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leads to awakening </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Word_of_the_Buddha"_as_what_leads_to_awakening-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teachings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teachings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Teachings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Teachings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Teachings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Teachings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_ideas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_ideas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 New ideas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_ideas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spiritual_Practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spiritual_Practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Spiritual Practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spiritual_Practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Textual_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textual_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Textual practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textual_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_Mahāyāna_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_Mahāyāna_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Key Mahāyāna Sūtras </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Key_Mahāyāna_Sūtras-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Key Mahāyāna Sūtras subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Key_Mahāyāna_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proto-Mahayana_sutras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-Mahayana_sutras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Proto-Mahayana sutras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-Mahayana_sutras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prajñāpāramitā_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prajñāpāramitā_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prajñāpāramitā_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_White_Lotus_Sūtra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_White_Lotus_Sūtra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 The White Lotus Sūtra </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_White_Lotus_Sūtra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhafield_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhafield_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Buddhafield Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhafield_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samādhi_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samādhi_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Samādhi Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samādhi_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Visualization_and_Meditation_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Visualization_and_Meditation_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Visualization and Meditation Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Visualization_and_Meditation_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhāvataṃsaka_Sūtra" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhāvataṃsaka_Sūtra"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhāvataṃsaka_Sūtra-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mahāratnakūṭa_and_Mahāsamnipāta_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahāratnakūṭa_and_Mahāsamnipāta_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Mahāratnakūṭa and Mahāsamnipāta Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahāratnakūṭa_and_Mahāsamnipāta_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hagiographical_sutras_about_the_Buddha" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hagiographical_sutras_about_the_Buddha"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Hagiographical sutras about the Buddha </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hagiographical_sutras_about_the_Buddha-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sūtras_on_specific_bodhisattvas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sūtras_on_specific_bodhisattvas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Sūtras on specific bodhisattvas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sūtras_on_specific_bodhisattvas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yogācāra_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yogācāra_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.11 Yogācāra Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yogācāra_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Vimalakirtinirdeśa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Vimalakirtinirdeśa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.12 The Vimalakirtinirdeśa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Vimalakirtinirdeśa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddha-nature_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddha-nature_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.13 Buddha-nature Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddha-nature_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_Discipline_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_Discipline_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.14 Ethical Discipline Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_Discipline_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confession_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confession_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.15 Confession Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confession_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dhāraṇī_sutras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dhāraṇī_sutras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.16 Dhāraṇī sutras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dhāraṇī_sutras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Esoteric_Sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Esoteric_Sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.17 Esoteric Sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Esoteric_Sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-Indic_sūtras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-Indic_sūtras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.18 Non-Indic sūtras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-Indic_sūtras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mahāyāna_sutra_commentaries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahāyāna_sutra_commentaries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Mahāyāna sutra commentaries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahāyāna_sutra_commentaries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mahāyāna_Sūtra_Collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahāyāna_Sūtra_Collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Mahāyāna Sūtra Collections </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mahāyāna_Sūtra_Collections-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mahāyāna Sūtra Collections subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mahāyāna_Sūtra_Collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_earliest_group_of_Mahāyāna_Sūtras_translated_into_Chinese" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_earliest_group_of_Mahāyāna_Sūtras_translated_into_Chinese"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 The earliest group of Mahāyāna Sūtras translated into Chinese </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_earliest_group_of_Mahāyāna_Sūtras_translated_into_Chinese-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kumārajīva_translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kumārajīva_translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Kumārajīva translations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kumārajīva_translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Sūtrasamuccaya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Sūtrasamuccaya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 The Sūtrasamuccaya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Sūtrasamuccaya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Madhyamaka_school" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Madhyamaka_school"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Madhyamaka school </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Madhyamaka_school-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Chinese_canon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Chinese_canon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 In the Chinese canon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Chinese_canon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_Tibetan_Canon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_Tibetan_Canon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 In the Tibetan Canon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_Tibetan_Canon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Newar_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Newar_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Newar Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Newar_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Notes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Mahayana sutras</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" > 18 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0" title="মহাযান সূত্ৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="মহাযান সূত্ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80" title="মহাযান সূত্রাবলী – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মহাযান সূত্রাবলী" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C3%A1j%C3%A1nov%C3%A9_s%C3%BAtry" title="Mahájánové sútry – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mahájánové sútry" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana-Sutras" title="Mahayana-Sutras – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mahayana-Sutras" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajaana_suutrad" title="Mahajaana suutrad – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Mahajaana suutrad" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutras_Mahayana" title="Sutras Mahayana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sutras Mahayana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanaj_sutroj" title="Mahajanaj sutroj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mahajanaj sutroj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="سوتراهای ماهایانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سوتراهای ماهایانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%80%EC%8A%B9_%EA%B2%BD%EC%A0%84" title="대승 경전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="대승 경전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="महायान सूत्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="महायान सूत्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanos_s%C5%ABtros" title="Mahajanos sūtros – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mahajanos sūtros" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C3%A1j%C3%A1na_sz%C3%BAtr%C3%A1k" title="Mahájána szútrák – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mahájána szútrák" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="महायान सूत्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="महायान सूत्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81nas%C5%ABtraene" title="Mahāyānasūtraene – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mahāyānasūtraene" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%83%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Махајана сутре – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Махајана сутре" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayanasutrorna" title="Mahayanasutrorna – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mahayanasutrorna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="พระสูตรมหายาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พระสูตรมหายาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahayana_Sutralar%C4%B1" title="Mahayana Sutraları – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Nepal_Thangka_with_Prajnaparamita.jpg/220px-Nepal_Thangka_with_Prajnaparamita.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="340" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Nepal_Thangka_with_Prajnaparamita.jpg/330px-Nepal_Thangka_with_Prajnaparamita.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Nepal_Thangka_with_Prajnaparamita.jpg/440px-Nepal_Thangka_with_Prajnaparamita.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1472" data-file-height="2277" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_painting" title="Nepalese painting">Nepalese</a> <a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a> with Prajñāpāramitā, the personification of transcendent <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">wisdom</a> (prajñā), holding a Mahāyāna Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nagarjuna,_Tibet,_1644-1911_AD_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu,_China_-_DSC04486.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Nagarjuna%2C_Tibet%2C_1644-1911_AD_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu%2C_China_-_DSC04486.jpg/220px-Nagarjuna%2C_Tibet%2C_1644-1911_AD_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu%2C_China_-_DSC04486.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Nagarjuna%2C_Tibet%2C_1644-1911_AD_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu%2C_China_-_DSC04486.jpg/330px-Nagarjuna%2C_Tibet%2C_1644-1911_AD_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu%2C_China_-_DSC04486.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Nagarjuna%2C_Tibet%2C_1644-1911_AD_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu%2C_China_-_DSC04486.jpg/440px-Nagarjuna%2C_Tibet%2C_1644-1911_AD_-_Sichuan_Provincial_Museum_-_Chengdu%2C_China_-_DSC04486.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1402" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>A Tibetan depiction of <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a> receiving Mahāyāna sūtras from the <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">Nāgas</a> (on the right)</figcaption></figure> The Mahāyāna sūtras are a broad genre of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist scripture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sūtra</a>) that are accepted as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/canon" class="extiw" title="wikt:canon">canonical</a> and as <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">buddhavacana</a> ("Buddha word") in certain communities of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna Buddhism</a>. They are largely preserved in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> manuscripts, and translations in the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a>. Several hundred Mahāyāna sūtras survive in Sanskrit, or in Chinese and Tibetan translations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkilton1997101-1">[1]</a> They are also sometimes called Vaipulya ("extensive") sūtras by earlier sources.<a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-2">[2]</a> The Buddhist scholar <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asaṅga</a> classified the Mahāyāna sūtras as part of the Bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Piṭaka</a>, a collection of texts meant for <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattvas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1992-3">[3]</a> Modern scholars of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhist studies</a> generally hold that these sūtras first began to appear between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE.<a href="#cite_note-Buddhism_2004,_page_293-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._252-5">[5]</a> They continued being composed, compiled, and edited until the <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">decline of Buddhism in ancient India</a>. Some of them may have also been composed outside of India, such as in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Williams_2008,_p._85-6">[6]</a> Some of the most influential Mahāyāna sūtras include the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Perfection of Wisdom Sutras</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81vata%E1%B9%83saka_S%C5%ABtra" title="Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra">Avatamsaka Sutra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Lankavatara Sutra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_sutras" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure Land sutras">Pure Land Sutras</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Nirvana Sutra</a>. Mahāyāna Buddhists typically consider several major Mahāyāna sūtras to have been taught by <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Shakyamuni Buddha</a>, committed to memory and recited by his disciples, in particular <a href="/wiki/Ananda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ananda">Ananda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahan1998249-7">[7]</a> However, other Mahāyāna sūtras are presented as being taught by other figures, such as <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattvas_of_the_Earth" title="Bodhisattvas of the Earth">bodhisattvas</a> like <a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a>. There are various reasons that Indian Mahāyāna Buddhists gave to explain the fact that they only appeared at a later time. One such reason was that they had been hidden away in the land of the <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">Nāgas</a> (snake deities, dragons) until the proper time for their dissemination arrived. The Mahāyāna sūtras were not accepted by all Buddhists in ancient India, and the various <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Indian Buddhist schools</a> disagreed on their status as "word of the Buddha".<a href="#cite_note-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68-8">[8]</a> They are generally not accepted as the Buddha's word by the school of <a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravāda Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_background">History and background</h2>[<a 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse:collapse"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFD700;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Mahayana" title="Category:Mahayana">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD700;"><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Lotus, one of the eight auspicious symbols in Mahāyāna"><img alt="A Lotus, one of the eight auspicious symbols in Mahāyāna" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg/150px-Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg/225px-Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg/300px-Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="576" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Teachings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Mind of Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">Skillful Means</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Transcendent Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Transcendent Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81#Mahayana_Buddhism" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara#The_doctrine_of_Vijñapti-mātra" title="Yogachara">Consciousness-only</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trikaya" title="Trikaya">Three bodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yana_(Buddhism)" title="Yana (Buddhism)">Three vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)#Apratiṣṭhita_nirvāna" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Non-abiding Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekay%C4%81na" title="Ekayāna">One Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts" title="Bodhisattva Precepts">Bodhisattva Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)" title="Bhūmi (Buddhism)">Bodhisattva stages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">Pure Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_mind" title="Luminous mind">Luminous mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">Dharani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Turnings_of_the_Wheel_of_Dharma" title="Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma">Three Turnings</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Shakyamuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi-Buddha" title="Adi-Buddha">Adi-Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Akshobhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_Dev%C4%AB" title="Prajñāpāramitā Devī">Prajñāpāramitā Devī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaisajyaguru" title="Bhaisajyaguru">Bhaiṣajyaguru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrasattva" title="Vajrasattva">Vajrasattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrathful_deities" title="Wrathful deities">Wrathful deities</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mahayana sutras</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra">Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasamnipata_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahasamnipata Sutra">Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti-nirdesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimalakirti-nirdesa">Vimalakirtinirdeśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism#Key_Mahayana_sources" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra" title="Lalitavistara Sūtra">Lalitavistara Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhiraja_Sutra" title="Samadhiraja Sutra">Samādhirāja Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_s%C5%ABtras" title="Tathāgatagarbha sūtras">Tathāgatagarbha sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_Si%E1%B9%83han%C4%81da_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra">Śrīmālādevī Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra">Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lankavatara_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lankavatara Sutra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanavy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ghanavyūha Sūtra">Ghanavyūha sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra" title="Golden Light Sutra">Golden Light Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gataguhyaka_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra">Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Davy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra">Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism#Mahāyāna_schools" title="Schools of Buddhism">Major schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogācāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fo_Guang_Shan" title="Fo Guang Shan">Fo