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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The "chaitya arch" as a decorative motif</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_"chaitya_arch"_as_a_decorative_motif-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_the_chaitya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_the_chaitya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development of the chaitya</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development_of_the_chaitya-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development of the chaitya subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development_of_the_chaitya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rock-cut_chaitya_halls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rock-cut_chaitya_halls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Rock-cut chaitya halls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rock-cut_chaitya_halls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freestanding_chaitya_halls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freestanding_chaitya_halls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Freestanding chaitya halls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freestanding_chaitya_halls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-End_of_the_chaitya_hall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#End_of_the_chaitya_hall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>End of the chaitya hall</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-End_of_the_chaitya_hall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parallels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parallels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Parallels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parallels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nepal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nepal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Nepal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nepal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cambodia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cambodia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Cambodia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cambodia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Chaitya" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%A1aitja" title="Tšaitja – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tšaitja" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Chaitya" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88ajtjo" title="Ĉajtjo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĉajtjo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chaitya" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B0%A8%EC%9D%B4%ED%8B%B0%EC%95%BC" title="차이티야 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="차이티야" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%89%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1" title="Չայտյա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Չայտյա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="चैत्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चैत्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Chaitya" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%27%D7%90%D7%99%D7%98%D7%99%D7%94" title="צ'איטיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צ'איטיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF" title="ಚೈತ್ಯ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಚೈತ್ಯ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ჩაიტია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჩაიტია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="चैत्य – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="चैत्य" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="चैत्य – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चैत्य" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Chaitya" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="چیتیا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چیتیا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9F%83%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99" title="ចៃត្យ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ចៃត្យ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%86ajtja" title="Ćajtja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ćajtja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F" title="Чайтья – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Чайтья" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Chaitya" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%8Caitja" title="Čaitja – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Čaitja" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitya" title="Chaitya – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Chaitya" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="சைத்தியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சைத்தியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%8F" title="Чайтья – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Чайтья" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="چیتیا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="چیتیا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1059208#sitelinks-wikipedia" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Prayer hall from Buddhist tradition</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bhaja_Caves_Amit_R_Mahadik_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Bhaja_Caves_Amit_R_Mahadik_05.jpg/220px-Bhaja_Caves_Amit_R_Mahadik_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Bhaja_Caves_Amit_R_Mahadik_05.jpg/330px-Bhaja_Caves_Amit_R_Mahadik_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Bhaja_Caves_Amit_R_Mahadik_05.jpg/440px-Bhaja_Caves_Amit_R_Mahadik_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>An early chaitya at <a href="/wiki/Bhaja_Caves" title="Bhaja Caves">Bhaja Caves</a>; wooden architecture imitated in stone, with decorative roof timbers in wood. 2nd century BCE.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aurangabad_-_Ajanta_Caves_(36).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Aurangabad_-_Ajanta_Caves_%2836%29.JPG/220px-Aurangabad_-_Ajanta_Caves_%2836%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Aurangabad_-_Ajanta_Caves_%2836%29.JPG/330px-Aurangabad_-_Ajanta_Caves_%2836%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Aurangabad_-_Ajanta_Caves_%2836%29.JPG/440px-Aurangabad_-_Ajanta_Caves_%2836%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Outside the chaitya at Cave 19, <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>, also with four zones using small repeated "chaitya arch" <a href="/wiki/Motif_(visual_arts)" title="Motif (visual arts)">motifs</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IA_Development_of_the_Chaitya_arch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/IA_Development_of_the_Chaitya_arch.jpg/220px-IA_Development_of_the_Chaitya_arch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/IA_Development_of_the_Chaitya_arch.jpg/330px-IA_Development_of_the_Chaitya_arch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/IA_Development_of_the_Chaitya_arch.jpg/440px-IA_Development_of_the_Chaitya_arch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1755" data-file-height="1184" /></a><figcaption>Development of the chaitya arch from the <a href="/wiki/Lomas_Rishi_Cave" title="Lomas Rishi Cave">Lomas Rishi Cave</a> on, from a book by <a href="/wiki/Percy_Brown_(art_historian)" title="Percy Brown (art historian)">Percy Brown</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>chaitya</b>, chaitya hall, <b>chaitya-griha</b>, (Sanskrit:<i>Caitya</i>; Pāli: <i><a href="/wiki/Cetiya" title="Cetiya">Cetiya</a></i>) refers to a shrine, sanctuary, temple or prayer hall in <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Trainor1997p34_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trainor1997p34-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-buswell161_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-buswell161-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term is most common in <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, where it refers to a space with a <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> and a rounded <a href="/wiki/Apse" title="Apse">apse</a> at the end opposite the entrance, and a high roof with a rounded profile.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Strictly speaking, the chaitya is the <a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">stupa</a> itself,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Indian buildings are chaitya halls, but this distinction is often not observed. Outside India, the term is used by Buddhists for local styles of small stupa-like monuments in <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> and elsewhere. In Thailand a stupa itself, not a stupa hall, is called a chedi, a local Thai word derived from the Pali Cetiya.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the historical texts of <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, including those relating to architecture, <i>chaitya</i> refers to a temple, sanctuary or any sacred monument.<sup id="cite_ref-Chanchreek_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanchreek-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gonda418_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gonda418-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kramrisch1946p147_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramrisch1946p147-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most early examples of chaitya that survive are <a href="/wiki/Indian_rock-cut_architecture" title="Indian rock-cut architecture">Indian rock-cut architecture</a>. Scholars agree that the standard form follows a tradition of free-standing halls made of wood and other plant materials, none of which has survived. The curving ribbed ceilings imitate timber construction. In the earlier examples, timber was used decoratively, with wooden ribs added to stone roofs. At the <a href="/wiki/Bhaja_Caves" title="Bhaja Caves">Bhaja Caves</a> and the "Great Chaitya" of the <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karla Caves</a>, the original timber ribs survive; elsewhere marks on the ceiling show where they once were. Later, these ribs were rock-cut. Often, elements in wood, such as screens, porches, and balconies, were added to stone structures. The surviving examples are similar in their broad layout, though the design evolved over the centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The halls are high and long, but rather narrow. At the far end stands the stupa, which is the focus of devotion. <a href="/wiki/Parikrama" title="Parikrama">Parikrama</a>, the act of circumambulating or walking around the stupa, was an important ritual and devotional practice, and there is always clear space to allow this. The end of the hall is thus rounded, like the <a href="/wiki/Apse" title="Apse">apse</a> in Western architecture.