट" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AD%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9E%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D" title="ローマ皇帝 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ローマ皇帝" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romersk_keisar" title="Romersk keisar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Romersk keisar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empereu%27_romain" title="Empereu' romain – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Empereu' romain" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperaire_roman" title="Emperaire roman – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Emperaire roman" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B4%DB%81%D9%86%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81" title="رومی شہنشاہ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رومی شہنشاہ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="د روم سترواک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د روم سترواک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperador_romano" title="Imperador romano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Imperador romano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Emp%C4%83rat_roman" title="Împărat roman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Împărat roman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perandori_romak" title="Perandori romak – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Perandori romak" data-language-autonym="Shqip" 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class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperor</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ruler of the Roman Empire</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the ruler of the Roman Kingdom in the archaic period, see <a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">King of Rome</a>. For the dual chief magistrate during the Roman Republic, see <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Roman consul</a>. For a chronological list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">List of Roman emperors</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr">Emperor of the Roman Empire</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-weight: bold;"><div style="font-family: serif; font-size: 90%; font-weight: bold; text-transform: uppercase; line-height: 125%; background-color: rgb(125,7,110); color: white;">Imperial</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/120px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/180px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/240px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="343" /></a><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Vexillum" title="Vexillum">Vexillum</a> of the emperor</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Glyptothek_M%C3%BCnchen_%E2%80%93_18.04.2022_%E2%80%93_Augustus_Bevilacqua_(5).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Glyptothek_M%C3%BCnchen_%E2%80%93_18.04.2022_%E2%80%93_Augustus_Bevilacqua_%285%29.jpg/200px-Glyptothek_M%C3%BCnchen_%E2%80%93_18.04.2022_%E2%80%93_Augustus_Bevilacqua_%285%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Glyptothek_M%C3%BCnchen_%E2%80%93_18.04.2022_%E2%80%93_Augustus_Bevilacqua_%285%29.jpg/300px-Glyptothek_M%C3%BCnchen_%E2%80%93_18.04.2022_%E2%80%93_Augustus_Bevilacqua_%285%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Glyptothek_M%C3%BCnchen_%E2%80%93_18.04.2022_%E2%80%93_Augustus_Bevilacqua_%285%29.jpg/400px-Glyptothek_M%C3%BCnchen_%E2%80%93_18.04.2022_%E2%80%93_Augustus_Bevilacqua_%285%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4222" data-file-height="6701" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Bust of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> wearing the <a href="/wiki/Corona_civica" class="mw-redirect" title="Corona civica">corona civica</a></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #eee;">Details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Style</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(honorific)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustus (honorific)">Augustus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">Princeps</a>, Dominus Noster, <a href="/wiki/Autokrator" title="Autokrator">Autokrator</a> or <a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">Basileus</a> (depending on period)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">First monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Last monarch</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">unified</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> (<a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a>)<a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI</a> (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a>)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Formation</th><td class="infobox-data">16 January 27 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Abolition</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>9 May 480 (Western)</li><li>29 May 1453 (Eastern)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Appointer</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Senate_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Senate of the Roman Empire">Senate</a> (official), <a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Roman military</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The Roman emperor was the ruler and monarchical <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>, starting with the granting of the title <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">augustus</a> to <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a> in 27 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201737-3">[2]</a> The term <a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">emperor</a> is a modern convention, and did not exist as such during the Empire. When a given Roman is described as becoming emperor in English, it generally reflects his accession as augustus, and later as <a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a>. Another title used was <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a>, originally a military honorific, and <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">caesar</a>, originally a <a href="/wiki/Cognomen" title="Cognomen">cognomen</a>. Early emperors also used the title <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a> ("first one") alongside other <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republican</a> titles, notably <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">pontifex maximus</a>. The legitimacy of an emperor's rule depended on his control of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a> and recognition by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a>; an emperor would normally be proclaimed by his troops, or by the Senate, or both. The first emperors reigned alone; later emperors would sometimes rule with co-emperors to secure the succession or to divide the administration of the empire between them. The office of emperor was thought to be distinct from that of a <a href="/wiki/Rex_(title)" title="Rex (title)">rex</a> ("king"). Augustus, the first emperor, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalinsky200513–14-4">[3]</a> For the first three hundred years of Roman emperors, efforts were made to portray the emperors as leaders of the Republic, fearing any association with the kings who ruled Rome prior to the Republic. From <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, whose reformed <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">tetrarchy</a> divided the position into one emperor in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">West</a> and one in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">East</a>, emperors ruled in an openly monarchic style.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1997147-5">[4]</a> Although succession was generally hereditary, it was only hereditary if there was a suitable candidate acceptable to the army and the bureaucracy,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather200528-6">[5]</a> so the principle of automatic inheritance was not adopted, which often led to several <a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">claimants to the throne</a>. Despite this, elements of the republican institutional framework (Senate, consuls, and magistrates) were preserved even after the end of the Western Empire. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a>, the first Christian emperor, moved the capital from Rome to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, formerly known as <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, in 330 AD. Roman emperors had always held high religious offices; under Constantine there arose the specifically Christian idea that the emperor was God's chosen ruler on earth, a special protector and leader of the Christian Church, a position later termed <a href="/wiki/Caesaropapism" title="Caesaropapism">Caesaropapism</a>. In practice, an emperor's authority on Church matters was frequently subject to challenge. The <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> collapsed in the late 5th century after multiple invasions by <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> barbarian tribes, with no recognised claimant to Emperor of the West remaining after the death of <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> in 480. Instead, the Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a> proclaimed himself as the sole emperor of a theoretically undivided Roman Empire (although in practice he had no authority in the West). The subsequent Eastern emperors ruling from Constantinople styled themselves as "Basileus of the Romans" (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων, Basileus Romaíon) but are often referred to in modern scholarship as <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine emperors">Byzantine emperors</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic kingdoms">Germanic kingdoms</a> of the West acknowledged the Eastern emperors until the accession of <a href="/wiki/Empress_Irene" class="mw-redirect" title="Empress Irene">Empress Irene</a> in 797. After this, the papacy created a rival lineage of Roman emperors in western Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperors</a>, which ruled the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> for most of the period between 800 and 1806. These emperors were never recognized in Constantinople and their coronations resulted in the medieval <a href="/wiki/Problem_of_two_emperors" title="Problem of two emperors">problem of two emperors</a>. The last Eastern emperor was <a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a>, who died during the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> in 1453. After conquering the city, <a href="/wiki/List_of_sultans_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman sultans</a> adopted the title "Caesar of the Romans" (<a href="/wiki/Kayser-i_R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayser-i Rûm">kayser-i Rûm</a>). A Byzantine group of claimant emperors existed in the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a> until its conquest by the Ottomans in 1461, although they had used a modified title since 1282. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background_and_beginning">Background and beginning</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background and beginning">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Crisis of the Roman Republic">Crisis of the Roman Republic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augustus_depicted_as_a_Magistrate,_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek,_Copenhagen_(14747345348).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Augustus_depicted_as_a_Magistrate%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2814747345348%29.jpg/220px-Augustus_depicted_as_a_Magistrate%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2814747345348%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="363" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Augustus_depicted_as_a_Magistrate%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2814747345348%29.jpg/330px-Augustus_depicted_as_a_Magistrate%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2814747345348%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Augustus_depicted_as_a_Magistrate%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2814747345348%29.jpg/440px-Augustus_depicted_as_a_Magistrate%2C_Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek%2C_Copenhagen_%2814747345348%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2963" data-file-height="4894" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> depicted as a <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrate</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek" title="Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek">Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek</a></figcaption></figure> Modern historians conventionally regard <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> as the first emperor, whereas <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> is considered the last <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, a view that is shared by the Roman writers <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes2009278–279-7">[6]</a> Conversely, the majority of Roman writers, including <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a>, as well as most of the ordinary people of the Empire, thought of Julius Caesar as the first emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes2009279–282-8">[7]</a> Caesar did indeed rule the Roman state as an <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">autocrat</a>, but he failed to create a stable system to maintain himself in power.<a href="#cite_note-9">[8]</a> His rise to power was the result of a long and gradual decline in which the Republic fell under the influence of powerful generals such as <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Marius" title="Gaius Marius">Gaius Marius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201733–37-10">[9]</a> At the end of the Republic no new, and certainly no single, title indicated the individual who held supreme power. Insofar as emperor could be seen as the English translation of the Latin <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a>, then Julius Caesar had been an emperor, like several Roman generals before him. Instead, by the end of the <a href="/wiki/Caesar%27s_civil_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar's civil wars">Caesar's civil wars</a>, it became clear that there was certainly no consensus to return to <a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">the old-style monarchy</a>, but that the period when several officials would fight one another had come to an end. Julius Caesar, and then Augustus after him, accumulated offices and titles of the highest importance in the Republic, making the power attached to those offices permanent, and preventing anyone with similar aspirations from accumulating or maintaining power for themselves. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> had been <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">pontifex maximus</a> since 64 BC; held the offices of <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a> five times since 59 BC, and was appointed <a href="/wiki/Dictator_perpetuo" title="Dictator perpetuo">dictator in perpetuity</a> in 44 BC, shortly before <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">his assassination</a>. He had also become the de facto sole ruler of Rome in 48 BC, when he defeated his last opposition at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pharsalus" title="Battle of Pharsalus">Battle of Pharsalus</a>. His killers proclaimed themselves as the <a href="/wiki/Liberatores" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberatores">liberatores</a> ("liberators") and the restorers of the Republic, but their rule was cut short by Caesar's supporters, who almost immediately established a new dictatorship. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kameo_Augustus_mit_Tritonengespann_KHM_IXa_56.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Kameo_Augustus_mit_Tritonengespann_KHM_IXa_56.jpg/220px-Kameo_Augustus_mit_Tritonengespann_KHM_IXa_56.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Kameo_Augustus_mit_Tritonengespann_KHM_IXa_56.jpg/330px-Kameo_Augustus_mit_Tritonengespann_KHM_IXa_56.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Kameo_Augustus_mit_Tritonengespann_KHM_IXa_56.jpg/440px-Kameo_Augustus_mit_Tritonengespann_KHM_IXa_56.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1950" data-file-height="2136" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">Cameo</a> of Augustus in a <a href="/wiki/Quadriga" title="Quadriga">quadriga</a> drawn by <a href="/wiki/Triton_(mythology)" title="Triton (mythology)">tritons</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Kunsthistorisches_Museum" title="Kunsthistorisches Museum">Kunsthistorisches Museum</a>, Vienna</figcaption></figure> In his will, Caesar appointed his grandnephew <a href="/wiki/Octavian" class="mw-redirect" title="Octavian">Octavian</a> as his heir and adopted son. He inherited his property and lineage, the loyalty of most of his allies, and – again through a formal process of senatorial consent – an increasing number of the titles and offices that had accrued to Caesar. In August 43 BC, following the <a href="/wiki/War_of_Mutina" title="War of Mutina">death of both consuls of the year</a>, Octavian marched to Rome and forced the Senate to elect him consul. He then formed the <a href="/wiki/Second_Triumvirate" title="Second Triumvirate">Second Triumvirate</a> alongside <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lepidus" title="Lepidus">Lepidus</a>, dividing the Roman world among them. Lepidus was sidelined in 36 BC, and relations between Octavian and Antony soon deteriorated. In September 31 BC, Octavian's <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Actium" title="Battle of Actium">victory at Actium</a> put an end to any effective opposition and confirmed his supremacy over Rome. In January 27 BC, Octavian and the Senate concluded the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">First settlement</a>". Until then Octavian had been ruling the state with his powers as triumvir, even though the Triumvirate itself disappeared years earlier. He announced that he would return the power to the <a href="/wiki/Senate_and_People_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Senate and People of Rome">Senate and People of Rome</a>, but this was only an act. The Senate confirmed Octavian as <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a>, the "<a href="/wiki/First_among_equals" class="mw-redirect" title="First among equals">first among equals</a>", and gave him control over almost all Roman provinces for a tenure of ten years. This limitation was only superficial, as he could renew his powers indefinitely. In addition, the Senate awarded him the appellation of <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">augustus</a> ("elevated"). The honorific itself held no legal meaning, but it denoted that Octavian (henceforth <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>) now approached divinity, and its adoption by his successors made it the de facto main title of the emperor. He also received the <a href="/wiki/Civic_Crown" title="Civic Crown">civic crown</a> alongside several other insignias in his honor. Augustus now held supreme and indisputable power, and even though he still received subsequent grants of powers, such as the granting of <a href="/wiki/Tribunicia_potestas" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribunicia potestas">tribunicia potestas</a> in 23 BC, these were only ratifications of the powers he already possessed.<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a> Most modern historians use 27 BC as the start date of the Roman Empire. This is mostly a symbolic date, as the Republic had essentially disappeared many years earlier. Ancient writers often ignore the legal implications of Augustus' reforms and simply write that he "ruled" Rome following the murder of Caesar, or that he "ruled alone" after the death of Mark Antony.<a href="#cite_note-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> Most Romans thus simply saw the "emperor" as the individual that ruled the state, with no specific title or office attached to him. Augustus actively prepared his adopted son <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a> to be his successor and pleaded his case to the Senate for inheritance on merit. After Augustus' death in AD 14, the Senate confirmed Tiberius as princeps and proclaimed him as the new augustus. Tiberius had already received imperium maius and tribunicia potestas in AD 4, becoming legally equal to Augustus but still subordinate to him in practice.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowmanChamplinLintott1996201-14">[13]</a> The "imperial office" was thus not truly defined until the accession of <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a>, when all of Tiberius' powers were automatically transferred to him as a single, abstract position that was symbolized by his sacred title of augustus.<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Powers_under_the_Principate">Powers under the Principate</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Powers under the Principate">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="adr"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of ancient Rome">Politics of ancient Rome</a></div></th></tr><tr><th><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_SPQR_banner.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/150px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/225px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Roman_SPQR_banner.svg/300px-Roman_SPQR_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="229" /></a></th></tr><tr><th style="border-bottom: #aaa 1px solid"></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Roman Kingdom</a> 753–509 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> 509–27 BC</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> 27 BC – AD 395</li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> </div> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a> AD 395–476</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a> AD 330–1453</li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Sulla" title="Constitutional reforms of Sulla">Sullan republic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_reforms_of_Augustus" title="Constitutional reforms of Augustus">Augustan reforms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Political institutions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Assemblies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_council" title="Plebeian council">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Ordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Extraordinary magistrates</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corrector" title="Corrector">Corrector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Public law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ius" title="Ius">Ius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum" title="Senatus consultum">Senatus consultum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestio_perpetua" title="Quaestio perpetua">Quaestio perpetua</a></li></ul> </div> <a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum_ultimum" title="Senatus consultum ultimum">Senatus consultum ultimum</a></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="text-align:center; background:#e5d4a8;"> Titles and honours</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Emperor</a></li></ul> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 8em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praeses" title="Praeses">Praeses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvir_monetalis" title="Triumvir monetalis">Triumvir monetalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid"> <div class="hlist" style="text-align:center;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science#Politics_by_region" title="Outline of political science">Other countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template talk:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_of_ancient_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The legal authority of the emperor derived from an extraordinary concentration of individual powers and offices that were extant in the Republic and developed under Augustus and later rulers, rather than from a new political office. Under the Republic, these powers would have been split between several people, who would each exercise them with the assistance of a colleague and for a specific period of time. Augustus held them all at once by himself, and with no time limits; even those that nominally had time limits were automatically renewed whenever they lapsed.<a href="#cite_note-16">[15]</a> The Republican offices endured and emperors were regularly elected to the most prominent of them: the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consulship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censorship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[16]</a> This early period of the Empire is known as the "<a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a>", derived from the title princeps used by the early emperors. The most important bases of the emperor's power were his supreme power of command (<a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium maius</a>) and tribunician power (<a href="/wiki/Tribunicia_potestas" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribunicia potestas">tribunicia potestas</a>) as personal qualities, separate from his public office.<a href="#cite_note-18">[17]</a> Originally, the powers of command where divided in consular imperium for Rome and proconsular imperium for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">provinces</a>. This division became obsolete in 19 BC when Augustus was given consular imperium – despite leaving the consulship in 23 BC – and thus control over all troops. This overwhelming power was referred to as imperium maius to indicate its superiority to other holders of imperium, such as the <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsuls</a> of the few senatorial provinces and allies such as <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Vipsanius_Agrippa" title="Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa">Agrippa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[18]</a> The governors appointed to the imperial provinces only answered to the emperor himself, who could maintain or replace them at will.