Guang Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzu_Chi" title="Tzu Chi">Tzu Chi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_Drum_Mountain" title="Dharma Drum Mountain">Fa Gu Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chung_Tai_Shan" title="Chung Tai Shan">Chung Tai Shan</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Key figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nāgārjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Ashvaghosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryadeva" title="Aryadeva">Āryadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthiramati" title="Sthiramati">Sthiramati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81viveka" title="Bhāviveka">Bhāvaviveka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakīrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrakirti" title="Chandrakirti">Candrakīrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huineng" title="Huineng">Huineng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoghavajra" title="Amoghavajra">Amoghavajra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saich%C5%8D" title="Saichō">Saichō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shāntideva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Shāntarakshita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wohnyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazu_Daoyi" title="Mazu Daoyi">Mazu Daoyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinul" title="Jinul">Jinul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahui_Zonggao" title="Dahui Zonggao">Dahui Zonggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongzhi_Zhengjue" title="Hongzhi Zhengjue">Hongzhi Zhengjue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aa%E1%B9%85karanandana" title="Śaṅkaranandana">Śaṅkaranandana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vir%C5%ABpa" title="Virūpa">Virūpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara%C5%9B%C4%81nti" title="Ratnākaraśānti">Ratnākaraśānti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhayakaragupta" title="Abhayakaragupta">Abhayākaragupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Nāropā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolpopa_Sherab_Gyaltsen" title="Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen">Dolpopa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangjung_Dorje,_3rd_Karmapa_Lama" title="Rangjung Dorje, 3rd Karmapa Lama">Rangjung Dorje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa" title="Je Tsongkhapa">Tsongkhapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longchenpa" title="Longchenpa">Longchenpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakuin_Ekaku" title="Hakuin Ekaku">Hakuin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanshan_Deqing" title="Hanshan Deqing">Hanshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taixu" title="Taixu">Taixu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheng-yen" title="Sheng-yen">Sheng-yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Regional traditions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Han Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">West</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" title="Template:Mahāyāna Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" title="Template talk:Mahāyāna Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mahāyāna Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_early_history">Origins and early history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins and early history">edit</a>]</div> The origins of the Mahāyāna and their sūtras are not completely understood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990260-10">[10]</a> Modern scholars have proposed numerous theories about the origins of Mahāyāna and the Mahāyāna texts. Some of the main theories are the following:<a href="#cite_note-:4-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <ul><li>The lay origins theory, first proposed by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Przyluski" title="Jean Przyluski">Jean Przyluski</a> and then defended by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lamotte" title="Étienne Lamotte">Étienne Lamotte</a> and Akira Hirakawa, states that <a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">laypersons</a> were particularly important in the development of Mahāyāna and its texts. This is partly based on some texts like the <a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_Sutra" title="Vimalakirti Sutra">Vimalakirti Sūtra</a>, which praise lay figures at the expense of monastics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990271-13">[13]</a> This theory is no longer widely accepted.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a></li> <li>The theory which held that Mahāyāna developed within the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> tradition. Drewes notes that there is actually little evidence that Mahāsāṃghika schools had a special connection to the production of Mahāyāna texts, and it seems Mahāyāna arose as a pan-Buddhist phenomenon.</li> <li>The "forest hypothesis", which states that Mahāyāna arose mainly among hardcore wilderness ascetics (aranyavasins) who were attempting to imitate the Buddha. This has been defended by Paul Harrison and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Nattier" title="Jan Nattier">Jan Nattier</a>. This theory is based on certain sutras like the <a href="/wiki/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra">Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra</a> and the Mahāyāna Rāṣṭrapālapaṛiprcchā which promote ascetic practice in the wilderness as a superior and elite path. These texts criticize monks who live in cities and denigrate the forest life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier2003193–4-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> However, Drewes notes that only a few early Mahāyāna texts advocate or promote this practice, and other Sūtras outright discourage forest dwelling or say it is unnecessary.</li> <li>The cult of the book theory, defended by <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Schopen" title="Gregory Schopen">Gregory Schopen</a>, states that Mahāyāna arose among a number of loosely connected book worshiping groups of monastics, who studied, memorized, copied and revered particular Mahāyāna sūtras. Schopen also argued that these groups mostly rejected <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> worship, or worshiping holy relics.</li></ul> According to David Drewes, none of these theories have been satisfactorily proven and they lack sufficient evidence. Drewes writes that the most likely origin of Mahāyāna is that it was "primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sūtras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures."<a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-2">[2]</a> The figures of this movement probably saw themselves as bodhisattvas entrusted with teaching and preserving the Mahāyāna sūtras.<a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-2">[2]</a> Scholars like Joseph Walser have also noted how Mahāyāna sūtras are heterogeneous and seem to have been composed in different communities with varying ideas. Walser writes that "Mahāyāna was probably never unitary, but differed from region to region.".<a href="#cite_note-:10-17">[17]</a> Likewise, <a href="/wiki/Hajime_Nakamura" title="Hajime Nakamura">Hajime Nakamura</a> states:<blockquote>Unlike the various recensions of the <a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hīnayāna</a> canon, which were virtually closed by the early centuries of the common era and which shared, at least ideally, a common structure . . . the Mahāyāna scriptures were composed in a variety of disparate social and religious environments over the course of several centuries, diverge widely from each other in content and outlook, and were in many cases meant to stand as individual works representing (it has been conjectured) rivals to the entire Hīnayāna corpus.<a href="#cite_note-:10-17">[17]</a></blockquote>There is also no evidence that Mahāyāna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed within the early Buddhist schools as a certain set of ideals, texts and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier2003193–194-18">[18]</a> Mahāyānists also never had a separate <a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a> (monastic rule) from the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">early Buddhist schools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The Chinese monk <a href="/wiki/Yijing_(monk)" title="Yijing (monk)">Yijing</a> who visited India in the seventh century, writes about how Mahāyāna monastics and non-Mahāyāna monastics lived together under the same Vinaya. The only difference among them was that Mahāyāna monks venerated the bodhisattvas and read the Mahāyāna sūtras.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Some scholars like <a href="/wiki/Richard_Gombrich" title="Richard Gombrich">Richard Gombrich</a> think that Mahāyāna Sūtras only arose after the practice of writing down religious texts became widespread in India and thus that they were always written documents. However, James Apple and David Drewes have drawn attention to these oral features of the early Mahāyāna texts, which were not written documents but orally preserved teachings. Drewes writes, that Mahāyāna sūtras <blockquote>advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones, make reference to people who have memorized or are in the process of memorizing them, and consistently attach higher prestige to mnemic/oral practices than to ones involving written texts. Study of differences in various versions of sutras translated into Chinese has directly shown that these texts were often transmitted orally.<a href="#cite_note-:4-11">[11]</a> </blockquote>Mahāyāna sūtras were committed to memory and recited by important learned monks called "Dharma reciters" (dharmabhāṇakas), who were viewed as the substitute for the actual speaking presence of the Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-Apple_1-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahan1998-23">[23]</a> Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of Mahāyāna comes from early Chinese translations of Mahāyāna texts. These Mahāyāna teachings were first propagated into <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> by <a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a>, the first translator of Mahāyāna Sūtras into Chinese during the second century.<a href="#cite_note-China_2004,_page_492-24">[24]</a> The Mahāyāna movement remained quite small until the fifth century, with very few manuscripts having been found before then (the exceptions are from <a href="/wiki/Bamyan" title="Bamyan">Bamiyan</a>). According to Joseph Walser, the fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in their production.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as <a href="/wiki/Faxian" title="Faxian">Faxian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yijing_(monk)" title="Yijing (monk)">Yijing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> were traveling to India, and their writings describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_scholarly_views_on_dating">Modern scholarly views on dating</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern scholarly views on dating">edit</a>]</div> Dating the Mahāyāna sūtras is quite difficult; and many can only be dated firmly to when they were translated into another language.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkilton1999635-27">[27]</a> Andrew Skilton summarizes a common prevailing view of the Mahāyāna sūtras among modern Buddhist studies scholars as follows: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Western scholarship does not go so far as to impugn the religious authority of Mahayana sutras, but it tends to assume that they are not the literal word of the historical Śākyamuni Buddha. Unlike the śrāvaka critics just cited, we have no possibility of knowing just who composed and compiled these texts, and for us, removed from the time of their authors by up to two millennia, they are effectively an anonymous literature. It is widely accepted that Mahayana sutras constitute a body of literature that began to appear from as early as the 1st century BCE, although the evidence for this date is circumstantial. The concrete evidence for dating any part of this literature is to be found in dated Chinese translations, amongst which we find a body of ten Mahayana sutras translated by Lokaksema before 186 C.E. – and these constitute our earliest objectively dated Mahayana texts. This picture may be qualified by the analysis of very early manuscripts recently coming out of Afghanistan, but for the meantime this is speculation. In effect we have a vast body of anonymous but relatively coherent literature, of which individual items can only be dated firmly when they were translated into another language at a known date.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkilton1999635-27">[27]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">A. K. Warder</a> notes that the Mahāyāna Sūtras are highly unlikely to have come from the teachings of the historical Buddha, since the language and style of every extant Mahāyāna Sūtra is comparable more to later Indian texts than to texts that could have circulated in the Buddha's putative lifetime.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Warder also notes that the Tibetan historian <a href="/wiki/Taranatha" title="Taranatha">Tāranātha</a> (1575–1634) proclaimed that after the Buddha taught the sutras, they disappeared from the human world and circulated only in the world of the <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">nagas</a>. In Warder's view, "this is as good as an admission that no such texts existed until the 2nd century A.D."<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Paul Williams writes that while Mahāyāna tradition believes that the Mahāyāna sūtras were taught by the Buddha, "source-critical and historical awareness has made it impossible for the modern scholar to accept this traditional account."<a href="#cite_note-:1-30">[30]</a> However, Williams further writes that<blockquote>Nevertheless, it is not always absurd to suggest that a Mahāyāna sūtra or teaching may contain elements of a tradition which goes back to the Buddha himself, which was played down or just possibly excluded from the canonical formulations of the early schools. We have seen that even at the First Council there is evidence of disagreement as regards the details of the Buddha's teaching.<a href="#cite_note-:1-30">[30]</a></blockquote>John W. Pettit writes that "Mahāyāna has not got a strong historical claim for representing the explicit teachings of the historical Buddha". However, he also argues that basic Mahāyāna concepts such as "the bodhisattva ethic, emptiness (sunyata), and the recognition of a distinction between buddhahood and arhatship as spiritual ideals," can be seen in the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pāli Canon</a>. According to Pettit, this suggests that Mahāyāna is "not simply an accretion of fabricated doctrines" but "has a strong connection with the teachings of Buddha himself".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettit201344-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Questions_of_authenticity">Questions of authenticity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Questions of authenticity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nagarjuna_Conqueror_of_the_Serpent.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Nagarjuna_Conqueror_of_the_Serpent.jpg/220px-Nagarjuna_Conqueror_of_the_Serpent.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Nagarjuna_Conqueror_of_the_Serpent.jpg/330px-Nagarjuna_Conqueror_of_the_Serpent.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Nagarjuna_Conqueror_of_the_Serpent.jpg/440px-Nagarjuna_Conqueror_of_the_Serpent.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1110" /></a><figcaption>A painting by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Roerich" title="Nicholas Roerich">Nicholas Roerich</a> (1925) depicting Nāgārjuna in the realm of the Nagas, where the Prajñāpāramitā was said to have been hidden</figcaption></figure> Mahāyāna sūtras are generally regarded by Mahāyānists as being more profound than the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">śrāvaka</a> texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-Mahāyāna sūtras.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The Mahāyāna sūtras were not recognized as being Buddha word (buddhavacana) by various groups of Indian Buddhists and there was lively debate over their authenticity throughout the Buddhist world. Buddhist communities such as the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81s%C4%81%E1%B9%83ghika" title="Mahāsāṃghika">Mahāsāṃghika</a> school and the Theravada tradition of <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> became divided into groups which accepted or did not accept these texts.<a href="#cite_note-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68-8">[8]</a> Theravāda commentaries of the <a href="/wiki/Anuradhapura_Maha_Viharaya" title="Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya">Mahavihara</a> sub-school mention these texts (which they call Vedalla/Vetulla) as not being the Buddha word and being counterfeit scriptures.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Saṃmitīya</a> school was also known as being strongly opposed to the Mahayana sutras as noted by the Tibetan historian <a href="/wiki/Taranatha" title="Taranatha">Tāranātha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> reports that a <a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Saṃmitīya</a> known as Prajñāgupta composed a treatise which argued against the Mahāyāna.<a href="#cite_note-Joshi,_Lalmai_1987._p._171-36">[36]</a> Various Mahāyāna sūtras warn against the charge that they are not word of the Buddha and defend their authenticity in different ways.<a href="#cite_note-:02-37">[37]</a> Some Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Gaṇḍavyūha often criticize early Buddhist figures, such as <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sariputra</a> for lacking knowledge and goodness, and thus, these elders or <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">śrāvaka</a> are seen as not intelligent enough to receive the Mahāyāna teachings.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The reason these accounts give for the historically late disclosure of the Mahāyāna teachings is that most people were initially unable to understand the Mahāyāna sūtras at the time of the Buddha (500 BCE) and suitable recipients for these teachings had not yet arisen.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Some traditional accounts of the transmission of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras claim that they were originally stored or hidden in the realm of the <a href="/wiki/N%C4%81ga" title="Nāga">nāgas</a> (serpent-like supernatural beings). Later, these sūtras were retrieved by <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nāgārjuna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Other Mahāyāna sources state that they were preached or preserved by bodhisattvas like <a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a> or Buddhas like <a href="/wiki/Vajradhara" title="Vajradhara">Vajradhāra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Another Mahāyāna explanation for the later appearance of the Mahāyāna sūtras in the historical record is the idea that they are the revelations of certain Buddhas and bodhisattvas, transmitted through visions and meditative experiences to a select few individuals.<a href="#cite_note-:02-37">[37]</a> The practice of visualization of Buddhas (in texts like the <a href="/wiki/Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABhas%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Sukhāvatīvyūhasūtra">Sukhāvatīvyūha</a>) has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sūtras which were seen as revelations from Buddha in other heavenly worlds. Williams also notes that there are other Mahāyāna texts which speak of sūtras being revealed or entrusted to forest dwelling monks by <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">devas</a> (deities). Paul Harrison notes that the idea that devas may preach the Buddha word is also present in non-Mahāyāna texts.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of dream revelations in certain texts such as the Arya-svapna-nirdesa which lists and interprets 108 dream signs.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Word_of_the_Buddha"_as_what_leads_to_awakening">"Word of the Buddha" as what leads to awakening</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: "Word of the Buddha" as what leads to awakening">edit</a>]</div> A different Mahāyāna justification for the authenticity of the Mahāyāna sūtras is that they are in accord with the truth, with the Buddha's <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a> and therefore they lead to awakening. This is based on the idea that "Whatever is well spoken [subhasita], all that is the word of the Buddha [buddhabhasita]."<a href="#cite_note-:2-45">[45]</a> As such, this idea holds that Mahāyāna is the "word of the Buddha" because it leads to awakening (bodhi), not because it was spoken by a specific individual with the title "Buddha". According to Venerable <a href="/wiki/Hsuan_Hua" title="Hsuan Hua">Hsuan Hua</a>, there are five types of beings who may speak "Buddha word": a Buddha, a disciple of a Buddha, a <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">deva</a> (heavenly being), a <a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">ṛṣi</a> (a sage), or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a Buddha that its contents are true Dharma.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> The Indian Mahāyāna scholar <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shantideva</a> (8th century) states:<blockquote>Through four factors is an inspired utterance [pratibhana] the word of the Buddhas. What four? (i)...the inspired utterance is connected with truth, not untruth; (ii) it is connected with the Dharma, not that which is not the Dharma; (iii) it brings about the renunciation of moral taints [klesa] not their increase; and (iv) it shows the laudable qualities of nirvana, not those of the cycle of rebirth [samsara].<a href="#cite_note-:2-45">[45]</a></blockquote>Williams writes that similar ideas can be found in the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pali Canon</a>, though it is interpreted in a more open ended way in the Mahāyāna in order to include a larger set of teachings that were seen as spiritually useful.