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are always columns along the side walls, going up to the start of the curved roof, and a passage behind the columns, creating <a href="/wiki/Aisle" title="Aisle">aisles</a> and a central <a href="/wiki/Nave" title="Nave">nave</a>, and allowing ritual circumambulation or <a href="/wiki/Pradakhshina" class="mw-redirect" title="Pradakhshina">pradakhshina</a>, either immediately around the stupa, or around the passage behind the columns. On the outside, there is a porch, often very elaborately decorated, a relatively low entranceway, and above this often a gallery. The only natural light, apart from a little from the entrance way, comes from a large horseshoe-shaped window above the porch, echoing the curve of the roof inside. The overall effect is surprisingly similar to smaller Christian churches from the <a href="/wiki/Early_Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Medieval">Early Medieval</a> period, though early chaityas are many centuries earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chaityas appear at the same sites like the <a href="/wiki/Vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Vihara">vihara</a>, a strongly contrasting type of building with a low-ceilinged rectangular central hall, with small cells opening, off it, often on all sides. These often have a shrine set back at the centre of the back wall, containing a stupa in early examples, or a Buddha statue later. The vihara was the key building in Buddhist monastic complexes, used to live, study and pray in. Typical large sites contain several viharas for every chaitya.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Caitya", from a root <i>cita</i> or <i>ci</i> meaning "heaped-up", is a <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> term for a mound or pedestal or "funeral pile".<sup id="cite_ref-Trainor1997p34_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trainor1997p34-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a sacred construction of some sort, and has acquired different more specific meanings in different regions, including "caityavṛkṣa" for a sacred tree.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to K.L. Chanchreek, in early <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jain</a> literature, <i>caitya</i> mean <i>ayatanas</i> or temples where monks stayed. It also meant where the Jain idol was placed in a temple, but broadly it was a symbolism for any temple.<sup id="cite_ref-Chanchreek_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chanchreek-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shah1987p9_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shah1987p9-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some texts, these are referred to as <i>arhat-caitya</i> or <i>jina-caitya</i>, meaning shrines for an Arhat or Jina.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Major ancient Jaina archaeological sites such as the <a href="/wiki/Kankali_Tila" title="Kankali Tila">Kankali Tila</a> near <a href="/wiki/Mathura" title="Mathura">Mathura</a> show Caitya-tree, Caitya-stupa, Caitya arches with Mahendra-dvajas and meditating <a href="/wiki/Tirthankara" title="Tirthankara">Tirthankaras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shah1987p9_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shah1987p9-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>caitya</i> appears in the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic literature</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. In early Buddhist and Hindu literature, a <i>caitya</i> is any 'piled up monument' or 'sacred tree' under which to meet or meditate.<sup id="cite_ref-Sparreboom63_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sparreboom63-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kramrisch1946p147_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kramrisch1946p147-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Gonda" title="Jan Gonda">Jan Gonda</a> and other scholars state the meaning of <i>caitya</i> in Hindu texts varies with context and has the general meaning of any "holy place, place of worship", a "memorial", or as signifying any "sanctuary" for human beings, particularly in the <i>Grhya sutras</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Trainor1997p34_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trainor1997p34-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sparreboom63_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sparreboom63-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-gonda418_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gonda418-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Buswell_Jr." title="Robert Buswell Jr.">Robert E. Buswell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Donald_S._Lopez_Jr." title="Donald S. Lopez Jr.">Donald S. Lopez</a>, both professors of Buddhist Studies, the term <i>caitya</i> in Sanskrit connotes a "tumulus, sanctuary or shrine", both in Buddhist and non-Buddhist contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-buswell161_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-buswell161-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_"chaitya_arch"_as_a_decorative_motif"><span id="The_.22chaitya_arch.22_as_a_decorative_motif"></span>The "chaitya arch" as a decorative motif</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The "chaitya arch" as a decorative motif"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gavaksha" title="Gavaksha">gavaksha</a></div> <p>The "chaitya arch", gavaksha (Sanscrit <i>gavākṣa</i>), or chandrashala around the large window above the entrance frequently appears repeated as a small <a href="/wiki/Motif_(visual_arts)" title="Motif (visual arts)">motif</a> in decoration, and evolved versions continue into Hindu and Jain decoration, long after actual chaitya halls had ceased to be built by Buddhists. In these cases it can become an elaborate frame, spreading rather wide, around a circular or semi-circular medallion, which may contain a sculpture of a figure or head. An earlier stage is shown here in the entrance to Cave 19 at the Ajanta Caves (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 475</span>–500), where four horizontal zones of the decoration use repeated "chaitya arch" motifs on an otherwise plain band (two on the projecting porch, and two above). There is a head inside each arch.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_the_chaitya">Development of the chaitya</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development of the chaitya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early Chaitya halls are known from the 3rd century BCE. They generally followed an <a href="/wiki/Apsidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Apsidal">apsidal</a> plan, and were either rock-cut or freestanding.<sup id="cite_ref-AH_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AH-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rock-cut_chaitya_halls">Rock-cut chaitya halls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rock-cut chaitya halls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_caves_in_India" title="Buddhist caves in India">Buddhist caves in India</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karli_Chaitya_section_in_perspective.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Karli_Chaitya_section_in_perspective.jpg/220px-Karli_Chaitya_section_in_perspective.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Karli_Chaitya_section_in_perspective.jpg/330px-Karli_Chaitya_section_in_perspective.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Karli_Chaitya_section_in_perspective.jpg/440px-Karli_Chaitya_section_in_perspective.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2759" data-file-height="1649" /></a><figcaption>Drawing of the "Great Chaitya" at the <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karla Caves</a>, when built, in about 120 CE</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cave_26,_Ajanta.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg/220px-Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg/330px-Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg/440px-Cave_26%2C_Ajanta.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4100" data-file-height="2662" /></a><figcaption>The chaitya Cave 26 at <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta</a>; the stupa incorporates a large Buddha statue and there are aisles behind the columns, their walls adorned with <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a> sculptures. A smaller adaption of the Karli model.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest surviving spaces comparable to the <i>chaitya</i> hall date to the 3rd century BCE. These are the rock-cut <a href="/wiki/Barabar_Caves" title="Barabar Caves">Barabar Caves</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lomas_Rishi_Cave" title="Lomas Rishi Cave">Lomas Rishi Cave</a> and Sudama Cave), excavated during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a> by or for the <a href="/wiki/Ajivikas" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajivikas">Ajivikas</a>, a non-Buddhist religious and philosophical group of the period. According to many scholars, these became "the prototype for the Buddhist caves of the western Deccan", particularly the <i>chaitya</i> halls excavated between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-Brancaccio2010p26_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brancaccio2010p26-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early chaityas enshrined a stupa with space for congregational worship by the monks. This reflected one of the early differences between early Buddhism and Hinduism, with Buddhism favoring congregational worship in contrast to Hinduism's individual approach. Early chaitya grhas were cut into living rock as caves. These served as a symbol and sites of a <i>sangha</i> congregational life (<i>uposatha</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest rock-cut chaityas, similar to free-standing ones, consisted of an inner circular chamber with pillars to create a circular path around the stupa and an outer rectangular hall for the congregation of the devotees. Over the course of time, the wall separating the stupa from the hall was removed to create an apsidal hall with a <a href="/wiki/Colonnade" title="Colonnade">colonnade</a> around the nave and the stupa.<sup id="cite_ref-Dehejia_1972_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehejia_1972-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chaitya at <a href="/wiki/Bhaja_Caves" title="Bhaja Caves">Bhaja Caves</a> is perhaps the earliest surviving chaitya hall, constructed in the second century BCE. It consists of an apsidal hall with a stupa. The columns slope inwards in the imitation of wooden columns that would have been structurally necessary to keep a roof up. The ceiling is <a href="/wiki/Barrel_vault" title="Barrel vault">barrel vaulted</a> with ancient wooden ribs set into them. The walls are polished in the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryan</a> style. It was faced by a substantial wooden <a href="/wiki/Facade" class="mw-redirect" title="Facade">facade</a>, now entirely lost. A large horseshoe-shaped window, the chaitya-window, was set above the arched doorway and the whole portico-area was carved to imitate a multi-storeyed building with balconies and windows and sculptured men and women who observed the scene below. This created the appearance of an ancient Indian mansion.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dehejia_1972_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dehejia_1972-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, like a similar facade at the <a href="/wiki/Bedse_Caves" title="Bedse Caves">Bedse Caves</a> is an early example of what <a href="/wiki/James_Fergusson_(architect)" title="James Fergusson (architect)">James Fergusson</a> noted in the nineteenth century: "Everywhere ... in India architectural decoration is made up of small models of large buildings".