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMousourakis2017238–239-20">[19]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silver_Denarius_of_Augustus_(CNG).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Silver_Denarius_of_Augustus_%28CNG%29.jpg/205px-Silver_Denarius_of_Augustus_%28CNG%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="205" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Silver_Denarius_of_Augustus_%28CNG%29.jpg/308px-Silver_Denarius_of_Augustus_%28CNG%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Silver_Denarius_of_Augustus_%28CNG%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="330" data-file-height="323" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a> of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> (18 BC).<a href="#cite_note-21">[b]</a></figcaption></figure> The tribunician power (tribunicia potestas), first assumed by Augustus in 23 BC, gave him authority over the <a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">tribune of the plebs</a> without having to actually hold the office – a tribune was by definition a <a href="/wiki/Plebeian" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian">plebeian</a>, whereas Augustus, although born into a plebeian family, had become a <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician</a> when he was adopted into the <a href="/wiki/Julia_(gens)" class="mw-redirect" title="Julia (gens)">gens Julia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMousourakis2017238–239-20">[19]</a> By adopting the role of a tribune, Augustus was presenting himself as the representative of the common man and the protector of democracy.<a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> As always, this was not a sudden grant of power; Augustus had been receiving several powers related to the tribunes, such as <a href="/wiki/Sacrosanctity" title="Sacrosanctity">sacrosanctity</a>, since 36 BC.<a href="#cite_note-23">[21]</a> With this powers, he could <a href="/wiki/Veto" title="Veto">veto</a> any act or proposal of any magistrate, propose laws and convoke the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a> His sacrosanctity also made him untouchable, and any offence against him could be treated as a crime of treason.<a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> The tribunician power was arguably the most stable and important of the emperor's powers.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a> Despite being a perpetual title, it was always renewed each year, which often coincided with the beginning of a new regnal year (although "<a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">regnal years</a>" were not officially adopted until <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a>).<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[c]</a> The office of <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censor</a> was not fully absorbed into the imperial office until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a>, who declared himself "perpetual censor" (censor perpetuus) in AD 85. Before this, the title had been only used by <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> (47), <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a> (both in 73).<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> The emperor also had power over religious affairs, which led to the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">worship cult</a>. Augustus became <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">pontifex maximus</a> (the chief priest of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a>) in 12 BC, after the death of the former triumvir <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Lepidus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> Emperors from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a> (r. 375–383) onward used the style <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_inclytus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex inclytus">pontifex inclytus</a> ("honorable pontiff"). The title of pontifex maximus was eventually adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">bishops of Rome</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a> The last known emperors to use the title were <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcian" title="Marcian">Marcian</a>, in the 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHekster202236-32">[29]</a> The only surviving document to directly refer to the emperor's power is the <a href="/wiki/Lex_de_imperio_Vespasiani" title="Lex de imperio Vespasiani">Lex de imperio Vespasiani</a>, written shortly after <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>'s formal accession in December 69. The text, of which only the second part survives, states that Vespasian is allowed to: make treaties; hold sessions and propose motions to the Senate; hold extraordinary sessions with legislative power; endorse candidates in elections; expand the <a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a>; and use <a href="/wiki/Discretionary_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Discretionary power">discretionary power</a> whenever necessary. The text further states that he is "not bound by laws", and that any previous act was <a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law" title="Ex post facto law">retroactively</a> considered legitimate.<a href="#cite_note-KaiusTuori-33">[30]</a> There is no mention of imperium nor tribunicia potestas, although these powers were probably given in the earlier clauses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESandys1921280-34">[31]</a> There is also no mention of any "imperial office", and the title of "emperor" is never used. The imperial titles are treated as inseparable of the person, which is reflected in the name Imperator Caesar <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasianus</a> Augustus. This Lex sometimes related to the <a href="/wiki/Lex_regia_(imperial)" title="Lex regia (imperial)">Lex regia</a> ("royal law") mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> of Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (r. 527–565), who cites the early 3rd-century writer <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a>. This was probably a later construct, as its very name, which derives from <a href="/wiki/Rex_(title)" title="Rex (title)">rex</a> ("king"), would have been utterly rejected in the West.<a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a> The Eastern Greek-speaking half of the Empire had always regarded the emperors as open monarchs (<a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileis</a>), and called them as such.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury201215–16-36">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wif-37">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Succession_and_legitimacy">Succession and legitimacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Succession and legitimacy">edit</a>]</div> The weakest point of the Augustan institution was its lack of a clear succession system.<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a> Formally announcing a successor would have revealed Augustus as a monarch, so he and subsequent emperors opted to adopt their best candidates as their sons and heirs. <a href="/wiki/Primogeniture" title="Primogeniture">Primogeniture</a> was not relevant in the early Empire, although emperors still attempted to maintain a familiar connection between them; <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, for example, married <a href="/wiki/Julia_the_Elder" title="Julia the Elder">Julia the Elder</a>, making him <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>' son-in-law. <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>, who took power after the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> and the tumultuous <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the Four Emperors</a>, was the first emperor to openly declare his sons, <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a>, as his sole heirs, giving them the title of <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">caesar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a> still exercised some power during this period, as evidenced by his decision to declare <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> a "public enemy",<a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a> and did influence in the succession of emperors. Following the murder of Domitian in AD 96, the Senate declared <a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a>, one of their own, as the new emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETellegen-Couperus200276-41">[38]</a> His "dynasty", the <a href="/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty" title="Nerva–Antonine dynasty">Antonine</a>, continued the adoptive system until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (r. 161–180). Marcus was the first emperor to rule alongside other emperors, first with his adoptive brother <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a>, who succeeded jointly with him, and later with his son <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>, who was proclaimed co-<a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">augustus</a> in 177.<a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[d]</a> Despite being the son of a previous emperor and having nominally shared government with him, Commodus' rule ended with his murder at the hands of his own soldiers. From his death in 192 until the 5th century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. During this period, very few emperors died of natural causes.<a href="#cite_note-NathanSmolin-45">[41]</a> Such problems persisted in the later Eastern Empire, where emperors had to often appoint co-emperors to secure the throne. Despite often working as a hereditary monarchy, there was no law or single principle of succession.<a href="#cite_note-46">[42]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dedicatory_inscription_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Dedicatory_inscription_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/282px-Dedicatory_inscription_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg" decoding="async" width="282" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Dedicatory_inscription_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/423px-Dedicatory_inscription_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Dedicatory_inscription_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg/564px-Dedicatory_inscription_Ostia_Antica_2006-09-08.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2220" data-file-height="1585" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> inscription dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ostia_Antica" title="Ostia Antica">Ostia Antica</a>, AD 196.<a href="#cite_note-47">[e]</a></figcaption></figure> Individuals who claimed imperial power "illegally" are referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">usurpers</a>" in modern scholarship. Ancient historians refer to these rival emperors as "<a href="/wiki/Tyrant" title="Tyrant">tyrants</a>". In reality, there was no distinction between emperors and usurpers, as many emperors started as rebels and were retroactively recognized as legitimate. The <a href="/wiki/Lex_de_imperio_Vespasiani" title="Lex de imperio Vespasiani">Lex de imperio Vespasiani</a> explicitly states that all of Vespasian's actions are considered legal even if they happened before his recognition by the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-KaiusTuori-33">[30]</a> Ultimately, "legitimacy was a post factum phenomenon."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcEvoy201336–41-48">[43]</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a> famously argued that "here has probably never been a regime in which the notion of legitimacy is as absent as that of the Augustan principate".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmissi201833–34-49">[44]</a> Imperial propaganda was often used to legitimize or de-legitimize certain emperors. The <a href="/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale" title="Chronicon Paschale">Chronicon Paschale</a>, for example, describes <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> as having been killed like "those who had briefly been usurpers before him".<a href="#cite_note-cp-50">[45]</a> In reality, Licinius was the legitimate emperor of the West (having been appointed by <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a>), while Constantine was the real "usurper" (having been proclaimed by his troops).<a href="#cite_note-51">[46]</a> There were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Roman army</a>, which was really the true basis of imperial power. Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as support of the army, blood connections (sometimes fictitious) to past emperors, distributing one's own coins or statues, and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors.<a href="#cite_note-NathanSmolin-45">[41]</a> <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> notably declared himself as the adoptive son of the long-deceased <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a>, hence why he named <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> after him.<a href="#cite_note-52">[47]</a> Later Eastern imperial dynasties, such as the <a href="/wiki/Doukai" class="mw-redirect" title="Doukai">Doukai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palaiologoi" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaiologoi">Palaiologoi</a>, claimed descent from <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[48]</a> What turns a "usurper" into a "legitimate" emperor is typically that they managed to gain the recognition of a more senior, legitimate, emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power.<a href="#cite_note-LiesbethClaes-54">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmissi201817ff-55">[50]</a> Modern historiography has not yet defined clear legitimacy criteria for emperors, resulting in some emperors being included or excluded from different lists. The year 193 has traditionally been called the "<a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of the Five Emperors</a>", but modern scholarship now identifies <a href="/wiki/Clodius_Albinus" title="Clodius Albinus">Clodius Albinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pescennius_Niger" title="Pescennius Niger">Pescennius Niger</a> as usurpers because they were not recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[51]</a> Recognition by the Senate is often used to determine the legitimacy of an emperor,<a href="#cite_note-LiesbethClaes-54">[49]</a> but this criterion is not always followed. <a href="/wiki/Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a> is sometimes called an usurper because he did not have the recognition of <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-MichaelKulikowski-57">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[53]</a> but he held Rome for several years, and thus had the recognition of the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmissi2018131-59">[54]</a> Other "usurpers" controlled, if briefly, the city of Rome, such as <a href="/wiki/Nepotianus" title="Nepotianus">Nepotianus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priscus_Attalus" title="Priscus Attalus">Priscus Attalus</a>. In the East, the possession of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> was the essential element of legitimacy,<a href="#cite_note-60">[55]</a> yet some figures such as <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> are treated as usurpers. Rival emperors who later gained recognition are not always considered legitimate either; <a href="/wiki/Vetranio" title="Vetranio">Vetranio</a> had the formal recognition by <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> yet he is still often regarded as a usurper,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmissi2018185–186-61">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-HughElton-62">[57]</a> similarly to <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a>, who was briefly recognized by <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-HughElton-62">[57]</a> Western emperors such as <a href="/wiki/Magnentius" title="Magnentius">Magnentius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eugenius" title="Eugenius">Eugenius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a> are sometimes called usurpers,<a href="#cite_note-MichaelKulikowski-57">[52]</a> but <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> is traditionally regarded as the last Western emperor, despite never receiving the recognition of the Eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_developments">Later developments</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Later developments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg/220px-Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg/330px-Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg/440px-Statua_di_Costantino_ai_musei_capitolini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3786" data-file-height="5422" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Colossus_of_Constantine" title="Colossus of Constantine">Colossus of Constantine</a>. Portraits after the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a> stopped including realistic features, as the emperor began to be seen as a symbol rather than an individual.<a href="#cite_note-63">[58]</a></figcaption></figure> The period after the <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> is known as the <a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a>, derived from the title dominus ("lord") adopted by <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>. During his rule, the emperor became an absolute ruler and the regime became even more monarchical.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201454-64">[59]</a> The emperors adopted the <a href="/wiki/Diadem" title="Diadem">diadem</a> crown as their supreme symbol of power, abandoning the subtleties of the early Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury201210-65">[60]</a> Beginning in the late 2nd century, the Empire began to suffer a series of political and economic crises, partially because it had overexpanded so much.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201454-64">[59]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a> ("Roman peace") is often said to have ended with the tyrannical reign of Commodus. His murder was followed by the accession of <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, the victor of the <a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of the Five Emperors</a>. It was during his reign that the role of the army grew even more, and the emperors' power increasingly depended on it.<a href="#cite_note-66">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-PatSouthern-67">[62]</a> The murder of his last relative, <a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a>, led to the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a> (235–285), a 50-year period that almost saw the end of the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMousourakis201420-68">[63]</a> The last vestiges of Republicanism were lost in the ensuing anarchy. In 238, the Senate attempted to regain power by proclaiming <a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a> as their own emperors (the first time since <a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a>).<a href="#cite_note-69">[64]</a> They managed to usurp power from <a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus Thrax</a>, but they were killed within two months. With the rise of the "soldier emperors", the city and Senate of Rome began to lose importance. Maximinus and <a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a>, for example, did not even set foot on the city.<a href="#cite_note-PatSouthern-67">[62]</a> Carus' successors <a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a>, the last of the Crisis emperors, did not bother to assume the tribunicia potestas either.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETellegen-Couperus200277-70">[65]</a> After reuniting the Roman Empire in 285, <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> began a series of reforms to restore stability. Reaching back to the oldest traditions of job-sharing in the Republic, Diocletian established at the top of this new structure the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a> ("rule of four") in an attempt to provide for smoother succession and greater continuity of government. Under the Tetrarchy, Diocletian set in place a system of two emperors (augusti) and two subordinates that also served as heirs (caesares). When an emperor retired (as Diocletian and <a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a> did in 305) or died, his caesar would succeed him and in turn appoint a new caesar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201753-71">[66]</a> Each pair ruled over a half of the Empire, which led to the creation of a <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>, a division that eventually became permanent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDigeser200026-72">[67]</a> This division had already a precedent in the joint rule of <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a>/<a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDigeser200025-73">[68]</a> Diocletian justified his rule not by military power, but by claiming <a href="/wiki/Divine_right_of_kings" title="Divine right of kings">divine right</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDigeser200026-72">[67]</a> He imitated Oriental divine kingship and encouraged the reverence of the emperor, making anything related to him sacer (sacred).<a href="#cite_note-74">[69]</a> He declared himself Jovius, the son of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a>, and his partner Maximian was declared Herculius, son of <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDigeser200027–30-75">[70]</a> This divine claim was maintained after the rise of Christianity, as emperors regarded themselves as the chosen rulers of God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201454-64">[59]</a> The emperor no longer needed the Senate to ratify his powers, so he became the sole source of law. These new laws were no longer shared publicly and were often given directly to the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefects</a> – originally the emperor's bodyguard, but now the head of the new <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefecture" title="Praetorian prefecture">praetorian prefectures</a> – or with private officials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201756-76">[71]</a> The emperor's personal court and administration traveled alongside him, which further made the Senate's role redundant. Consuls continued to be appointed each year, but by this point, it was an office often occupied by the emperor himself,<a href="#cite_note-77">[f]</a> who now had complete control over the bureaucratic apparatus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201455-78">[72]</a> Diocletian did preserve some Republican traditions, such as the tribunicia potestas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESandys1921231-79">[73]</a> The last known emperor to have used it was <a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a>, at the start of the 6th century. Anastasius was also the last attested emperor to use the traditional titles of <a href="/wiki/Proconsul" title="Proconsul">proconsul</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pater_patriae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pater patriae">pater patriae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHekster202242-80">[74]</a> The last attested emperor to use the title of consul was <a href="/wiki/Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a>, who was also the last Eastern emperor to visit Rome.<a href="#cite_note-81">[75]</a> It's possible that later emperors also used it as an honorary title, as the office of consul was not <a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika">abolished</a> until 892, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[76]</a> During the Dominate it became increasingly common for emperors to raise their children directly to augustus (emperor) instead of caesar (heir), probably because of the failure of the Tetrarchy. This practice had first been applied by <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, who proclaimed his 10-year-old son <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a> as augustus. He was followed by <a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a>, who did the same with his 9-year-old son <a href="/wiki/Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a>, and several other emperors during the Crisis. This became even more common from the 4th century onwards. <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a> was proclaimed emperor at the age of 8, and his co-ruler and successor <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a> was proclaimed emperor at the age of 4.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcEvoy20131–8-83">[77]</a> Many child emperors such as <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_(Roman_emperor)" title="Philip II (Roman emperor)">Philip II</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a> never succeeded their fathers. These co-emperors all had the same honors as their senior counterpart, but they did not share the actual government, hence why junior co-emperors are usually not counted as real emperors by modern or ancient historians. There was no title to denote the "junior" emperor; writers used the vague terms of "second" or "little emperor".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury20125–6-84">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[g]</a> Despite having a successful reign himself, Diocletian's tetrarchic system <a href="/wiki/Civil_wars_of_the_Tetrarchy" title="Civil wars of the Tetrarchy">collapsed</a> as soon as he retired in 305. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a>, the son of tetrarch <a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius I</a>, reunited the empire in 324 and imposed the principle of hereditary succession which Diocletian intended to avoid.<a href="#cite_note-86">[79]</a> Constantine was also the first emperor to convert to <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>, and emperors after him, especially after its officialization under <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>, saw themselves as the protectors of the Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201762-87">[80]</a> The territorial divisions of the Tetrarchy were maintained, and for most of the following century the Empire was ruled by two senior emperors, one in the West (with <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a> as capital) and another in the East (with <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> as capital).