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The modern Japanese Zen Buddhist scholar <a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a> similarly argued that while the Mahāyāna sūtras may not have been directly taught by the historical Buddha, the "spirit and central ideas" of Mahāyāna "are those of its founder". Thus, Suzuki admits (and celebrates) how the Mahāyāna evolved and adapted itself to suit the times by developing new teachings and texts, while at the same time maintaining the core "spirit" of the Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Teachings">Teachings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Teachings">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg/220px-MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg/330px-MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg/440px-MET_24_DP238441r2_61E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3002" /></a><figcaption>Folio from a manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Shadakshari Lokesvara</a>, early 12th century, opaque watercolor on palm leaf</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_ideas">New ideas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: New ideas">edit</a>]</div> The teachings as contained in the Mahāyāna sūtras as a whole have been described as a loosely bound bundle of many teachings, which was able to contain the various contradictions.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Because of these contradictory elements, there are "very few things that can be said with certainty about Mahāyāna Buddhism".<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Central to the Mahāyāna sūtras is the ideal of the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a> path, something which is not unique to them, however, as such a path is also taught in non-Mahayana texts which also required prediction of future Buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</a> What is unique to Mahāyāna sūtras is the idea that the term bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha (i.e. the arising of <a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a>) and without the requirement of a living Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</a> They also claim that any person who accepts and uses Mahāyāna sūtras either had already received or will soon receive such a prediction from a Buddha, establishing their position as an irreversible bodhisattva.<a href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</a> Some Mahāyāna sūtras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like the <a href="/wiki/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra">Ugraparipṛcchā</a> see it as something for a small elite of hardcore ascetics.<a href="#cite_note-:9-53">[53]</a> While some Mahāyāna sūtras like the Vimalakirti sūtra and the White Lotus sūtra criticize <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhats</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">sravakas</a> (referring to non-Mahāyānists) as lacking wisdom, and reject their path as a lower vehicle, i.e. '<a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">hīnayāna</a>' (the 'inferior way'), earlier Mahāyāna sūtras do not do this.<a href="#cite_note-:5-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> As noted by David Drewes "early Mahāyāna sūtras often present their teachings as useful not only to people who wish to become Buddhas, but to those who wish to attain arhatship or <a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">pratyekabuddhahood</a> as well. The old idea that the Mahāyāna began with the rejection of the arhat ideal in favor of that of the bodhisattva is thus clearly incorrect."<a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-2">[2]</a> Paul Williams also writes that earlier Mahāyāna sūtras like the <a href="/wiki/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra">Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ajitasena_Sutra" title="Ajitasena Sutra">Ajitasena sutra</a> do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal of <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhatship</a> like later sutras.<a href="#cite_note-:9-53">[53]</a> According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sūtras contain several elements besides the promotion of the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a> ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">purelands</a> and great, 'celestial' <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattvas</a>, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives."<a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-2">[2]</a> Several Mahāyāna sūtras depict Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as the Buddhas <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Five_Wisdom_Buddhas" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Wisdom Buddhas">Akshobhya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a>, and the bodhisattvas <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ma%C3%B1jusri" class="mw-redirect" title="Mañjusri">Mañjusri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ksitigarbha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ksitigarbha">Ksitigarbha</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteshvara</a>. An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>. Mahāyāna texts see Buddhas (and to a lesser extent, certain bodhisattvas as well) as transcendental or supramundane (lokuttara) beings, who live for eons constantly helping others through their activity.<a href="#cite_note-:7-56">[56]</a> According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares".<a href="#cite_note-:8-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Buddha Sakyamuni</a>'s life and death on earth is then usually understood <a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">docetically</a>, as a "mere appearance", his death was an unreal show (which was done in order to teach others), while in reality he continues to live in a transcendent realm in order to help all beings.<a href="#cite_note-:8-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spiritual_Practices">Spiritual Practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Spiritual Practices">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures,by_Li_Mei-shu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg/220px-Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg/330px-Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg/440px-Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2183" /></a><figcaption>Chanting the Buddhist Scriptures, by Taiwanese painter <a href="/wiki/Li_Mei-shu" title="Li Mei-shu">Li Mei-shu</a></figcaption></figure> Mahāyāna sūtras, especially those of the <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Prajñāpāramitā</a> genre, teach the importance of the practice of the six perfections (<a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">pāramitā</a>) as part of the path to <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>, and special attention is given to the perfection of wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) which is seen as primary.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The importance of developing <a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a>, which refers to a mind that is aimed at full awakening (i.e. Buddhahood) is also stressed. Another central practice advocated by the Mahāyāna sūtras is focused around "the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">merit</a>, the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood".<a href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</a> According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sūtras teach simple religious practices that are supposed to make Buddhahood easy to achieve. Some of the most widely taught practices taught in Mahāyāna sūtras include:<a href="#cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-2">[2]</a> <ul><li>hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, or reciting their name</li> <li>maintaining Buddhist precepts, including new <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts" title="Bodhisattva Precepts">bodhisattva precepts</a></li> <li>listening to, memorizing, reciting, preaching, worshiping and copying Mahāyāna sūtras,</li> <li>rejoicing (anumodana) in the collected meritorious actions of all previous Buddhas and other beings.</li></ul> Another innovative "shortcut" to Buddhahood in Mahāyāna sutras are what are often called <a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">Pure Land</a> practices. These involve the invocation of Buddhas such as <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Aksobhya</a>, who are said to have created "<a href="/wiki/Pure_land" title="Pure land">Buddha fields</a>" or "pure lands" especially so that those beings who wish to be reborn there can easily and quickly become Buddhas. Reciting certain sūtras, along with meditating on and reciting the names of these Buddhas can allow one to be reborn in these pure buddha-fields. One there, one can hear the Dharma directly from a Buddha and train in the bodhisattva path in a pure place without disturbances.<a href="#cite_note-:0-52">[52]</a> The study of Mahāyāna sūtras is central to <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a>, where they are widely read. In Tibetan Buddhism meanwhile, there is a greater emphasis on the study of Mahāyāna <a href="/wiki/Shastra" title="Shastra">śāstras</a> (philosophical treatises), which are seen as more systematic ways of studying the content found in the sūtras.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Textual_practices">Textual practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Textual practices">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Navagrantha_P%C4%81%E1%B9%ADha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Navagrantha_P%C4%81%E1%B9%ADha.jpg/220px-Navagrantha_P%C4%81%E1%B9%ADha.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Navagrantha_P%C4%81%E1%B9%ADha.jpg/330px-Navagrantha_P%C4%81%E1%B9%ADha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Navagrantha_P%C4%81%E1%B9%ADha.jpg/440px-Navagrantha_P%C4%81%E1%B9%ADha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Nepalese Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Puja_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Puja (Buddhism)">pūjā</a> worshiping the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Navagrantha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Navagrantha (page does not exist)">Navagrantha</a> (the nine most sacred texts in <a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar Buddhism</a>).</figcaption></figure> Numerous Mahayana sutras teach the veneration and recitation of the sutras themselves as a religious <a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">icon</a> and as an embodiment of the Dharma and the Buddha. In Indian <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana Buddhism</a>, the worship of sutras, like the Prajñāpāramitā sutra books (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Pustaka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pustaka (page does not exist)">pustaka</a>) and manuscripts became an important part of Mahayana practice which was considered to bring wisdom, <a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">merit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apotropaic_magic" title="Apotropaic magic">apotropaic</a> protection from harm. This practice is promoted in some of the <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutras</a> themselves.<a href="#cite_note-:92-60">[60]</a> The Prajñāpāramitā sutras promote the copying, reading, recitation, contemplation, and distribution of the sutra, and they also teach its worship and veneration. The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra states:<blockquote>Here, the sons or daughters of good family are enjoined to put up a copy of the Prajñāpāramitā on an altar, and to pay respect to it, to revere, worship and adore it, pay regard and reverence to it with flowers, incense, powders, umbrellas, banners, bells, and rows of burning lamps.<a href="#cite_note-:92-60">[60]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm/220px--Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="161" data-mwtitle="Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d6/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm/Monks_of_Soji-ji.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>Ritual chanting of the <a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sutra</a> in <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dji-ji" title="Sōji-ji">Sōji-ji</a> Temple in <a href="/wiki/Yokohama" title="Yokohama">Yokohama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Enshrined_Lotus_Sutra_at_Vietnamese_Temple.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Enshrined_Lotus_Sutra_at_Vietnamese_Temple.png/220px-Enshrined_Lotus_Sutra_at_Vietnamese_Temple.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Enshrined_Lotus_Sutra_at_Vietnamese_Temple.png/330px-Enshrined_Lotus_Sutra_at_Vietnamese_Temple.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Enshrined_Lotus_Sutra_at_Vietnamese_Temple.png/440px-Enshrined_Lotus_Sutra_at_Vietnamese_Temple.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>The Lotus Sutra enshrined in a Vietnamese Buddhist temple, Ksitigarbha (Dia Tang) Temple in <a href="/wiki/Lynnwood,_Washington" title="Lynnwood, Washington">Lynnwood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a></figcaption></figure> The Prajñāpāramitā sutras also reference themselves as the highest object of study and worship, claiming that studying, reciting, and worshiping them is superior to worshiping <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupas</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aar%C4%ABra" title="Śarīra">Buddha relics</a>, and other objects.<a href="#cite_note-:06-61">[61]</a> The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā claims that this is because "the relics of the Tathāgata have come forth from this perfection of wisdom". Since the very concept of Prajñāpāramitā (transcendent knowledge, perfection of wisdom) is linked with the texts themselves, the texts were considered to have a mystic power within, which is the source of all the merit in the other religious objects, like Buddha relics.<a href="#cite_note-:06-61">[61]</a> Furthermore, Mahayana sutras like the Aṣṭasāhasrikā often claim that the Buddha is present in the text. For example the Aṣṭasāhasrikā says that "when a pūja is done to the Prajñāpāramitā, it is a pūja to the venerable past, present, and future Buddhas."<a href="#cite_note-:13-62">[62]</a> This sutra also states that wherever the sutra itself is placed or recited, it makes the ground a <a href="/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya">caitya</a> (a sacred space, shrine, sanctuary).<a href="#cite_note-:13-62">[62]</a> According to Jacob Kinnard, Prajñāpāramitā sutras even present their physical form (as books, manuscripts, etc) as being akin to the Buddha's <a href="/wiki/Nirm%C4%81%E1%B9%87ak%C4%81ya" title="Nirmāṇakāya">rūpakāya</a> (physical form to be worshiped, like his relics) as well as being his <a href="/wiki/Dharmak%C4%81ya" title="Dharmakāya">dharmakāya</a> (which contains the <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a>, the Buddha's teachings).<a href="#cite_note-:13-62">[62]</a> The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā further states:<blockquote>One might hear this deep perfection of wisdom being spoken, being taught, being explained, being pointed out, and having heard it here he might bring forth the designation 'Teacher' with regard to this perfection of wisdom—he thinks, 'The Teacher is face to face with me, the Teacher is seen by me.'<a href="#cite_note-:06-61">[61]</a></blockquote>Since the sutras teach and lead one to perfect wisdom, and perfect wisdom was considered to be the mother of all Buddhas, then to honor and to know the text was to honor and to know the Buddha. As such, the Aṣṭasāhasrikā states:<blockquote>In the same way in which you, Ānanda, honor me, who is now the Tathāgata...so also, Ānanda, this perfection of wisdom is to be [always] spread, praised, worshipped, venerated, respected, honored, protected, copied, recited, explained, taught, pointed out, advanced, studied, spoken, and elevated, with the same solicitude, affection, respect, and in the same virtuous spirit....But, in short, in the same way in which I am your teacher, so is the perfection of wisdom.<a href="#cite_note-:06-61">[61]</a></blockquote>The worship of Mahayana sutra books and even in anthropomorphic form (through deities like <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_Devi" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajñāpāramitā Devi">Prajñāpāramitā Devi</a>) remains important in many Mahayana Buddhist traditions, including <a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a>. This is often done in rituals in which the sutras (or a deity representing the sutra) are presented various types of offerings. The sutra may then be chanted (partially or completely), though sometimes, a <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantra</a> representing the sutra or just the title of the sutra is recited. For example, the practice of chanting the title of the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a> (called the <a href="/wiki/Namu_My%C5%8Dh%C5%8D_Renge_Ky%C5%8D" title="Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō">Daimoku</a>) is the central practice in <a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren Buddhism</a>, a form of Mahayana which focuses on the veneration of this sutra. In the <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a> tradition meanwhile, a central practice is the recitation and copying of the <a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81vata%E1%B9%83saka_S%C5%ABtra" title="Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra">Avatamsaka Sutra</a> (which is often done in a group setting or on solitary retreat).<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_Mahāyāna_Sūtras">Key Mahāyāna Sūtras</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Key Mahāyāna Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-Mahayana_sutras">Proto-Mahayana sutras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Proto-Mahayana sutras">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Ajitasena_Sutra" title="Ajitasena Sutra">Ajitasena Sūtra</a> has been called "Proto-Mahāyāna" by Paul Williams. While it promotes Buddhahood for all, the text lacks the usual antagonism towards the <a href="/wiki/Shravaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Shravaka">śravakas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhats</a>, as is typical of later Mahāyāna texts like the <a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_Nirdesha" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimalakirti Nirdesha">Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa Sūtra</a>. It also lacks any self-awareness of itself as being part of "Mahāyāna." It promotes giving to monks like any non-Mahāyāna text, but also includes the depiction of a prince who has visions of many Buddhafields (including <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhavati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abhirati" title="Abhirati">Abhirati</a>) on becoming an arhat.<a href="#cite_note-:5-54">[54]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Salistamba_Sutra" title="Salistamba Sutra">Salistamba Sūtra</a> (rice stalk or rice sapling sūtra) has been considered one of the first Mahayana sutras.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> According to N. Ross Reat, this sutra has many parallels with the material in the Pali suttas (especially the Mahatanha-sahkhaya sutta, M1:256-71), and could date as far back as 200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> It is possible that this sutra represents a period of Buddhist literature before Mahāyāna doctrine had diverged significantly from the doctrines of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">early Buddhist texts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prajñāpāramitā_Sūtras">Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg/220px-Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg/330px-Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg/440px-Prajnyaapaaramitaa_Hridaya_Pel.sogd.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4512" data-file-height="4029" /></a><figcaption>Sanskrit manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sūtra</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ script</a>. <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_(868),_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg/220px-Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg/330px-Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg/440px-Diamond_Sutra_of_868_AD_-_The_Diamond_Sutra_%28868%29%2C_frontispiece_and_text_-_BL_Or._8210-P.2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1610" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>The world's earliest printed book is a Chinese translation of the Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra from <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> (circa 868 CE).</figcaption></figure> Some of the <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā</a> Sūtras are considered to be some of the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras. Various Western scholars generally hold that the <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> is one of the earliest of these texts (c. 1st century BCE). The <a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> is also seen by scholars like Schopen and numerous Japanese scholars as being very early.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> Paul Williams also notes that in Lewis Lancaster's analysis of the earliest Chinese versions of the <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> "a number of key Mahayana concepts are missing from the earliest versions although present in later versions. The world of the earliest Aṣṭasāhasrika is reasonably close to that of the pre-Mahayana traditions."<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The main topics of these Sūtras are the path of the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattva</a>, the six <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">transcendent virtues</a> and, in particular, transcendent wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) the most important of these. The bodhisattva "mahasattva" (great being) is a being who is training towards full Buddhahood for the benefit of all.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> "Transcendent Wisdom" (also: the "Perfection of Wisdom") meanwhile, means the ability to see reality as it truly is, a deep and liberating spiritual knowledge that is the source of all virtues. Prajñāpāramitā is thus "a state of consciousness which understands emptiness (<a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">shunyata</a>), the absence of 'self' or intrinsic nature even in dharmas."<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Since all phenomena (even <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Nirvana</a>) lack any essence, unchanging core or independence, they are merely conceptual constructs and as such, they are like magical illusions (maya).