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Bhaja, as in other chaityas, the entrance acted as the demarcation between the sacred and the profane. The stupa inside the hall was now completely removed from the sight of anyone outside. In this context, in the first century CE, the earlier veneration of the stupa changed to the veneration of an image of <a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Gautama Buddha</a>. Chaityas were commonly part of a monastic complex, the <a href="/wiki/Vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Vihara">vihara</a>. </p><p>The most important of rock-cut complexes are the <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karla Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ajanta_Caves" title="Ajanta Caves">Ajanta Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ellora_Caves" title="Ellora Caves">Ellora Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Udayagiri_and_Khandagiri_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves">Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aurangabad_Caves" title="Aurangabad Caves">Aurangabad Caves</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pandavleni_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandavleni Caves">Pandavleni Caves</a>. Many pillars have capitals on them, often with carvings of a kneeling elephant mounted on bell-shaped bases. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Barabar_caves_Sudama_inside.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rock-cut hall, Sudama, Barabar Caves, dedicated in 257 BCE by Ashoka."><img alt="Rock-cut hall, Sudama, Barabar Caves, dedicated in 257 BCE by Ashoka." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Barabar_caves_Sudama_inside.jpg/200px-Barabar_caves_Sudama_inside.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Barabar_caves_Sudama_inside.jpg/300px-Barabar_caves_Sudama_inside.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Barabar_caves_Sudama_inside.jpg/400px-Barabar_caves_Sudama_inside.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="667" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rock-cut hall, Sudama, <a href="/wiki/Barabar_Caves" title="Barabar Caves">Barabar Caves</a>, dedicated in 257 BCE by <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tulja_Lena_Chaitya_remains.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Rock-cut circular Chaitya hall with pillars, Tulja Caves, 1st century BCE"><img alt="Rock-cut circular Chaitya hall with pillars, Tulja Caves, 1st century BCE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Tulja_Lena_Chaitya_remains.jpg/200px-Tulja_Lena_Chaitya_remains.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Tulja_Lena_Chaitya_remains.jpg/300px-Tulja_Lena_Chaitya_remains.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Tulja_Lena_Chaitya_remains.jpg/400px-Tulja_Lena_Chaitya_remains.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Rock-cut circular Chaitya hall with pillars, <a href="/wiki/Tulja_Caves" title="Tulja Caves">Tulja Caves</a>, 1st century BCE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ajanta_Caves,_Aurangabad_s-7.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chaitya arch around the window, and repeated as a gavaksha motif with railings, Cave 9, Ajanta."><img alt="Chaitya arch around the window, and repeated as a gavaksha motif with railings, Cave 9, Ajanta." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ajanta_Caves%2C_Aurangabad_s-7.jpg/200px-Ajanta_Caves%2C_Aurangabad_s-7.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ajanta_Caves%2C_Aurangabad_s-7.jpg/300px-Ajanta_Caves%2C_Aurangabad_s-7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Ajanta_Caves%2C_Aurangabad_s-7.jpg/400px-Ajanta_Caves%2C_Aurangabad_s-7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Chaitya arch around the window, and repeated as a <a href="/wiki/Gavaksha" title="Gavaksha">gavaksha</a> motif with railings, Cave 9, Ajanta.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:1_fa%C3%A7ade_du_Chaitya_Griha_Vishvakarma_Cave_10_Ellora_India.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The window at the chaitya Cave 10, Ellora, c. 650"><img alt="The window at the chaitya Cave 10, Ellora, c. 650" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/1_fa%C3%A7ade_du_Chaitya_Griha_Vishvakarma_Cave_10_Ellora_India.jpg/200px-1_fa%C3%A7ade_du_Chaitya_Griha_Vishvakarma_Cave_10_Ellora_India.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/1_fa%C3%A7ade_du_Chaitya_Griha_Vishvakarma_Cave_10_Ellora_India.jpg/300px-1_fa%C3%A7ade_du_Chaitya_Griha_Vishvakarma_Cave_10_Ellora_India.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/1_fa%C3%A7ade_du_Chaitya_Griha_Vishvakarma_Cave_10_Ellora_India.jpg/400px-1_fa%C3%A7ade_du_Chaitya_Griha_Vishvakarma_Cave_10_Ellora_India.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The window at the chaitya Cave 10, <a href="/wiki/Ellora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellora">Ellora</a>, c. 650</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Karla_Cave_Monument.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Timber ribs on the roof at the Karla Caves; the umbrella over the stupa is also wood"><img alt="Timber ribs on the roof at the Karla Caves; the umbrella over the stupa is also wood" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Karla_Cave_Monument.jpg/200px-Karla_Cave_Monument.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Karla_Cave_Monument.jpg/300px-Karla_Cave_Monument.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Karla_Cave_Monument.jpg/400px-Karla_Cave_Monument.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Timber ribs on the roof at the <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karla Caves</a>; the umbrella over the stupa is also wood</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:017_Patterning_outside_Chaitya_Hall_(33563167691).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Decorative chaitya arches and lattice railings, Bedse Caves, 1st century BCE"><img alt="Decorative chaitya arches and lattice railings, Bedse Caves, 1st century BCE" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/017_Patterning_outside_Chaitya_Hall_%2833563167691%29.jpg/200px-017_Patterning_outside_Chaitya_Hall_%2833563167691%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/017_Patterning_outside_Chaitya_Hall_%2833563167691%29.jpg/300px-017_Patterning_outside_Chaitya_Hall_%2833563167691%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/017_Patterning_outside_Chaitya_Hall_%2833563167691%29.jpg/400px-017_Patterning_outside_Chaitya_Hall_%2833563167691%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5872" data-file-height="3915" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Decorative chaitya arches and lattice railings, <a href="/wiki/Bedse_Caves" title="Bedse Caves">Bedse Caves</a>, 1st century BCE</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddhist_Cave_Ellora3.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Stupa inside Cave 10, Ellora, the last chaitya hall built, the Buddha image now dominating the stupa."><img alt="Stupa inside Cave 10, Ellora, the last chaitya hall built, the Buddha image now dominating the stupa." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Buddhist_Cave_Ellora3.JPG/133px-Buddhist_Cave_Ellora3.JPG" decoding="async" width="133" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Buddhist_Cave_Ellora3.JPG/200px-Buddhist_Cave_Ellora3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Buddhist_Cave_Ellora3.JPG/266px-Buddhist_Cave_Ellora3.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="3600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Stupa inside Cave 10, <a href="/wiki/Ellora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellora">Ellora</a>, the last chaitya hall built, the Buddha image now dominating the stupa.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Freestanding_chaitya_halls">Freestanding chaitya halls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Freestanding chaitya halls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trivikram_Temple_Ter_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Trivikram_Temple_Ter_2.jpg/220px-Trivikram_Temple_Ter_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Trivikram_Temple_Ter_2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Chaitya hall in <a href="/wiki/Trivikrama_Temple" title="Trivikrama Temple">Trivikrama Temple</a>, 1st century BCE; the lower <a href="/wiki/Mandapa" title="Mandapa">mandapa</a> at left was a later Hindu addition.</figcaption></figure> <p>A number of freestanding constructed chaitya halls built in durable materials (stone or brick) have survived, the earliest from around the same time as the earliest rock-cut caves. There are also some ruins and groundworks, such as a circular type from the 3rd century BCE, the <a href="/wiki/Bairat_Temple" title="Bairat Temple">Bairat Temple</a>, in which a central stupa was surrounded by 27 octagonal wooden pillars, and then enclosed in a circular brick wall, forming a circular procession path around the stupa.<sup id="cite_ref-AH_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AH-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other significant remains of the bases of structural chaityas including those at <a href="/wiki/Guntupalli_Group_of_Buddhist_Monuments" title="Guntupalli Group of Buddhist Monuments">Guntupalle</a>, with many small round bases, and <a href="/wiki/Lalitgiri" title="Lalitgiri">Lalitgiri</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Apsidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Apsidal">apsidal</a> structure in <a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi</a> has also been dated, at least partially, to the 3rd century BCE: the so-called <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Sanchi_Temple_40" class="extiw" title="commons:category:Sanchi Temple 40">Temple 40</a>, one of the first instances of a free-standing temple in India.<sup id="cite_ref-BA147_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BA147-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temple 40 has remains of three different periods, the earliest period dating to the Maurya age, which probably makes it contemporary to the creation of the Great Stupa. An inscription even suggests it might have been established by <a href="/wiki/Bindusara" title="Bindusara">Bindusara</a>, the father of Ashoka.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original 3rd century BCE temple was built on a high rectangular stone platform, 26.52x14x3.35 metres, with two flights of stairs to the east and the west. It was an <a href="/wiki/Apsidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Apsidal">apsidal</a> hall, probably made of timber. It was burnt down sometime in the 2nd century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, the platform was enlarged to 41.76x27.74 metres and re-used to erect a pillared hall with fifty columns (5x10) of which stumps remain. Some of these pillars have inscriptions of the 2nd century BCE. </p><p>The base and reconstructed columns on three sides of Temple 18 at Sanchi were presumably completed by wood and thatch; this dates from the 5th century CE, perhaps rebuilt on earlier foundations. This stands next to Temple 17, a small flat-roofed temple with a lower <a href="/wiki/Mandapa" title="Mandapa">mandapa</a> at the front, of the basic type that came to dominate both Buddhist and Hindu temples in the future. The two types were used in the <a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta Empire</a> by both religions.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Trivikrama_Temple" title="Trivikrama Temple">Trivikrama Temple</a>, also named "Ter Temple", is a now a Hindu temple in the city of <a href="/wiki/Ter,_Maharashtra" title="Ter, Maharashtra">Ter, Maharashtra</a>. It was initially a free-standing apsidal structure, which is characteristic of early Buddhist apsidal <i>caityagriha</i> design. This structure is still standing, but is now located at the back of the building, since a flat-roofed <a href="/wiki/Mandapa" title="Mandapa">mandapa</a> structure was probably added from the 6th century CE, when the temple was converted into a Hindu temple.