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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of circuits subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Analog_circuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analog_circuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Analog circuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analog_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_circuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_circuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Digital circuits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_circuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Design</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Design-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Design subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computer-aided_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computer-aided_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Computer-aided design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computer-aided_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Negative_qualities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Negative_qualities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Negative qualities</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Negative_qualities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Negative qualities subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Negative_qualities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thermal_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thermal_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Thermal management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thermal_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Noise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Noise</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Packaging_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Packaging_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Packaging methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Packaging_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Electronics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 147 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-147" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">147 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="इलेक्ट्रॉनिकी – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="इलेक्ट्रॉनिकी" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="إلكترونيات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إلكترونيات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronica" title="Electronica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Electronica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3nica" title="Electrónica – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Electrónica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="الکترونیک – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="الکترونیک" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="ইলেকট্রন বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইলেকট্রন বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C4%81n-ch%C3%BA-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tiān-chú-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiān-chú-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электроника – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Электроника" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электроніка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Электроніка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электроніка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Электроніка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="इलेक्ट्रॉन बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इलेक्ट्रॉन बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електроника – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Електроника" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronek" title="Elektronek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Elektronek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B2nica" title="Electrònica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Electrònica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электроника – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Электроника" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroneg" title="Electroneg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Electroneg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%83%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%83" title="إيليكطرونيك – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="إيليكطرونيك" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroonika" title="Elektroonika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Elektroonika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Ηλεκτρονική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλεκτρονική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3nica" title="Electrónica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Electrónica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroniko" title="Elektroniko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Elektroniko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="الکترونیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الکترونیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Electronics" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89lectronique_(technique)" title="Électronique (technique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Électronique (technique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroanika" title="Elektroanika – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Elektroanika" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletroniche" title="Eletroniche – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Eletroniche" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leictreonaic" title="Leictreonaic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Leictreonaic" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electr%C3%B3nica" title="Electrónica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Electrónica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E5%AD%B8" title="電子學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="電子學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%BC%EB%A0%89%ED%8A%B8%EB%A1%9C%EB%8B%89%EC%8A%A4" title="일렉트로닉스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="일렉트로닉스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Էլեկտրոնիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլեկտրոնիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="इलैक्ट्रॉनिक्स – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इलैक्ट्रॉनिक्स" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroniko" title="Elektroniko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Elektroniko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronica" title="Electronica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Electronica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezengabuzuba" title="Ezengabuzuba – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ezengabuzuba" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafeindat%C3%A6kni" title="Rafeindatækni – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rafeindatækni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elettronica" title="Elettronica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Elettronica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="אלקטרוניקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלקטרוניקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eel%C9%9Bk%C9%A9troniiki" title="Eelɛkɩtroniiki – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Eelɛkɩtroniiki" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innallangialerineq" title="Innallangialerineq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Innallangialerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%9A%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9B%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ವಿದ್ಯುಚ್ಛಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿದ್ಯುಚ್ಛಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ელექტრონიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ელექტრონიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%9B%DB%86%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8F%D8%AA" title="گرٛۆندُت – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="گرٛۆندُت" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электроника – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Электроника" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronegas" title="Elektronegas – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Elektronegas" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroniki" title="Elektroniki – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Elektroniki" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektwonik_(teknik)" title="Elektwonik (teknik) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Elektwonik (teknik)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9l%C3%A8ktronnik" title="Lélèktronnik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lélèktronnik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektron%C3%AEk" title="Elektronîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Elektronîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%AD%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%81%E0%BB%82%E0%BA%95%E0%BA%A3%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%81" title="ເອເລັກໂຕຣນິກ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ເອເລັກໂຕຣນິກ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronica" title="Electronica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Electronica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronica" title="Elektronica – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Elektronica" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletronica" title="Eletronica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Eletronica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletronega" title="Eletronega – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Eletronega" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електроника – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Електроника" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haikoriam-boanaratra" title="Haikoriam-boanaratra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Haikoriam-boanaratra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%87%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D" title="ഇലക്ട്രോണിക്സ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഇലക്ട്രോണിക്സ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="विजाणूशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विजाणूशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eiletr%C3%B3nica" title="Eiletrónica – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Eiletrónica" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Электроник – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Электроник" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="အီလက်ထရွန်းနစ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အီလက်ထရွန်းနစ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronica" title="Elektronica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Elektronica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="इलेक्ट्रोनिक्स – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="इलेक्ट्रोनिक्स" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="इलेक्त्रोनिक्स – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इलेक्त्रोनिक्स" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E5%B7%A5%E5%AD%A6" title="電子工学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="電子工学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электроника – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Электроника" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroonik" title="Elektroonik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Elektroonik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronikk" title="Elektronikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Elektronikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronikk" title="Elektronikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Elektronikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronica" title="Electronica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Electronica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektirooniksii" title="Elektirooniksii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Elektirooniksii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80" title="ਬਿਜਲਾਣੂ ਤਕਨਾਲੋਜੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬਿਜਲਾਣੂ ਤਕਨਾਲੋਜੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%B9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="الیکٹرونکس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الیکٹرونکس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9C%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%91%E1%80%9B%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%94%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="အီလက်ထရွန်းနစ် – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="အီလက်ထရွန်းနစ်" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%8A_%D9%BC%DB%90%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%D9%8A" title="برېښنايي ټېکنالوژي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="برېښنايي ټېکنالوژي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilekchranix" title="Ilekchranix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ilekchranix" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletr%C3%B2nica" title="Eletrònica – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Eletrònica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroniks" title="Elektroniks – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Elektroniks" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="Tok Pisin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletr%C3%B4nica" title="Eletrônica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Eletrônica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%C4%83" title="Electronică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Electronică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illari_yachay" title="Illari yachay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Illari yachay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електроніка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Електроніка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электроника – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электроника" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="ऋणाणुशास्त्रम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="ऋणाणुशास्त्रम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eletr%C3%B2nica" title="Eletrònica – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Eletrònica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Electronics" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alittr%C3%B2nica" title="Alittrònica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Alittrònica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික තාක්‍ෂණය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඉලෙක්ට්‍රොනික