<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Many of these sutras are known by the number of lines, or ślokas, that they contain, such as the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā (25,000 line) PP Sūtra, the Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā (18,000 lines), and the Śatasāhasrikā (100,000 lines) etc. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_White_Lotus_Sūtra">The White Lotus Sūtra</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The White Lotus Sūtra">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sugawara_Mitsushige_Lotus_Sutra,_23.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sugawara_Mitsushige_Lotus_Sutra%2C_23.jpg/220px-Sugawara_Mitsushige_Lotus_Sutra%2C_23.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sugawara_Mitsushige_Lotus_Sutra%2C_23.jpg/330px-Sugawara_Mitsushige_Lotus_Sutra%2C_23.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Sugawara_Mitsushige_Lotus_Sutra%2C_23.jpg/440px-Sugawara_Mitsushige_Lotus_Sutra%2C_23.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="1984" /></a><figcaption>The floating jeweled stupa; illustrated Lotus Sutra, Japan 1257</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Saddharma-pundarīka-sūtra</a> (True Dharma <a href="/wiki/Nelumbo_nucifera" title="Nelumbo nucifera">White Lotus</a> Sūtra) is a very influential Sūtra, especially in East Asian Buddhism, where it is considered the supreme Sūtra by many East Asian Buddhists (especially in the <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a> schools).<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Probably written down between 100 BCE –150 CE, the Lotus Sūtra states that the three <a href="/wiki/Yana_(Buddhism)" title="Yana (Buddhism)">yānas</a> (<a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">śrāvakayāna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">pratyekabuddhayāna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattvay%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodhisattvayāna">bodhisattvayāna</a>) are not real paths leading to different goals, there is in fact only <a href="/wiki/Ekay%C4%81na" title="Ekayāna">one path (ekayāna)</a>, with one goal - <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> The sutra predicts that all those who hear the Dharma will eventually achieve this goal. The earlier teachings are said to be <a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">skilful means</a> to teach beings according to their capacities.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The sutra is notable for the idea that a Buddha is not inaccessible after his parinirvāṇa since a Buddha's life-span is incalculably long. Instead of passing into a totally transcendent state, a Buddha remains to help all sentient beings in countless ways, like a great spiritual father that has been around for eons and will continue to teach for many more eons to come.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In some East Asian traditions, the Lotus Sūtra has been compiled together with two other sutras which serve as a prologue and epilogue, respectively the <a href="/wiki/Innumerable_Meanings_Sutra" title="Innumerable Meanings Sutra">Innumerable Meanings Sutra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_Meditation_Sutra" title="Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra">Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra</a>. This composite sutra is often called the Threefold Lotus Sūtra or Three-Part Dharma Flower Sutra.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhafield_Sūtras">Buddhafield Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Buddhafield Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amitabha_Buddha_Sutra,_by_Deokjusa_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Amitabha_Buddha_Sutra%2C_by_Deokjusa_Temple.jpg/220px-Amitabha_Buddha_Sutra%2C_by_Deokjusa_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Amitabha_Buddha_Sutra%2C_by_Deokjusa_Temple.jpg/330px-Amitabha_Buddha_Sutra%2C_by_Deokjusa_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Amitabha_Buddha_Sutra%2C_by_Deokjusa_Temple.jpg/440px-Amitabha_Buddha_Sutra%2C_by_Deokjusa_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3258" data-file-height="2443" /></a><figcaption>Illustrated Amitabha Sutra, Korea, Deokjusa Temple</figcaption></figure> Several sutras focus on the pure buddhafields (viśuddhabuddhakṣetra) or a Buddha's "pure lands" (as they are known in Chinese translation). The most popular of these are three sutras that deal with the pure land of <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitābha Buddha">Amitābha Buddha</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhāvatī</a> (the Blissful). These texts are very influential in East Asia, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a>, which focuses on the salvific power of faith in Amitābha's <a href="/wiki/Other_power" title="Other power">salvific vow-power</a> (pūrva-praṇidhāna-vaśa, the power of his past vows) to effortlessly transport all beings who think of him to his pure land.<a href="#cite_note-:15-79">[79]</a> The three main "Pure land sutras" in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism are:<a href="#cite_note-:15-79">[79]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longer_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra">Long Sukhāvatīvyūha</a> (also known as the Sutra of Immeasurable Life)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shorter_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra">Short Sukhāvatīvyūha</a> (also known as the Sutra of Immeasurable Light)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81yus_Contemplation_S%C5%ABtra" title="Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra">Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra</a></li></ul> Furthermore, there are also other sutras which teach about other Buddhas and their pure lands, though they are not as influential as the Amitabha sutras. They include the Bhaiṣajyaguru-vaiḍūryaprabhārāja Sūtra, which focuses on <a href="/wiki/Bhaisajyaguru" title="Bhaisajyaguru">Bhaiṣajyaguru</a>, a healing Buddha also known as the "Medicine Buddha"; as well as the Akṣobhyatathāgata-syavyūha Sūtra, which focuses on the Buddha <a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Akṣobhya</a> and his pure land of <a href="/wiki/Abhirati" title="Abhirati">Abhirati</a> (which is one of the oldest "Pure land" texts).<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samādhi_Sūtras">Samādhi Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Samādhi Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> Amongst the earliest Mahāyāna texts, the "Samādhi Sūtras" are a group of sutras that focus on the attainment of profound states of consciousness reached in meditation (<a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samādhi</a>, "meditative absorption, concentration"), perhaps suggesting that meditation played an important role in the development of early Mahāyāna.<a href="#cite_note-:11-81">[81]</a> However, in these texts, the term "samādhi" general signifies a more complex and diverse idea which includes numerous practices that are not purely <a href="/wiki/Contemplation" title="Contemplation">contemplative</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> "<a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samādhi</a> Sūtras" include:<a href="#cite_note-:11-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyutpanna Sutra">Pratyutpannabuddha Saṃmukhāvasthita Samādhi Sūtra</a> (Samādhi for Directly Encountering the Buddhas of the Present Sūtra)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhiraja-Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Samadhiraja-Sutra">Samādhirāja-sūtra</a> (King of Samādhis Sūtra)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suramgamasamadhi_sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Suramgamasamadhi sutra">Śūraṅgama-samādhi-sūtra</a> (Samādhi of the Heroic Progression Sūtra)</li> <li>Sarvapuṇyasamuccayasamādhi (The Absorption that Encapsulates All Merit)</li> <li>The Absorption of the Miraculous Ascertainment of Peace (Praśāntaviniścayaprātihāryasamādhi)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Visualization_and_Meditation_Sūtras">Visualization and Meditation Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Visualization and Meditation Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> There is also another genre of Mahāyāna meditation texts called <a href="/wiki/Visualization_sutras" title="Visualization sutras">Visualization Sutras</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 觀經, guan jing).<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> A key feature of these sutras is their promotion of meditation practices which focus on mentally visualizing or maintaining a mental image.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Perhaps the most popular of these is the <a href="/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitayurdhyana Sutra">Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life</a>. Others include the Sutra on the Sea of Samādhi Attained through Contemplation of the Buddha (Guan Fo Sanmei Hai Jing), and the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Cultivation Methods of the Bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_Meditation_Sutra" title="Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra">Samantabhadra</a> (Guan Puxian Pusa Xingfa Jing), commonly known as Samantabhadra Contemplation Sutra.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> There are also some meditation focused texts called <a href="/wiki/Dhy%C4%81na_sutras" title="Dhyāna sutras">Dhyāna Sūtras</a> (禪経) translated into Chinese by figures like <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumarajiva.</a> Some of these Sūtras contain Mahāyāna meditation teachings. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddhāvataṃsaka_Sūtra">Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goryeo-Avatamsaka_Sutra.vo.12-mid.14c.Leeum.Museum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Goryeo-Avatamsaka_Sutra.vo.12-mid.14c.Leeum.Museum.jpg/220px-Goryeo-Avatamsaka_Sutra.vo.12-mid.14c.Leeum.Museum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Goryeo-Avatamsaka_Sutra.vo.12-mid.14c.Leeum.Museum.jpg/330px-Goryeo-Avatamsaka_Sutra.vo.12-mid.14c.Leeum.Museum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Goryeo-Avatamsaka_Sutra.vo.12-mid.14c.Leeum.Museum.jpg/440px-Goryeo-Avatamsaka_Sutra.vo.12-mid.14c.Leeum.Museum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="394" /></a><figcaption>Goryeo Buddhāvataṃsaka manuscript, 14th century</figcaption></figure> There are also various composite "sūtras," which are actually large collections of other sūtras. One quite influential composite sūtra is the <a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra</a> (The Buddha Wreath Sūtra), a large text contraining numerous chapters on varying topics, some of which circulated separately as independent sūtras before being joined into the mature Buddhāvataṃsaka.<a href="#cite_note-:6-87">[87]</a> The largest and most influential of these include the <a href="/wiki/Dasabhumika_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Dasabhumika Sutra">Daśabhūmika Sūtra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Gandavyuha_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Gandavyuha Sutra">Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:6-87">[87]</a> The Buddhāvataṃsaka probably reached its current form by about the 4th century CE, and this compilation may have happened in Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Williams notes that the Buddhāvataṃsaka sutra includes both the Yogacara mind-only teaching and the emptiness doctrine, but does so mainly from the perspective of highly advanced beings who have spiritually realized these teachings through deep meditative absoprtion, and thus have all sorts of magical powers which they use to help others.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The Buddhāvataṃsaka is therefore a text that depicts various mystical visionary scenes, with countless world systems and countless Buddhas and bodhisattvas who travel freely throughout this multiverse helping all beings out of compassion. One of the most important Buddhas in this text is <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Mahāvairocana</a> ("Great Illuminator"), who fills the entire cosmos with his light, his omniscient awareness and his magical emanations (one of which was <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Shakyamuni Buddha</a>).<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> In China, the Buddhāvataṃsaka became the central text for the <a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayen</a> (Jp. <a href="/wiki/Kegon" class="mw-redirect" title="Kegon">Kegon</a>) school of Buddhism, which later went on to influence Chinese <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mahāratnakūṭa_and_Mahāsamnipāta_Sūtras">Mahāratnakūṭa and Mahāsamnipāta Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mahāratnakūṭa and Mahāsamnipāta Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> Two other important Mahāyāna "sūtras" which are also collections of smaller independent sūtras are the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra">Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra</a> (The Heap of Jewels Sūtra) which contains 49 individual sūtras, and the <a href="/wiki/Mahasamnipata_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahasamnipata Sutra">Mahāsamnipāta Sūtra</a> (Sūtra of the Great Assembly) which is a collection of 17 sūtras. Important sutras in the Mahāratnakūṭa include the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bodhisattvapi%E1%B9%ADaka&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bodhisattvapiṭaka (page does not exist)">Bodhisattvapiṭaka</a>, the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Śrīmālādevī Sūtra">Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Infinite_Life_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Infinite Life Sutra">Longer Sukhāvatī-vyūha Sutra</a>, the Akṣobhya-vyūha, <a href="/wiki/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra">Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra</a> (The inquiry of Ugra), the Saptaśatikā (700 Line) Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, and the <a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gataguhya_S%C5%ABtra" title="Tathāgataguhya Sūtra">Tathāgataguhya Sūtra</a> (The Secrets of the Tathāgata).<a href="#cite_note-eternal-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier200310-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Important sutras in the Mahāsamnipāta include larger works like the <a href="/wiki/Ak%E1%B9%A3ayamatinirde%C5%9Ba_S%C5%ABtra" title="Akṣayamatinirdeśa Sūtra">Akṣayamati-nirdeśa</a>, and the Gaganagañja-paripṛcchā, which themselves also circulated as independent sutras.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-:62-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hagiographical_sutras_about_the_Buddha">Hagiographical sutras about the Buddha</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Hagiographical sutras about the Buddha">edit</a>]</div> Some Mahayana sutras focus on the hagiography of the Buddha, other Buddhas, or even tell stories of numerous Buddhas. The <a href="/wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra" title="Lalitavistara Sūtra">Lalitavistara Sūtra</a> is one of the most important of the hagiographical sutras. It focuses on the story of Shakyamuni Buddha's final birth. The Karuṇāpuṇḍarīka Sūtra (White Lotus of Compassion Sutra) is another hagiographical sutra which tells a story about a key event in the past life of Shakyamuni Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bhadrakalpika_S%C5%ABtra" title="Bhadrakalpika Sūtra">Bhadrakalpika Sūtra</a> give a list of over one thousand Buddhas which will arise in this "fortunate aeon". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sūtras_on_specific_bodhisattvas">Sūtras on specific bodhisattvas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sūtras on specific bodhisattvas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Descent_of_Maitreya_Sutra_(Myomanji_Kyoto).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Descent_of_Maitreya_Sutra_%28Myomanji_Kyoto%29.jpg/220px-Descent_of_Maitreya_Sutra_%28Myomanji_Kyoto%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="382" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Descent_of_Maitreya_Sutra_%28Myomanji_Kyoto%29.jpg/330px-Descent_of_Maitreya_Sutra_%28Myomanji_Kyoto%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Descent_of_Maitreya_Sutra_%28Myomanji_Kyoto%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="692" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo">Goryeo</a> (918–1392) illustration of the Descent of Maitreya Sutra, Myomanji, Kyoto, Japan</figcaption></figure> A large number of Sūtras focus on the nature, teachings and virtues of a particular bodhisattva. They include: <ul><li>Sūtras which focus on the bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Ma%C3%B1jusri" class="mw-redirect" title="Mañjusri">Mañjuśrī</a> and his teachings, such as the Mañjuśrī-buddhakṣetra-guṇavyūha (Array of Mañjushri's Buddhaland).<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li> <li>Sutras which focus on Avalokitesvara, like the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sutrasmantras.info/sutra07.html">Sūtra of the Prophecy Bestowed upon Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha_Bodhisattva_P%C5%ABrvapra%E1%B9%87idh%C4%81na_S%C5%ABtra" title="Kṣitigarbha Bodhisattva Pūrvapraṇidhāna Sūtra">Kṣitigarbhasūtra</a>, which focuses on the bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Ksitigarbha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ksitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a>.</li> <li>Sūtras which focus on the bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a>.</li> <li>Sūtras which focus on <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a>, such as the Maitreyavyakarana (Maitreya Prophecy) and The Sutra That Expounds the Descent of Maitreya Buddha (Taisho 454).<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_Meditation_Sutra" title="Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra">Samantabhadra Meditation Sūtra</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yogācāra_Sūtras">Yogācāra Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Yogācāra Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lankavatara.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Lankavatara.jpg/220px-Lankavatara.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Lankavatara.jpg/330px-Lankavatara.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Lankavatara.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="508" /></a><figcaption>Copy of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra from <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_Library" title="British Library">British Library</a></figcaption></figure> These sutras primarily teach doctrines associated with the <a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogācāra</a> school, such as the doctrine of vijñapti-mātra (ideas-only, impressions-only etc.), which states that there can only ever be awareness of mental images or impressions which manifest themselves as external objects, but are not actually external to the mind.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Ārya-saṃdhi-nirmocana-Sūtra</a> (Noble sūtra of the Explanation of the Profound Secrets, c. 2nd century CE) is the earliest surviving sutra in this class, and its the main text. It divides the teachings of the Buddha into three types, which it calls the "<a href="/wiki/Three_Turnings_of_the_Wheel_of_Dharma" title="Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma">three turnings of the wheel of Dharma</a>."<a href="#cite_note-Williams_2008,_p._85-6">[6]</a> To the first turning, it ascribes the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_Section" title="Āgama Section">Āgamas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">śravakas</a>, to the second turning the lower Mahāyāna sutras including the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, and finally sutras like itself are deemed to comprise the third turning. Moreover, the first two turnings are considered to be provisional (neyārtha) in this system of classification, while the third group is said to present the final truth without a need for further explication (nītārtha).<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Another Indian Yogācāra sutra is the <a href="/wiki/Buddhabh%C5%ABmi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Buddhabhūmi Sūtra">Buddhabhūmi Sūtra</a> (Sutra on the Buddha Land). This sutra was important enough in India to have at least two Indian Yogācāra commentaries written on it, <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%ABlabhadra" title="Śīlabhadra">Śīlabhadra's</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhabh%C5%ABmis%C5%ABtra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhabhūmisūtra (page does not exist)">Buddhabhūmi</a>-vyākhyāna and Bandhuprabha's Buddhabhūmyupadeśa.<a href="#cite_note-:14-103">[103]</a> This text is also an important source of Indian Pure Land Buddhist ideas.<a href="#cite_note-:14-103">[103]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Lankavatara_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lankavatara Sutra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a> (c. 4th century CE) and the <a href="/wiki/Ghanavy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ghanavyūha Sūtra">Ghanavyūha Sūtra</a>, are also seen as sūtras associated with the Yogācāra tradition.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> However both are somewhat syncretic in nature, combining Yogācāra doctrines with those of the <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">buddha-nature</a> texts. In particular, both sutras associate the tathāgatagarbha (i.e. buddha-nature) with the Yogācāra doctrine of the storehouse consciousness (<a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">alayavijñāna</a>).<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-:04-107">[107]</a> The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra was particularly influential for <a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan Buddhism</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Vimalakirtinirdeśa">The Vimalakirtinirdeśa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The Vimalakirtinirdeśa">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vimalakirti_Debates_Manjusri_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves_Detail.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Vimalakirti_Debates_Manjusri_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves_Detail.jpeg/220px-Vimalakirti_Debates_Manjusri_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves_Detail.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Vimalakirti_Debates_Manjusri_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves_Detail.jpeg/330px-Vimalakirti_Debates_Manjusri_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves_Detail.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Vimalakirti_Debates_Manjusri_Dunhuang_Mogao_Caves_Detail.