<sup id="cite_ref-BA_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BA-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The apsidal structure seems to be contemporary to the great apsidal temple found in <a href="/wiki/Sirkap" title="Sirkap">Sirkap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a>, which is dated to 30 BCE-50 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-BA_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BA-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would have been built under the <a href="/wiki/Satavahanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Satavahanas">Satavahanas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GM_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GM-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The front of the apsidal temple is decorated with a chaitya-arch, similar to those found in <a href="/wiki/Indian_rock-cut_architecture" title="Indian rock-cut architecture">Buddhist rock-cut architecture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BA_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BA-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Trivikrama Temple is considered as the oldest standing structure in Maharashtra.<sup id="cite_ref-GM_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GM-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another Hindu temple which was converted from a Buddhist chaityagriha structure is the very small Kapoteswara temple at <a href="/wiki/Chejerla,_Guntur_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Chejerla, Guntur district">Chezarla</a> in <a href="/wiki/Guntur_district" title="Guntur district">Guntur district</a>; here the chamber is straight at both ends, but with a rounded brick vault for its roof, using <a href="/wiki/Corbel" title="Corbel">corbelling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Remnants_of_Stupa.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Remains of the circular Chaitya hall in Bairat Temple, 3rd century BCE."><img alt="Remains of the circular Chaitya hall in Bairat Temple, 3rd century BCE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Remnants_of_Stupa.jpg/200px-Remnants_of_Stupa.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Remnants_of_Stupa.jpg/300px-Remnants_of_Stupa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Remnants_of_Stupa.jpg/400px-Remnants_of_Stupa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Remains of the circular Chaitya hall in <a href="/wiki/Bairat_Temple" title="Bairat Temple">Bairat Temple</a>, 3rd century BCE.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bharhut_circular_Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Relief of a circular chaitya hall, Bharhut, circa 100 BCE."><img alt="Relief of a circular chaitya hall, Bharhut, circa 100 BCE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Bharhut_circular_Temple.jpg/118px-Bharhut_circular_Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Bharhut_circular_Temple.jpg/177px-Bharhut_circular_Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Bharhut_circular_Temple.jpg/236px-Bharhut_circular_Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="895" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Relief of a circular chaitya hall, <a href="/wiki/Bharhut" title="Bharhut">Bharhut</a>, circa 100 BCE.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanchi_Temple_40.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sanchi Temple 40 was a 3rd-century BCE apsidal temple, one of the first known in India."><img alt="Sanchi Temple 40 was a 3rd-century BCE apsidal temple, one of the first known in India." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Sanchi_Temple_40.jpg/200px-Sanchi_Temple_40.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Sanchi_Temple_40.jpg/300px-Sanchi_Temple_40.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Sanchi_Temple_40.jpg/400px-Sanchi_Temple_40.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1860" data-file-height="1137" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sanchi" title="Sanchi">Sanchi</a> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/category:Sanchi_Temple_40" class="extiw" title="commons:category:Sanchi Temple 40">Temple 40</a> was a 3rd-century BCE apsidal temple, one of the first known in India.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IA_Temple_40_Sanchi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Reconstruction of Sanchi Temple 40 (3rd century BCE)."><img alt="Reconstruction of Sanchi Temple 40 (3rd century BCE)." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/IA_Temple_40_Sanchi.jpg/200px-IA_Temple_40_Sanchi.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/IA_Temple_40_Sanchi.jpg/300px-IA_Temple_40_Sanchi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/IA_Temple_40_Sanchi.jpg/400px-IA_Temple_40_Sanchi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="604" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Reconstruction of Sanchi Temple 40 (3rd century BCE).</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trivikram_Temple_Ter_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Trivikrama Temple with its chaitya arch."><img alt="Trivikrama Temple with its chaitya arch." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Trivikram_Temple_Ter_1.jpg/200px-Trivikram_Temple_Ter_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Trivikram_Temple_Ter_1.jpg/300px-Trivikram_Temple_Ter_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Trivikram_Temple_Ter_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="240" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Trivikrama Temple with its chaitya arch.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ter_ancient_Buddhist_Chaitya_House.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The ancient Buddhist chaitya house at Ter."><img alt="The ancient Buddhist chaitya house at Ter." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ter_ancient_Buddhist_Chaitya_House.jpg/150px-Ter_ancient_Buddhist_Chaitya_House.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ter_ancient_Buddhist_Chaitya_House.jpg/225px-Ter_ancient_Buddhist_Chaitya_House.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Ter_ancient_Buddhist_Chaitya_House.jpg/300px-Ter_ancient_Buddhist_Chaitya_House.jpg 2x" data-file-width="636" data-file-height="849" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The ancient Buddhist chaitya house at Ter.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amvar_Chejerla_Kapoteswara_temple_in_guntur_district.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Remains of the chaitya hall in Chejarla Kapoteswara temple."><img alt="Remains of the chaitya hall in Chejarla Kapoteswara temple." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Amvar_Chejerla_Kapoteswara_temple_in_guntur_district.jpg/200px-Amvar_Chejerla_Kapoteswara_temple_in_guntur_district.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Amvar_Chejerla_Kapoteswara_temple_in_guntur_district.jpg/300px-Amvar_Chejerla_Kapoteswara_temple_in_guntur_district.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Amvar_Chejerla_Kapoteswara_temple_in_guntur_district.jpg/400px-Amvar_Chejerla_Kapoteswara_temple_in_guntur_district.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Remains of the chaitya hall in <a href="/wiki/Chejerla,_Guntur_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Chejerla, Guntur district">Chejarla Kapoteswara temple</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Temple_18_-_Buddhist_Monument_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4499.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Sanchi, Temple 18, from the apse end. Partly reconstructed."><img alt="Sanchi, Temple 18, from the apse end. Partly reconstructed." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Temple_18_-_Buddhist_Monument_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4499.JPG/200px-Temple_18_-_Buddhist_Monument_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4499.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Temple_18_-_Buddhist_Monument_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4499.JPG/300px-Temple_18_-_Buddhist_Monument_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4499.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Temple_18_-_Buddhist_Monument_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4499.JPG/400px-Temple_18_-_Buddhist_Monument_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4499.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sanchi, Temple 18, from the <a href="/wiki/Apse" title="Apse">apse</a> end. Partly reconstructed.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:IA_Temple_18_Sanchi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Conjectural reconstruction of Temple 18 by Percy Brown (now dated earlier)"><img alt="Conjectural reconstruction of Temple 18 by Percy Brown (now dated earlier)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/IA_Temple_18_Sanchi.jpg/200px-IA_Temple_18_Sanchi.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/IA_Temple_18_Sanchi.jpg/300px-IA_Temple_18_Sanchi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/IA_Temple_18_Sanchi.jpg/400px-IA_Temple_18_Sanchi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="910" data-file-height="650" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Conjectural reconstruction of Temple 18 by <a href="/wiki/Percy_Brown_(art_historian)" title="Percy Brown (art historian)">Percy Brown</a> (now dated earlier)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chaityagriha_at_Lalitgiri.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Excavated remains of a structural chaitya at Lalitgiri, Odisha, India"><img alt="Excavated remains of a structural chaitya at Lalitgiri, Odisha, India" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Chaityagriha_at_Lalitgiri.jpg/200px-Chaityagriha_at_Lalitgiri.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Chaityagriha_at_Lalitgiri.jpg/300px-Chaityagriha_at_Lalitgiri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Chaityagriha_at_Lalitgiri.jpg/400px-Chaityagriha_at_Lalitgiri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Excavated remains of a structural chaitya at <a href="/wiki/Lalitgiri" title="Lalitgiri">Lalitgiri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odisha" title="Odisha">Odisha</a>, India</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="End_of_the_chaitya_hall">End of the chaitya hall</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: End of the chaitya hall"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Group_of_Temples_Aihole_(20169954306).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Group_of_Temples_Aihole_%2820169954306%29.jpg/220px-Group_of_Temples_Aihole_%2820169954306%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Group_of_Temples_Aihole_%2820169954306%29.jpg/330px-Group_of_Temples_Aihole_%2820169954306%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Group_of_Temples_Aihole_%2820169954306%29.jpg/440px-Group_of_Temples_Aihole_%2820169954306%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Durga_temple,_Aihole" title="Durga temple, Aihole">Durga temple, Aihole</a>, 7th or 8th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>Apparently the last rock-cut chaitya hall to be constructed was Cave 10 at <a href="/wiki/Ellora" class="mw-redirect" title="Ellora">Ellora</a>, in the first half of the 7th century. By this time the role of the chaitya hall was being replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Vihara">vihara</a>, which had now developed shrine rooms with Buddha images (easily added to older examples), and largely taken over their function for assemblies. The stupa itself had been replaced as a focus for devotion and meditation by the Buddha image, and in Cave 10, as in other late chaityas (for example Cave 26 at Ajanta, illustrated here), there is a large seated Buddha taking up the front of the stupa. Apart from this, the form of the interior is not much different from the earlier examples from several centuries before. But the form of the windows on the exterior has changed greatly, almost entirely dropping the imitation of wooden architecture, and showing a decorative treatment of the wide surround to the chaitya arch that was to be a major style in later temple decoration.