තාක්‍ෂණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Electronics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%DA%AA%D9%BD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AA%D8%B3" title="اليڪٽرانڪس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اليڪٽرانڪس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektarooniga" title="Elektarooniga – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Elektarooniga" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%84%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%86%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="ئەلەکترۆنیک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەلەکترۆنیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електроника – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Електроника" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89l%C3%A9ktronika" title="Éléktronika – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Éléktronika" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektroniikka" title="Elektroniikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Elektroniikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மின்னணுவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மின்னணுவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Um%E1%B8%8Din" title="Umḍin – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Umḍin" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iliktrunik" title="Iliktrunik – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Iliktrunik" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электроника – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Электроника" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%8E%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D" title="ఎలక్ట్రానిక్స్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఎలక్ట్రానిక్స్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C" title="อิเล็กทรอนิกส์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อิเล็กทรอนิกส์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Электроника – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Электроника" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Електроніка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електроніка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="برقیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="برقیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C5%82etr%C3%B2nega" title="Ełetrònega – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Ełetrònega" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronik" title="Elektronik – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Elektronik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90i%E1%BB%87n_t%E1%BB%AD_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Điện tử học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Điện tử học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrooniga" title="Elektrooniga – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Elektrooniga" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronika" title="Elektronika – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Elektronika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mb%C3%ABjfeppal" title="Mbëjfeppal – Wolof" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Mbëjfeppal" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="Wolof" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%94%B5%E5%AD%90%E5%AD%A6" title="电子学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="电子学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%A7" title="עלעקטראניק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="עלעקטראניק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8C%E1%B9%A3i%E1%B9%A3%E1%BA%B9%CC%81on%C3%ADn%C3%A1" title="Ìṣiṣẹ́oníná – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìṣiṣẹ́oníná" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" 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device</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of physics and electrical engineering</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the technical field. For personal/home-use electronic devices, see <a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics" title="Consumer electronics">consumer electronics</a>. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Electronics_(magazine)" title="Electronics (magazine)"><i>Electronics</i> (magazine)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg/260px-Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg/390px-Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg/520px-Arduino_ftdi_chip-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Modern <a href="/wiki/Surface-mount_technology" title="Surface-mount technology">surface-mount</a> electronic components on a printed circuit board, with a large integrated circuit at the top</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Electronics</b> is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electrically charged particles</a>. It is a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a> which uses <a href="/wiki/Passivity_(engineering)" title="Passivity (engineering)">active devices</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diodes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a> to control and amplify the flow of <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">electric current</a> and to convert it from one form to another, such as from <a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">alternating current</a> (AC) to <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">direct current</a> (DC) or from <a href="/wiki/Analog_signal" title="Analog signal">analog</a> signals to <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal" title="Digital signal">digital</a> signals. </p><p>Electronic devices have hugely influenced the development of many aspects of modern society, such as <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a>, entertainment, education, health care, industry, and security. The main driving force behind the advancement of electronics is the <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">semiconductor industry</a>, which in response to global demand continually produces ever-more sophisticated electronic devices and circuits. The <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> industry is one of the largest and most profitable sectors in the global economy, with annual revenues exceeding $481 billion in 2018. The electronics industry also encompasses other sectors that rely on electronic devices and systems, such as e-commerce, which generated over $29 trillion in online sales in 2017. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_electronic_engineering" title="History of electronic engineering">History of electronic engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_electrical_and_electronic_engineering" title="Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering">Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Audion_receiver.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Audion_receiver.jpg/220px-Audion_receiver.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Audion_receiver.jpg/330px-Audion_receiver.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Audion_receiver.jpg/440px-Audion_receiver.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1242" data-file-height="1044" /></a><figcaption>One of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Audion" title="Audion">Audion</a> radio receivers, constructed by De Forest in 1914 </figcaption></figure> <p>The identification of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> in 1897 by <a href="/wiki/Sir_Joseph_John_Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Joseph John Thomson">Sir Joseph John Thomson</a>, along with the subsequent invention of the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> which could <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplify</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rectifier" title="Rectifier">rectify</a> small <a href="/wiki/Signal" title="Signal">electrical signals</a>, inaugurated the field of electronics and the electron age.