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="392" data-file-height="537" /></a><figcaption>The layman <a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti" title="Vimalakirti">Vimalakīrti</a> debates <a href="/wiki/Manjusri" class="mw-redirect" title="Manjusri">Manjusri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimalakirti sutra">Vimalakirtinirdeśa</a>, composed some time between the first and second century CE,<a href="#cite_note-luk-108">[108]</a> the bodhisattva <a href="/wiki/Vimalak%C4%ABrti" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimalakīrti">Vimalakīrti</a> appears as a layman to teach the Dharma. This is seen by some as a strong assertion of the value of lay practice.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> The sutra teaches, among other subjects, the meaning of <a href="/wiki/Nonduality_(spirituality)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonduality (spirituality)">non-dualism</a>, the doctrine of the true body of the Buddha, the characteristically Mahāyāna claim that the appearances of the world are mere illusions, and the superiority of the Mahāyāna over other paths. It places in the mouth of the <a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">lay practitioner</a> Vimalakīrti a teaching addressed to both <a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">arhats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattvas</a>, regarding the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">śūnyatā</a>. In most versions, the discourse of the text culminates with a wordless teaching of silence.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> This sutra has been very popular in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buddha-nature_Sūtras">Buddha-nature Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Buddha-nature Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> The class of texts called "<a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_s%C5%ABtras" title="Tathāgatagarbha sūtras">Tathāgatagarbha sūtras</a>" teach the important Mahāyāna doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Tathāgatagarbha</a>, (<a href="/wiki/Tathagatagarbha_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathagatagarbha Sutra">Tathāgata</a>-embryo, Tathāgata-womb, Inner Tathāgata, also known as Sugatagarbha) and Buddha-dhatu (Buddha nature, Buddha source, Buddha element). According to Williams, this doctrine states that all beings "have a Tathāgata [i.e. a Buddha] within them, in seed or embryo, that sentient beings are the wombs or matrices of the Tathāgata, or that they have a Tathāgata as their essence, core, or essential inner nature."<a href="#cite_note-:3-112">[112]</a> The earliest of these texts have been seen by modern scholars as including the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_Mahaparinirvana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra">Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra</a> (not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli">Pāli</a> <a href="/wiki/Mahaparinibbana_Sutta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahaparinibbana Sutta">Mahaparinibbana Sutta</a> and its parallels) and the <a href="/wiki/Tathagatagarbha_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathagatagarbha Sutra">Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra</a> (however, the dating of these texts is far from settled).<a href="#cite_note-:3-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Other important sutras in this genre include the <a href="/wiki/Srimala_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Srimala Sutra">Śrīmālā Sūtra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81l%C4%ABya_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra">Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Anunatva-Apurnatva-Nirdesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anunatva-Apurnatva-Nirdesa">Anūnatvāpurnatvanirdeśa</a> (The Teaching on the Absence of Increase and Decrease), the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bheri_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahābheri Sūtra">Mahābherī Sūtra</a> (Great Drum), and the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81megha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāmegha Sūtra">Mahāmegha Sūtra</a> (Great Cloud Sutra) .<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_Discipline_Sūtras">Ethical Discipline Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Ethical Discipline Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> These focus on principles that guide the ethical behaviour (<a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a>) of bodhisattvas and the <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts" title="Bodhisattva Precepts">bodhisattva precepts</a>, and include the Kāshyapa-parivarta, the Bodhisattva-prātimokṣa Sutra, the Upāliparipṛcchā (also known in Chinese as The Buddha Speaks of Decisive Vinaya Sutra) and the <a href="/wiki/Brahmaj%C4%81la_S%C5%ABtra" title="Brahmajāla Sūtra">Brahmajāla Sutra</a> (or Brahmajāla Bodhisattva Śīla Sūtra). For East Asian Zen monastics, the <a href="/wiki/Bequeathed_Teachings_Sutra" title="Bequeathed Teachings Sutra">Bequeathed Teachings Sutra</a> is a widely chanted and studied text on ethical discipline.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Yet there is also the Noble Mahāyāna Sūtra, Purification of Karmic Obscurations (Karmāvaraṇaviśuddhi) describing “the monk Stainless Light, who had been seduced by a prostitute and feels strong remorse for having violated his vows” after which “the Buddha explains the lack of inherent nature of all phenomena and the luminous nature of mind.”<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confession_Sūtras">Confession Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Confession Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeweled_pagoda_mandala,_Sovereign_Kings_of_the_Golden_Light_Sutra,_Heian_period.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Jeweled_pagoda_mandala%2C_Sovereign_Kings_of_the_Golden_Light_Sutra%2C_Heian_period.jpg/220px-Jeweled_pagoda_mandala%2C_Sovereign_Kings_of_the_Golden_Light_Sutra%2C_Heian_period.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Jeweled_pagoda_mandala%2C_Sovereign_Kings_of_the_Golden_Light_Sutra%2C_Heian_period.jpg/330px-Jeweled_pagoda_mandala%2C_Sovereign_Kings_of_the_Golden_Light_Sutra%2C_Heian_period.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Jeweled_pagoda_mandala%2C_Sovereign_Kings_of_the_Golden_Light_Sutra%2C_Heian_period.jpg/440px-Jeweled_pagoda_mandala%2C_Sovereign_Kings_of_the_Golden_Light_Sutra%2C_Heian_period.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2298" data-file-height="2583" /></a><figcaption>Jeweled pagoda mandala from a copy of the Golden Light Sutra. Japan, <a href="/wiki/Heian_period" title="Heian period">Heian period</a>, 12th century.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Thirty-five_Confession_Buddhas" title="Thirty-five Confession Buddhas">Sutra of the Three Heaps</a> (Sanskrit: Triskandhadharmasutra) and the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra" title="Golden Light Sutra">Golden Light Sutra</a> (Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sūtra) focus on the practice of confession of faults. The Golden Light Sutra became especially influential in East Asian Buddhism, particularly because of its teaching on how the <a href="/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings" title="Four Heavenly Kings">Four Heavenly Kings</a> protect the ruler who governs his country in the proper manner and upholds the sutra.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The Sutra of the Three Heaps meanwhile remains an important confession focused sutra in Tibetan Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-HimalayanArt1-119">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dhāraṇī_sutras">Dhāraṇī sutras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Dhāraṇī sutras">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dharani_of_the_tantric_goddess_Usnisavijaya_who_removes_all_misery,_Old_Turkic_in_Uighur_script_with_comments_in_Brahmi,_Murtuk,_13th-14th_century,_paper,_view_1_-_Ethnological_Museum,_Berlin_-_DSC01798.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Dharani_of_the_tantric_goddess_Usnisavijaya_who_removes_all_misery%2C_Old_Turkic_in_Uighur_script_with_comments_in_Brahmi%2C_Murtuk%2C_13th-14th_century%2C_paper%2C_view_1_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01798.JPG/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Dharani_of_the_tantric_goddess_Usnisavijaya_who_removes_all_misery%2C_Old_Turkic_in_Uighur_script_with_comments_in_Brahmi%2C_Murtuk%2C_13th-14th_century%2C_paper%2C_view_1_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01798.JPG/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Dharani_of_the_tantric_goddess_Usnisavijaya_who_removes_all_misery%2C_Old_Turkic_in_Uighur_script_with_comments_in_Brahmi%2C_Murtuk%2C_13th-14th_century%2C_paper%2C_view_1_-_Ethnological_Museum%2C_Berlin_-_DSC01798.JPG/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5172" data-file-height="2217" /></a><figcaption>Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī, <a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic" title="Old Turkic">Old Turkic</a> in <a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Uighur script</a> with comments in Brahmi, Murtuk, 13th-14th century</figcaption></figure> Dhāraṇī sutras are Mahayana sutras that focus on specific <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dhāraṇīs</a> (recitations, chants, incantations, spells), which are mostly in some form of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a>. Dhāraṇīs are understood as having various magical powers, including protection against evil, purification, promotion of good rebirth, generation of merit, and even enlightenment.<a href="#cite_note-mcbride2004-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Winternitz1996p367-121">[121]</a> The word dhāraṇī derives from a Sanskrit root √dhṛ meaning "to hold or maintain".<a href="#cite_note-mcbride20042-122">[122]</a> The Dhāraṇī sutra genre is ancient, and similar works can be found in even non-Mahayana Buddhist canons, one example being the <a href="/wiki/Atanatiya_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Atanatiya Sutra">Atanatiya Sutra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Several early Buddhist schools had also maintained a collection of scriptures focused on dhāraṇī and magical practices, sometimes called Dhāraṇī <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Piṭaka</a> or called the Vidyādhara Piṭaka (Wizardry Collection) which included various types of rituals and spells (vidyā).<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> school's Tripiṭaka is said to have contained a <a href="/wiki/Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhāraṇī">Dhāraṇī</a> Piṭaka.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The Mahayana Dhāraṇī sutras developed out of this ancient Buddhist magical tradition. While many classic Mahayana sutras (like the Lotus and Golden Light) contain dhāraṇī, Dhāraṇī sutras are focused specifically on dhāraṇī practice and associated rites. Mahayana dhāraṇī literature became popular in East Asia in the first millennium CE,<a href="#cite_note-Kooij1978-126">[126]</a> with Chinese records suggesting their profusion by the early centuries of the common era. These migrated from China to Korea and Japan. The demand for printed dhāraṇī led to innovations in block printing.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Today, the recitation of dhāraṇī remains a major part of Mahayana Buddhist practice, and they are also used as amulets and protective charms.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pratisara_Mantra1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Pratisara_Mantra1.png/220px-Pratisara_Mantra1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Pratisara_Mantra1.png/330px-Pratisara_Mantra1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Pratisara_Mantra1.png/440px-Pratisara_Mantra1.png 2x" data-file-width="1877" data-file-height="1772" /></a><figcaption>A Chinese illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Apotropaic_magic" title="Apotropaic magic">apotropaic</a> Mahāpratisarādhāraṇī, in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ script</a>, <a href="/wiki/Later_Tang" title="Later Tang">Later Tang</a>, 927 CE</figcaption></figure>Some important dhāraṇī texts include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Usnisa_Vijaya_Dharani_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Usnisa Vijaya Dharani Sutra">Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra</a> (Dhāraṇī of <a href="/wiki/Usnisavijaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Usnisavijaya">Victorious Uṣṇīṣa</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB" title="Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī">Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī</a> (Dhāraṇī of the Blue Necked One)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cundi_(Buddhism)" title="Cundi (Buddhism)">Cundī Dhāraṇī Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleven-Faced_Avalokitesvara_Heart_Dharani_Sutra" title="Eleven-Faced Avalokitesvara Heart Dharani Sutra">Eleven-Faced Avalokitesvara Heart Dharani Sūtra</a> (Avalokiteśvara-ekadaśamukha Dhāraṇī Sūtra)</li> <li>Amoghapāśa Dhāraṇī Sūtra (不空罥索咒經, Taishō no. 1093), first translated in 587 by Jñānagupta (ca. 522–600).<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pa%C3%B1carak%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Pañcarakṣā">Pañcarakṣā</a>, five dhāraṇīs of the "Five Protectresses"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amitabha_Pure_Land_Rebirth_Mantra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Mantra">Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī</a></li> <li>Aparimitāyur-jñāna-suviniścita-tejo-rājāya dhāraṇī (an <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitayus</a> dhāraṇī)</li> <li>The Great Dharani Sutra of Immaculate and Pure Light (Korean: 무구정광대다라니경; Hanja: 無垢淨光大陀羅尼經; RR: Mugu jeonggwang dae darani-gyeong) is currently the oldest surviving <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock print</a> in the world.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cint%C4%81ma%E1%B9%87icakra#Dhāraṇī_and_mantras" title="Cintāmaṇicakra">Cintāmaṇicakra Dhāraṇī Sūtra</a> (Ruyilun tuoluoni jing 如意輪陀羅尼經, T. 1080) translated by <a href="/wiki/Bodhiruci" title="Bodhiruci">Bodhiruci</a></li> <li>Sūtra of the Whole-Body Relic Treasure Chest Seal Dhāraṇī.</li></ul> Dhāraṇī texts were often collected together into Dhāraṇī collections, such as the Dhāraṇī Saṃgraha and the Collected Dhāraṇī Sūtras (Tuoluoni jijing 陀羅尼集), Taisho Tripitaka no. 901, translated by Atikūṭa in 654. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Esoteric_Sūtras">Esoteric Sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Esoteric Sūtras">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Folio_from_Karandavyuha_Manuscript_-_Sanskrit_-_Newari_-_Varendra_Bhumi_-_Handmade_Paper_-_ca_14th_Century_CE_-_Eastern_India_-_ACCN_M_67-A_-_Indian_Museum_-_Kolkata_2016-03-06_1784.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Folio_from_Karandavyuha_Manuscript_-_Sanskrit_-_Newari_-_Varendra_Bhumi_-_Handmade_Paper_-_ca_14th_Century_CE_-_Eastern_India_-_ACCN_M_67-A_-_Indian_Museum_-_Kolkata_2016-03-06_1784.JPG/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Folio_from_Karandavyuha_Manuscript_-_Sanskrit_-_Newari_-_Varendra_Bhumi_-_Handmade_Paper_-_ca_14th_Century_CE_-_Eastern_India_-_ACCN_M_67-A_-_Indian_Museum_-_Kolkata_2016-03-06_1784.JPG/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Folio_from_Karandavyuha_Manuscript_-_Sanskrit_-_Newari_-_Varendra_Bhumi_-_Handmade_Paper_-_ca_14th_Century_CE_-_Eastern_India_-_ACCN_M_67-A_-_Indian_Museum_-_Kolkata_2016-03-06_1784.JPG/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5753" data-file-height="2094" /></a><figcaption>Folio from a Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra Manuscript, ca 14th Century CE</figcaption></figure> Esoteric Sūtras (Guhyamantra, i.e. "Secret mantra" sutras, known as 密教 <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Mìjiao</a> in Chinese and <a href="/wiki/Mikky%C5%8D" title="Mikkyō">Mikkyō</a> in Japanese) comprise an important category of works that are related to <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">esoteric Buddhist</a> practices. Most of these differ from simpler Dhāraṇī sutras in that they contain much more elaborate ritual technology and schemas (such as the use of images, altars, <a href="/wiki/Homa_(ritual)" title="Homa (ritual)">fire offerings</a>, abhiṣeka, mandalas or visualization meditations). While earlier Dhāraṇī sutras focus on the simple recitation mantric formulas, later esoteric sūtras contain descriptions of <a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">mandalas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">mudras</a>, complex rituals involving elements like bathing, setting up a ritual perimeter, and so forth. These more complex esoteric sutras developed gradually out of simpler Dhāraṇī recitation sutras.<a href="#cite_note-:23-129">[129]</a> According to Koichi Shinohara, the early "esoteric" sutras were not initially considered a separate category of "<a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">tantric</a>" or "esoteric" sutras, and they were not seen as separate from mainstream Mahayana.<a href="#cite_note-:23-129">[129]</a> By the 7th century, the complexity of the rituals had reached a new stage of mature Indian Mantric Buddhism, as seen in the <a href="/wiki/Vairocan%C4%81bhisa%E1%B9%83bodhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra">Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:23-129">[129]</a> Over time, these esoteric sutras became seen as part of a separate category of texts and even of a separate "vehicle" to liberation - the Mantrayana or <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a>. While the texts listed below call themselves sutras, later Buddhist traditions often reclassified these as "<a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Buddhism)">tantras</a>" due to their Mantrayana content.<a href="#cite_note-:07-130">[130]</a> Some important esoteric Mahayana texts include: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra" title="Golden Light Sutra">Golden Light Sutra</a> (Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sūtra) contains perhaps the first mandala with <a href="/wiki/Five_Tath%C4%81gatas" title="Five Tathāgatas">five Buddhas</a>, a key feature of later tantric texts. It also includes dhāraṇī and other ritual practices.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Sūtra">Śūraṅgama Sūtra</a>, which teaches the "Sitātapatra Uṣṇīṣa Dhāraṇī" (Ch. 大白傘蓋陀羅尼) and is included in the Taisho Tripitaka's Esoteric Sutra category.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Davy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra">Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra</a>, known for teaching the famous mantra of <a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a>" and the Cundi dhāraṇī.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a></li> <li>Amoghapāśa-kalparāja-sūtra (Sovereign Ritual of Amoghapāśa), which includes numerous rituals associated with the Lotus Buddha family and contains the important <a href="/wiki/Mantra_of_Light" title="Mantra of Light">Mantra of Light</a>. The first chapter of this esoteric ritual text is actually the Amoghapāśa Dhāraṇī Sūtra, which shows how these sutras expanded over time to include more ritual elements.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vairocan%C4%81bhisa%E1%B9%83bodhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra">Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra</a>, one of the first mature <a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Mantrayana</a> sutras, a key text for <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tattvasa%E1%B9%83graha_Tantra" title="Tattvasaṃgraha Tantra">Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṃgraha</a> Sūtra, and the <a href="/wiki/Vajrasekhara_Sutra" title="Vajrasekhara Sutra">Vajraśekhara Sūtra</a>.</li></ul> Some late <a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñaparamita</a> texts (dated to c. 8th century up to 11th century CE) also include mantric and dhāraṇī elements, and are thus known as esoteric Prajñaparamita sutras.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-135">[135]</a> These later esoteric Prajñāpāramitā sutras are generally short texts which contain <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dhāraṇīs</a> and also reference esoteric Buddhist (<a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Mantrayana</a>) ideas.<a href="#cite_note-:42-135">[135]</a> They often promote simple practices based on recitation which lead to the accumulation of merit and help one reach awakening.<a href="#cite_note-:42-135">[135]</a> Esoteric Prajñāpāramitā sutras include: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adhyardha%C5%9Batik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā (page does not exist)">Adhyardhaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> (150 lines), the famous <a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sutra</a> (Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya), the Ekaślokikā prajñāpāramitā, Svalpākṣarā Prajñāpāramitā, Kauśikā Prajñāpāramitā, Saptaślokikā Prajñāpāramitā, the *Prajñāpāramitānāmāṣṭaśataka and the Candragarbha Prajñāpāramitā.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-Indic_sūtras">Non-Indic sūtras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Non-Indic sūtras">edit</a>]</div> There are various sūtras that were traditionally considered to be translations from Indian sources (and which are written to mimic Indic works) but that modern scholars have now shown were most likely composed in <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> or <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>. These texts may also contain <a href="/wiki/Colophon_(publishing)" title="Colophon (publishing)">colophons</a> which claim to be translations of an Indian original.<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a> These sutras are sometimes called "<a href="/wiki/Apocrypha" title="Apocrypha">apocryphal</a>" sūtras (a term borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Biblical_studies" title="Biblical studies">biblical studies</a>) by modern scholars. In Buddhist studies, the term does not necessarily carry the pejorative connotations that it may have in other contexts (and these works are certainly not considered "<a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretical</a>").<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/A._Charles_Muller" title="A. Charles Muller">Charles Muller</a>, "while certain texts are fit to be classified with the 'spurious' connotations of the term apocrypha, a significant portion of them were extremely well written works, whose contents accorded with the most profound of the Buddhist doctrines."