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last stage of the freestanding chaitya hall temple may be exemplified by the <a href="/wiki/Durga_temple,_Aihole" title="Durga temple, Aihole">Durga temple, Aihole</a>, of the 7th or 8th century. This is apsidal, with rounded ends at the sanctuary end to a total of three layers: the enclosure to the sanctuary, a wall beyond this, and a pteroma or <a href="/wiki/Ambulatory" title="Ambulatory">ambulatory</a> as an open <a href="/wiki/Loggia" title="Loggia">loggia</a> with pillars running all round the building. This was the main space for <a href="/wiki/Parikrama" title="Parikrama">parikrama</a> or <a href="/wiki/Circumambulation" title="Circumambulation">circumambulation</a>. Above the round-ended sanctuary, now a room with a doorway, rises a <a href="/wiki/Shikhara" title="Shikhara">Shikhara</a> tower, relatively small by later standards, and the mandapa has a flat roof.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How long construction of chaitya halls in plant materials continued in villages is not known. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parallels">Parallels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Parallels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Toda huts</dt></dl> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toda_Hut.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Toda_Hut.JPG/260px-Toda_Hut.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Toda_Hut.JPG/390px-Toda_Hut.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Toda_Hut.JPG/520px-Toda_Hut.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>A Toda temple or milk store hut in Nilgiri Hills.<sup id="cite_ref-davidson_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidson-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only the priest may enter through the tiny door.</figcaption></figure> <p>The broad resemblance between chaityas and the traditional huts still made by the <a href="/wiki/Toda_people" title="Toda people">Toda people</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nilgiri_Hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Nilgiri Hills">Nilgiri Hills</a> has often been remarked on.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These are crude huts built with wicker bent to produce arch-shaped roofs, but the models for the chaitya were presumably larger and much more sophisticated structures.<sup id="cite_ref-davidson_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidson-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Lycian tombs</dt></dl> <p>The similarity of the 4th century BCE <a href="/wiki/Lycia" title="Lycia">Lycian</a> barrel-vaulted tombs of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Payava" title="Tomb of Payava">tomb of Payava</a>, with the Indian architectural design of the Chaitya (starting at least a century later from circa 250 BCE, with the <a href="/wiki/Lomas_Rishi" class="mw-redirect" title="Lomas Rishi">Lomas Rishi</a> caves in the <a href="/wiki/Barabar_caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Barabar caves">Barabar caves group</a>), suggests that the designs of the Lycian rock-cut tombs traveled to India,<sup id="cite_ref-GHA_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GHA-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or that both traditions derived from a common ancestral source.<sup id="cite_ref-HI_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HI-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:314px;max-width:314px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_tomb_of_Payava,_a_Lykian_aristocrat,_about_375-360_BC,_from_Xanthos,_British_Museum_(9504934234).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/The_tomb_of_Payava%2C_a_Lykian_aristocrat%2C_about_375-360_BC%2C_from_Xanthos%2C_British_Museum_%289504934234%29.jpg/150px-The_tomb_of_Payava%2C_a_Lykian_aristocrat%2C_about_375-360_BC%2C_from_Xanthos%2C_British_Museum_%289504934234%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/The_tomb_of_Payava%2C_a_Lykian_aristocrat%2C_about_375-360_BC%2C_from_Xanthos%2C_British_Museum_%289504934234%29.jpg/225px-The_tomb_of_Payava%2C_a_Lykian_aristocrat%2C_about_375-360_BC%2C_from_Xanthos%2C_British_Museum_%289504934234%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/The_tomb_of_Payava%2C_a_Lykian_aristocrat%2C_about_375-360_BC%2C_from_Xanthos%2C_British_Museum_%289504934234%29.jpg/300px-The_tomb_of_Payava%2C_a_Lykian_aristocrat%2C_about_375-360_BC%2C_from_Xanthos%2C_British_Museum_%289504934234%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2994" data-file-height="4288" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Payava" title="Tomb of Payava">tomb of Payava</a>, a Lykian aristocrat, about 375-360 BCE, from <a href="/wiki/Xanthos" title="Xanthos">Xanthos</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> (<a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Room_20,_British_Museum" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Room 20, British Museum">Room 20</a>).</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:158px;max-width:158px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarcophagus_of_Payava_from_Xanthos_from_the_Entretiens_sur_l%27Architecture,_Atlas_by_Viollet-le-Duc_1863.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Sarcophagus_of_Payava_from_Xanthos_from_the_Entretiens_sur_l%27Architecture%2C_Atlas_by_Viollet-le-Duc_1863.jpg/156px-Sarcophagus_of_Payava_from_Xanthos_from_the_Entretiens_sur_l%27Architecture%2C_Atlas_by_Viollet-le-Duc_1863.jpg" decoding="async" width="156" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Sarcophagus_of_Payava_from_Xanthos_from_the_Entretiens_sur_l%27Architecture%2C_Atlas_by_Viollet-le-Duc_1863.jpg/234px-Sarcophagus_of_Payava_from_Xanthos_from_the_Entretiens_sur_l%27Architecture%2C_Atlas_by_Viollet-le-Duc_1863.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Sarcophagus_of_Payava_from_Xanthos_from_the_Entretiens_sur_l%27Architecture%2C_Atlas_by_Viollet-le-Duc_1863.jpg/312px-Sarcophagus_of_Payava_from_Xanthos_from_the_Entretiens_sur_l%27Architecture%2C_Atlas_by_Viollet-le-Duc_1863.jpg 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="638" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Reconstruction drawing of the tomb by <a href="/wiki/Viollet-le-Duc" class="mw-redirect" title="Viollet-le-Duc">Viollet-le-Duc</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Early on, <a href="/wiki/James_Fergusson_(architect)" title="James Fergusson (architect)">James Fergusson</a>, in his <i>" Illustrated Handbook of Architecture"</i>, while describing the very progressive evolution from wooden architecture to stone architecture in various ancient civilizations, has commented that "In India, the form and construction of the older Buddhist temples resemble so singularly these examples in Lycia".<sup id="cite_ref-HI_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HI-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ananda_Coomaraswamy" title="Ananda Coomaraswamy">Ananda Coomaraswamy</a> and others also noted that "Lycian excavated and monolithic tombs at <a href="/wiki/Pinara" title="Pinara">Pinara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xanthos" title="Xanthos">Xanthos</a> on the south coast of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> present some analogy with the early Indian rock-cut caitya-halls", one of many common elements between Early Indian and <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asiatic</a> art.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Lycian tombs, dated to the 4th century BCE, are either free-standing or rock-cut barrel-vaulted sarcophagi, placed on a high base, with architectural features carved in stone to imitate wooden structures. There are <a href="/wiki/File:Lycian_rock-cut_tombs.jpg" title="File:Lycian rock-cut tombs.jpg">numerous rock-cut equivalents</a> to the free-standing structures. One of the free-standing tombs, the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Payava" title="Tomb of Payava">tomb of Payava</a>, a Lykian aristocrat from <a href="/wiki/Xanthos" title="Xanthos">Xanthos</a>, and dated to 375-360 BCE, is visible at the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a>. Both Greek and Persian influences can be seen in the reliefs sculpted on the sarcophagus.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The structural similarities with Indian Chaityas, down to many architectural details such as the "same pointed form of roof, with a ridge", are further developed in <i>The cave temples of India</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fergusson went on to suggest an "Indian connection", and some form of cultural transfer across the Achaemenid Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, the ancient transfer of Lycian designs for rock-cut monuments to India is considered as "quite probable".<sup id="cite_ref-GHA_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GHA-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anthropologist" title="Anthropologist">Anthropologist</a> David Napier has also proposed a reverse relationship, claiming that the Payava tomb was a descendant of an ancient South Asian style, and that the man named "Payava" may actually have been a <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Greek">Graeco-Indian</a> named "Pallava".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nepal">Nepal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nepal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_chaitya_at_Kohiti.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/A_chaitya_at_Kohiti.JPG/220px-A_chaitya_at_Kohiti.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/A_chaitya_at_Kohiti.JPG/330px-A_chaitya_at_Kohiti.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/A_chaitya_at_Kohiti.JPG/440px-A_chaitya_at_Kohiti.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Nepalese form of chaitya</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>, the meaning of the word "chaitya" is different. A Nepalese chaitya is not a building, but a shrine monument that consists of a stupa-like shape on top of a plinth, often very elaborately ornamented. They are typically placed in the open air, often in religious compounds, averaging around four to eight feet in height. They are constructed in the memory of a dead person by his or her family by the <a href="/wiki/Sherpa_people" title="Sherpa people">Sherpas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magar_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Magar people">Magars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gurungs" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurungs">Gurungs</a>, Tamangs, and <a href="/wiki/Newar" class="mw-redirect" title="Newar">Newars</a>, among other people of Nepal. The <a href="/wiki/Newar_people" title="Newar people">Newar people</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kathmandu_Valley" title="Kathmandu Valley">Kathmandu Valley</a> started adding images of the four <a href="/wiki/Five_Tathagatas" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Tathagatas">Tathagatas</a> on the chaitya's four directions, mainly after the twelfth century. They are constructed with beautifully carved stone and mud mortar. They are said to consist of the <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C5%ABta" title="Mahābhūta">Mahābhūta</a>— earth, air, fire, water, and space.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cambodia">Cambodia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cambodia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In classical <a href="/wiki/Cambodian_art" title="Cambodian art">Cambodian art</a> chaityas are boundary markers for sacred sites, generally made in sets of four, placed on the site boundary at the four cardinal directions. They generally take a pillar-like form, often topped with a stupa, and are carved on the body.