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Practical applications started with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">diode</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Fleming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrose Fleming">Ambrose Fleming</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Triode" title="Triode">triode</a> by <a href="/wiki/Lee_De_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Lee De Forest">Lee De Forest</a> in the early 1900s, which made the detection of small electrical voltages, such as <a href="/wiki/Radio_signal" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio signal">radio signals</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Radio_antenna" class="mw-redirect" title="Radio antenna">radio antenna</a>, practicable. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tubes</a> (thermionic valves) were the first active <a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">electronic components</a> which controlled <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> flow by influencing the flow of individual <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, and enabled the construction of equipment that used current amplification and rectification to give us <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, long-distance telephony and much more. The early growth of electronics was rapid, and by the 1920s, commercial <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> broadcasting and <a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> were becoming widespread and electronic amplifiers were being used in such diverse applications as long-distance <a href="/wiki/Telephony" title="Telephony">telephony</a> and the music recording industry.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next big technological step took several decades to appear, when the first working <a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">point-contact transistor</a> was invented by <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a> at Bell Labs in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, vacuum tubes continued to play a leading role in the field of <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> and high power transmission as well as <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> receivers until the middle of the 1980s.<sup id="cite_ref-Okamura1994_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Okamura1994-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronics" title="Solid-state electronics">solid-state</a> devices have all but completely taken over. Vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as <a href="/wiki/Valve_RF_amplifier" title="Valve RF amplifier">high power RF amplifiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tubes</a>, specialist audio equipment, <a href="/wiki/Guitar_amplifiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Guitar amplifiers">guitar amplifiers</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Cavity_magnetron" title="Cavity magnetron">microwave devices</a>. </p><p>In April 1955, the <a href="/wiki/IBM_608" title="IBM 608">IBM 608</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/IBM" title="IBM">IBM</a> product to use <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> circuits without any vacuum tubes and is believed to be the first all-transistorized <a href="/wiki/Calculator" title="Calculator">calculator</a> to be manufactured for the commercial market.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 608 contained more than 3,000 <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a> transistors. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Jr." title="Thomas J. Watson Jr.">Thomas J. Watson Jr.</a> ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for <a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">computer logic circuits</a> and peripheral devices. However, early <a href="/wiki/Junction_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Junction transistor">junction transistors</a> were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to manufacture on a <a href="/wiki/Mass-production" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass-production">mass-production</a> basis, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.<sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> was invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lojek1202_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek1202-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the first truly compact transistor that could be miniaturised and mass-produced for a wide range of uses.<sup id="cite_ref-Moskowitz_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moskowitz-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its advantages include <a href="/wiki/MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">high scalability</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> affordability,<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-digital_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-digital-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> low power consumption, and <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_integration" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale integration">high density</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It revolutionized the <a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">electronics industry</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Chan_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chan-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Grant_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grant-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> becoming the most widely used electronic device in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Golio_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Golio-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The MOSFET is the basic element in most modern electronic equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Colinge2016_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Colinge2016-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the complexity of circuits grew, problems arose.<sup id="cite_ref-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One problem was the size of the circuit. A complex circuit like a computer was dependent on speed. If the components were large, the wires interconnecting them must be long. The electric signals took time to go through the circuit, thus slowing the computer.<sup id="cite_ref-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_History_of_the_Integrated_Circuit-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Invention_of_the_integrated_circuit" title="Invention of the integrated circuit">invention of the integrated circuit</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Noyce" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a> solved this problem by making all the components and the chip out of the same block (monolith) of semiconductor material. The circuits could be made smaller, and the manufacturing process could be automated. This led to the idea of integrating all components on a single-crystal <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a> wafer, which led to small-scale integration (SSI) in the early 1960s, and then medium-scale integration (MSI) in the late 1960s, followed by <a href="/wiki/VLSI" class="mw-redirect" title="VLSI">VLSI</a>. In 2008, billion-transistor processors became commercially available.