<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a> East Asian Buddhists were aware of the phenomenon of writing original works and attributing them to Indian sources. These texts were sometimes classified either as i-ching (疑經 "scriptures of doubtful authenticity") or as wei-ching (僞教 "spurious scriptures"). Chinese Buddhists like Seng-yu (僧祐; 445–518) noted these spurious works in their Buddhist text catalogues.<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a> Some Mahayana sutras in the Chinese canon which have been influential in East Asian Buddhism and are likely apocryphal include:<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitayurdhyana Sutra">Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra</a> (佛說觀無量壽佛經, Guan-wuliangshou-jing, Sutra on the Visualization of [the Buddha] Immeasurable Life), an important sutra in <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a>, now considered by most scholars to be a Chinese (or possibly Central Asian) composition.<a href="#cite_note-keown03as-138">[138]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmaj%C4%81la_S%C5%ABtra" title="Brahmajāla Sūtra">Brahma's Net Sutra</a> (梵網經; Fànwǎng jīng), which according to Muller is now considered apocryphal by most scholars.<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_Bowl_Sutra" title="Blood Bowl Sutra">Blood Bowl Sutra</a> (血盆經; Xuèpénjīng), of Chinese origin.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrasamadhi-sutra" title="Vajrasamadhi-sutra">Vajrasamadhi Sūtra</a> (金剛三昧經, Kŭmgang sammaegyŏng), traditionally seen as an Indian text, scholars have recently found that it was produced in Korea in about 685 CE.<a href="#cite_note-harv-140">[140]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innumerable_Meanings_Sutra" title="Innumerable Meanings Sutra">Innumerable Meanings Sutra</a> (無量義經; pinyin: Wúliáng yì jīng).<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra_of_Perfect_Enlightenment" title="Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment">Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment</a> (圓覺經; pinyin: Yuánjué jīng).<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humane_King_Sutra" title="Humane King Sutra">Humane King Sutra</a> (仁王經; rén wáng jīng).<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Sūtra">Śūraṅgama Sūtra</a> - the status of this sutra is still a subject of debate. Some scholars, like <a href="/wiki/Kogen_Mizuno" title="Kogen Mizuno">Kogen Mizuno</a> and Bernard Faure, consider it apocryphal, while others like Ronald Epstein disagree.<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a></li></ul> Since there are many apocryphal sutras in the Chinese Canon, modern scholars have developed various taxonomies of the different types of Apocryphal Sūtras. For example, according to Mochizuki Shinkō's Bukkyō kyōten seiritsushi ron, there are three main types of apocryphal Chinese "sutras".<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a> Makita Tairyō outlines five types of apocryphal sutras.<a href="#cite_note-:12-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mahāyāna_sutra_commentaries">Mahāyāna sutra commentaries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Mahāyāna sutra commentaries">edit</a>]</div> There are many commentaries to the Mahāyāna sutras. Some Indian commentaries survive, mostly in translation. Other commentaries were written in Chinese and Tibetan. Important Mahāyāna sutra commentaries include: <ul><li>Commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Diamond Sutra</a> by <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schopen-145">[145]</a></li> <li>Vasubandhu's commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/Shorter_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra">Amitabha sutra</a> (Amitayus sutropadeśa) and on the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a></li> <li>Śatasāhasrikā-pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikāṣṭādaśasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā-bṛhaṭṭīkā, often attributed to <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a> (4th century).<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Da_zhidu_lun" class="mw-redirect" title="Da zhidu lun">Dazhidulun</a> (大智度論, T no. 1509), the large commentary on the Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā translated by the Kuchan monk <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a> (344–413 CE).<a href="#cite_note-:22-149">[149]</a></li> <li>Two commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra">Daśabhūmika sutra</a>, the Daśabhūmikavibhāṣā attributed to Nagarjuna and the Dasabhūmikabhāsya of <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a></li> <li>Two sutra commentaries by <a href="/wiki/Sthiramati" title="Sthiramati">Sthiramati</a>, Commentary on the Kāśyapa Chapter (*Kāśyapaparivartaṭīkā), and Commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Ak%E1%B9%A3ayamatinirde%C5%9Ba_S%C5%ABtra" title="Akṣayamatinirdeśa Sūtra">Exposition of Akṣayamati</a> (*Akṣayamatinirdeśaṭīkā).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga's</a> Samantabhadracaryāpraṇidhānārtha-saṃgraha (A Summary for the Purpose of The Prayer for Completely Good Conduct, Tibetan translation at Toh 4012) a commentary on the last section of the <a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81vata%E1%B9%83saka_S%C5%ABtra" title="Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra">Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra</a>, the Samantabhadracaryāpraṇidhāna (which also circulated as an independent sutra).</li> <li>Zhu Weimojie jing (注維摩詰經), collected commentaries to the <a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_Sutra" title="Vimalakirti Sutra">Vimalakirti sutra</a> which are attributed to Kumārajīva and his translation team.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></li> <li>Three Indian commentaries to the <a href="/wiki/Salistamba_Sutra" title="Salistamba Sutra">Śālistamba sutra</a>, the Śālistambakakārikā, the Śālistambakamahāyanasūtraṭīkā, and the Śālistamba[ka]ṭīkā (<a href="/wiki/Kamala%C5%9B%C4%ABla" title="Kamalaśīla">Kamalashila</a>).<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a></li> <li>The commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/Abhisamayalankara" title="Abhisamayalankara">Abhisamayālaṅkāra</a> by Arya Vimuktisena and by <a href="/wiki/Haribhadra_(Buddhist_philosopher)" title="Haribhadra (Buddhist philosopher)">Haribhadra</a> (late 8th century) are simultaneously also commentaries on the Prajñāpāramitā sutras.</li> <li>The Da Ban Niepan Jing Ji Jie (大般涅槃經集解), the earliest available commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra</a>, attributed to Bao Liang and other Chinese scholars of the <a href="/wiki/Liang_dynasty" title="Liang dynasty">Liang dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a></li> <li>There are two commentaries on <a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Saṃdhinirmocanasutra</a> attributed to Asaṅga, the Compendium of Ascertainments (Viniscaya-samgrahani) and the Āryasaṃdhinirmocana-bhasya.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Their attribution to Asanga is questioned by modern scholars.<a href="#cite_note-:32-157">[157]</a></li> <li>Āryasaṃdhinirmocana-sutre-arya-maitreya-kevala-parivarta-bhasya, <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B1%C4%81nagarbha" title="Jñānagarbha">Jñānagarbha</a>'s (8th-century) commentary to the eighth chapter of the Saṃdhinirmocanasutra.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a></li> <li>The Kīrtimala (Tibetan: grags pa'i phreng ba), a commentary the <a href="/wiki/Samadhiraja_Sutra" title="Samadhiraja Sutra">Samādhirāja Sūtra</a> by Mañjuśrīkīrti, survives in Tibetan translation.<a href="#cite_note-:05-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara%C5%9B%C4%81nti" title="Ratnākaraśānti">Ratnākaraśānti</a>'s (late-10th century to mid-11th century) Prajñāpāramitopadeśa.</li> <li>Two Indian commentaries on the <a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a> by Jñānaśrībhadra (11th century) and Jñānavajra (12th century) survive in Tibetan translation.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a></li> <li>Commentaries by the <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdian</a> Sanskrit scholar and translator <a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a>, including a commentary to the Ghanavyūha sūtra titled Dasheng miyan jing shu (大乘密嚴經疏, no. X368), a commentary to the <a href="/wiki/Ghanavy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ghanavyūha Sūtra">Ghanavyūha sūtra</a>, a Commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Brahmaj%C4%81la_S%C5%ABtra" title="Brahmajāla Sūtra">Brahmajala sutra</a> (Fanwang jing pusa jieben shu, Taisho 40, no. 1813) and a Commentary to the <a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Lankavatara sutra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:52-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-:32-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-:022-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi's</a> commentaries to the Lotus Sutra: Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sutra (法華文句, Fahua Wenju), and Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sutra (法華玄義, Fahua Xuanyi)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mahāyāna_Sūtra_Collections">Mahāyāna Sūtra Collections</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Mahāyāna Sūtra Collections">edit</a>]</div> Some Buddhist Schools in India had collections of Mahāyāna Sūtras which were part of their scriptural canon, sometimes in their own textual collection referred to as Bodhisattva Piṭaka. Jan Nattier notes that the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra mentions a Bodhisattva Piṭaka (as part of a four part canon that also includes the Sutra Piṭaka, the Vinaya Piṭaka, and the Abhidharma Piṭaka). According to Nattier, schools which maintained a Bodhisattva Piṭaka include the <a href="/wiki/Dharmaguptaka" title="Dharmaguptaka">Dharmaguptaka</a> and perhaps the <a href="/wiki/Bahu%C5%9Brut%C4%ABya" title="Bahuśrutīya">Bahuśrutīya</a> (or whoever authored the <a href="/wiki/Tattvasiddhi" title="Tattvasiddhi">Tattvasiddhi-Śāstra</a>).<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Some sutras translated by <a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokaksema</a> (c. 147-189 CE) also mention a "Bodhisattva Piṭaka".<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> In the 4th century Mahāyāna <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">abhidharma</a> work <a href="/wiki/Abhidharma-samuccaya" title="Abhidharma-samuccaya">Abhidharmasamuccaya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asaṅga</a> refers to the collection which contains the āgamas as the Śrāvakapiṭaka, and associates it with the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">śrāvakas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Pratyekabuddha">pratyekabuddhas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated199-168">[168]</a> Asaṅga classifies the Mahāyāna Sūtras as belonging to the Bodhisattvapiṭaka, which is designated as the collection of teachings for bodhisattvas.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated199-168">[168]</a> The Mahāyāna Sūtras survive predominantly in "Buddhist Chinese" (fójiào hànyǔ 佛教漢語, a variety of written <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">ancient Chinese</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Classical Tibetan</a> translations. The source texts were probably in <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a> or various <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> languages such as <a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language" title="Gandhari language">Gandhari</a>. The main collections are found in the Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Kangyur" title="Kangyur">Kangyur</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Tripiṭaka</a>. There are also numerous <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit manuscripts</a> of individual texts from various finds like <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts" title="Dunhuang manuscripts">Dunhuang</a>, and Sanskrit collections from <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>. Many parallel translations of certain Sūtras exist. A handful of them, such as the <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Prajñāpāramitā">Prajñāpāramitā</a> sutras like the <a href="/wiki/Heart_Sutra" title="Heart Sutra">Heart Sutra</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Diamond Sutra</a>, are considered fundamental by most modern Mahāyāna traditions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_earliest_group_of_Mahāyāna_Sūtras_translated_into_Chinese">The earliest group of Mahāyāna Sūtras translated into Chinese</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: The earliest group of Mahāyāna Sūtras translated into Chinese">edit</a>]</div> Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras to include the very first versions of the Prajñāpāramitā series, along with texts concerning <a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Akshobhya</a>, which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990253,_263,_268-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/A._K._Warder" title="A. K. Warder">A.K. Warder</a>, some scholars think that the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras were mainly composed in the south of India, and later the activity of writing additional scriptures was continued in the north.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Some of the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras were translated by the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a> monk <a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a>, who came to China from the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhāra</a>. His first translations to Chinese were made in the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Eastern Han</a> capital of <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a> between 178 and 189 CE.<a href="#cite_note-China_2004,_page_492-24">[24]</a> The editors of the <a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="Taishō">Taishō</a> Tripiṭaka attribute twelve texts to Lokakṣema. These attributions have been studied in detail by <a href="/wiki/Erik_Z%C3%BCrcher" title="Erik Zürcher">Erik Zürcher</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Harrison_(Buddhist_scholar)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Harrison (Buddhist scholar) (page does not exist)">Paul Harrison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jan_Nattier" title="Jan Nattier">Jan Nattier</a>, and some have been called into question. Zürcher considers it reasonably certain that Lokakṣema translated the following:<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <ul><li>T224. <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> ("The Perfection of Wisdom in Eight Thousand Lines"; 道行般若經)</li> <li>T280. The Scripture on the Tusita Heaven (佛說兜沙經.), part of the proto-<a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Avatamsaka Sutra</a></li> <li>T313. <a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Akṣobhya</a>-vyūha (阿閦佛國經)</li> <li>T350. Kaśyapa-parivarta ("The Kāśyapa Chapter"; 說遺日摩尼寶經)</li> <li>T418. <a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra">Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra</a> (般舟三昧經)</li> <li>T458. Mañjuśrī's Inquiry Concerning the Bodhisattva Career (文殊師利問菩薩署經)</li> <li>T626. Ajātaśatru Kaukṛtya Vinodana Sūtra (阿闍世王經)</li> <li>T807. The Hundred Jewels of the Inner Treasury (佛說內藏百寶經)</li></ul> Harrison is doubtful about T626, and considers that T418 is the product of revision and does not date from Lokakṣema's time. Conversely, Harrison considers that T624 Druma-kinnara-rāja-paripṛcchā-sūtra (伅真陀羅所問如來三昧經) ought to be considered genuine. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kumārajīva_translations">Kumārajīva translations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Kumārajīva translations">edit</a>]</div> Another set of Mahayana sutras, which gives an indication of which Mahayana sources were widespread in <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, are those translated by the Indian-Kuchan translator <a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a> (344–413 CE) and his team (probably from <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kuchan</a> target sources) in <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Chang'an</a>. The main sutras they translated are:<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Sutra" title="Diamond Sutra">Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a> (Diamond Sutra)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amitabha_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitabha Sutra">Smaller Sukhāvatī-vyūha</a> (T 366)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra</a> (Lotus Sutra) (T 263—62)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_Sutra" title="Vimalakirti Sutra">Vimalakirti Nirdesa Sutra</a> (T 475)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astasahasrika_Prajnaparamita_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a>, (T 227, 408 CE)</li> <li>Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (T 223, 403-404 CE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra">Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra</a> (T 642)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra">Daśabhūmikā Sūtra</a> (T 286) in collaboration with Buddhayaśas.</li> <li>Acintyaprabhāsa-nirdeśa-sūtra (T 484)</li> <li>Viśeṣacintā-brahma-paripṛcchā (T 585—86)</li> <li>Bhadrakalpa (T 425)</li> <li>Vasudhara-sūtra (T 481—82)</li> <li>Pūrṇa-paripṛcchā ( T 310, 17)</li> <li>Ratnajāli-paripṛcchā (T 433)</li> <li>Vidhi-hṛdaya-vyūha (T 307)</li> <li>Sarva-puṇya-samuccaya-samādhi-sūtra (T 381—82)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Sūtrasamuccaya">The Sūtrasamuccaya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: The Sūtrasamuccaya">edit</a>]</div> The Sūtrasamuccaya is a compendium of sūtra quotations which survives in Tibetan and Chinese translation. It is sometimes attributed to <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a>, but is likely to be from a later period (possibly 4th century CE or later).<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> This anthology gives us an idea of some of the important Mahāyāna Sūtras that were being studied and quoted in Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism at this time. The Sūtrasamuccaya quotes from some <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">early Buddhist texts</a>, but mainly focuses on Mahāyāna Sūtras. The following Mahāyāna Sūtras are quoted in the Sūtrasamuccaya:<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation" style="width: auto;font-style: italic;;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li>Saddharmapundarika-sutra (Lotus Sutra)</li> <li>Nirnaya-raja-sutra</li> <li>Bodhisattva-pitaka</li> <li>Bhagavajjnana-vaipulya-sutra</li> <li>Candra-garbha-parivarta</li> <li>Gandavyuha-sutra</li> <li>Bhadrakalpika-sutra</li> <li>Tathagata-guhya-sutra</li> <li>Vimatisamudghata-sutra</li> <li>Sraddha-bala-dhana-sutra</li> <li>Sagara-naga-raja-pariprccha</li> <li>Tathagataguna-jñanacintyavis-ayavatara-nirdesa-sutra</li> <li>Astasahasrika Prajñaparamita</li> <li>Astadasasahasrika Prajñaparamita</li> <li>Pancavimsatisahasrika Prajñaparamita</li> <li>Simhasutejo'vadana</li> <li>Prasenajit-pariprccha</li> <li>Prasanta-viniscaya-pratiharya-sutra</li> <li>Ajatasatru-parivarta</li> <li>Ratnarasi-sutra</li> <li>Kasyapaparivarta</li> <li>Pitaputrasamagamana-sutra</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li>Dharmasamgiti-sutra</li> <li>Aksayamati-nirdesa-sutra</li> <li>Upayakausalya-sutra</li> <li>Viradattagrhapati-pariprcchda</li> <li>Ratnamegha-sutra</li> <li>Dharani-svararaja-pariprccha</li> <li>Maitreya-simhanada-sutra</li> <li>Mañjusri-vikridita-sutra</li> <li>Candrapradipa (=Samadhiraja, Candraprabhaparivarta) sutra</li> <li>Niyataniyatavataramudrasutra</li> <li>Mañjusri-vikurvana-parivarta</li> <li>Sagaramati-pariprccha-sutra</li> <li>Ugra-pariprccha-sutra</li> <li>Pravrajyantaraya-sutra</li> <li>Udayanavatsaraja-pariprccha</li> <li>Saddharma-smrtyupasthana-sutra</li> <li>Vimalakirti-nirdesa</li> <li>Satyaka-parivarta</li> <li>Vicikitsasudhvamsa-sutra (possibly identical to Vimatisamudghata-sutra)</li> <li>Suryagarbha-parivarta</li> <li>Akasagarbha-parivarta</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li>Ksitigarbha-sutra</li> <li>Adhyasayasamcodana-sutra</li> <li>Brahma-pariprccha</li> <li>Puspakuta-sutra</li> <li>Mahakaruna-(pundarika)-sutra</li> <li>Tathagata-bimba-parivarta</li> <li>Anupurva-samudgata-sutra</li> <li>Tathagatotpattisambhava-sutra</li> <li>Lokottara-parivarta</li> <li>Lankavatara-sutra</li> <li>Mahasamnipata-parivarta</li> <li>Avaivartacakra-sutra</li> <li>Srimalasimhanada-sutra</li> <li>Bhadramayakara-sutra</li> <li>Buddhavatamsaka-sutra</li> <li>Brahma-visesacinti-pariprccha</li> <li>Saptasatika Prajñaparamita</li> <li>Ratnasamnicaya-nirdesa-sutra</li> <li>Trisatika Prajñaparamita</li> <li>Ratnadattamanava-sutra</li> <li>Tathagata-kosa-sutra</li> <li>Maradamana-parivarta</li> <li>Dasabhumika-sutra</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Madhyamaka_school">Madhyamaka school</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Madhyamaka school">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/David_Seyfort_Ruegg" title="David Seyfort Ruegg">David Seyfort Ruegg</a>, the main sutra sources of the <a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">madhyamaka</a> tradition are the Prajñāpāramitā, <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra">Ratnakūṭa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Avataṃsaka</a> sutras.<a href="#cite_note-:03-178">[178]</a> Other sutras which were widely cited by Indian madhamika philosophers are: <a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti_Sutra" title="Vimalakirti Sutra">Vimalakīrtinirdeṣa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra">Śuraṃgamasamādhi</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Saddharmapuṇḍarīka</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra">Daśabhūmika</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Ak%E1%B9%A3ayamatinirde%C5%9Ba_S%C5%ABtra" title="Akṣayamatinirdeśa Sūtra">Akṣayamatinirdeśa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gataguhyaka_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra">Tathāgataguhyaka</a>, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=K%C4%81%C5%9Byapaparivarta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kāśyapaparivarta (page does not exist)">Kāśyapaparivarta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:03-178">[178]</a> Ruegg also notes that the later madhyamaka <a href="/wiki/Chandrakirti" title="Chandrakirti">Candrakīrti</a> (<abbr>c.