<a href="#cite_note-88">[h]</a> This division became permanent on the death of <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> in 395, when he was succeeded by his sons <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201761-89">[81]</a> The two halves of the Empire, while later functioning as de facto separate entities, were always considered and seen, legally and politically, as separate administrative divisions of a single, insoluble state by the Romans of the time.<a href="#cite_note-90">[82]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:372px;max-width:372px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:191px;max-width:191px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:178px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:RomulusAugustus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/RomulusAugustus.jpg/189px-RomulusAugustus.jpg" decoding="async" width="189" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/RomulusAugustus.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="236" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:177px;max-width:177px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:178px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Julius_Nepos_Tremissis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Julius_Nepos_Tremissis.jpg/175px-Julius_Nepos_Tremissis.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6b/Julius_Nepos_Tremissis.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="255" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Roman_coins" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman coins">Roman coins</a> (<a href="/wiki/Solidus_(coin)" title="Solidus (coin)">tremissis</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>, the last emperors of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>.</div></div></div></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">West</a>, the office of emperor soon degenerated into being little more than a puppet of Germanic <a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">generals</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Aetius_(magister_militum)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aetius (magister militum)">Aetius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ricimer" title="Ricimer">Ricimer</a>; the last emperors of the West being known as the "shadow emperor".<a href="#cite_note-91">[83]</a> In 476, the <a href="/wiki/Heruli" title="Heruli">Heruli</a> <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> overthrew the child-emperor <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a>, made himself <a href="/wiki/King_of_Italy" title="King of Italy">king of Italy</a> and shipped the imperial regalia to the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Zeno" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Zeno">Emperor Zeno</a> in Constantinople. Historians mark this date as the date of the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, although by this time there was no longer any "Empire" left, as its territory had reduced to Italy. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a>, who was overthrown and expelled to <a href="/wiki/Dalmatia" title="Dalmatia">Dalmatia</a> in favor of Romulus, continued to claim the title until his murder in 480. The Eastern court recognized this claim and Odoacer minted coins in his name, although he never managed to exercise real power.<a href="#cite_note-92">[84]</a> The death of Nepos left <a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a> as the sole emperor of a (technically) reunited Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2012408-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_period">Byzantine period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Byzantine period">edit</a>]</div> The Roman Empire survived in the East for another 1000 years, but the marginalization of the former heartland of Italy to the empire had a profound cultural impact on the empire and its emperor, which adopted a more <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> character.<a href="#cite_note-96">[i]</a> The Eastern emperors continued to be recognized in the <a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Western kingdoms</a> until the accession of <a href="/wiki/Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene</a> (r. 797–802), the first <a href="/wiki/Queen_regnant" title="Queen regnant">empress regnant</a>. The Italian heartland was recovered during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (r. 527–565), but this was reverted by the end of the century. Rome technically remained <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Ravenna" title="Exarchate of Ravenna">under imperial control</a>, but was completely surrounded by the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a>. Africa was <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">lost to the Arabs</a> in the early 7th century, and Rome eventually fell to the Lombards in 751, during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a>. The Frankish king <a href="/wiki/Pepin_the_Short" title="Pepin the Short">Pepin the Short</a> defeated them and received the favour of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Stephen_II" title="Pope Stephen II">Pope Stephen II</a>, who became the head of the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a>. Pepin's son, <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, was crowned <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Imperator Romanorum</a> (the first time Imperator was used as an actual regnal title) by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a> in Christmas AD 800, thus ending the recognition of the Eastern emperor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991413-97">[88]</a> Western rulers also began referring to the Empire as the "Greek Empire", regarding themselves as the true successors of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-98">[89]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG/220px-Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="302" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG/330px-Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG/440px-Manuel_II_Helena_sons.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1121" data-file-height="1541" /></a><figcaption>Miniature depicting <a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II Palaiologos</a> and his family, 1404.<a href="#cite_note-100">[j]</a></figcaption></figure> The inhabitants of the Eastern half of the Empire always saw the emperor as an open monarch. Starting with <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> in 629, Roman emperors styled themselves "<a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a>", the traditional title for Greek monarchs used since the times of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[91]</a> The title was used since the early days of the Empire and became the common imperial title by the 3rd century, but did not appear in official documents until the 7th century.<a href="#cite_note-102">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michael_I_Rangabe" title="Michael I Rangabe">Michael I Rangabe</a> (r. 811–813) was the first emperor to actually use the title of "Roman emperor" (βασιλεύς Ῥωμαίων, Basileus Romaíon). This was a response to the new line of emperors created by Charlemagne – although he was recognized as basileus of the <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991264-103">[93]</a> By the 9th century the full imperial title became "basileus and <a href="/wiki/Autokrator" title="Autokrator">autokrator</a> of the Romans", usually translated as "Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991235-104">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[k]</a> The title autokrator was also used to distinguish a junior co-emperor (basileus) from his senior colleague (basileus autokrator).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991235-104">[94]</a> By the times of the <a href="/wiki/Palaiologos" title="Palaiologos">Palaiologos</a>, there were two distinct ceremonies for the accession of an emperor: first an acclamation as basileus, and later a <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Byzantine_emperor" title="Coronation of the Byzantine emperor">coronation</a> as autokrator (which also included being raised on a shield). These rites could happen years apart.<a href="#cite_note-RuthMacrides-107">[96]</a> The Eastern Empire became not only an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">absolute monarchy</a> but also a <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocracy</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/George_Ostrogorsky" title="George Ostrogorsky">George Ostrogorsky</a>, "the absolute power of the Roman emperor was further increased with the advent of Christian ideas".<a href="#cite_note-GeorgeOstrogorsky-108">[97]</a> This became more evident after the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a> of the 7th century, which gave Byzantine imperialism a new sense of purpose.<a href="#cite_note-109">[98]</a> The emperor was the subject of a series of rites and ceremonies, including a <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Byzantine_emperor" title="Coronation of the Byzantine emperor">formal coronation</a> performed by the <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Constantinople" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarch of Constantinople">Patriarch of Constantinople</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GeorgeOstrogorsky-108">[97]</a> The Byzantine state is often said to have followed a "<a href="/wiki/Caesaropapism" title="Caesaropapism">Caesaropapist</a>" model, where the emperor played the role of ruler and head of the Church, but there was often a clear distinction between political and secular power.<a href="#cite_note-110">[99]</a> The line of Eastern emperors continued uninterrupted until the <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople" title="Sack of Constantinople">sack of Constantinople</a> and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a> in 1204. This led to the creation of three lines of emperors in exile: the <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">emperors of Nicaea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Trapezuntine_emperors" title="List of Trapezuntine emperors">emperors of Trebizond</a>, and the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">emperors of Thessalonica</a>. The Nicean rulers have been traditionally regarded as the "legitimate" emperors of this period, as they recovered Constantinople and restored the Empire in 1261.<a href="#cite_note-111">[l]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a> continued to exist for another 200 years, but from 1282 onwards its rulers used the modified title of "Emperor and Autocrat of all the East, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia" title="Kingdom of Iberia">the Iberians</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Perateia" title="Perateia">Perateia</a>", accepting the Niceans as the sole Roman emperors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan19911047-112">[100]</a> However, the Byzantine Empire had been reduced mostly to Constantinople, and the rise of other powers such as <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a> forced the Byzantines to recognize their rulers as basileus. Despite this, emperors continued to view themselves as the rulers of an "universal empire".<a href="#cite_note-GeorgeOstrogorsky-108">[97]</a> During the last decades of the Empire, power was once again shared between multiple emperors and colleagues, each ruling from their own capital, notably during the long reign of <a href="/wiki/John_V_Palaiologos" title="John V Palaiologos">John V</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ElizabethJeffreys-113">[101]</a> Constantinople finally <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fell to the Ottoman Turks</a> in 1453; its last emperor, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a>, dying in battle. The last vestiges of the empire, <a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Trebizond" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of Trebizond">Trebizond</a>, fell in 1461.<a href="#cite_note-ElizabethJeffreys-113">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Titles">Titles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Titles">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Imperator">Imperator</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Imperator">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:194px;max-width:194px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Denarius_portrait_of_Julius_Caesar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Denarius_portrait_of_Julius_Caesar.jpg/190px-Denarius_portrait_of_Julius_Caesar.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Denarius_portrait_of_Julius_Caesar.jpg/285px-Denarius_portrait_of_Julius_Caesar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Denarius_portrait_of_Julius_Caesar.jpg/380px-Denarius_portrait_of_Julius_Caesar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2102" data-file-height="2119" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a> of Julius Caesar marked <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>caesar imp(erator)</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:192px;max-width:192px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:INC-2056-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD._%D0%9E%D0%BA._75%E2%80%9479_%D0%B3%D0%B3._(%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/INC-2056-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD._%D0%9E%D0%BA._75%E2%80%9479_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/190px-INC-2056-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD._%D0%9E%D0%BA._75%E2%80%9479_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png" decoding="async" width="190" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/INC-2056-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD._%D0%9E%D0%BA._75%E2%80%9479_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/285px-INC-2056-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD._%D0%9E%D0%BA._75%E2%80%9479_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/INC-2056-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD._%D0%9E%D0%BA._75%E2%80%9479_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/380px-INC-2056-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD._%D0%9E%D0%BA._75%E2%80%9479_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="509" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Aureus" title="Aureus">Aureus</a> of <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a> marked <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">imp(erator) caesar vespasianus aug(ustus)</div></div></div></div></div> The title imperator – from imperare, "to command" – dates back to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> and was given to victorious commanders by their soldiers. They held <a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>, that is, military authority. The Senate could then award the extraordinary honor of a <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumph</a>; the commander then retained the title until the end of his <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistracy</a>. In Roman tradition, the first triumph was that of <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>, the founder of Rome, but the first attested use of imperator was in 189 BC, on the triumph of <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Aemilius_Paullus_Macedonicus" title="Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus">Aemilius Paulus</a>. It was a title held with great pride: <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> was hailed imperator more than once, as was <a href="/wiki/Sulla" title="Sulla">Sulla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SimonHornblower-114">[102]</a> However, as noted by <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a>, the meaning of the title changed under the new monarchy, and came to denote "the possession of the supreme power".<a href="#cite_note-RussellFoster-115">[103]</a> Both Dio and <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> refer to Caesar as the first one to assume imperator as a proper name (a praenomen imperatoris), but this seems to be an <a href="/wiki/Anachronism" title="Anachronism">anachronism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESyme1958-116">[104]</a> The last ordinary general to be awarded the title was <a href="/wiki/Junius_Blaesus" title="Junius Blaesus">Junius Blaesus</a> in AD 22, after which it became a title reserved solely for the sovereign.<a href="#cite_note-SimonHornblower-114">[102]</a> Augustus used Imperator instead of his first name (<a href="/wiki/Praenomen" title="Praenomen">praenomen</a>), becoming Imperator Caesar instead of Caesar Imperator.<a href="#cite_note-SimonHornblower-114">[102]</a> From this the title slowly became a synonym of the office, hence the word "emperor". <a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> avoided using the title, but it is recorded that Caligula was hailed imperator by the Senate on his accession, indicating that it was already considered an integral part of the dignity.<a href="#cite_note-117">[105]</a> It was not until the late reign of <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, in AD 66, that imperator became once more part of the emperor's nomenclature.<a href="#cite_note-118">[106]</a> Virtually all emperors after him used the praenomen imperatoris, with only a few variations under his successors <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond1957-119">[107]</a> The original meaning of the title continued to be used for a time, with emperors registering the number of times they were hailed imperator.<a href="#cite_note-RussellFoster-115">[103]</a> The title became the main appellation of the ruler by the time of <a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-SimonHornblower-114">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Paterculus81-120">[108]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a>, emperors began to be addressed as dominus noster ("our Lord"), although imperator continued to be used. The appellation of dominus was known and rejected by Augustus, but ordinary men of the Empire used it regularly. It began to used in official context starting with <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a>, and was first officially adopted in coinage by <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenidge1901352–355-121">[109]</a> In the East, imperator was translated as <a href="/wiki/Autokrator" title="Autokrator">autokrator</a> ("self-ruler"), a title that continued to be used until the end of the Empire. This is the modern Greek word for "emperor" (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B1%CF%85%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:αυτοκράτορας">υτοκράτορας</a>). There are still some instances of imperator in official documents as late as the 9th century. Its last known use was on 866–867 coins of <a href="/wiki/Michael_III" title="Michael III">Michael III</a> and his co-emperor <a href="/wiki/Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a>, who are addressed as imperator and rex respectively.<a href="#cite_note-122">[110]</a> In the West, imperator was transformed into a monarchical title by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>, becoming the official Latin title of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caesar">Caesar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Caesar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar (title)</a></div> Originally the <a href="/wiki/Cognomen" title="Cognomen">cognomen</a> (third name) of the dictator <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Gaius Julius Caesar</a>, which was then inherited by Augustus and his relatives. Augustus used it as a family name (<a href="/wiki/Nomen_gentilicium" title="Nomen gentilicium">nomen</a>), styling himself as Imp. Caesar instead of Imp. Julius Caesar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESyme1958-116">[104]</a> However, the nomen was still inherited by women (such as <a href="/wiki/Julia_the_Younger" title="Julia the Younger">Julia the Younger</a>) and appear in some inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-123">[111]</a> After the death of <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a>, Augustus' great-grandson, his uncle <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> was proclaimed emperor. He was not an official member of the <a href="/wiki/Julia_gens" title="Julia gens">Julia gens</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewenstein1973349-124">[112]</a> but he was the grandson of <a href="/wiki/Octavia_the_Younger" title="Octavia the Younger">Octavia</a>, Augustus' sister, and thus still part of the family.<a href="#cite_note-125">[113]</a> Following the suicide of Nero, the last descendant of Caesar, the new emperor <a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a> adopted the name of Servius Galba Caesar Augustus, thus making it part of the imperial title. Five days before his murder he adopted <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Calpurnius_Piso_Frugi_Licinianus" title="Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus">Piso Licinianus</a> as his son and heir, renaming him as Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar.<a href="#cite_note-126">[114]</a> After this Caesar came to denote the heir apparent, who would add the name to his own as heir and retain it upon accession as augustus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenidge1901352–355-121">[109]</a> The only emperor not to assume it was <a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a>, who adopted the name Germanicus instead. Most emperors used it as their nomen – with Imperator as their praenomen – until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a>, when it permanently became part of the formula Imperator Caesar [full name] Augustus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond1957-119">[107]</a> In the 3rd century, caesars also received the honorific of <a href="/wiki/Nobilissimus" title="Nobilissimus">nobilissimus</a> ("most noble"), which later evolved into a separate title.<a href="#cite_note-127">[115]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:INC-3055-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9_II._%D0%9E%D0%BA._355%E2%80%94361_%D0%B3%D0%B3._(%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/INC-3055-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9_II._%D0%9E%D0%BA._355%E2%80%94361_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/200px-INC-3055-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9_II._%D0%9E%D0%BA._355%E2%80%94361_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/INC-3055-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9_II._%D0%9E%D0%BA._355%E2%80%94361_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/300px-INC-3055-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9_II._%D0%9E%D0%BA._355%E2%80%94361_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/INC-3055-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9_II._%D0%9E%D0%BA._355%E2%80%94361_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png/400px-INC-3055-a_%D0%90%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%83%D1%81._%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9_II._%D0%9E%D0%BA._355%E2%80%94361_%D0%B3%D0%B3._%28%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%29.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="503" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> marked: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">d(ominus) n(oster) constantius p(ius) f(elix) aug(ustus)</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a> the powers of the caesar increased considerably, but following the accession of <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> it once more remained as a title for heirs with no significant power attached to it. The title slowly lost importance in the following decades, as emperors started to promote their sons directly to augustus. In the East, the title finally lost its imperial character in 705, when <a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> awarded it to <a href="/wiki/Tervel_of_Bulgaria" title="Tervel of Bulgaria">Tervel of Bulgaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[m]</a> After this it became a court title bestowed to prominent figures of the government, and lost even more relevance after the creation of the title <a href="/wiki/Sebastokrator" title="Sebastokrator">sebastokrator</a> by <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991363-129">[116]</a> Despite this, its regular use by earlier emperors led to the name becoming synonym with "emperor" in certain regions. Several countries use Caesar as the origin of their word for "emperor", like <a href="/wiki/Kaiser" title="Kaiser">Kaiser</a> in <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">Tsar</a> in <a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">Bulgaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a>, emperors followed Imperator Caesar with <a href="/wiki/Flavius" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavius">Flavius</a>, which also began as a family name but was later incorporated into the emperor's titles, thus becoming Imperator Caesar Flavius.<a href="#cite_note-130">[117]</a> The last use of the formula, rendered as Autokrator Kaisar Flabios... Augoustos (Αὐτοκράτωρ καῖσαρ Φλάβιος αὐγουστος) in Greek, is in the <a href="/wiki/Basilika" title="Basilika">Basilika</a> of <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI the Wise</a> (r. 886–912).<a href="#cite_note-131">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Augustus">Augustus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Augustus">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus (title)</a></div> Originally the main title of the emperor.<a href="#cite_note-132">[119]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, it was "not merely a new title but a more honorable one, inasmuch as sacred places too, and those in which anything is consecrated by augural rites are called "august" (augusta), from the increase (auctus) in dignity". It was also connected to the religious practice of <a href="/wiki/Augury" title="Augury">augury</a>, which was itself linked to Rome's founding by <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>, and to <a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">auctoritas</a>, the authority based on prestige.