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subfields">Subfields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Subfields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analog_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog electronics">Analog electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audio_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Audio electronics">Audio electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avionics" title="Avionics">Avionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_design" title="Circuit design">Circuit design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">Digital electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Electronic components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">Nanoelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optoelectronics" title="Optoelectronics">Optoelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_electronics" title="Power electronics">Power electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">Printed circuit boards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">Semiconductor devices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">Sensors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Devices_and_components">Devices and components</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Devices and components"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_component" title="Electronic component">Electronic component</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Componentes.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Componentes.JPG/220px-Componentes.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Componentes.JPG/330px-Componentes.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Componentes.JPG/440px-Componentes.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4314" data-file-height="2967" /></a><figcaption>Various electronic components</figcaption></figure> <p>An electronic component is any component in an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic system">electronic system</a> either active or passive. Components are connected together, usually by being soldered to a <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">printed circuit board</a> (PCB), to create an electronic circuit with a particular function. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuits</a>. Passive electronic components are <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">inductors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">resistors</a>, whilst active components are such as semiconductor devices; <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">thyristors</a>, which control current flow at electron level.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_circuits">Types of circuits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types of circuits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electronic circuit functions can be divided into two function groups: analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has either or a mix of the two types. Analog circuits are becoming less common, as many of their functions are being digitized. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analog_circuits">Analog circuits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Analog circuits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Analog_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog electronics">Analog electronics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Analog_circuits" class="mw-redirect" title="Analog circuits">Analog circuits</a> use a continuous range of voltage or current for signal processing, as opposed to the discrete levels used in digital circuits. Analog circuits were common throughout an electronic device in the early years in devices such as radio receivers and transmitters. Analog electronic computers were valuable for solving problems with continuous variables until digital processing advanced. </p><p>As semiconductor technology developed, many of the functions of analog circuits were taken over by digital circuits, and modern circuits that are entirely analog are less common; their functions being replaced by hybrid approach which, for instance, uses analog circuits at the <i>front end</i> of a device receiving an analog signal, and then use digital processing using <a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">microprocessor</a> techniques thereafter. </p><p>Sometimes it may be difficult to classify some circuits that have elements of both linear and non-linear operation. An example is the voltage comparator which receives a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, an overdriven transistor amplifier can take on the characteristics of a controlled <a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">switch</a>, having essentially two levels of output. </p><p>Analog circuits are still widely used for signal amplification, such as in the entertainment industry, and conditioning signals from analog sensors, such as in industrial measurement and control. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_circuits">Digital circuits</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Digital circuits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">Digital electronics</a></div> <p>Digital circuits are electric circuits based on discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits use <a href="/wiki/Boolean_algebra" title="Boolean algebra">Boolean algebra</a> and are the basis of all digital computers and microprocessor devices. They range from simple logic gates to large integrated circuits, employing millions of such gates. </p><p>Digital circuits use a <a href="/wiki/Binary_system" title="Binary system">binary system</a> with two voltage levels labelled "0" and "1" to indicated logical status. Often logic "0" will be a lower voltage and referred to as "Low" while logic "1" is referred to as "High". However, some systems use the reverse definition ("0" is "High") or are current based. Quite often the logic designer may reverse these definitions from one circuit to the next as they see fit to facilitate their design. The definition of the levels as "0" or "1" is arbitrary.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ternary_computer" title="Ternary computer">Ternary</a> (with three states) logic has been studied, and some prototype computers made, but have not gained any significant practical acceptance.<sup id="cite_ref-AoCP2_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AoCP2-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Universally, <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">Computers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processor" title="Digital signal processor">Digital signal processors</a> are constructed with <a href="/wiki/Digital_data" title="Digital data">digital</a> circuits using <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistors</a> such as <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFETs</a> in the electronic logic gates to generate binary states. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Logic-gates-circuits.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Logic-gates-circuits.png/220px-Logic-gates-circuits.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Logic-gates-circuits.png/330px-Logic-gates-circuits.