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cambogia,_monumento_buddista_da_kbal_sre_yeay_yin,_stile_dei_khleang,_975-1010_ca._02.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Cambodian sanctuary marker chaitya, Khleang style, c. 975–1010"><img alt="Cambodian sanctuary marker chaitya, Khleang style, c. 975–1010" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cambogia%2C_monumento_buddista_da_kbal_sre_yeay_yin%2C_stile_dei_khleang%2C_975-1010_ca._02.JPG/71px-Cambogia%2C_monumento_buddista_da_kbal_sre_yeay_yin%2C_stile_dei_khleang%2C_975-1010_ca._02.JPG" decoding="async" width="71" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cambogia%2C_monumento_buddista_da_kbal_sre_yeay_yin%2C_stile_dei_khleang%2C_975-1010_ca._02.JPG/107px-Cambogia%2C_monumento_buddista_da_kbal_sre_yeay_yin%2C_stile_dei_khleang%2C_975-1010_ca._02.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Cambogia%2C_monumento_buddista_da_kbal_sre_yeay_yin%2C_stile_dei_khleang%2C_975-1010_ca._02.JPG/143px-Cambogia%2C_monumento_buddista_da_kbal_sre_yeay_yin%2C_stile_dei_khleang%2C_975-1010_ca._02.JPG 2x" data-file-width="932" data-file-height="2604" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cambodian sanctuary marker chaitya, <a href="/wiki/Khleang" class="mw-redirect" title="Khleang">Khleang</a> style, c. 975–1010</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cetiya" title="Cetiya">Cetiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index of Buddhism-related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda_festival" title="Pagoda festival">Pagoda festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Trainor1997p34-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Trainor1997p34_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trainor1997p34_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Trainor1997p34_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKevin_Trainor1997" class="citation book cs1">Kevin Trainor (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ckSBgvtU42YC"><i>Relics, Ritual, and Representation in Buddhism: Rematerializing the Sri Lankan Theravada Tradition</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–38, 89–90 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58280-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-58280-3"><bdi>978-0-521-58280-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Relics%2C+Ritual%2C+and+Representation+in+Buddhism%3A+Rematerializing+the+Sri+Lankan+Theravada+Tradition&rft.pages=33-38%2C+89-90+with+footnotes&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-58280-3&rft.au=Kevin+Trainor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DckSBgvtU42YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-buswell161-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-buswell161_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-buswell161_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_E._Buswell_Jr.Donald_S._Lopez_Jr.2013" class="citation book cs1">Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DXN2AAAAQBAJ"><i>The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 161. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4805-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4805-8"><bdi>978-1-4008-4805-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Princeton+Dictionary+of+Buddhism&rft.pages=161&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4805-8&rft.au=Robert+E.+Buswell+Jr.&rft.au=Donald+S.+Lopez+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDXN2AAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michell, 66–67; Harle, 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harle (1994), 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chedi">"Chedi"</a>. 17 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chedi&rft.date=2023-01-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wiktionary.org%2Fwiki%2Fchedi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chanchreek-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chanchreek_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chanchreek_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFK.L._Chanchreek2004" class="citation book cs1">K.L. Chanchreek (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lNoYAQAAMAAJ"><i>Jaina Art and Architecture: Northern and Eastern India</i></a>. Shree. pp. 21–22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-88658-51-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-88658-51-0"><bdi>978-81-88658-51-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jaina+Art+and+Architecture%3A+Northern+and+Eastern+India&rft.pages=21-22&rft.pub=Shree&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-81-88658-51-0&rft.au=K.L.+Chanchreek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlNoYAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gonda418-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gonda418_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gonda418_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_Gonda1980" class="citation book cs1">Jan Gonda (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7UBxYpXWP30C"><i>Vedic Ritual</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 418–419. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06210-6" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-06210-6"><bdi>90-04-06210-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vedic+Ritual&rft.pages=418-419&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=90-04-06210-6&rft.au=Jan+Gonda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7UBxYpXWP30C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kramrisch1946p147-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kramrisch1946p147_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kramrisch1946p147_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStella_Kramrisch1946" class="citation book cs1">Stella Kramrisch (1946). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NNcXrBlI9S0C&pg=PA148"><i>The Hindu Temple, Volume 1</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 147–149 with footnote 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0223-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0223-0"><bdi>978-81-208-0223-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Hindu+Temple%2C+Volume+1&rft.pages=147-149+with+footnote+150&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1946&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0223-0&rft.au=Stella+Kramrisch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNNcXrBlI9S0C%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michell, 66, 374; Harle, 48, 493; Hardy, 39</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michell, 65–66</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michell, 66–67; Harle, 48; <a href="/wiki/R._C._Majumdar" title="R. C. Majumdar">R. C. Majumdar</a> quoting <a href="/wiki/James_Fergusson_(architect)" title="James Fergusson (architect)">James Fergusson</a> on the Great Chaitya at <a href="/wiki/Karla_Caves" title="Karla Caves">Karla Caves</a>:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"It resembles an early <a href="/wiki/Christian_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian church">Christian church</a> in its arrangement; consisting of a <a href="/wiki/Nave" title="Nave">nave</a> and side-aisles terminating in an <a href="/wiki/Apse" title="Apse">apse</a> or semi-dome, around which the aisle is carried... Fifteen pillars on each side separate the nave from the aisle..."</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Ancient India</i>, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1977, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XNxiN5tzKOgC&pg=PA225">p.225</a></cite></div></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michell, 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harle (1994), 26, 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harle, 26, 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shah1987p9-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shah1987p9_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shah1987p9_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUmakant_Premanand_Shah1987" class="citation book cs1">Umakant Premanand Shah (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_y_P4duSXsC"><i>Jaina Iconography</i></a>. Abhinav Publications. pp. 9–14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-208-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7017-208-6"><bdi>978-81-7017-208-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jaina+Iconography&rft.pages=9-14&rft.pub=Abhinav+Publications&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-81-7017-208-6&rft.au=Umakant+Premanand+Shah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm_y_P4duSXsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMohan_Lal_Mehta1969" class="citation book cs1">Mohan Lal Mehta (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5KFWAAAAMAAJ"><i>Jaina Culture</i></a>. P.V. Research Institute. p. 125.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jaina+Culture&rft.pages=125&rft.pub=P.V.+Research+Institute&rft.date=1969&rft.au=Mohan+Lal+Mehta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5KFWAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sparreboom63-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sparreboom63_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sparreboom63_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Sparreboom1985" class="citation book cs1">M. Sparreboom (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6alT6zhVUlAC"><i>Chariots in the Veda</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 63–72 with footnotes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-07590-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-07590-9"><bdi>90-04-07590-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chariots+in+the+Veda&rft.pages=63-72+with+footnotes&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=90-04-07590-9&rft.au=M.+Sparreboom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6alT6zhVUlAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/caitya">Caitya</a>, Encyclopaedia Britannica</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michell, 69, 342; Harle, 48, 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AH-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AH_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AH_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChakrabarty2009" class="citation book cs1">Chakrabarty, Dilip K. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wPQtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT421"><i>India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic Foundations</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 421. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199088140" title="Special:BookSources/9780199088140"><bdi>9780199088140</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=India%3A+An+Archaeological+History%3A+Palaeolithic+Beginnings+to+Early+Historic+Foundations&rft.pages=421&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780199088140&rft.aulast=Chakrabarty&rft.aufirst=Dilip+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwPQtDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT421&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brancaccio2010p26-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brancaccio2010p26_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPia_Brancaccio2010" class="citation book cs1">Pia Brancaccio (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_4pXm7dD78C"><i>The Buddhist Caves at Aurangabad: Transformations in Art and Religion</i></a>. BRILL Academic. pp. 26–27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18525-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18525-8"><bdi>978-90-04-18525-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Buddhist+Caves+at+Aurangabad%3A+Transformations+in+Art+and+Religion&rft.pages=26-27&rft.pub=BRILL+Academic&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18525-8&rft.au=Pia+Brancaccio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm_4pXm7dD78C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_C._Harle1994" class="citation book cs1">James C. Harle (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LwcBVvdqyBkC"><i>The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06217-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-06217-5"><bdi>978-0-300-06217-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+and+Architecture+of+the+Indian+Subcontinent&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-300-06217-5&rft.au=James+C.+Harle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLwcBVvdqyBkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_K._Jerryson2017" class="citation book cs1">Michael K. Jerryson (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rBk1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA445"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Contemporary Buddhism</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 445–446. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936238-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-936238-7"><bdi>978-0-19-936238-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Contemporary+Buddhism&rft.pages=445-446&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-936238-7&rft.au=Michael+K.+Jerryson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrBk1DQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA445&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dehejia_1972-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dehejia_1972_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dehejia_1972_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dehejia, V. (1972). <i>Early Buddhist Rock Temples</i>. Thames and Hudson: London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-69001-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-69001-4">0-500-69001-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_maha_bhajacaves.asp">ASI, "Bhaja Caves"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130810133406/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_maha_bhajacaves.asp">Archived</a> 2013-08-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Michell, 352</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Hardy, 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_ap_guntupalli.asp">Group of Buddhist Monuments, Guntupalli. ASI</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131230103139/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_ap_guntupalli.asp">Archived</a> 2013-12-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_orissa_es_lalitagiri.asp">ASI, Lalitgiri</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140926160922/http://asi.nic.in/asi_monu_tktd_orissa_es_lalitagiri.asp">Archived</a> 2014-09-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BA147-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BA147_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, p.147</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingh2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Singh, Upinder (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zmAlDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT67"><i>The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology</i></a> (in Arabic). SAGE Publications India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789351506454" title="Special:BookSources/9789351506454"><bdi>9789351506454</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Idea+of+Ancient+India%3A+Essays+on+Religion%2C+Politics%2C+and+Archaeology&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications+India&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789351506454&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Upinder&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzmAlDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbram(Firm)2003" class="citation book cs1">Abram, David; (Firm), Rough Guides (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kAMik_6LbwUC&pg=PA393"><i>The Rough Guide to India</i></a>. Rough Guides. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781843530893" title="Special:BookSources/9781843530893"><bdi>9781843530893</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rough+Guide+to+India&rft.pub=Rough+Guides&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781843530893&rft.aulast=Abram&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=%28Firm%29%2C+Rough+Guides&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkAMik_6LbwUC%26pg%3DPA393&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall1955" class="citation book cs1">Marshall, John (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/in.gov.ignca.4365/4365#page/n153/mode/2up"><i>Guide to Sanchi</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+to+Sanchi&rft.date=1955&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fin.gov.ignca.4365%2F4365%23page%2Fn153%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harle, 219-220</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BA-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BA_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BA_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BA_33-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLe2010" class="citation book cs1">Le, Huu Phuoc (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA237"><i>Buddhist Architecture</i></a>. Grafikol. p. 237. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780984404308" title="Special:BookSources/9780984404308"><bdi>9780984404308</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhist+Architecture&rft.pages=237&rft.pub=Grafikol&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780984404308&rft.aulast=Le&rft.aufirst=Huu+Phuoc&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9jb364g4BvoC%26pg%3DPA237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GM-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GM_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GM_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichell2013" class="citation book cs1">Michell, George (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GdBbBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT142"><i>Southern India: A Guide to Monuments Sites & Museums</i></a>. Roli Books Private Limited. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788174369031" title="Special:BookSources/9788174369031"><bdi>9788174369031</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Southern+India%3A+A+Guide+to+Monuments+Sites+%26+Museums&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Roli+Books+Private+Limited&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9788174369031&rft.aulast=Michell&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGdBbBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhir1992" class="citation book cs1">Ahir, D. C. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WH0EAAAAYAAJ"><i>Buddhism in South India</i></a>. South Asia Books. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788170303329" title="Special:BookSources/9788170303329"><bdi>9788170303329</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+South+India&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=South+Asia+Books&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9788170303329&rft.aulast=Ahir&rft.aufirst=D.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWH0EAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span>; Harle, 218</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harle, 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harle, 220-221</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-davidson-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-davidson_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidson_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Leroy Davidson (1956), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3047649">Review: The Art of Indian Asia: Its Mythology and Transformations</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_Bulletin" class="mw-redirect" title="The Art Bulletin">The Art Bulletin</a></i>, vol. 38, no. 2, 1956, pp. 126–127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Narayan Sanyal, <i>Immortal Ajanta</i>, p. 134, Bharati Book Stall, 1984</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GHA-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GHA_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GHA_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChingJarzombekPrakash2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Ching" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Ching">Ching, Francis D.K</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mark_Jarzombek" title="Mark Jarzombek">Jarzombek, Mark M.</a>; Prakash, Vikramaditya (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SPqKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT707"><i>A Global History of Architecture</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 707. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118981603" title="Special:BookSources/9781118981603"><bdi>9781118981603</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Global+History+of+Architecture&rft.pages=707&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781118981603&rft.aulast=Ching&rft.aufirst=Francis+D.K&rft.au=Jarzombek%2C+Mark+M.&rft.au=Prakash%2C+Vikramaditya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSPqKDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT707&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HI-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-HI_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-HI_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JNbMexY8iWcC"><i>The Illustrated Handbook of Architecture Being a Concise and Popular Account of the Different Styles of Architecture Prevailing in All Ages and All Countries by James Fergusson</i></a>. J. Murray. 1859. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JNbMexY8iWcC/page/n274">212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Illustrated+Handbook+of+Architecture+Being+a+Concise+and+Popular+Account+of+the+Different+Styles+of+Architecture+Prevailing+in+All+Ages+and+All+Countries+by+James+Fergusson&rft.pages=212&rft.pub=J.+Murray&rft.date=1859&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_JNbMexY8iWcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoomaraswamy1972" class="citation book cs1">Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.52349"><i>History of Indian and Indonesian art</i></a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.52349/page/n313">12</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Indian+and+Indonesian+art&rft.pages=12&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Coomaraswamy&rft.aufirst=Ananda+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.gov.ignca.52349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBombay1974" class="citation book cs1">Bombay, Asiatic Society of (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7NW1AAAAIAAJ"><i>Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay</i></a>. Asiatic Society of Bombay. p. 61.