</abbr> 600 – c. 650) cites the Prajñāpāramitā sutras as well as: <blockquote>the Akṣayamatinirdeśa, Anavataptahradāpasaṃkramaṇa, Upāliparipṛcchā, Kāśyapaparivarta, Gaganagañja, Tathāgataguhya, Daśabhūmika, Dṛḍhādhyāśaya, Dhāraṇīśvararāja, Pitāputrasamāgama, Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā, Ratnakūṭa, Ratnacūḍaparipṛcchā, Ratnamegha, Ratnākara, Laṅkāvatāra, Lalitavistara, Vimalakirtinirdesa, Śālistamba, Satyadvayāvatāra, <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Saddharmapuṇḍarīka</a>, Samādhirāja (Candrapradīpa), and Hastikakṣya.<a href="#cite_note-:03-178">[178]</a></blockquote> The Compendium of Training (Śikṣāsamuccaya) by the eighth-century madhyamaka scholar <a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Śāntideva</a>, cites a total of ninety-seven Mahāyāna sūtras, some of which are now lost. According to Donald Lopez:<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a><blockquote>Śāntideva cites three passages from the Lotus Sūtra, compared, for example, with two from the <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Aṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitā</a> and two from the <a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Laṅkāvatārasūtra</a>. Among the most cited sūtras are the <a href="/wiki/Ak%E1%B9%A3ayamatinirde%C5%9Ba_S%C5%ABtra" title="Akṣayamatinirdeśa Sūtra">Akṣayamatinirdeśa</a> (eighteen citations), the <a href="/wiki/Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra">Ugraparipṛcchā</a> (twenty citations), the Dharmasaṃgīti (eighteen citations), and the Ratnamegha (twenty-four citations).</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Chinese_canon">In the Chinese canon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: In the Chinese canon">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg/220px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg/330px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg/440px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The Tripiṭaka Koreana, an early edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon</figcaption></figure> Though there are various editions of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a> (大藏經; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Dàzàngjīng), one of the most widespread modern editions is the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Taisho_Tripitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Taisho Tripitaka">Taisho Tripitaka</a>, redacted during the 1920s. It consists of eighty-five volumes. The Mahāyāna Sūtras are contained in various sections of the canon: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñapāramitā</a> Section</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddharma_Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Dar%C4%ABka" class="mw-redirect" title="Saddharma Puṇḍarīka">Saddharma Puṇḍarīka</a> Section</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Avataṃsaka</a> Section</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra">Ratnakūṭa</a> Section</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahaparinirvana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahaparinirvana Sutra">Mahāparinirvāṇa</a> Section</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasamnipata_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahasamnipata Sutra">Mahāsannipāta Section</a></li> <li>Sutra Collection Section</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_Tibetan_Canon">In the Tibetan Canon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: In the Tibetan Canon">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist Canon</a>, Mahāyāna Sūtra translations are found in the <a href="/wiki/Kangyur" title="Kangyur">Kangyur</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wylie_transliteration" title="Wylie transliteration">Wylie</a>: bka'-'gyur). They are traditionally divided into four divisions:<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> <ul><li>Prajñāpāramitā (sher phyin), 23 Sūtras.</li> <li>Buddhāvataṃsaka (phal chen), a single long text which is actually a composite work.</li> <li>Ratnakūta (dkon brtsegs), 49 Sūtras.</li> <li>General Sūtra collection (mdo sde), 266 sūtras, varied in length, subject, interlocutors and origins. Most are Mahāyāna works, but a few are non-Mahāyāna texts.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Newar_Buddhism">Newar Buddhism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Newar Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar Buddhism</a> has a group of nine Sanskrit Mahayana sutras that are considered the key texts of the tradition. They are:<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADas%C4%81hasrik%C4%81_Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_S%C5%ABtra" title="Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra">Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra" title="Golden Light Sutra">Suvarṇaprabhāsa Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhiraja_Sutra" title="Samadhiraja Sutra">Samādhirāja Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Gandavyūha Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ra_S%C5%ABtra" title="Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Stages_Sutra" title="Ten Stages Sutra">Daśabhūmika Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra" title="Lalitavistara Sūtra">Lalitavistara Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gataguhyaka_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra">Tathāgataguhya</a> Sūtra (actually replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Guhyasam%C4%81ja_Tantra" title="Guhyasamāja Tantra">Guhyasamaja</a> since the tradition lost the <a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gataguhyaka_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra">Tathāgataguhya</a>)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantras_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantras (Buddhism)">Buddhist Tantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripitaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_suttas" title="List of suttas">List of suttas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81li_Canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Pāli Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_Buddhist_literature" title="Sanskrit Buddhist literature">Sanskrit Buddhist literature</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkilton1997101-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkilton1997101_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkilton1997">Skilton 1997</a>, p. 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-Drewes,_David_2010-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_2010_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_2010_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_2010_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_2010_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_2010_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Drewes,_David_2010_2-5">f</a> Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism II: New Perspectives, Religion Compass 4/2 (2010): 66–74, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1992-3"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1992_3-0">^</a> Boin-Webb, Sara (tr). Rahula, Walpola (tr). Asanga. Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching. 2001. pp. 199–200 </li> <li id="cite_note-Buddhism_2004,_page_293-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Buddhism_2004,_page_293_4-0">^</a> Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 293 </li> <li id="cite_note-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._252-5"><a href="#cite_ref-Hirakawa_Akira_1993,_p._252_5-0">^</a> Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 252 </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams_2008,_p._85-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_2008,_p._85_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams_2008,_p._85_6-1">b</a> Williams (2008), p. 85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahan1998249-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMahan1998249_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcMahan1998">McMahan 1998</a>, p. 249. </li> <li id="cite_note-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sree_Padma_2008._p._68_8-1">b</a> Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. 2008. p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Hay, Jeff (2009). "World Religions" p. 189. Greenhaven Publishing LLC. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990260-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990260_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirakawa1990">Hirakawa 1990</a>, p. 260. </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_11-1">b</a> Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism I: Recent Scholarship, Religion Compass 4/2 (2010): 55–65, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-8171.2009.00193.x">10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00193.x</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Williams (2008), pp. 21-25, 30. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990271-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990271_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirakawa1990">Hirakawa 1990</a>, p. 271. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> "One of the most frequent assertions about the Mahayana is that it was a lay-influenced, or even lay-inspired and dominated, movement that arose in response to the increasingly closed, cold, and scholastic character of monastic Buddhism. This, however, now appears to be wrong on all counts...much of its [Hinayana's] program being in fact intended and designed to allow laymen and women and donors the opportunity and means to make religious merit." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier2003193–4-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier2003193–4_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNattier2003">Nattier 2003</a>, pp. 193–4. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Williams (2008), pp. 33-34. </li> <li id="cite_note-:10-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:10_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:10_17-1">b</a> Walser (2012), p. 24. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENattier2003193–194-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENattier2003193–194_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNattier2003">Nattier 2003</a>, pp. 193–194. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Williams, Paul (2008) Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 4-5 </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Williams, Paul (2008) Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-Apple_1-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Apple_1_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFApple2014" class="citation journal cs1">Apple, James B. (2014). "The Phrase dharmaparyāyo hastagato in Mahāyāna Buddhist Literature: Rethinking the Cult of the Book in Middle Period Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 134 (1): 27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.134.1.0025">10.7817/jameroriesoci.134.1.0025</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.134.1.0025">10.7817/jameroriesoci.134.1.0025</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=The+Phrase+dharmapary%C4%81yo+hastagato+in+Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na+Buddhist+Literature%3A+Rethinking+the+Cult+of+the+Book+in+Middle+Period+Indian+Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na+Buddhism&rft.volume=134&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.134.1.0025&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.134.1.0025%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Apple&rft.aufirst=James+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrewes2015" class="citation journal cs1">Drewes, David (2015). "Oral Texts in Indian Mahayana". Indo-Iranian Journal. 58 (2): 132–133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15728536-05800051">10.1163/15728536-05800051</a>. <q>Between the tremendous emphasis that Mahāyāna sūtras place on memorization and the central role that they attribute to dharmabhāṇakas, which I have discussed elsewhere(2011), Mahāyānists surely could have preserved their texts without writing.48 Though most Mahayana sutras undoubtedly would eventually have been lost without writing, this is a separate issue, and something that is also true of nikaya/agama sutras. Writing was not necessary for the Mahayana to emerge." and "Moriz Winternitz observed more than a century ago that the characteristic of repetition found in Pāli texts "is exaggerated to such a degree in the longer Prajñā-pāramitās that it would be quite possible to write down more than one half of a gigantic work like the Śatasāhasrikā-Prajñā-Pāramitā from memory(1927,2:322)."</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Indo-Iranian+Journal&rft.atitle=Oral+Texts+in+Indian+Mahayana&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=132-133&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15728536-05800051&rft.aulast=Drewes&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcMahan1998-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcMahan1998_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcMahan1998">McMahan 1998</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-China_2004,_page_492-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-China_2004,_page_492_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-China_2004,_page_492_24-1">b</a> "The most important evidence — in fact the only evidence — for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Walser, Joseph, Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture, Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Walser, Joseph, Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture, Columbia University Press, 2005, pp. 40–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkilton1999635-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkilton1999635_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkilton1999635_27-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkilton1999">Skilton 1999</a>, p. 635. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Indian Buddhism, A.K. Warder, 3rd edition, page 4-5 </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarder" class="citation book cs1">Warder, A.K. Indian Buddhism. p. 336.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Buddhism&rft.pages=336&rft.aulast=Warder&rft.aufirst=A.K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_30-1">b</a> Williams (2008), p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPettit201344-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPettit201344_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPettit2013">Pettit 2013</a>, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Hamar, Imre. Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism. 2007. p. 94 </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Hookham, Dr. Shenpen, trans. (1998). The Shrimaladevi Sutra. Oxford: Longchen Foundation: p. 27 </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Werner et al (2013). The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana. pp. 89, 93. Buddhist Publication Society. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> Tharanatha; Chattopadhyaya, Chimpa, Alaka, trans. (2000). History of Buddhism in India, Motilal Books UK, p. 279. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0696-4" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0696-4">81-208-0696-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Joshi,_Lalmai_1987._p._171-36"><a href="#cite_ref-Joshi,_Lalmai_1987._p._171_36-0">^</a> Joshi, Lalmai. Studies in the Buddhistic Culture of India. 1987. p. 171 </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_37-1">b</a> Werner et al (2013). The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana. pp. 89-90, 211-212, 227. Buddhist Publication Society. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Werner et al (2013). The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana. p. 231. Buddhist Publication Society. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> "Though the Buddha had taught [the Mahayana sutras] they were not in circulation in the world of men at all for many centuries, there being no competent teachers and no intelligent enough students: the sutras were however preserved in the Dragon World and other non-human circles, and when in the 2nd century AD adequate teachers suddenly appeared in India in large numbers the texts were fetched and circulated. ... However, it is clear that the historical tradition here recorded belongs to North India and for the most part to Nalanda (in Magadha)." AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edition, 1999 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2002" class="citation book cs1">Li, Rongxi (2002). Lives of Great Monks and Nuns. Berkeley, California: BDK. pp. 23–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lives+of+Great+Monks+and+Nuns&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+California&rft.pages=23-4&rft.pub=BDK&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Rongxi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTārānātha_1575-1634_Verfasser2010" class="citation book cs1">Tārānātha 1575-1634 Verfasser (2010). Tāranātha's History of Buddhism in India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0696-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0696-2"><bdi>978-81-208-0696-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1073573698">1073573698</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=T%C4%81ran%C4%81tha%27s+History+of+Buddhism+in+India.&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1073573698&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0696-2&rft.au=T%C4%81r%C4%81n%C4%81tha+1575-1634+Verfasser&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|last=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWogihara1932–35" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-year-range-abbreviated">Wogihara, Unrai (1932–35). Abhisamayalamkar'aloka Prajñaparamitavyakhya (commentary on Astasahasrika-Prajñaparamita) by Haribhadra, together with text commented on. Toyo bunko. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/977657484">977657484</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abhisamayalamkar%27aloka+Praj%C3%B1aparamitavyakhya+%28commentary+on+Astasahasrika-Praj%C3%B1aparamita%29+by+Haribhadra%2C+together+with+text+commented+on.&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Toyo+bunko&rft.date=1932%2F1935&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F977657484&rft.aulast=Wogihara&rft.aufirst=Unrai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Williams, (2008), p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Williams, (2008), pp. 40–41. </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_45-1">b</a> Williams, (2008), p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Hsuan Hua. The Buddha speaks of Amitabha Sutra: A General Explanation. 2003. p. 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Williams, (2008), p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki (1907). 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Retrieved 2022-12-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=buddhanature.tsadra.org&rft.atitle=La%E1%B9%85k%C4%81vat%C4%81ras%C5%ABtra+-+Buddha-Nature&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbuddhanature.tsadra.org%2Findex.php%2FTexts%2FLa%25E1%25B9%2585k%25C4%2581vat%25C4%2581ras%25C5%25ABtra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-luk-108"><a href="#cite_ref-luk_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuk2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Luk" title="Charles Luk">Luk, Charles</a> (2002). Ordinary Enlightenment. <a href="/wiki/Shambhala_Publications" title="Shambhala Publications">Shambhala Publications</a>. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57062-971-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-57062-971-4"><bdi>1-57062-971-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ordinary+Enlightenment&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Shambhala+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-57062-971-4&rft.aulast=Luk&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuk2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Luk" title="Charles Luk">Luk, Charles</a> (2002). Ordinary Enlightenment. <a href="/wiki/Shambhala_Publications" title="Shambhala Publications">Shambhala Publications</a>. p. x. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57062-971-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-57062-971-4"><bdi>1-57062-971-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ordinary+Enlightenment&rft.pages=x&rft.pub=Shambhala+Publications&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-57062-971-4&rft.aulast=Luk&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFelbur2015" class="citation journal cs1">Felbur, Rafal (2015). "Vimalakīrtinirdeśa". Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism. 1: 275.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brill%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Buddhism&rft.atitle=Vimalak%C4%ABrtinirde%C5%9Ba&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=275&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Felbur&rft.aufirst=Rafal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurman1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Thurman" title="Robert Thurman">Thurman, Robert</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/holyteachingofvi00vima">The Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penn_State_University_Press" title="Penn State University Press">Penn State University Press</a>. p. ix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-00601-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-00601-3"><bdi>0-271-00601-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Holy+Teaching+of+Vimalakirti&rft.pages=ix&rft.pub=Penn+State+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-271-00601-3&rft.aulast=Thurman&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fholyteachingofvi00vima&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_112-1">b</a> Williams (2008), p. 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Radich, Michael (2015), The Mahāparinivāṇa-mahasūtra and the Emergence of Tathagatagarba Doctrine, pp. 101-102. (Hamburg Buddhist Studies Vol. 5), Hamburg University Press </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTsadra_Foundation" class="citation cs2">Tsadra Foundation, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mKnUnmp4zw">Book Launch: Revisiting Buddha-Nature in India and China by Christopher Jones and Li Zijie</a>, retrieved 2021-12-26</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Book+Launch%3A+Revisiting+Buddha-Nature+in+India+and+China+by+Christopher+Jones+and+Li+Zijie&rft.au=Tsadra+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D8mKnUnmp4zw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Takasaki Jikido [高崎直道], Nyoraizo shiso no keisei, 如来蔵思想の形成 [The formation of the tathagatagarbha theory]. Tokyo, Shunjusha, 1974. </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Cleary, J.C. (2005). The Bequeathed Teaching Sutra. In: Arai, K.; Bando, S.; Cleary, J.C.; Gregory, P.N.; Shih, H.; Apocryphal Scriptures Archived February 10, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Berkeley, Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-886439-29-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-886439-29-X">1-886439-29-X</a>, p.3 </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://read.84000.co/translation/toh218.html">"Purification of Karmic Obscurations / 84000 Reading Room"</a>. 