<a href="#cite_note-133">[120]</a> The honorific was awarded as both a name and a title to Octavian in 27 BC and was inherited by all subsequent emperors, who placed it after their personal names. The only emperor to not immediately assume it was <a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a>, although he did use it after his recognition by the Senate.<a href="#cite_note-134">[121]</a> Later emperors ruled alongside one or several junior augusti who held <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> (but not <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a>) equal constitutional power.<a href="#cite_note-135">[n]</a> Despite its use as the highest imperial title, it was generally not used to indicate the office of Emperor itself, as ordinary people and writers had become accustomed to Imperator. In the East the title was initially translated as <a href="/wiki/Sebastos" title="Sebastos">Sebastos</a>, but the form Augoustos eventually became more common. Emperors after <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> styled themselves as <a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">Basileus</a>, but Augoustos still remained in use in a lesser form up until the end of the Empire. In the West, the title was also used by Charlemagne and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors as part of the formula Imperator Augustus. Both Eastern and Western rulers also used the style semper augustus ("forever augustus").<a href="#cite_note-136">[122]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Princeps">Princeps</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Princeps">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">Princeps</a></div> The word princeps, meaning "first", was a republican term used to denote the leading member of the Senate, and it was used by the early emperors to emphasize the continuance of the Republic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenidge1901352–355-121">[109]</a> The title had already been used by <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, among others. It was a purely honorific title with no attached duties or powers, hence why it was never used in official titulature.<a href="#cite_note-137">[123]</a> The title was the most preferred by Augustus as its use implies only "primacy" (is in the "<a href="/wiki/First_among_equals" class="mw-redirect" title="First among equals">first among equals</a>"), as opposed to dominus, which implies dominance. It was the title used by early writers before the term imperator became popular.<a href="#cite_note-Paterculus81-120">[108]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Res_Gestae_Divi_Augusti" title="Res Gestae Divi Augusti">Res Gestae</a>, Augustus explicitly refers to himself as the <a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">princeps senatus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[124]</a> The title was also sometimes given to heirs, in the form of <a href="/wiki/Princeps_iuventutis" class="mw-redirect" title="Princeps iuventutis">princeps iuventutis</a> ("first of the youth"), a term that continued to be used during the <a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[125]</a> In the era of Diocletian and beyond, princeps fell into disuse and was replaced with dominus ("lord");<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2010443-140">[126]</a> the use of princeps and dominus broadly symbolizes the differences in the empire's government, giving rise to the era designations <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a>. The title is still found in some later sources, however. The poet <a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a>, for example, describes <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> as having been raised from "caesar" to "princeps" (instead of augustus).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHekster202242-80">[74]</a> The title survived the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, as it was used by rulers such as <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric the Great</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Solidus_of_Leo_VI_(reverse).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Solidus_of_Leo_VI_%28reverse%29.jpg/220px-Solidus_of_Leo_VI_%28reverse%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Solidus_of_Leo_VI_%28reverse%29.jpg/330px-Solidus_of_Leo_VI_%28reverse%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Solidus_of_Leo_VI_%28reverse%29.jpg/440px-Solidus_of_Leo_VI_%28reverse%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1210" data-file-height="1151" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI</a> (r. 886–912) marked: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">leon en cristo basileus romaeon</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basileus_/_autokrator">Basileus / autokrator</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Basileus / autokrator">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">Basileus</a></div> Basileus was the traditional Greek title for monarchs. It was first used by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> (r. 336–323 BC) during his conquests.<a href="#cite_note-141">[127]</a> The term was applied to emperors unofficially since the beginning of the Empire,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury201215–16-36">[33]</a> but in official records it was often used as the Greek translation of the title <a href="/wiki/Rex_(title)" title="Rex (title)">rex</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Autokrator" title="Autokrator">autokrator</a> (the Greek equivalent to <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a>) reserved for the emperor. As a result, Western writers often associated basileus with "king" as opposed to "emperor", despite this distinction not existing in Greek.<a href="#cite_note-142">[128]</a> Basileus was first officially used by <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> in 629, after his <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">victory over the Persians</a>, and it became the main title of the emperor afterward. After the 9th century, the full imperial title became "basileus and autokrator of the Romans" (βασιλεύς καὶ αὐτοκράτωρ Ῥωμαίων), with autokrator distinguishing the senior emperor of the junior basileus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991235-104">[94]</a> In later centuries, the title was shortened simply as "autokrator of the Romans", resulting in a revival of that title.<a href="#cite_note-143">[129]</a> In later centuries, an emperor would typically be acclaimed as basileus as an infant and then <a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_the_Byzantine_emperor" title="Coronation of the Byzantine emperor">crowned by the Patriarch</a> as autokrator.<a href="#cite_note-RuthMacrides-107">[96]</a> Foreign rulers were usually referred to as reges (a Greek rendition of rex), but the Eastern emperors were eventually forced to recognize other monarchs as basileus, mainly the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Emperor" title="Latin Emperor">Latin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-144">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian_monarchs" title="List of Serbian monarchs">Serbian</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_monarchs" title="List of Bulgarian monarchs">Bulgarian emperors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991235-104">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_assertions_to_the_title">Later assertions to the title</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Later assertions to the title">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Succession_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Succession of the Roman Empire">Succession of the Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Succession_to_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Succession to the Byzantine Empire">Succession to the Byzantine Empire</a></div>Despite overthrowing Roman rule, <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a> never claimed the imperial dignity. His successor <a href="/wiki/Theodoric_the_Great" title="Theodoric the Great">Theodoric the Great</a> is sometimes said to have been an emperor in all but name, despite using the title of <a href="/wiki/Rex_(title)" title="Rex (title)">rex</a> and recognizing the emperor in Constantinople. He also used the ancient title of <a href="/wiki/Princeps" title="Princeps">princeps</a> (in full, princeps Romanus) and dominus noster, actively trying to imitate the old emperors.<a href="#cite_note-146">[o]</a><a href="#cite_note-pat-145">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[132]</a> He even requested and received the <a href="/wiki/Regalia" title="Regalia">regalia</a> sent to Constantinople by Odoacer, although it appears that he only requested the purple robes and not the imperial crown nor scepter.<a href="#cite_note-148">[133]</a> The rebels <a href="/wiki/Burdunellus" title="Burdunellus">Burdunellus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_(usurper)" title="Peter (usurper)">Peter</a>, both active shortly after the fall of the West, are referred to as "tyrants" in sources. This may imply that they claimed the imperial indignity, although there is almost no information available for these rebellions.<a href="#cite_note-149">[134]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berber</a> governor <a href="/wiki/Masties" title="Masties">Masties</a> assumed the title of imperator shortly after 476, claiming to rule over the "Romans and Maurians."<a href="#cite_note-150">[135]</a> The last attempt to restore the office of emperor in the West was during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Ravenna_(539%E2%80%93540)" title="Siege of Ravenna (539–540)">Siege of Ravenna (539–540)</a>, when the Goths offered <a href="/wiki/Belisarius" title="Belisarius">Belisarius</a> the throne, which he refused.<a href="#cite_note-151">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Number_of_emperors">Number of emperors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Number of emperors">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:07_constantius2Chrono354.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/07_constantius2Chrono354.png/229px-07_constantius2Chrono354.png" decoding="async" width="229" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/07_constantius2Chrono354.png/344px-07_constantius2Chrono354.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/07_constantius2Chrono354.png/458px-07_constantius2Chrono354.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="644" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> in <a href="/wiki/Filocalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Filocalus">Filocalus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Chronograph_of_354" title="Chronograph of 354">Chronograph of 354</a></figcaption></figure>Several ancient writers tried to count the number of Roman emperors through history, but each of them gives a different count. The 4th-century historian <a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Festus</a> states that "From <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Octavian Caesar Augustus</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a>, there were imperatores, 43 in number, through 407 years [reckoning from <a href="/wiki/43_BC" title="43 BC">43 BC</a>]".<a href="#cite_note-152">[137]</a> The 6th-century <a href="/wiki/Chronicon_Paschale" title="Chronicon Paschale">Chronicon Paschale</a> calls <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> the "33rd Roman emperor". Adding the eight other emperors mentioned in the work would give a total of 41 emperors up until <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cp-50">[45]</a> A few writers also attempted to make their own lists of emperors. The 4th-century calligrapher <a href="/wiki/Furius_Dionysius_Filocalus" title="Furius Dionysius Filocalus">Filocalus</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/Chronograph_of_354" title="Chronograph of 354">Chronographia</a>, records 58 emperors from Augustus to Constantine.<a href="#cite_note-153">[138]</a> His contemporary <a href="/wiki/Epiphanius_of_Salamis" title="Epiphanius of Salamis">Epiphanius</a> records 44 emperors in his work <a href="/wiki/On_Weights_and_Measures" title="On Weights and Measures">On Weights and Measures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[139]</a> The 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Chronicon_Altinate" title="Chronicon Altinate">Chronicon Altinate</a> records 46 emperors in the same time period.<a href="#cite_note-155">[140]</a> These discrepancies arise from the fact that there was never a defining distinction between "legitimate emperors" and "<a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">usurpers</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmissi20183–33-156">[141]</a> Other emperors had such uneventful or brief reigns that they are unmentioned by literary sources, like Licinius's co-emperors <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Valens" title="Valerius Valens">Valerius Valens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martinian_(emperor)" title="Martinian (emperor)">Martinian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">List of Roman emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_empresses" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman empresses">List of Roman empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_condemned_Roman_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of condemned Roman emperors">List of condemned Roman emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_imperial_victory_titles" title="List of Roman imperial victory titles">List of Roman imperial victory titles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Italian monarchs">List of Italian monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_usurpers" title="List of Roman usurpers">List of Roman usurpers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Roman_emperors" title="Family tree of Roman emperors">Family tree of Roman emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Roman imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">Roman usurper</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a> (<abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 475–476) is often regarded as the last Western emperor, his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a> continued to be recognized in the Eastern court as the legitimate ruler of the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2012408-1">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> The legend reads: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">spqr</a> imp(erator) caesari aug(ustus) co(n)s(ul) xi tri(bunicia) pot(estas) vi; meaning "consul for the 11th time, [wielder of the] tribunician power for the 6th time". </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> For a further discussion of the tribunicia potestas and the role of the Senate, see: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRowe2002" class="citation book cs1">Rowe, Greg (2002). Princes and Political Cultures: The New Tiberian Senatorial Decrees. University of Michigan Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XkcTaWGAgAAC&pg=PA41">41</a>-66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4721-1230-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4721-1230-2"><bdi>978-0-4721-1230-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Princes+and+Political+Cultures%3A+The+New+Tiberian+Senatorial+Decrees&rft.pages=41-66&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-4721-1230-2&rft.aulast=Rowe&rft.aufirst=Greg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> There was, however, much precedent. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consulate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a> was a twin magistracy, and earlier emperors had often had a subordinate lieutenant with many imperial offices. Many emperors had planned a joint succession in the past – <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> planned to leave <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Caesar" title="Gaius Caesar">Gaius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Caesar" title="Lucius Caesar">Lucius Caesar</a> as joint emperors on his death; Tiberius wished to have <a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Gemellus" title="Tiberius Gemellus">Tiberius Gemellus</a> do so as well; as <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> with <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Britannicus" title="Britannicus">Britannicus</a>. All of these arrangements had ended in failure, either through premature death (Gaius and Lucius) or murder (Gemellus and Britannicus).<a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> The text reads: IMP CAES DIVI MARCI ANTONINI PII FILIVS / DIVI COMMODI FRATER DIVI ANTONINI PII / NEPOS DIVI HADRIANI PRONEP DIVI TRAIANI / PARTHICI ABNEPOS DIVI NERVAE ADNEPOS / L SEPTIMIVS SEVERVS PIVS PERTINAX AVG / ARABICVS ADIABENICVS PP PONTIF MAX / TRIBVNIC POTEST IIII IMP VIII COS II ET / MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS CAESAR / DEDICAVERVNT. "Dedicated to Imperator Caesar, son of the divine <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Antoninus Pius</a>, brother of the divine <a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a>, grandson of the divine <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a>, great-grandson of the divine <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>, great-great grandson of the divine <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> <a href="/wiki/Parthicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Parthicus">conqueror of Parthia</a>, great-great-great-grandson of the divine <a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Septimius_Severus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Septimius Severus">Lucius Septimius Severus Pius Pertinax Augustus</a>, conqueror of Arabia and Adiabene, <a href="/wiki/Father_of_the_fatherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Father of the fatherland">father of the fatherland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">supreme priest</a>, having the <a href="/wiki/Tribunician_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribunician power">tribunician power</a> for the fourth time, <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a> for the eighth time, <a href="/wiki/Consul" title="Consul">consul</a> for the second time, and <a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Caesar</a>." </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Consuls still maintained some privileges during the later Empire, but at times it was only an honorary office. Some emperors gave the title to their children. For instance; <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a> assumed the consulate of 376 at the age of 5 and <a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a> did the same in 386 at the age of 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> A <a href="/wiki/File:The_concession_of_privileges_mosaic.jpg" title="File:The concession of privileges mosaic.jpg">mosaic in Italy</a> shows <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> (r. 668–686) alongside his co-emperors <a href="/wiki/Heraclius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Heraclius (son of Constans II)">Heralius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Tiberius (son of Constans II)">Tiberius</a>. Constantine is called maior imperator, Heraclius and Tiberius being only imperator. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Starting with <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, almost every other emperor ruled alongside an equal or junior co-emperor. The only two emperors of this period to rule over the entire Roman Empire for their entire reign were <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a>, both of which only ruled about a year. <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a>, who succeeded Jovian, immediately divided the empire between himself and his brother <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a>. After this the empire was again reunited by <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a>, but he died only a few months later. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> The Eastern Empire is often referred as the "<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>" (from <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a>, the original name of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>) in modern scholarship, although it was still technically the same state of Antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-93">[85]</a> Their Greek-speaking inhabitants were called <a href="/wiki/Romaioi" class="mw-redirect" title="Romaioi">Romaioi</a> (Ῥωμαῖοι), and were still considered Romans by themselves and the populations of Eastern Europe and the Near East, although they always had a more Greek-oriented culture because of the conquests of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> still used the term "<a href="/wiki/R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Rûm">Rûm</a>" (Rome) when referring to the Eastern Empire.<a href="#cite_note-94">[86]</a> After the fall of Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsardom of Russia</a> proclaimed <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a> as the "<a href="/wiki/Third_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Rome">Third Rome</a>", regarding Constantinople as the "Second Rome".<a href="#cite_note-95">[87]</a> The evolution of the church in the no-longer imperial city of Rome and the church in Constantinople also began to follow divergent paths, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/Schism_of_1054" class="mw-redirect" title="Schism of 1054">schism of 1054</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> faiths. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Manuel is referred as ΒΑCΙΛΕΥC ΚΑΙ ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΩΡ ΡΩΜΑΙΩΝ Ο ΠΑΛΑΙΟΛΟΓΟC ΚΑΙ ΑΕΙ ΑΥΓΟΥCΤΟC ("<a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autokrator" title="Autokrator">autokrator</a> of the Romans, Palaiologos, always <a href="/wiki/Augusta_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusta (title)">augoustos</a>"). His wife <a href="/wiki/Helena_Draga%C5%A1" title="Helena Dragaš">Helena Dragaš</a> is referred as ΑΥΓΟΥCΤΑ ΚΑΙ ΑΥΤΟΚΡΑΤΟΡΙCΑ ΡΩΜΑΙΩΝ Η ΠΑΛΑΙΟΛΟΓΙΝΑ ("<a href="/wiki/Augusta_(title)" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusta (title)">augusta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autokrator" title="Autokrator">autokratora</a> of the Romans, wise Palaiologina"); his son <a href="/wiki/John_VIII_Palaiologos" title="John VIII Palaiologos">John VIII</a> is called basileus, while <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_Palaiologos_(son_of_Manuel_II)" title="Andronikos Palaiologos (son of Manuel II)">Andronikos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodore_II_Palaiologos" title="Theodore II Palaiologos">Theodore</a> are called <a href="/wiki/Despotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Despotes">despotes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[90]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> A variation of the title was later adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Russia" title="Emperor of Russia">Russian emperors</a>, who styled themselves as "Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias".<a href="#cite_note-105">[95]</a> In Russian, the title employs the title <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a> (император) instead of the traditional <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">tsar</a> (царь), which had the same meaning. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> This is reflected in the <a href="/wiki/Regnal_number" title="Regnal number">numbering</a> used by scholars: <a href="/wiki/John_V_Palaiologos" title="John V Palaiologos">John V Palaiologos</a> is numbered after <a href="/wiki/John_III_Vatatzes" class="mw-redirect" title="John III Vatatzes">John III Vatatzes</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_IV_Laskaris" title="John IV Laskaris">John IV Laskaris</a>, both emperors of Nicaea, but the other rival emperors are treated as entirely new lines of succession. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Kaisar was originally a common way of referring to the emperor in the East. By the 6th-century, however, writers considered it to be a lower title than basileus.<a href="#cite_note-Wif-37">[34]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Initially the number of co-emperors was often no more than one. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> notably ruled alongside eight successive emperors of equal seniority (perhaps with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Valens" title="Valerius Valens">Valerius Valens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martinian_(emperor)" title="Martinian (emperor)">Martinain</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> There is one inscription (erected by a senator and not Theoderic himself) that calls him augustus, which may indicate that some of his subjects regarded him as an emperor. <a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a> refers to him as a "genuine emperor" (basileus) despite being "in name an usurper" (tyrannos).<a href="#cite_note-pat-145">[131]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2012408-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBury2012408_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBury2012408_1-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBury2012">Bury 2012</a>, p. 408. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201737-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatkin201737_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatkin2017">Watkin 2017</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGalinsky200513–14-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGalinsky200513–14_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGalinsky2005">Galinsky 2005</a>, pp. 13–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1997147-5"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilliams1997147_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilliams1997">Williams 1997</a>, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather200528-6"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHeather200528_6-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeather2005">Heather 2005</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes2009278–279-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes2009278–279_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarnes2009">Barnes 2009</a>, pp. 278–279. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes2009279–282-8"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes2009279–282_8-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarnes2009">Barnes 2009</a>, pp. 279–282. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, p. 285. "To describe him as the founder of the Empire is an error, for he bequeathed to Augustus rather warnings than examples"; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraven2019" class="citation book cs1">Craven, Maxwell (2019). The Imperial Families of Ancient Rome. Fonthill Media. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VEbCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT29">27</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Families+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Fonthill+Media&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Craven&rft.aufirst=Maxwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201733–37-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatkin201733–37_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatkin2017">Watkin 2017</a>, pp. 33–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowmanChamplinLintott1996">Bowman, Champlin & Lintott 1996</a>, pp. 76–87; <a href="#CITEREFEckTakács2007">Eck & Takács 2007</a>, pp. 50–58. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/sources/content/eutropius-short-history/eutropius-short-history-7/">Breviarium 7.8</a> "From that period he held the government as sole ruler for forty-four years, for during the twelve previous years he had held it in conjunction with Antony and Lepidus. Thus from the beginning of his reign to the end were fifty-six years." </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chronicon_(Jerome)" title="Chronicon (Jerome)">Chronichon</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_03_part2.htm">184th Olympiad</a>. "2nd [ruler] of the Romans, Octavianus Caesar Augustus reigned for 56 years and 6 months; from whom the kings <a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a> of the Romans are called Augusti." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowmanChamplinLintott1996201-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBowmanChamplinLintott1996201_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowmanChamplinLintott1996">Bowman, Champlin & Lintott 1996</a>, p. 201. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowmanChamplinLintott1996">Bowman, Champlin & Lintott 1996</a>, p. 119; <a href="#CITEREFEckTakács2007">Eck & Takács 2007</a>, pp. 50–58; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRich2012" class="citation journal cs1">Rich, John (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/3323294">"Making the emergency permanent: auctoritas, potestas and the evolution of the principate of Augustus"</a>. Des réformes augustéennes: 80–82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Des+r%C3%A9formes+august%C3%A9ennes&rft.atitle=Making+the+emergency+permanent%3A+auctoritas%2C+potestas+and+the+evolution+of+the+principate+of+Augustus&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E80-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Rich&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F3323294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/ancient-Rome/Augustan-art-and-literature#ref26662">Ancient Rome</a> at <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray1875" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Murray, John (1875). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Censor.html">A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>. pp. 260–266.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Antiquities&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E260-%3C%2Fspan%3E266&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2FSMIGRA%2A%2FCensor.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBowmanChamplinLintott1996">Bowman, Champlin & Lintott 1996</a>, pp. 117–118; <a href="#CITEREFPetit2022">Petit 2022</a>, pp. 46–47; <a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, pp. 287–288. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkins2018" class="citation book cs1">Atkins, Jed W. (2018). Roman Political Thought. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LkFPDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">29</a>-30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1071-0700-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1071-0700-7"><bdi>978-1-1071-0700-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Political+Thought&rft.pages=29-30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-1071-0700-7&rft.aulast=Atkins&rft.aufirst=Jed+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFMousourakis2017">Mousourakis 2017</a>, pp. 238–239; <a href="#CITEREFPetit2022">Petit 2022</a>, pp. 46–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMousourakis2017238–239-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMousourakis2017238–239_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMousourakis2017238–239_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMousourakis2017">Mousourakis 2017</a>, pp. 238–239. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMousourakis2014">Mousourakis 2014</a>, p. 18; <a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, pp. 287–288. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetit2022">Petit 2022</a>, pp. 46–47; <a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, pp. 287–288 </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMousourakis2014">Mousourakis 2014</a>, p. 18; <a href="#CITEREFMousourakis2017">Mousourakis 2017</a>, pp. 238–239. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMousourakis2014">Mousourakis 2014</a>, p. 18; <a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, pp. 287–288. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, p. 231; <a href="#CITEREFPetit2022">Petit 2022</a>, p. 145; <a href="#CITEREFMousourakis2017">Mousourakis 2017</a>, p. 242. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, p. 231; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBagnallWorp2004" class="citation book cs1">Bagnall, Roger Shaler; <a href="/wiki/Klaas_Worp" title="Klaas Worp">Worp, Klaas Anthony</a> (2004). Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt. Brill. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CUT6UnqXVzQC&pg=PA4">4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0041-3654-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0041-3654-0"><bdi>978-9-0041-3654-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chronological+Systems+of+Byzantine+Egypt&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-9-0041-3654-0&rft.aulast=Bagnall&rft.aufirst=Roger+Shaler&rft.au=Worp%2C+Klaas+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, p. 231; <a href="#CITEREFPetit2022">Petit 2022</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPetit2022">Petit 2022</a>, pp. 46–47; <a href="#CITEREFMousourakis2017">Mousourakis 2017</a>, pp. 238–239. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurran2020" class="citation cs2">Curran, John R. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1394-5809-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1394-5809-2"><bdi>978-1-1394-5809-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rome%27s+Gothic+Wars%3A+From+the+Third+Century+to+Alaric&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-1394-5809-2&rft.aulast=Kulikowski&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQXM9SH4EALgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG140709">"Collections Online | British Museum"</a>. britishmuseum.org. Retrieved 2023-08-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=britishmuseum.org&rft.atitle=Collections+Online+%7C+British+Museum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britishmuseum.org%2Fcollection%2Fterm%2FBIOG140709&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmissi2018131-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmissi2018131_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOmissi2018">Omissi 2018</a>, p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Tricht2011" class="citation book cs1">Van Tricht, Filip (2011). "The Imperial Ideology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JlnPm2riK1UC">The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228)</a>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20323-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20323-5"><bdi>978-90-04-20323-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Imperial+Ideology&rft.btitle=The+Latin+Renovatio+of+Byzantium%3A+The+Empire+of+Constantinople+%281204%E2%80%931228%29&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20323-5&rft.aulast=Van+Tricht&rft.aufirst=Filip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJlnPm2riK1UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmissi2018185–186-61"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmissi2018185–186_61-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOmissi2018">Omissi 2018</a>, pp. 185–186. </li> <li id="cite_note-HughElton-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HughElton_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-HughElton_62-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElton2018" class="citation book cs1">Elton, Hugh (2018). The Roman Empire in Late Antiquity: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oOlwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA112">112</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-9931-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-9931-4"><bdi>978-0-5218-9931-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+in+Late+Antiquity%3A+A+Political+and+Military+History&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-9931-4&rft.aulast=Elton&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuizPuertas2021" class="citation book cs1">Ruiz, María Pilar García; Puertas, Alberto J. Quiroga (2021). Emperors and Emperorship in Late Antiquity: Images and Narratives. Brill. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xo8cEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA141">141</a>–146. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0044-4692-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0044-4692-2"><bdi>978-9-0044-4692-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emperors+and+Emperorship+in+Late+Antiquity%3A+Images+and+Narratives&rft.pages=141-146&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-9-0044-4692-2&rft.aulast=Ruiz&rft.aufirst=Mar%C3%ADa+Pilar+Garc%C3%ADa&rft.au=Puertas%2C+Alberto+J.+Quiroga&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201454-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201454_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201454_64-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201454_64-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFAguilera-Barchet2014">Aguilera-Barchet 2014</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury201210-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBury201210_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBury2012">Bury 2012</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTellegen-Couperus2002">Tellegen-Couperus 2002</a>, p. 77; <a href="#CITEREFDigeser2000">Digeser 2000</a>, pp. 20–24. </li> <li id="cite_note-PatSouthern-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PatSouthern_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PatSouthern_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pat_Southern" title="Pat Southern">Southern, Pat</a> (2003). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-ySCAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA254">254</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1345-5381-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1345-5381-5"><bdi>978-1-1345-5381-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Empire+from+Severus+to+Constantine&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-1345-5381-5&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMousourakis201420-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMousourakis201420_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMousourakis2014">Mousourakis 2014</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHekster2022">Hekster 2022</a>, p. 189; <a href="#CITEREFDigeser2000">Digeser 2000</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETellegen-Couperus200277-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETellegen-Couperus200277_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTellegen-Couperus2002">Tellegen-Couperus 2002</a>, p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201753-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatkin201753_71-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatkin2017">Watkin 2017</a>, p. 53. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDigeser200026-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDigeser200026_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDigeser200026_72-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDigeser2000">Digeser 2000</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDigeser200025-73"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDigeser200025_73-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDigeser2000">Digeser 2000</a>, p. 25. </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatkin2017">Watkin 2017</a>, p. 56; <a href="#CITEREFBury2012">Bury 2012</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDigeser200027–30-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDigeser200027–30_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDigeser2000">Digeser 2000</a>, pp. 27–30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201756-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatkin201756_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatkin2017">Watkin 2017</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201455-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet201455_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAguilera-Barchet2014">Aguilera-Barchet 2014</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESandys1921231-79"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESandys1921231_79-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSandys1921">Sandys 1921</a>, p. 231. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHekster202242-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHekster202242_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHekster202242_80-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHekster2022">Hekster 2022</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Cameron, A., & Schauer, D. (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/299119">The Last Consul: Basilius and His Diptych</a>. The Journal of Roman Studies 72: 126–145. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiedel2018" class="citation book cs1">Riedel, Meredith (2018). Leo VI and the Transformation of Byzantine Christian Identity. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4jJlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100">100</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-5307-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-5307-6"><bdi>978-1-1070-5307-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leo+VI+and+the+Transformation+of+Byzantine+Christian+Identity&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-1070-5307-6&rft.aulast=Riedel&rft.aufirst=Meredith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcEvoy20131–8-83"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcEvoy20131–8_83-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcEvoy2013">McEvoy 2013</a>, pp. 1–8. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury20125–6-84"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBury20125–6_84-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBury2012">Bury 2012</a>, pp. 5–6. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2021" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Young Richard (2021). The Cambridge Companion to the Council of Nicaea. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TioNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">27</a>–29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1084-2774-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1084-2774-6"><bdi>978-1-1084-2774-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+the+Council+of+Nicaea&rft.pages=27-29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-1084-2774-6&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Young+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201762-87"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatkin201762_87-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatkin2017">Watkin 2017</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatkin201761-89"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatkin201761_89-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatkin2017">Watkin 2017</a>, p. 61. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandberg2008" class="citation journal cs1">Sandberg, Kaj (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journal.fi/arctos/article/view/85853">"The So-Called Division of the Roman Empire in AD 395: Notes on a Persistent Theme in Modern Historiography"</a>. Arctos. 42: 199–213. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0570-734X">0570-734X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arctos&rft.atitle=The+So-Called+Division+of+the+Roman+Empire+in+AD+395%3A+Notes+on+a+Persistent+Theme+in+Modern+Historiography&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E213&rft.date=2008&rft.issn=0570-734-X&rft.aulast=Sandberg&rft.aufirst=Kaj&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjournal.fi%2Farctos%2Farticle%2Fview%2F85853&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"><a href="#CITEREFBury2012">Bury 2012</a>, p. 408. </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcEvoy2017" class="citation journal cs1">McEvoy, Meaghan (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36522939">"Shadow emperors and the choice of Rome (455–476 AD)"</a>. Antiquité Tardive. 25: 95–112. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2FJ.AT.5.114852">10.1484/J.AT.5.114852</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1250-7334">1250-7334</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antiquit%C3%A9+Tardive&rft.atitle=Shadow+emperors+and+the+choice+of+Rome+%28455%E2%80%93476+AD%29&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E95-%3C%2Fspan%3E112&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2FJ.AT.5.114852&rft.issn=1250-7334&rft.aulast=McEvoy&rft.aufirst=Meaghan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F36522939&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemo1988" class="citation book cs1">Demo, Željko (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/519543">"The Mint in Salona: Nepos and Ovida (474–481/2)"</a>. In Kos, Peter; Demo, Željko (eds.). Studia Numismatica Labacensia Alexandro Jeločnik Oblata. Ljubljana: Narodni muzej.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mint+in+Salona%3A+Nepos+and+Ovida+%28474%E2%80%93481%2F2%29&rft.btitle=Studia+Numismatica+Labacensia+Alexandro+Jelo%C4%8Dnik+Oblata&rft.place=Ljubljana&rft.pub=Narodni+muzej&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Demo&rft.aufirst=%C5%BDeljko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F519543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> There is much discussion on the term "Byzantine", as well as when does exactly the "Dominate" end and the "Byzantine" period begins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMango2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Mango" title="Cyril Mango">Mango, Cyril</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZZ82psJ2pLEC">The Oxford History of Byzantium</a>. OUP Oxford. pp. 1–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-1981-4098-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-1981-4098-3"><bdi>0-1981-4098-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-1981-4098-3&rft.aulast=Mango&rft.aufirst=Cyril&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZZ82psJ2pLEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl-Cheikh2004" class="citation book cs1">El-Cheikh, Nadia Maria (2004). Byzantium Viewed by the Arabs. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QC03pKNpfaoC&pg=PA22">22ff</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9328-8530-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9328-8530-2"><bdi>978-0-9328-8530-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium+Viewed+by+the+Arabs&rft.pages=22ff&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-9328-8530-2&rft.aulast=El-Cheikh&rft.aufirst=Nadia+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParryMelling1999" class="citation book cs1">Parry, Ken; Melling, David, eds. (1999). The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. p. 490. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6312-3203-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6312-3203-2"><bdi>978-0-6312-3203-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Dictionary+of+Eastern+Christianity&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pages=490&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-6312-3203-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991413-97"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991413_97-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991">Kazhdan 1991</a>, p. 413. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFouracreGerberding1996" class="citation book cs1">Fouracre, Paul; Gerberding, Richard A. (1996). Late Merovingian France: History and Hagiography, 640–720. Manchester University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uifpAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA345">345</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4791-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-4791-6"><bdi>978-0-7190-4791-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Merovingian+France%3A+History+and+Hagiography%2C+640%E2%80%93720&rft.pages=345&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-4791-6&rft.aulast=Fouracre&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Gerberding%2C+Richard+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilsdale2014" class="citation book cs1">Hilsdale, Cecily J. (2014). Byzantine Art and Diplomacy in an Age of Decline. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ghaTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26">260</a>–262. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-3330-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-3330-6"><bdi>978-1-1070-3330-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantine+Art+and+Diplomacy+in+an+Age+of+Decline&rft.pages=260-262&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-1070-3330-6&rft.aulast=Hilsdale&rft.aufirst=Cecily+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaegi2003" class="citation book cs1">Kaegi, Walter E. (2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA194">194</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-1459-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-1459-1"><bdi>978-0-5218-1459-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heraclius%2C+Emperor+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=194&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-5218-1459-1&rft.aulast=Kaegi&rft.aufirst=Walter+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991">Kazhdan 1991</a>, p. 264. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBury2012">Bury 2012</a>, pp. 15–16; <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991">Kazhdan 1991</a>, p. 264. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991264-103"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991264_103-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991">Kazhdan 1991</a>, p. 264. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991235-104">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991235_104-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991235_104-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991235_104-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991235_104-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991">Kazhdan 1991</a>, p. 235. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://imperialhouse.ru/en/dynastyhistory/dinzak1/446.html">"Chapter Six On the Title of His Imperial Majesty and the State Coat of Arms"</a>. The Fundamental State Laws of the Russian Empire. Russian Imperial House. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231022120345/https://imperialhouse.ru/en/dynastyhistory/dinzak1/446.html">Archived</a> from the original on Oct 22, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Fundamental+State+Laws+of+the+Russian+Empire&rft.atitle=Chapter+Six+On+the+Title+of+His+Imperial+Majesty+and+the+State+Coat+of+Arms&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimperialhouse.ru%2Fen%2Fdynastyhistory%2Fdinzak1%2F446.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RuthMacrides-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RuthMacrides_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RuthMacrides_107-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacridesMunitizAngelov2016" class="citation book cs1">Macrides, Ruth; Munitiz, J. A.; Angelov, Dimiter (2016). Pseudo-Kodinos and the Constantinopolitan Court: Offices and Ceremonies. Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I9UYDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT302">https://books.google.com/books?id=I9UYDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT302</a> 302]–305. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3170-7395-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3170-7395-6"><bdi>978-1-3170-7395-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pseudo-Kodinos+and+the+Constantinopolitan+Court%3A+Offices+and+Ceremonies&rft.pages=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI9UYDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT302+302-305&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-3170-7395-6&rft.aulast=Macrides&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft.au=Munitiz%2C+J.+A.&rft.au=Angelov%2C+Dimiter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GeorgeOstrogorsky-108">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GeorgeOstrogorsky_108-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GeorgeOstrogorsky_108-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GeorgeOstrogorsky_108-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrogorsky1956" class="citation journal cs1">Ostrogorsky, George (1956). "The Byzantine Emperor and the Hierarchical World Order". The Slavonic and East European Review. 