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Journal+of+the+Asiatic+Society+of+Bombay&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Asiatic+Society+of+Bombay&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Bombay&rft.aufirst=Asiatic+Society+of&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7NW1AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Lycian tombs at Pinara and Xanthos, on the south-coast of Asia Minor, were excavated like the early Indian rock-hewn chaitya-hall" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoveau-Dubreuil1976" class="citation book cs1">Joveau-Dubreuil, Gabriel (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YcEtAQAAIAAJ"><i>Vedic antiquites</i></a>. Akshara. p. 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vedic+antiquites&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Akshara&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Joveau-Dubreuil&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYcEtAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Caygill, The British Museum A-Z compani (London, The British Museum Press, 1999) E. Slatter, Xanthus: travels and discovery (London, Rubicon Press, 1994) A.H. Smith, A catalogue of sculpture in -1, vol. 2 (London, British Museum, 1900)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFergussonBurgess1880" class="citation book cs1">Fergusson, James; Burgess, James (1880). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cavetemplesofind00ferguoft"><i>The cave temples of India</i></a>. London : Allen. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cavetemplesofind00ferguoft/page/120">120</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+cave+temples+of+India&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=London+%3A+Allen&rft.date=1880&rft.aulast=Fergusson&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Burgess%2C+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcavetemplesofind00ferguoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFergusson1849" class="citation book cs1">Fergusson, James (1849). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalinq00ferggoog"><i>An historical inquiry into the true principles of beauty in art, more especially with reference to architecture</i></a>. London, Longmans, Brown, Green, and Longmans. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anhistoricalinq00ferggoog/page/n349">316</a>–320.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+historical+inquiry+into+the+true+principles+of+beauty+in+art%2C+more+especially+with+reference+to+architecture&rft.pages=316-320&rft.pub=London%2C+Longmans%2C+Brown%2C+Green%2C+and+Longmans&rft.date=1849&rft.aulast=Fergusson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanhistoricalinq00ferggoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to David Napier, author of <i>Masks, Transformation, and Paradox</i>, "In the British Museum we find a Lycian building, the roof of which is clearly the descendant of an ancient South Asian style.", "For this is the so-called "Tomb of Payava" a Graeco-Indian Pallava if ever there was one." in "Masks and metaphysics in the ancient world: an anthropological view" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalikArts2001" class="citation book cs1">Malik, Subhash Chandra; Arts, Indira Gandhi National Centre for the (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_QeCAAAAMAAJ"><i>Mind, Man, and Mask</i></a>. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788173051920" title="Special:BookSources/9788173051920"><bdi>9788173051920</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mind%2C+Man%2C+and+Mask&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Indira+Gandhi+National+Centre+for+the+Arts&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9788173051920&rft.aulast=Malik&rft.aufirst=Subhash+Chandra&rft.au=Arts%2C+Indira+Gandhi+National+Centre+for+the&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_QeCAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span>. David Napier biography <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/david-napier-b1905516/?originalSubdomain=uk">here</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/author/N/A/au5618237.html">here</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asianart.com/patan-museum/a11.html">"Shikarakuta (small temple) Chaitya"</a>. Asianart.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Shikarakuta+%28small+temple%29+Chaitya&rft.pub=Asianart.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asianart.com%2Fpatan-museum%2Fa11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChaitya" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jessup, 109–110, 209</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Chaitya" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Chaitya">Chaitya</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>Dehejia, V. (1997). <i>Indian Art</i>. Phaidon: London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7148-3496-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7148-3496-3">0-7148-3496-3</a></li> <li>Hardy, Adam, <i>Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries</i>, 1995, Abhinav Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8170173124" title="Special:BookSources/8170173124">8170173124</a>, 9788170173120, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA183">google books</a></li> <li>Harle, J.C., <i>The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent</i>, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0300062176" title="Special:BookSources/0300062176">0300062176</a></li> <li>Jessup, Helen Ibbetson, <i>Art and Architecture of Cambodia</i>, 2004, Thames & Hudson (World of Art), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/050020375X" title="Special:BookSources/050020375X">050020375X</a></li> <li>Michell, George, <i>The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu</i>, 1989, Penguin Books, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0140081445" title="Special:BookSources/0140081445">0140081445</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archinomy.com/case-studies/1920/evolution-and-development-of-chaitya-halls">Evolution of Chaitya Halls</a> compiled by students of School of Planning & Architecture, New Delhi</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Jainism.svg/12px-Jainism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Jainism.svg/18px-Jainism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Jainism.svg/24px-Jainism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="1559" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jain_temple" title="Jain temple">Jain temple or Derasar or Basadi</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_Star_of_David.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Black_Star_of_David.svg/15px-Black_Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Black_Star_of_David.svg/23px-Black_Star_of_David.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Black_Star_of_David.svg/30px-Black_Star_of_David.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="693" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue"> Synagogue or Shul</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_of_Islam.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Symbol_of_Islam.svg/15px-Symbol_of_Islam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Symbol_of_Islam.svg/23px-Symbol_of_Islam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Symbol_of_Islam.svg/30px-Symbol_of_Islam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="216" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dargah" class="mw-redirect" title="Dargah">Dargah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongbei_(Islamic_architecture)" title="Gongbei (Islamic architecture)">Gongbei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg/15px-Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="25" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg/23px-Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg/30px-Darfash_-_Mandaean_cross.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="964" data-file-height="1615" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Mandi_(Mandaeism)" title="Mandi (Mandaeism)">Mandi or Mashkhanna or Beth Manda</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> & <a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">modern paganism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pagan_religions_symbols.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pagan_religions_symbols.png/20px-Pagan_religions_symbols.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pagan_religions_symbols.png/30px-Pagan_religions_symbols.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Pagan_religions_symbols.png/40px-Pagan_religions_symbols.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heathen_hof" title="Heathen hof">Heathen hof or Germanic pagan temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_circle" title="Magic circle">Magic circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Shintoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shintoism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Torii.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Torii.svg/15px-Torii.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Torii.svg/23px-Torii.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Torii.svg/30px-Torii.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="520" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Shinto_shrine" title="Shinto shrine">Shinto Shrine or Jinja</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Khanda.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Khanda.svg/15px-Khanda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Khanda.svg/23px-Khanda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Khanda.svg/30px-Khanda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="632" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Gurdwara" title="Gurdwara">Gurdwara</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Pakua.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pakua.svg/15px-Pakua.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pakua.svg/23px-Pakua.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Pakua.svg/30px-Pakua.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="430" data-file-height="426" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_temple" title="Taoist temple">Taoist temple or Dàoguàn</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Faravahar.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Faravahar.svg/25px-Faravahar.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Faravahar.svg/38px-Faravahar.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Faravahar.svg/50px-Faravahar.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="300" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fire_temple" title="Fire temple"> Fire temple or Agiary or Atashkadeh or Atashgah or Dar-e Mehr</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Varying religions and beliefs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altar" title="Altar">Altar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_(religious_practice)" title="Cult (religious practice)">Cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacral_architecture" title="Sacral architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asylum_(antiquity)" title="Asylum (antiquity)">Asylum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult_image" title="Cult image">Cult image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sanctuary" title="Sanctuary">Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrine" title="Shrine">Shrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple" title="Temple">Temple</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_temple" title="Sun temple">Sun temple</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b>Note:</b> Sorted alphabetically except the last one</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&oldid=1245233162">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chaitya&oldid=1245233162</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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