84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha. Retrieved 2024-07-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=84000+Translating+The+Words+of+The+Buddha&rft.atitle=Purification+of+Karmic+Obscurations+%2F+84000+Reading+Room&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fread.84000.co%2Ftranslation%2Ftoh218.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1993" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Delmer (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A3_6lp8IOK8C&q=Sutra+of+Golden+Light+660+AD&pg=PA393">The Cambridge History of Japan, Vol. 1: Ancient Japan</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 393. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22352-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22352-2"><bdi>978-0-521-22352-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Japan%2C+Vol.+1%3A+Ancient+Japan&rft.pages=393&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-22352-2&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Delmer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA3_6lp8IOK8C%26q%3DSutra%2Bof%2BGolden%2BLight%2B660%2BAD%26pg%3DPA393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HimalayanArt1-119"><a href="#cite_ref-HimalayanArt1_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt2011" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Watt" title="Jeff Watt">Watt, Jeff</a> (July 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.himalayanart.org/search/set.cfm?setID=660">"Thirty-five Confession Buddhas Main Page"</a>. Himalayan Art Resources. Retrieved 2016-07-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Himalayan+Art+Resources&rft.atitle=Thirty-five+Confession+Buddhas+Main+Page&rft.date=2011-07&rft.aulast=Watt&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.himalayanart.org%2Fsearch%2Fset.cfm%3FsetID%3D660&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcbride2004-120"><a href="#cite_ref-mcbride2004_120-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_McBride2004" class="citation book cs1">Richard McBride (2004). Robert Buswell (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L34YAAAAIAAJ">Encyclopedia of Buddhism</a>. Macmillan Reference. pp. 21, 180, 217–218, 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865718-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865718-9"><bdi>978-0-02-865718-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Buddhism&rft.pages=21%2C+180%2C+217-218%2C+253&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865718-9&rft.au=Richard+McBride&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL34YAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Winternitz1996p367-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Winternitz1996p367_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoriz_Winternitz1996" class="citation book cs1">Moriz Winternitz (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Lgz1eMhu0JsC">A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 367–368. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0265-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0265-0"><bdi>978-81-208-0265-0</bdi></a>. <q>Dharani is a synonym of raksha and the Pali paritta, 'protecting magic formula', 'talisman'. According to the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Saddharma-Pundarika</a>, the dharanis are taught 'for protection, safety and shelter of the preachers'. Dharanis are also used as amulets.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Indian+Literature%3A+Buddhist+literature+and+Jaina+literature&rft.pages=367-368&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0265-0&rft.au=Moriz+Winternitz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLgz1eMhu0JsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcbride20042-122"><a href="#cite_ref-mcbride20042_122-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichard_McBride2004" class="citation book cs1">Richard McBride (2004). Robert Buswell (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L34YAAAAIAAJ">Encyclopedia of Buddhism</a>. Macmillan Reference. pp. 21, 180, 217–218, 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865718-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-865718-9"><bdi>978-0-02-865718-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Buddhism&rft.pages=21%2C+180%2C+217-218%2C+253&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-02-865718-9&rft.au=Richard+McBride&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DL34YAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Skilling, Mahasutras, Volume II, Parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, Lancaster </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Gray, David B. (2023). The Buddhist Tantras: A Guide, pp. 21-24. New York: Oxford Academic. ISBN 978-0-19-762383-1. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Baruah, Bibhuti. Buddhist Sects and Sectarianism. 2008. p. 52 </li> <li id="cite_note-Kooij1978-126"><a href="#cite_ref-Kooij1978_126-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK._R._van_Kooij1978" class="citation book cs1">K. R. van Kooij (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=etUPA-arhwMC&pg=PA25">Religion in Nepal</a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 25–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-05827-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-05827-9"><bdi>978-90-04-05827-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+in+Nepal&rft.pages=25-27&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-90-04-05827-9&rft.au=K.+R.+van+Kooij&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DetUPA-arhwMC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeter_Francis_Kornicki2018" class="citation book cs1">Peter Francis Kornicki (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_r9EDwAAQBAJ">Languages, Scripts, and Chinese Texts in East Asia</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 112–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879782-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-879782-1"><bdi>978-0-19-879782-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Languages%2C+Scripts%2C+and+Chinese+Texts+in+East+Asia&rft.pages=112-117&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-879782-1&rft.au=Peter+Francis+Kornicki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_r9EDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Shinohara, Koichi (2014). Spells, Images, and Mandalas: Tracing the Evolution of Esoteric Buddhist Rituals, p. 126. Columbia University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_129-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_129-2">c</a> Shinohara, Koichi (2014). Spells, Images, and Mandalas: Tracing the Evolution of Esoteric Buddhist Rituals, pp. xviii-xxi, 91-126. Columbia University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-:07-130"><a href="#cite_ref-:07_130-0">^</a> Silk, Jonathan A. (editor) Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism Volume I: Literature and Languages, p. 382. </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Taisho 945 is found in Volume 19 of the Taisho Tripitaka.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tripitaka.cbeta.org/mobile/index.php?index=T">"Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō" <bdi lang="zh">大正新脩大藏經</bdi></a> [Taishō Shinshū Tripitaka]. CBETA 漢文大藏經 (in Chinese). <q>This is an index to the Taisho Tripitaka - nb Volume 19 is listed as 密教部 or Esoteric Sutra Section is where Taisho 945 (Surangama Sutra) is located.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CBETA+%E6%BC%A2%E6%96%87%E5%A4%A7%E8%97%8F%E7%B6%93&rft.atitle=Taish%C5%8D+Shinsh%C5%AB+Daiz%C5%8Dky%C5%8D+%E5%A4%A7%E6%AD%A3%E6%96%B0%E8%84%A9%E5%A4%A7%E8%97%8F%E7%B6%93&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftripitaka.cbeta.org%2Fmobile%2Findex.php%3Findex%3DT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Alexander Studholme, The Origins of Om Manipadme Hum: A Study of the Karandavyuha Sutra, State University of New York Press, Albany, 2002. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://84000.co/translation/toh686#UT22084-092-001-end-notes">"The Sovereign Ritual of Amoghapāśa / 84000 Reading Room"</a>. 84000 Translating The Words of The Buddha. 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M.A.Thesis, University of Washington. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Florin Deleanu, The Laṅkāvatārasūtra: A Bibliographical Survey, 2019, Bulletin of International Institute for Buddhist Studies. </li> <li id="cite_note-:52-162"><a href="#cite_ref-:52_162-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/fazang/">"Fazang (Fa-tsang) | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a>. Retrieved 2023-04-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Fazang+%28Fa-tsang%29+%7C+Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Ffazang%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-163"><a href="#cite_ref-:16_163-0">^</a> Jorgensen, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zenbunka.or.jp/pub_etc/pub/docs/kiyou/032_%E9%80%86%E4%B8%8102John.pdf">The Zen Commentary on the Lankāvatāra Sūtra by Kokan Shiren (1278–1346) and its chief antecedent, the commentary by the Khotanese monk Zhiyan</a>, 禅文化研究所紀要第32号(平成25年11月), Australian National University </li> <li id="cite_note-:022-164"><a href="#cite_ref-:022_164-0">^</a> Hamar, Imre (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://real-d.mtak.hu/784/7/dc_915_14_doktori_mu.pdf">The Buddhāvataṃ saka-sūtra and Its Chinese Interpretation: The Huayan Understanding of the Concepts of Ālayavijñāna and Tathāgatagarbha</a>, p. 149 </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Hamar, Imre. Reflecting Mirrors: Perspectives on Huayan Buddhism, p. 88. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2007 </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Nattier (2003), p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> Kusumita Priscilla Pedersen (1976). The "dhyāna" Chapter of the "Bodhisattvapiṭaka-sūtra" p. 25. Columbia University. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated199-168">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated199_168-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated199_168-1">b</a> Boin-Webb, Sara (tr). Rahula, Walpola (tr). Asanga. Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching. 2001. pp. 199-200 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990253,_263,_268-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirakawa1990253,_263,_268_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHirakawa1990">Hirakawa 1990</a>, pp. 253, 263, 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana sutras" – Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> "The sudden appearance of large numbers of (Mahayana) teachers and texts (in North India in the second century AD) would seem to require some previous preparation and development, and this we can look for in the South." - Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> Nattier 2008: 76-7 </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> Litian Fang (2018) Chinese Buddhism and Traditional Culture, chapter 2. Routledge. </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> Ramanan, K. Venkata (1987). Nagarjuna's Philosophy: As Presented in the Maha-Prajnaparamita-Sastra, p. 15. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Robinson, Richard H. 1967. Early Madhyamika in China and India, pp. 74-76. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Wayman, Alex (1997). Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0287-X" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0287-X">81-208-0287-X</a>. Source: [1] (accessed: December 19, 2007) </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Pasadika, Bhikkhu. Prolegomena to an English Translation of the Sutrasamuccaya. The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies. Volume 5, 1982, Number 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-178">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:03_178-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_178-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:03_178-2">c</a> Ruegg, David Seyfort, ''The Literature of the Madhyamaka School of Philosophy in India,'' Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1981, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> Lopez, Donald S. Jr. The Lotus Sūtra: A Biography, pp. 25-26. Princeton University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://read.84000.co/section/O1JC114941JC12924.html">"Discourses མདོ། · mdo/ Sūtra"</a>. 84000.co. 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Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG." </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Dutt, Nalinaksha (1978). Buddhist Sects in India, Motilal Banararsidass, Delhi, 2nd Edition</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirakawa1990" class="citation cs2">Hirakawa, Akira (1990), Groner, Paul (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/23030">A History of Indian Buddhism</a>, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10125%2F23030">10125/23030</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1203-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1203-4"><bdi>0-8248-1203-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Indian+Buddhism&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10125%2F23030&rft.isbn=0-8248-1203-4&rft.aulast=Hirakawa&rft.aufirst=Akira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu%2Fhandle%2F10125%2F23030&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kanno, Hiroshi (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070720151930/http://iriab.soka.ac.jp/orc/stuff/kanno/Kanno2003Chinese.pdf">Chinese Sutra Commentaries from the Early Period</a>, Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University, IRIAB, vol VI, 301-320</li> <li>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Macmillan, 2004.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMahan1998" class="citation journal cs1">McMahan, David (1998). "Orality, writing and authority in South Asian Buddhism: visionary literature and the struggle for legitimacy in the Mahayana". History of Religions. 37 (3): 249–274. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F463504">10.1086/463504</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170355105">170355105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Religions&rft.atitle=Orality%2C+writing+and+authority+in+South+Asian+Buddhism%3A+visionary+literature+and+the+struggle+for+legitimacy+in+the+Mahayana&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=249-274&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F463504&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170355105%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=McMahan&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Nakamura, Hajime (1980). Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes. 1st edition: Japan, 1980. 1st Indian Edition: Delhi, 1987. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0272-1" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0272-1">81-208-0272-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNattier2003" class="citation book cs1">Nattier, Jan (January 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kl9RXSmfeZ0C">A Few Good Men: The Bodhisattva Path According to the Inquiry of Ugra (Ugraparipṛcchā) : a Study and Translation</a>. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2607-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-2607-9"><bdi>978-0-8248-2607-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Few+Good+Men%3A+The+Bodhisattva+Path+According+to+the+Inquiry+of+Ugra+%28Ugraparip%E1%B9%9Bcch%C4%81%29+%3A+a+Study+and+Translation&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2003-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-2607-9&rft.aulast=Nattier&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkl9RXSmfeZ0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPettit2013" class="citation book cs1">Pettit, John W. (8 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3g34_5impnUC">Mipham's Beacon of Certainty: Illuminating the View of Dzogchen, the Great Perfection</a>. Wisdom Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-719-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86171-719-4"><bdi>978-0-86171-719-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mipham%27s+Beacon+of+Certainty%3A+Illuminating+the+View+of+Dzogchen%2C+the+Great+Perfection&rft.pub=Wisdom+Publications&rft.date=2013-02-08&rft.isbn=978-0-86171-719-4&rft.aulast=Pettit&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3g34_5impnUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkilton1999" class="citation journal cs1">Skilton, Andrew T (1999). "Dating the Samādhirāja Sūtra". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 27 (6): 635. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1004633623956">10.1023/A:1004633623956</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:169281191">169281191</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Indian+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Dating+the+Sam%C4%81dhir%C4%81ja+S%C5%ABtra&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=635&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1004633623956&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A169281191%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Skilton&rft.aufirst=Andrew+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThích1987" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích, Nhất Hạnh</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2qEKAAAAYAAJ">The Sutra on the Eight Realizations of the Great Beings</a>. Parallax Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-938077-07-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-938077-07-7"><bdi>978-0-938077-07-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sutra+on+the+Eight+Realizations+of+the+Great+Beings&rft.pub=Parallax+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-938077-07-7&rft.aulast=Th%C3%ADch&rft.aufirst=Nh%E1%BA%A5t+H%E1%BA%A1nh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2qEKAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Pfand, Peter (1986). Māhāyana Texts Translated into Western Languages – A Bibliographical Guide. E.J. Brill, Köln, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-923956-13-4" title="Special:BookSources/3-923956-13-4">3-923956-13-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReeves2002" class="citation book cs1">Reeves, Gene (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7NcQAQAAIAAJ">A Buddhist kaleidoscope: essays on the lotus sutra</a>. Kosei Pub. Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-333-01918-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-333-01918-2"><bdi>978-4-333-01918-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Buddhist+kaleidoscope%3A+essays+on+the+lotus+sutra&rft.pub=Kosei+Pub.+Co.&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-4-333-01918-2&rft.aulast=Reeves&rft.aufirst=Gene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7NcQAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkilton1997" class="citation book cs1">Skilton, Andrew (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GEKd4iqH3C0C">A Concise History of Buddhism</a>. Windhorse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-904766-92-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-904766-92-9"><bdi>978-0-904766-92-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Buddhism&rft.pub=Windhorse&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-904766-92-9&rft.aulast=Skilton&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGEKd4iqH3C0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMahayana+sutras" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Walser, Joseph. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/Genealogies-of-Mahayana-Buddhism-Emptiness-Power-and-the-question-of/Walser/p/book/9781138955561">Genealogies of Mahāyāna Buddhism: Emptiness, Power and the question of Origin</a>. Routledge.</li> <li>Walser, Joseph (2012), Nagarjuna in Context Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture. Columbia University Press.</li> <li>Warder, A. K. (1999). Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 3rd revised edition</li> <li>Williams, Paul (2008). Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Taylor & Francis</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahayana_sutras&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Bingenheimer, Marcus (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mbingenheimer.net/tools/bibls/transbibl.html">Bibliography of Translations from the Chinese Buddhist Canon into Western Languages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170707191832/http://www.fodian.net/world/index.html">Buddhist Scriptures in Multiple Languages (Taisho Tripitaka)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thecompassionnetwork.org/tripitaka-lists/">Mahayana Canonical Text Titles and Translations in English</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090323171856/http://buddhasutra.com/">A Complete Buddhist Sutra Collection</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cttbusa.org/sutratexts.asp">Mahayana Sutras</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dsbcproject.org/">Digital Sanskrit Buddhist Canon</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120510162324/http://www4.bayarea.net/~mtlee">Mahayana Buddhist Sutras in English</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buddhanet.net/ebooks.htm">BuddhaNet's eBook Library</a> (English pdfs)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nirvanasutranet.com/">Complete English translation and analysis of the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra</a> or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131019072030/http://webzoom.freewebs.com/nirvana-sutra/convenient/Mahaparinirvana_Sutra_Yamamoto_Page_2007.pdf">PDF</a></li> 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href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā (mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī (aunt, adoptive mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā (wife)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda (cousin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta (cousin)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahapajapati_Gotami" title="Mahapajapati Gotami">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_Tree" title="Bodhi Tree">Bodhi Tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a 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