35 (84): 1–14. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0037-6795">0037-6795</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4204790">4204790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Slavonic+and+East+European+Review&rft.atitle=The+Byzantine+Emperor+and+the+Hierarchical+World+Order&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=84&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E14&rft.date=1956&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4204790%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0037-6795&rft.aulast=Ostrogorsky&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagdalino2017" class="citation book cs1">Magdalino, Paul (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-intellectual-history-of-byzantium/basileia-the-idea-of-monarchy-in-byzantium-6001200/F9A9F7ABAC5870A29B6701189427753A">"Basileia: The Idea of Monarchy in Byzantium, 600–1200"</a>. In Kaldellis, Anthony; Siniossoglou, Niketas (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ia903404.us.archive.org/11/items/Book_1274/The%20Cambridge%20Intellectual%20History%20of%20Byzantium.pdf">The Cambridge Intellectual History of Byzantium</a> (PDF). Cambridge University Press. pp. 575–598. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-4181-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-4181-3"><bdi>978-1-1070-4181-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Basileia%3A+The+Idea+of+Monarchy+in+Byzantium%2C+600%E2%80%931200&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Intellectual+History+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E575-%3C%2Fspan%3E598&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-1070-4181-3&rft.aulast=Magdalino&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fcambridge-intellectual-history-of-byzantium%2Fbasileia-the-idea-of-monarchy-in-byzantium-6001200%2FF9A9F7ABAC5870A29B6701189427753A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/caesaropapism">"Caesaropapism | Byzantine Empire, Autocracy & Ecclesiastical Power"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Caesaropapism+%7C+Byzantine+Empire%2C+Autocracy+%26+Ecclesiastical+Power&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fcaesaropapism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan19911047-112"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan19911047_112-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991">Kazhdan 1991</a>, p. 1047. </li> <li id="cite_note-ElizabethJeffreys-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ElizabethJeffreys_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ElizabethJeffreys_113-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeffreysHaldonCormack2008" class="citation book cs1">Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Haldon, John F.; Cormack, Robin (2008). The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=liFKua_cWL8C&pg=PA293">291</a>–293. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-5246-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-5246-6"><bdi>978-0-1992-5246-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Byzantine+Studies&rft.pages=291-293&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-5246-6&rft.aulast=Jeffreys&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft.au=Haldon%2C+John+F.&rft.au=Cormack%2C+Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SimonHornblower-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SimonHornblower_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimonHornblower_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimonHornblower_114-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-SimonHornblower_114-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHornblowerSpawforthEidinow2012" class="citation book cs1">Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3268">"Imperator"</a>. The Oxford Classical Dictionary. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bVWcAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA728">728</a>–729. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.3268">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.3268</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1995-4556-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1995-4556-8"><bdi>978-0-1995-4556-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Imperator&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Classical+Dictionary&rft.pages=728-729&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.3268&rft.isbn=978-0-1995-4556-8&rft.aulast=Hornblower&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft.au=Spawforth%2C+Antony&rft.au=Eidinow%2C+Esther&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.3268&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RussellFoster-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RussellFoster_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RussellFoster_115-1">b</a> For a discussion of imperium and imperator, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2015" class="citation book cs1">Foster, Russell (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D8kBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35">"All roads lead to Rome"</a>. Mapping European Empire: Tabulae imperii Europaei. Routledge. pp. 11–52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3175-9307-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3175-9307-2"><bdi>978-1-3175-9307-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=All+roads+lead+to+Rome&rft.btitle=Mapping+European+Empire%3A+Tabulae+imperii+Europaei&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11-%3C%2Fspan%3E52&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-3175-9307-2&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD8kBCgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESyme1958-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESyme1958_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESyme1958_116-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSyme1958">Syme 1958</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrett2002" class="citation book cs1">Barrett, Anthony A. (2002). Caligula: The Corruption of Power. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G0WFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA53">53</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1346-0988-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1346-0988-8"><bdi>978-1-1346-0988-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caligula%3A+The+Corruption+of+Power&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-1346-0988-8&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Anthony+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutherland2018" class="citation book cs1">Sutherland, C.H.V. (2018). Roman Imperial Coinage. Vol. 1. Spink Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WnTKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA133">133</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9126-6736-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-9126-6736-9"><bdi>978-1-9126-6736-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Imperial+Coinage&rft.pages=133&rft.pub=Spink+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-9126-6736-9&rft.aulast=Sutherland&rft.aufirst=C.H.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammond1957-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond1957_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammond1957_119-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHammond1957">Hammond 1957</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Paterculus81-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Paterculus81_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Paterculus81_120-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Paterculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Paterculus">Paterculus</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2C*.html#81">II, 80–90</a>), for example, only uses princeps, but the English text translates the word directly as "emperor". <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> (<a class="external text" href="https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita/liber_I#19">I. 19</a>) calls Augustus imperator once, but he also uses the term when writing about other generals (<a class="external text" href="https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita/liber_II">II. 39ff</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenidge1901352–355-121">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenidge1901352–355_121-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenidge1901352–355_121-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenidge1901352–355_121-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenidge1901">Greenidge 1901</a>, pp. 352–355. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrierson1973" class="citation book cs1">Grierson, Philip (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/docoins-3">Catalogue of Byzantine Coins, vol. 3: Leo III to Nicephorus III, 717–1081</a>. Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks. pp. 456–467. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8840-2012-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8840-2012-6"><bdi>0-8840-2012-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catalogue+of+Byzantine+Coins%2C+vol.+3%3A+Leo+III+to+Nicephorus+III%2C+717%E2%80%931081&rft.place=Washington+D.C.&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E456-%3C%2Fspan%3E467&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-8840-2012-6&rft.aulast=Grierson&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdocoins-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">CIL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+02%2C+01660&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">2, 1660</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://db.edcs.eu/epigr/epi_einzel.php?s_sprache=de&p_belegstelle=CIL+06%2C+00930&r_sortierung=Belegstelle">6, 930</a>. Tiberius is sometimes called Tiberius Julius Caesar instead of the more common Tiberius Caesar. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELoewenstein1973349-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELoewenstein1973349_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoewenstein1973">Loewenstein 1973</a>, p. 349. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagán2017" class="citation book cs1">Pagán, Victoria Emma (2017). Tacitus. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t-mKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">28</a>–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7867-3132-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7867-3132-6"><bdi>978-1-7867-3132-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tacitus&rft.pages=28-30&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-7867-3132-6&rft.aulast=Pag%C3%A1n&rft.aufirst=Victoria+Emma&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarriet_I._Flower2006" class="citation book cs1">Harriet I. Flower (2006). The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace & Oblivion in Roman Political Culture. Univ of North Carolina Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4T6Oyezn_msC&pg=PA225">225</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3063-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8078-3063-5"><bdi>978-0-8078-3063-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Forgetting%3A+Disgrace+%26+Oblivion+in+Roman+Political+Culture&rft.pages=225&rft.pub=Univ+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8078-3063-5&rft.au=Harriet+I.+Flower&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBury2015" class="citation book cs1">Bury, J. B. (2015). The Imperial Administrative System in the Ninth Century. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c7-wBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35">35</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1080-8150-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1080-8150-4"><bdi>978-1-1080-8150-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Imperial+Administrative+System+in+the+Ninth+Century&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-1080-8150-4&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=J.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991363-129"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKazhdan1991363_129-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKazhdan1991">Kazhdan 1991</a>, p. 363. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRösch1978" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rösch, Gerhard (1978). Onoma Basileias. Byzantina et Neograeca Vindobonensia (in German). Verlag der österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 49–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7001-0260-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-7001-0260-1"><bdi>978-3-7001-0260-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Onoma+Basileias&rft.series=Byzantina+et+Neograeca+Vindobonensia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E49-%3C%2Fspan%3E50&rft.pub=Verlag+der+%C3%B6sterreichischen+Akademie+der+Wissenschaften&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-3-7001-0260-1&rft.aulast=R%C3%B6sch&rft.aufirst=Gerhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Novela 1, in Jus Graeco-Romanum III, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-54UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA67">67</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLoewenstein1973">Loewenstein 1973</a>, p. 349; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrothmann2006" class="citation journal cs1">Strothmann, Meret (Bochum) (2006-10-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/augustus-2-e12220040#">"Augustus [2]"</a>. Brill's New Pauly.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brill%27s+New+Pauly&rft.atitle=Augustus+%5B2%5D&rft.date=2006-10-01&rft.aulast=Strothmann&rft.aufirst=Meret+%28Bochum%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fbrill-s-new-pauly%2Faugustus-2-e12220040%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#">Suetonius, Augustus 7.</a>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSouthern2013" class="citation book cs1">Southern, Patricia (2013). Augustus. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9QsiAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA196">196</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1345-8949-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1345-8949-4"><bdi>978-1-1345-8949-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Augustus&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-1345-8949-4&rft.aulast=Southern&rft.aufirst=Patricia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Annals_(Tacitus)" title="Annals (Tacitus)">Annals</a>, <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Histories_(Tacitus)/Book_2" class="extiw" title="wikisource:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 2">Book II, 62, 90</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrocourt2021" class="citation book cs1">Drocourt, Nicolas (2021). A Companion to Byzantium and the West, 900–1204. Brill. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=df1TEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA234">234</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0044-9924-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0044-9924-9"><bdi>978-9-0044-9924-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Byzantium+and+the+West%2C+900%E2%80%931204&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-9-0044-9924-9&rft.aulast=Drocourt&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalmon1968" class="citation book cs1">Salmon, Edward Togo (1968). A History of the Roman World from 30 B.C. to A.D. 138. Psychology Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jzOSdHYWML4C&pg=PA11">11</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-4504-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4150-4504-9"><bdi>978-0-4150-4504-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Roman+World+from+30+B.C.+to+A.D.+138&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-4150-4504-9&rft.aulast=Salmon&rft.aufirst=Edward+Togo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988">; <a href="#CITEREFGreenidge1901">Greenidge 1901</a>, pp. 352–355. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Res_Gestae_Divi_Augusti" title="Res Gestae Divi Augusti">Res Gestae</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/1*.html#">I.7</a>, "For ten years in succession I was one of the triumvirs for the re-establishment of the constitution. To the day of writing this [June/July AD 14] I have been <a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">princeps senatus</a> for forty years." Augustus thus dates his tenure as princeps from 27 BC. He also only counts his <a href="/wiki/De_jure" title="De jure">de jure</a> tenure as triumvir. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRees2002" class="citation book cs1">Rees, Roger (2002). Layers of Loyalty in Latin Panegyric, AD 289–307. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LQQ5Ce-2de4C&pg=PA146">146</a>–147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4918-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1992-4918-3"><bdi>978-0-1992-4918-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Layers+of+Loyalty+in+Latin+Panegyric%2C+AD+289%E2%80%93307&rft.pages=146-147&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-1992-4918-3&rft.aulast=Rees&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2010443-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldsworthy2010443_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoldsworthy2010">Goldsworthy 2010</a>, p. 443. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010" class="citation book cs1">Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2010). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley & Sons. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lkYFVJ3U-BIC&pg=PA375">375</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-7936-2"><bdi>978-1-4051-7936-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ancient+Macedonia&rft.pages=375&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-7936-2&rft.aulast=Roisman&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Worthington%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadariaga2014" class="citation book cs1">Madariaga, Isabel De (2014). Politics and Culture in Eighteenth-Century Russia. Routledge. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=omjXAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17">17</a>–18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3178-8190-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3178-8190-2"><bdi>978-1-3178-8190-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+and+Culture+in+Eighteenth-Century+Russia&rft.pages=17-18&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-3178-8190-2&rft.aulast=Madariaga&rft.aufirst=Isabel+De&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellingerGrierson1973" class="citation book cs1">Bellinger, Alfred Raymond; Grierson, Philip (1973). Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection. 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The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228). 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People and Identity in Ostrogothic Italy, 489–554. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7ndeDi_fwq0C&pg=PA59">59</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-2635-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5215-2635-7"><bdi>978-0-5215-2635-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+and+Identity+in+Ostrogothic+Italy%2C+489%E2%80%93554&rft.pages=59&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-5215-2635-7&rft.aulast=Amory&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFouracreMcKitterickAbulafia1995" class="citation book cs1">Fouracre, Paul; McKitterick, Rosamond; Abulafia, David (1995). The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 1, c. 500–c. 700. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JcmwuoTsKO0C&pg=PA146">146</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-6291-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5213-6291-7"><bdi>978-0-5213-6291-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+Medieval+History%3A+Volume+1%2C+c.+500%E2%80%93c.+700&rft.pages=146&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-5213-6291-7&rft.aulast=Fouracre&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=McKitterick%2C+Rosamond&rft.au=Abulafia%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold2014" class="citation book cs1">Arnold, Jonathan J. (2014). Theoderic and the Roman Imperial Restoration. Cambridge University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WOWfAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75">72–77</a>, 100–104. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-5440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-5440-0"><bdi>978-1-1070-5440-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoderic+and+the+Roman+Imperial+Restoration&rft.pages=72-77%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E100-%3C%2Fspan%3E104&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-1070-5440-0&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2008" class="citation book cs1">Collins, Roger (2008). Visigothic Spain 409–711. John Wiley & Sons. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WlSu_iWzA9AC&pg=PA35">35–36</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4707-5456-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4707-5456-6"><bdi>978-0-4707-5456-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visigothic+Spain+409%E2%80%93711&rft.pages=35-36&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-4707-5456-6&rft.aulast=Collins&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartindale1980" class="citation cs2">Martindale, John R. (1980), Masties. The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire – Volume 2, Cambridge University Press, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G5W6vCO_pYUC&pg=PA734">734</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5212-0159-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-5212-0159-4"><bdi>0-5212-0159-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masties.+The+Prosopography+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire+%E2%80%93+Volume+2&rft.pages=734&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-5212-0159-4&rft.aulast=Martindale&rft.aufirst=John+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorhead2013" class="citation book cs1">Moorhead, John (2013). Justinian. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sKYuAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85">85</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3178-9879-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3178-9879-5"><bdi>978-1-3178-9879-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Justinian&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-3178-9879-5&rft.aulast=Moorhead&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220422150556/http://www.roman-emperors.org/festus.htm">Breviarum</a> in <a href="/wiki/De_Imperatoribus_Romanis" title="De Imperatoribus Romanis">De Imperatoribus Romanis</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/chronography_of_354_16_chronicle_of_the_city_of_rome.htm">Chronography of 354 AD. Part 16: Chronicle of the City of Rome</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>.org. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDean1935" class="citation book cs1">Dean, James Elmer (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oi.uchicago.edu/research/publications/saoc/saoc-11-epiphanius%E2%80%99-treatise-weights-and-measures-syriac-version">Epiphanius' Treatise on Weights and Measures: The Syriac Version</a>. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 28–39. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/912074">912074</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Epiphanius%27+Treatise+on+Weights+and+Measures%3A+The+Syriac+Version&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E28-%3C%2Fspan%3E39&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1935&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F912074&rft.aulast=Dean&rft.aufirst=James+Elmer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foi.uchicago.edu%2Fresearch%2Fpublications%2Fsaoc%2Fsaoc-11-epiphanius%25E2%2580%2599-treatise-weights-and-measures-syriac-version&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Cessi" title="Roberto Cessi">Cessi, Roberto</a>, ed. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asa.archiviostudiadriatici.it/islandora/object/libria%3A209776#page/160/mode/2up">Origo civitatum Italie seu Venetiarum (Chronicon Altinate et Chronicon Gradense)</a>. Tipografia del senato. pp. 102–104. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1067434891">1067434891</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOmissi20183–33-156"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOmissi20183–33_156-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFOmissi2018">Omissi 2018</a>, pp. 3–33. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes1982" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4159%2Fharvard.9780674280670">10.4159/harvard.9780674280670</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6742-8066-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6742-8066-3"><bdi>978-0-6742-8066-3</bdi></a>. <q>Literary sources explicitly style him Caesar, the coins Augustus</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Empire+of+Diocletian+and+Constantine&rft.pages=15&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4159%2Fharvard.9780674280670&rft.isbn=978-0-6742-8066-3&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Timothy+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÁgoston2021" class="citation book cs1">Ágoston, Gábor (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kXALEAAAQBAJ">The Last Muslim Conquest</a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-5932-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-5932-4"><bdi>978-0-6911-5932-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Muslim+Conquest&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-6911-5932-4&rft.aulast=%C3%81goston&rft.aufirst=G%C3%A1bor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkXALEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAguilera-Barchet2014" class="citation book cs1">Aguilera-Barchet, Bruno (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zUsIBgAAQBAJ">A History of Western Public Law: Between Nation and State</a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-3191-1803-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-3191-1803-1"><bdi>978-3-3191-1803-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Western+Public+Law%3A+Between+Nation+and+State&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-3191-1803-1&rft.aulast=Aguilera-Barchet&rft.aufirst=Bruno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzUsIBgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2009" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, Timothy (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gzOXLGbIIYwC">"The first Emperor: the view of late antiquity"</a>. In Griffin, Miriam (ed.). A Companion to Julius Caesar. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-0845-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-0845-7"><bdi>978-1-4443-0845-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+first+Emperor%3A+the+view+of+late+antiquity&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Julius+Caesar&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-0845-7&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgzOXLGbIIYwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowmanChamplinLintott1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_K._Bowman" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan K. Bowman">Bowman, Alan K.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edward_Champlin" title="Edward Champlin">Champlin, Edward</a>; <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lintott" title="Andrew Lintott">Lintott, Andrew</a>, eds. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JZLW4-wba7UC">The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume X: The Augustan Empire, 43 B.C.–A.D. 69</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5212-6430-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5212-6430-3"><bdi>978-0-5212-6430-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Ancient+History%2C+Volume+X%3A+The+Augustan+Empire%2C+43+B.C.%E2%80%93A.D.+69&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-5212-6430-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJZLW4-wba7UC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBury2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._B._Bury" title="J. B. Bury">Bury, . B.</a> (2012) [1889]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HqA9NA7MQ6kC">History of the Later Roman Empire</a>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4861-4338-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4861-4338-5"><bdi>978-0-4861-4338-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Later+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-4861-4338-5&rft.aulast=Bury&rft.aufirst=.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHqA9NA7MQ6kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÇolak2014" class="citation book cs1">Çolak, Hasan (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004283510/B9789004283510_003.xml">"Tekfur, fasiliyus and kayser: Disdain, Negligence and Appropriation of Byzantine Imperial Titulature in the Ottoman World"</a>. In Hadjianastasis, Marios (ed.). Frontiers of the Ottoman Imagination: Studies in Honour of Rhoads Murphey. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0042-8351-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0042-8351-0"><bdi>978-9-0042-8351-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tekfur%2C+fasiliyus+and+kayser%3A+Disdain%2C+Negligence+and+Appropriation+of+Byzantine+Imperial+Titulature+in+the+Ottoman+World&rft.btitle=Frontiers+of+the+Ottoman+Imagination%3A+Studies+in+Honour+of+Rhoads+Murphey&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-9-0042-8351-0&rft.aulast=%C3%87olak&rft.aufirst=Hasan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fbook%2Fedcoll%2F9789004283510%2FB9789004283510_003.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDigeser2000" class="citation book cs1">Digeser, Elizabeth DePalma (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wbjbgRl4QTkC">The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius & Rome</a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3594-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-3594-2"><bdi>978-0-8014-3594-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+a+Christian+Empire%3A+Lactantius+%26+Rome&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-3594-2&rft.aulast=Digeser&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+DePalma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwbjbgRl4QTkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEckTakács2007" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Werner_Eck" title="Werner Eck">Eck, Werner</a>; Takács, Sarolta A. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/43436644">The Age of Augustus</a>, translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider (2nd ed.), Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5149-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-5149-8"><bdi>978-1-4051-5149-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+Augustus&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford%3A+Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-5149-8&rft.aulast=Eck&rft.aufirst=Werner&rft.au=Tak%C3%A1cs%2C+Sarolta+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F43436644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnepekides1960" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Enepekides, P. 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Beck. pp. 138–143. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/761003148">761003148</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Das+Wiener+Testament+des+Andreas+Palaiologos+vom+7.+April+1502&rft.btitle=Akten+des+11.+Internat.+Byzantinisten-Kongresses+1958&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E138-%3C%2Fspan%3E143&rft.pub=C.H.+Beck&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F761003148&rft.aulast=Enepekides&rft.aufirst=P.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreiberg2014" class="citation book cs1">Freiberg, Jack (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X760BAAAQBAJ&q=Constantinople">Bramante's Tempietto, the Roman Renaissance, and the Spanish Crown</a>. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-4297-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1070-4297-1"><bdi>978-1-1070-4297-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bramante%27s+Tempietto%2C+the+Roman+Renaissance%2C+and+the+Spanish+Crown&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-1070-4297-1&rft.aulast=Freiberg&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX760BAAAQBAJ%26q%3DConstantinople&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalinsky2005" class="citation book cs1">Galinsky, Karl (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ftcx-5j7rjwC">The Cambridge companion to the Age of Augustus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-0796-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5218-0796-8"><bdi>978-0-5218-0796-8</bdi></a>. 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Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4238646">10.2307/4238646</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4238646">4238646</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+American+Academy+in+Rome&rft.atitle=Imperial+Elements+in+the+Formula+of+the+Roman+Emperors+during+the+First+Two+and+a+Half+Centuries+of+the+Empire&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E19-%3C%2Fspan%3E64&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F4238646&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4238646%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=Mason&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeather2005" class="citation book cs1">Heather, Peter (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Jntu21N9K0C">The Fall of the Roman Empire</a>. Pan Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3304-9136-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3304-9136-5"><bdi>978-0-3304-9136-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2011-08-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.pub=Pan+Macmillan&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-3304-9136-5&rft.aulast=Heather&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_Jntu21N9K0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHekster2022" class="citation book cs1">Hekster, Olivier (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zEKdEAAAQBAJPA1">Caesar rules : the Emperor in the changing Roman world (c. 50 BC – AD 565)</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-0092-2679-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-0092-2679-0"><bdi>978-1-0092-2679-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar+rules+%3A+the+Emperor+in+the+changing+Roman+world+%28c.+50+BC+%E2%80%93+AD+565%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-0092-2679-0&rft.aulast=Hekster&rft.aufirst=Olivier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzEKdEAAAQBAJPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKazhdan1991" class="citation cs2">Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-0090-8151-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-0090-8151-1"><bdi>978-1-0090-8151-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Emperor+and+his+Court+c.+30+BC%E2%80%93c.+AD+300&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-0090-8151-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHXGSEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumar2017" class="citation book cs1">Kumar, Krishan (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q8iXDwAAQBAJ">Visions of Empire: How Five Imperial Regimes Shaped the World</a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-9280-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-6911-9280-2"><bdi>978-0-6911-9280-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visions+of+Empire%3A+How+Five+Imperial+Regimes+Shaped+the+World&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-6911-9280-2&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Krishan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq8iXDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcEvoy2013" class="citation book cs1">McEvoy, Meaghan (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lgygc7HDBt0C">Child Emperor Rule in the Late Roman West, AD 367–455</a>. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3518-8841-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3518-8841-7"><bdi>978-1-3518-8841-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historical+and+Institutional+Context+of+Roman+Law&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-3518-8841-7&rft.aulast=Mousourakis&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcwTFDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoustakas2011" class="citation book cs1">Moustakas, Konstantinos (2011). "Byzantine 'Visions' of the Ottoman Empire: Theories of Ottoman Legitimacy by Byzantine Scholars after the Fall of Constantinople". In Lymberopoulou, Angeliki (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qnHPfZ7mr4YC">Images of the Byzantine World: Visions, Messages and Meanings : Studies Presented to Leslie Brubaker</a>. Farnham: Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0776-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4094-0776-8"><bdi>978-1-4094-0776-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Byzantine+%27Visions%27+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+Theories+of+Ottoman+Legitimacy+by+Byzantine+Scholars+after+the+Fall+of+Constantinople&rft.btitle=Images+of+the+Byzantine+World%3A+Visions%2C+Messages+and+Meanings+%3A+Studies+Presented+to+Leslie+Brubaker&rft.place=Farnham&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4094-0776-8&rft.aulast=Moustakas&rft.aufirst=Konstantinos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqnHPfZ7mr4YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoewenstein1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Loewenstein" title="Karl Loewenstein">Loewenstein, Karl</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DDkP8IjhBQsC">The Governance of Rome</a>. The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhof. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-0247-1458-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-0247-1458-2"><bdi>978-9-0247-1458-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Governance+of+Rome&rft.place=The+Hague%2C+Netherlands&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhof&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-9-0247-1458-2&rft.aulast=Loewenstein&rft.aufirst=Karl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDDkP8IjhBQsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicol1967" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Nicol" title="Donald Nicol">Nicol, Donald M.</a> (1967). "The Byzantine View of Western Europe". Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 8 (4): 315–339.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Greek%2C+Roman+and+Byzantine+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Byzantine+View+of+Western+Europe&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E315-%3C%2Fspan%3E339&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Nicol&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicol1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Nicol" title="Donald Nicol">Nicol, Donald M.</a> (1992). The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5115-8369-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5115-8369-8"><bdi>978-0-5115-8369-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Immortal+Emperor%3A+The+Life+and+Legend+of+Constantine+Palaiologos%2C+Last+Emperor+of+the+Romans&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-5115-8369-8&rft.aulast=Nicol&rft.aufirst=Donald+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolleHaldonTurnbull2007" class="citation book cs1">Nicolle, David; Haldon, John; Turnbull, Stephen (2007). The Fall of Constantinople: The Ottoman Conquest of Byzantium. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-8460-3200-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-8460-3200-4"><bdi>978-1-8460-3200-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/78989635">78989635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fall+of+Constantinople%3A+The+Ottoman+Conquest+of+Byzantium&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F78989635&rft.isbn=978-1-8460-3200-4&rft.aulast=Nicolle&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Haldon%2C+John&rft.au=Turnbull%2C+Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmissi2018" class="citation book cs1">Omissi, Adrastos (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EWliDwAAQBAJ">Emperors and Usurpers in the Later Roman Empire</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 3–33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-2482-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1988-2482-4"><bdi>978-0-1988-2482-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emperors+and+Usurpers+in+the+Later+Roman+Empire&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-1988-2482-4&rft.aulast=Omissi&rft.aufirst=Adrastos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEWliDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrogorsky1957" class="citation book cs1">Ostrogorsky, George (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofbyzanti0000unse">History of the Byzantine State</a>. Translated by Hussey, Joan. New Brunswick: <a href="/wiki/Rutgers_University_Press" title="Rutgers University Press">Rutgers University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Byzantine+State&rft.place=New+Brunswick&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Ostrogorsky&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofbyzanti0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetit2022" class="citation book cs1">Petit, Paul (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nvp8EAAAQBAJ">Pax Romana</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5203-7110-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5203-7110-1"><bdi>978-0-5203-7110-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pax+Romana&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-5203-7110-1&rft.aulast=Petit&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnvp8EAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandys1921" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Sandys_(classicist)" title="John Sandys (classicist)">Sandys, John</a> (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gR09AAAAIAAJ">A Companion to Latin Studies</a> (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Latin+Studies&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1921&rft.aulast=Sandys&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgR09AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSetton1978" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Setton" title="Kenneth Setton">Setton, Kenneth M.</a> (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Sz2VYI0l1IC">The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century</a>. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87169-127-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-87169-127-2"><bdi>0-87169-127-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Papacy+and+the+Levant+%281204%E2%80%931571%29%2C+Volume+II%3A+The+Fifteenth+Century&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=The+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-87169-127-2&rft.aulast=Setton&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Sz2VYI0l1IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSyme1958" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Syme" title="Ronald Syme">Syme, Ronald</a> (1958), "Imperator Caesar: A Study in Nomenclature", Historia, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 175–188, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4434568">4434568</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia&rft.atitle=Imperator+Caesar%3A+A+Study+in+Nomenclature&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E175-%3C%2Fspan%3E188&rft.date=1958&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4434568%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Syme&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTellegen-Couperus2002" class="citation book cs1">Tellegen-Couperus, Olga (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BkeIAgAAQBAJ">A Short History of Roman Law</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-1349-0801-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-1349-0801-1"><bdi>978-1-1349-0801-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Roman+Law&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-1349-0801-1&rft.aulast=Tellegen-Couperus&rft.aufirst=Olga&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBkeIAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÜre2020" class="citation book cs1">Üre, Pinar (2020). Reclaiming Byzantium: Russia, Turkey and the Archaeological Claim to the Middle East in the 19th Century. London: I. B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7883-1012-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7883-1012-3"><bdi>978-1-7883-1012-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reclaiming+Byzantium%3A+Russia%2C+Turkey+and+the+Archaeological+Claim+to+the+Middle+East+in+the+19th+Century&rft.place=London&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-7883-1012-3&rft.aulast=%C3%9Cre&rft.aufirst=Pinar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatkin2017" class="citation book cs1">Watkin, Thomas Glyn (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ckIrDwAAQBAJ">An Historical Introduction to Modern Civil Law</a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-3519-5891-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-3519-5891-2"><bdi>978-1-3519-5891-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Historical+Introduction+to+Modern+Civil+Law&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-3519-5891-2&rft.aulast=Watkin&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Glyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DckIrDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1997" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Stephen (1997) [1985]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9il6P3TPj-AC">Diocletian and the Roman recovery</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-4159-1827-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-4159-1827-5"><bdi>978-0-4159-1827-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2011-08-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diocletian+and+the+Roman+recovery&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-4159-1827-5&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9il6P3TPj-AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristoforou2023" class="citation book cs1">Christoforou, Panayiotis (2023). Imagining the Roman Emperor: perceptions of rulers in the high empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-0093-6249-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-0093-6249-8"><bdi>978-1-0093-6249-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imagining+the+Roman+Emperor%3A+perceptions+of+rulers+in+the+high+empire.&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-0093-6249-8&rft.aulast=Christoforou&rft.aufirst=Panayiotis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillar1977" class="citation book cs1">Millar, Fergus (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E57tAAAAMAAJ">The Emperor in the Roman World, 31 BC–AD 337</a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-1058-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-1058-1"><bdi>978-0-8014-1058-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emperor+in+the+Roman+World%2C+31+BC%E2%80%93AD+337&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-1058-1&rft.aulast=Millar&rft.aufirst=Fergus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE57tAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Scarre, Chris. Chronicle of the Roman Emperors: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Rome. London: Thames & Hudson, 1995. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-5000-5077-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-5000-5077-5">0-5000-5077-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace-Hadrill1982" class="citation journal cs1">Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew (1982). "Civilis Princeps: Between Citizen and King". The Journal of Roman Studies. 72: 32–48. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F299114">10.2307/299114</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0075-4358">0075-4358</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/299114">299114</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162347650">162347650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Roman+Studies&rft.atitle=Civilis+Princeps%3A+Between+Citizen+and+King&rft.volume=72&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E48&rft.date=1982&rft.issn=0075-4358&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162347650%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F299114%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F299114&rft.aulast=Wallace-Hadrill&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoman+emperor" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220402152802/http://www.roman-emperors.org/startup.htm">Website</a> of <a href="/wiki/De_Imperatoribus_Romanis" title="De Imperatoribus Romanis">De Imperatoribus Romanis</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.friesian.com/decdenc1.htm">Decadence, Rome and Romania, and the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History</a>, by Kelley L. Ross</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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Emperors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Epochs_of_Roman_Emperors" title="Template talk:Epochs of Roman Emperors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Epochs_of_Roman_Emperors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Epochs of Roman Emperors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman_emperors_by_time_period227" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Roman emperors</a> by time period</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">List of Roman emperors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_the_Roman_emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of the Roman emperors">Family tree</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;">Early <a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Julio-Claudian_dynasty" title="Julio-Claudian dynasty">Julio-Claudian dynasty</a> (27 BC–AD 68)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Four_Emperors" title="Year of the Four Emperors">Year of the 4 Emperors</a> (68–69)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavian_dynasty" title="Flavian dynasty">Flavian dynasty</a> (69–96)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty" title="Nerva–Antonine dynasty">Nerva–Antonine dynasty</a> (96–192)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Five_Emperors" title="Year of the Five Emperors">Year of the 5 Emperors</a> (192–193)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severan_dynasty" title="Severan dynasty">Severan dynasty</a> (193–235)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barracks_emperor" title="Barracks emperor">Barracks emperors</a> (235–284) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Year_of_the_Six_Emperors" title="Year of the Six Emperors">Year of the 6 Emperors</a> (238)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_dynasty" title="Gordian dynasty">Gordian dynasty</a> (238–244)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_emperors" title="Illyrian emperors">Illyrian emperors</a> (268–284)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic emperors</a> (260–274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carausian_revolt" title="Carausian revolt">Britannic emperors</a> (286–297)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarchies</a> (293–313)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a> (305–363)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinianic_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinianic dynasty">Valentinianic dynasty</a> (364–392)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosian_dynasty" title="Theodosian dynasty">Theodosian dynasty</a> (378–455)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;width:10em;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman emperors</a> (395–476)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors</a> (395–1453) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Emperors of Nicaea</a> (1204–1261)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Trapezuntine_emperors" title="List of Trapezuntine emperors">Emperors of Trebizond</a> (1204–1461)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica</a> (1224–1246)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Roman_and_Byzantine_emperors_and_empresses_regnant423" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_emperors" title="Template:Roman emperors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_emperors" title="Template talk:Roman emperors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_emperors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman emperors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman_and_Byzantine_emperors_and_empresses_regnant423" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_emperors" title="List of Byzantine emperors">Byzantine emperors</a> and empresses regnant</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a> 27 BC – AD 235</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius" title="Tiberius">Tiberius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caligula" title="Caligula">Caligula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galba" title="Galba">Galba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otho" title="Otho">Otho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitellius" title="Vitellius">Vitellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vespasian" title="Vespasian">Vespasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domitian" title="Domitian">Domitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerva" title="Nerva">Nerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commodus" title="Commodus">Commodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pertinax" title="Pertinax">Pertinax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Didius_Julianus" title="Didius Julianus">Didius Julianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caracalla" title="Caracalla">Caracalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geta_(emperor)" title="Geta (emperor)">Geta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrinus" title="Macrinus">Macrinus</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Diadumenian" title="Diadumenian">Diadumenian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elagabalus" title="Elagabalus">Elagabalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severus_Alexander" title="Severus Alexander">Severus Alexander</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis</a> 235–284</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Thrax" title="Maximinus Thrax">Maximinus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_I" title="Gordian I">Gordian I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_II" title="Gordian II">Gordian II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordian_III" title="Gordian III">Gordian III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_the_Arab" title="Philip the Arab">Philip I</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Philip_II_(Roman_emperor)" title="Philip II (Roman emperor)">Philip II</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Herennius_Etruscus" title="Herennius Etruscus">Herennius Etruscus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trebonianus_Gallus" title="Trebonianus Gallus">Trebonianus Gallus</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Hostilian" title="Hostilian">Hostilian</a> & <a href="/wiki/Volusianus" title="Volusianus">Volusianus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aemilianus" title="Aemilianus">Aemilianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silbannacus" title="Silbannacus">Silbannacus</a> (?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Saloninus" title="Saloninus">Saloninus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Gothicus" title="Claudius Gothicus">Claudius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintillus" title="Quintillus">Quintillus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus_(emperor)" title="Tacitus (emperor)">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florianus" title="Florianus">Florianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probus_(emperor)" title="Probus (emperor)">Probus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carus" title="Carus">Carus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carinus" title="Carinus">Carinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerian" title="Numerian">Numerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a> 284–641</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximian" title="Maximian">Maximian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_Chlorus" title="Constantius Chlorus">Constantius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Severus_II" title="Severus II">Severus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxentius" title="Maxentius">Maxentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximinus_Daza" title="Maximinus Daza">Maximinus II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Valens" title="Valerius Valens">Valerius Valens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martinian_(emperor)" title="Martinian (emperor)">Martinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_II_(emperor)" title="Constantine II (emperor)">Constantine II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constans" title="Constans">Constans I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnentius" title="Magnentius">Magnentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotianus" title="Nepotianus">Nepotianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vetranio" title="Vetranio">Vetranio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_I" title="Valentinian I">Valentinian I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius_(usurper)" title="Procopius (usurper)">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_II" title="Valentinian II">Valentinian II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Victor_(emperor)" title="Victor (emperor)">Victor</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenius" title="Eugenius">Eugenius</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> 395–476</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)" title="Honorius (emperor)">Honorius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_III_(Western_Roman_emperor)" title="Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)">Constantine III</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Constans_II_(son_of_Constantine_III)" title="Constans II (son of Constantine III)">Constans II</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus_Attalus" title="Priscus Attalus">Priscus Attalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_III" title="Constantius III">Constantius III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes" title="Joannes">Joannes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius_Maximus" title="Petronius Maximus">Petronius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avitus" title="Avitus">Avitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorian" title="Majorian">Majorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libius_Severus" title="Libius Severus">Severus III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthemius" title="Anthemius">Anthemius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olybrius" title="Olybrius">Olybrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycerius" title="Glycerius">Glycerius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Nepos" title="Julius Nepos">Julius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus" title="Romulus Augustulus">Romulus Augustulus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Empire</a> 395–641</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arcadius" title="Arcadius">Arcadius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_II" title="Theodosius II">Theodosius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcian" title="Marcian">Marcian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_I_(emperor)" title="Leo I (emperor)">Leo I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_II_(emperor)" title="Leo II (emperor)">Leo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)" title="Zeno (emperor)">Zeno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basiliscus" title="Basiliscus">Basiliscus</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Marcus_(son_of_Basiliscus)" title="Marcus (son of Basiliscus)">Marcus</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasius_I_Dicorus" title="Anastasius I Dicorus">Anastasius I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_I" title="Justin I">Justin I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_II" title="Justin II">Justin II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_II_Constantine" title="Tiberius II Constantine">Tiberius II Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Maurice</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_(son_of_Maurice)" title="Theodosius (son of Maurice)">Theodosius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phocas" title="Phocas">Phocas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern/ Byzantine Empire</a> 641–1453</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heraclius_Constantine" title="Heraclius Constantine">Constantine III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclonas" title="Heraclonas">Heraclonas</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/David_(son_of_Heraclius)" title="David (son of Heraclius)">Tiberius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constans_II" title="Constans II">Constans II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Heraclius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Heraclius (son of Constans II)">Heraclius</a> & <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_(son_of_Constans_II)" title="Tiberius (son of Constans II)">Tiberius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leontius" title="Leontius">Leontius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberius_III" title="Tiberius III">Tiberius III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justinian_II" title="Justinian II">Justinian II</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_(son_of_Justinian_II)" title="Tiberius (son of Justinian II)">Tiberius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippicus" title="Philippicus">Philippicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasius_II_(emperor)" title="Anastasius II (emperor)">Anastasius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_III" title="Theodosius III">Theodosius III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_V" title="Constantine V">Constantine V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artabasdos" title="Artabasdos">Artabasdos</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_(son_of_Artabasdos)" title="Nikephoros (son of Artabasdos)">Nikephoros</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_IV_the_Khazar" title="Leo IV the Khazar">Leo IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_VI" title="Constantine VI">Constantine VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_of_Athens" title="Irene of Athens">Irene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_I" title="Nikephoros I">Nikephoros I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staurakios" title="Staurakios">Staurakios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_I_Rangabe" title="Michael I Rangabe">Michael I Rangabe</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Theophylact_(son_of_Michael_I)" title="Theophylact (son of Michael I)">Theophylact</a> & <a href="/wiki/Staurakios_(son_of_Michael_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Staurakios (son of Michael I)">Staurakios</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_V_the_Armenian" title="Leo V the Armenian">Leo V</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_(son_of_Leo_V)" title="Constantine (son of Leo V)">Constantine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_II" title="Michael II">Michael II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophilos_(emperor)" title="Theophilos (emperor)">Theophilos</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_(son_of_Theophilos)" title="Constantine (son of Theophilos)">Constantine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodora_(wife_of_Theophilos)" title="Theodora (wife of Theophilos)">Theodora (II)</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Thekla_(daughter_of_Theophilos)" title="Thekla (daughter of Theophilos)">Thekla</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_III" title="Michael III">Michael III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_(son_of_Basil_I)" title="Constantine (son of Basil I)">Constantine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_VI_the_Wise" title="Leo VI the Wise">Leo VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_(Byzantine_emperor)" title="Alexander (Byzantine emperor)">Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_VII" title="Constantine VII">Constantine VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanos_I_Lekapenos" title="Romanos I Lekapenos">Romanos I Lekapenos</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lekapenos" title="Christopher Lekapenos">Christopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Lekapenos" title="Stephen Lekapenos">Stephen</a> & <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Lekapenos" title="Constantine Lekapenos">Constantine Lekapenos</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanos_II" title="Romanos II">Romanos II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_II_Phokas" title="Nikephoros II Phokas">Nikephoros II Phokas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_I_Tzimiskes" title="John I Tzimiskes">John I Tzimiskes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basil_II" title="Basil II">Basil II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_VIII" title="Constantine VIII">Constantine VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoe_Porphyrogenita" title="Zoe Porphyrogenita">Zoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanos_III_Argyros" title="Romanos III Argyros">Romanos III Argyros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_IV_the_Paphlagonian" title="Michael IV the Paphlagonian">Michael IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_V_Kalaphates" title="Michael V Kalaphates">Michael V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Constantine IX Monomachos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodora_Porphyrogenita" title="Theodora Porphyrogenita">Theodora (III)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_VI_Bringas" title="Michael VI Bringas">Michael VI Bringas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_I_Komnenos" title="Isaac I Komnenos">Isaac I Komnenos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_X_Doukas" title="Constantine X Doukas">Constantine X Doukas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudokia_Makrembolitissa" title="Eudokia Makrembolitissa">Eudokia Makrembolitissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanos_IV_Diogenes" title="Romanos IV Diogenes">Romanos IV Diogenes</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Leo_Diogenes" title="Leo Diogenes">Leo</a> & <a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_Diogenes" title="Nikephoros Diogenes">Nikephoros</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_VII_Doukas" title="Michael VII Doukas">Michael VII Doukas</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor)">Andronikos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Konstantios_Doukas" title="Konstantios Doukas">Konstantios</a> & <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikephoros_III_Botaneiates" title="Nikephoros III Botaneiates">Nikephoros III Botaneiates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_Doukas_(co-emperor)" title="Constantine Doukas (co-emperor)">Constantine Doukas</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_II_Komnenos" title="John II Komnenos">John II Komnenos</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Alexios_Komnenos_(co-emperor)" title="Alexios Komnenos (co-emperor)">Alexios</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_Komnenos" title="Manuel I Komnenos">Manuel I Komnenos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_II_Komnenos" title="Alexios II Komnenos">Alexios II Komnenos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_I_Komnenos" title="Andronikos I Komnenos">Andronikos I Komnenos</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/John_Komnenos_(son_of_Andronikos_I)" title="John Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)">John</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_II_Angelos" title="Isaac II Angelos">Isaac II Angelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_III_Angelos" title="Alexios III Angelos">Alexios III Angelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_IV_Angelos" title="Alexios IV Angelos">Alexios IV Angelos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexios_V_Doukas" title="Alexios V Doukas">Alexios V Doukas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_I_Laskaris" title="Theodore I Laskaris">Theodore I Laskaris</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Laskaris_(son_of_Theodore_I)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Laskaris (son of Theodore I)">Nicholas</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_III_Vatatzes" class="mw-redirect" title="John III Vatatzes">John III Vatatzes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_II_Laskaris" title="Theodore II Laskaris">Theodore II Laskaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_IV_Laskaris" title="John IV Laskaris">John IV Laskaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_VIII_Palaiologos" title="Michael VIII Palaiologos">Michael VIII Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_II_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos II Palaiologos">Andronikos II Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_IX_Palaiologos" title="Michael IX Palaiologos">Michael IX Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_III_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos III Palaiologos">Andronikos III Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_V_Palaiologos" title="John V Palaiologos">John V Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_VI_Kantakouzenos" title="John VI Kantakouzenos">John VI Kantakouzenos</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Kantakouzenos" title="Matthew Kantakouzenos">Matthew</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronikos_IV_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos IV Palaiologos">Andronikos IV Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_VII_Palaiologos" title="John VII Palaiologos">John VII Palaiologos</a> (w. <a href="/wiki/Andronikos_V_Palaiologos" title="Andronikos V Palaiologos">Andronikos V</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_Palaiologos" title="Manuel II Palaiologos">Manuel II Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_VIII_Palaiologos" title="John VIII Palaiologos">John VIII Palaiologos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI_Palaiologos" title="Constantine XI Palaiologos">Constantine XI Palaiologos</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallic_Empire" title="Gallic Empire">Gallic emperors</a> (260–274)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">Palmyrene emperors</a> (267–273)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carausian_revolt" title="Carausian revolt">Britannic emperors</a> (286–296)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Trapezuntine_emperors" title="List of Trapezuntine emperors">Trapezuntine emperors</a> (1204–1461)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonian emperors</a> (1224–1242)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Augustae" title="List of Augustae">Augustae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_usurper" title="Roman usurper">Usurpers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_usurpers" title="List of Roman usurpers">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_usurpers" title="List of Byzantine usurpers">Eastern</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics565" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists and other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&oldid=1273311092">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_emperor&oldid=1273311092</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:20s_BC_establishments_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Category:20s BC establishments in the Roman Empire">20s BC establishments in the Roman Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1453_disestablishments" title="Category:1453 disestablishments">1453 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[\"CITEREFEckTakács2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl-Cheikh2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElton2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEncyclopaedia_of_the_Hellenic_World\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEnepekides1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFoster2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFouracreGerberding1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFouracreMcKitterickAbulafia1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreiberg2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalinsky2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsworthy2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenidge1901\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrierson1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarriet_I._Flower2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeather2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHekster2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilsdale2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHornblowerSpawforthEidinow2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphries2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffreysHaldonCormack2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaegi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdan1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazhdanConstable1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellyHug2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrsmanović2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulikowski2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumar2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoewenstein1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacridesMunitizAngelov2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadariaga2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagdalino2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMango2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartindale1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcEvoy2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcEvoy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillar1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoorhead2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMousourakis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMousourakis2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoustakas2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurray1875\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicol1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicol1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicolleHaldonTurnbull2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOmissi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstrogorsky1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstrogorsky1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOvermeire2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPagán2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParryMelling1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetit2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRantala2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRees2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRich2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiedel2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoismanWorthington2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowe2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuizPuertas2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRösch1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalmon1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandberg2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandys1921\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmolin2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrothmann2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSutherland2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSyme1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTellegen-Couperus2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTricht2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuori2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWallace-Hadrill1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatkin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWifstrand2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÁgoston2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÇolak2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFÜre2020\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Ancient Rome topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Cambridge Ancient History\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 83,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 3,\n [\"Efn\"] = 15,\n [\"Epochs of Roman Emperors\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 45,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox monarchy\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 16,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 2,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"OCLC\"] = 1,\n [\"Politics of ancient Rome\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Reign\"] = 1,\n [\"Roman emperors\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 60,\n [\"Sfn whitelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Small\"] = 3,\n [\"Smallcaps\"] = 5,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium\"] = 1,\n [\"The Papacy and the Levant\"] = 1,\n [\"Tlit\"] = 3,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBowmanChamplinLintott1996\"] = 1,\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 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type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Roman emperor","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Roman_emperor","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q842606","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q842606","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2003-04-30T18:48:16Z","dateModified":"2025-02-01T18:53:15Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/8\/83\/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg","headline":"ruler of the Roman Empire during the imperial period"}</script> </body> </html>