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Logic-gates-circuits.png/440px-Logic-gates-circuits.png 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="3300" /></a><figcaption>Hand drawn Logic gates circuits</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_gate" title="Logic gate">Logic gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adder_(electronics)" title="Adder (electronics)">Adders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flip-flop_(electronics)" title="Flip-flop (electronics)">Flip-flops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter_(digital)" title="Counter (digital)">Counters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Processor_register" title="Processor register">Registers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplexer" title="Multiplexer">Multiplexers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schmitt_trigger" title="Schmitt trigger">Schmitt triggers</a></li></ul> <p>Highly integrated devices: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memory_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory chip">Memory chip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microprocessor" title="Microprocessor">Microprocessors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microcontroller" title="Microcontroller">Microcontrollers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Application-specific_integrated_circuit" title="Application-specific integrated circuit">Application-specific integrated circuit</a> (ASIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_signal_processor" title="Digital signal processor">Digital signal processor</a> (DSP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-programmable_gate_array" title="Field-programmable gate array">Field-programmable gate array</a> (FPGA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-programmable_analog_array" title="Field-programmable analog array">Field-programmable analog array</a> (FPAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_on_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="System on chip">System on chip</a> (SOC)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design">Design</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Electronic systems design deals with the multi-disciplinary design issues of complex electronic devices and systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computers</a>. The subject covers a broad spectrum, from the design and development of an electronic system (<a href="/wiki/New_product_development" title="New product development">new product development</a>) to assuring its proper function, service life and <a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">disposal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lienig_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lienig-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electronic systems design is therefore the process of defining and developing complex electronic devices to satisfy specified <a href="/wiki/Requirement_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Requirement analysis">requirements</a> of the user. </p><p>Due to the complex nature of electronics theory, laboratory experimentation is an important part of the development of electronic devices. These experiments are used to test or verify the engineer's design and detect errors. Historically, electronics labs have consisted of electronics devices and equipment located in a physical space, although in more recent years the trend has been towards <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit_simulation" title="Electronic circuit simulation">electronics lab simulation software</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/CircuitLogix" title="CircuitLogix">CircuitLogix</a>, <a href="/wiki/Multisim" class="mw-redirect" title="Multisim">Multisim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/PSpice" class="mw-redirect" title="PSpice">PSpice</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computer-aided_design">Computer-aided design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Computer-aided design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a></div> <p>Today's electronics engineers have the ability to <a href="/wiki/Circuit_design" title="Circuit design">design</a> <a href="/wiki/Electronic_circuit" title="Electronic circuit">circuits</a> using premanufactured building blocks such as <a href="/wiki/Power_supplies" class="mw-redirect" title="Power supplies">power supplies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a> (i.e. semiconductor devices, such as transistors), and integrated circuits. <a href="/wiki/Electronic_design_automation" title="Electronic design automation">Electronic design automation</a> software programs include <a href="/wiki/Schematic_capture" title="Schematic capture">schematic capture</a> programs and <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board" title="Printed circuit board">printed circuit board</a> design programs. Popular names in the EDA software world are NI Multisim, <a href="/wiki/Cadence_Design_Systems" title="Cadence Design Systems">Cadence</a> (<a href="/wiki/ORCAD" class="mw-redirect" title="ORCAD">ORCAD</a>), <a href="/wiki/EAGLE_(program)" title="EAGLE (program)">EAGLE</a> PCB<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Schematic, <a href="/wiki/Mentor_Graphics" title="Mentor Graphics">Mentor</a> (PADS PCB and LOGIC Schematic), <a href="/wiki/Altium" title="Altium">Altium</a> (Protel), LabCentre Electronics (Proteus), <a href="/wiki/GEDA" title="GEDA">gEDA</a>, <a href="/wiki/KiCad" title="KiCad">KiCad</a> and many others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Negative_qualities">Negative qualities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Negative qualities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thermal_management">Thermal management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Thermal management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thermal_management_of_electronic_devices_and_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal management of electronic devices and systems">Thermal management of electronic devices and systems</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">Heat</a> generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability. <a href="/wiki/Heat_dissipation" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat dissipation">Heat dissipation</a> is mostly achieved by passive conduction/convection. Means to achieve greater dissipation include <a href="/wiki/Heat_sink" title="Heat sink">heat sinks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_fan" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical fan">fans</a> for air cooling, and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Computer_cooling" title="Computer cooling">computer cooling</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Water_cooling" title="Water cooling">water cooling</a>. These techniques use <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heat_conduction" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat conduction">conduction</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Heat_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat energy">heat energy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Noise">Noise</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Noise"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic noise">Electronic noise</a></div> <p>Electronic noise is defined<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused by a circuit. Noise is associated with all electronic circuits. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated, which can be decreased by lowering the <a href="/wiki/Operating_temperature" title="Operating temperature">operating temperature</a> of the circuit. Other types of noise, such as <a href="/wiki/Shot_noise" title="Shot noise">shot noise</a> cannot be removed as they are due to limitations in physical properties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Packaging_methods">Packaging methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Packaging methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_packaging" title="Electronic packaging">Electronic packaging</a></div> <p>Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years. For instance, early electronics often used <a href="/wiki/Point_to_point_wiring" class="mw-redirect" title="Point to point wiring">point to point wiring</a> with components attached to wooden breadboards to construct circuits. <a href="/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#"Cordwood"_construction" title="Printed circuit board">Cordwood construction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wire_wrap" title="Wire wrap">wire wrap</a> were other methods used. Most modern day electronics now use printed circuit boards made of materials such as <a href="/wiki/FR-4" title="FR-4">FR4</a>, or the cheaper (and less hard-wearing) Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper (<a href="/wiki/SRBP" class="mw-redirect" title="SRBP">SRBP</a>, also known as Paxoline/Paxolin (trade marks) and FR2) – characterised by its brown colour. Health and environmental concerns associated with electronics assembly have gained increased attention in recent years, especially for products destined to go to European markets. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg/220px-MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg/330px-MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg/440px-MOS6581_chtaube061229.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2002" data-file-height="1439" /></a><figcaption>Through-hole devices mounted on the circuit board of a mid-1980s <a href="/wiki/Home_computer" title="Home computer">home computer</a>. Axial-lead devices are at upper left, while blue radial-lead capacitors are at upper right.</figcaption></figure> <p>Electrical components are generally mounted in the following ways: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Through-hole" class="mw-redirect" title="Through-hole">Through-hole</a> (sometimes referred to as 'Pin-Through-Hole')</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mount" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface mount">Surface mount</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chassis_mount&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chassis mount (page does not exist)">Chassis mount</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2023)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rack_mount" class="mw-redirect" title="Rack mount">Rack mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_grid_array" title="Land grid array">LGA</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ball_grid_array" title="Ball grid array">BGA</a>/<a href="/wiki/Pin_grid_array" title="Pin grid array">PGA</a> socket</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Industry">Industry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">Electronics industry</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics" title="Consumer electronics">Consumer electronics</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_best-selling_electronic_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="List of best-selling electronic devices">List of best-selling electronic devices</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">Semiconductor industry</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">electronics industry</a> consists of various sectors. The central driving force behind the entire electronics industry is the <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_industry" title="Semiconductor industry">semiconductor industry</a> sector,<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which has annual sales of over <span style="white-space: nowrap">$481 billion</span> as of 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-deloitte_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-deloitte-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest industry sector is <a href="/wiki/E-commerce" title="E-commerce">e-commerce</a>, which generated over <span style="white-space: nowrap">$29 trillion</span> in 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-unctad_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-unctad-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/List_of_best-selling_electronic_devices" class="mw-redirect" title="List of best-selling electronic devices">most widely manufactured electronic device</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Metal-oxide-semiconductor_field-effect_transistor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor">metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor</a> (MOSFET), with an estimated 13<span class="nowrap"> </span><a href="/wiki/Sextillion" class="mw-redirect" title="Sextillion">sextillion</a> MOSFETs having been manufactured between 1960 and 2018.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory2018_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory2018-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1960s, U.S. manufacturers were unable to compete with Japanese companies such as <a href="/wiki/Sony" title="Sony">Sony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hitachi" title="Hitachi">Hitachi</a> who could produce high-quality goods at lower prices. By the 1980s, however, U.S. manufacturers became the world leaders in semiconductor development and assembly.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, during the 1990s and subsequently, the industry shifted overwhelmingly to East Asia (a process begun with the initial movement of <a href="/wiki/Microchip" class="mw-redirect" title="Microchip">microchip</a> mass-production there in the 1970s), as plentiful, cheap labor, and increasing technological sophistication, became widely available there.<sup id="cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over three decades, the United States' global share of semiconductor manufacturing capacity fell, from 37% in 1990, to 12% in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> America's pre-eminent semiconductor manufacturer, <a href="/wiki/Intel_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intel Corporation">Intel Corporation</a>, fell far behind its subcontractor <a href="/wiki/Taiwan_Semiconductor_Manufacturing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company">Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company</a> (TSMC) in manufacturing technology.<sup id="cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By that time, <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a> had become the world's leading source of advanced semiconductors<sup id="cite_ref-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—followed by <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org_39-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Important semiconductor industry facilities (which often are subsidiaries of a leading producer based elsewhere) also exist in Europe (notably the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>), Southeast Asia, South America, and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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.citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFfrançaise" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">française, Académie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dictionnaire-academie.fr/article/A9E0727">"électronique | Dictionnaire de l'Académie française | 9e édition"</a>. <i>www.dictionnaire-academie.fr</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dictionnaire-academie.fr&rft.atitle=%C3%A9lectronique+%7C+Dictionnaire+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+fran%C3%A7aise+%7C+9e+%C3%A9dition&rft.aulast=fran%C3%A7aise&rft.aufirst=Acad%C3%A9mie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dictionnaire-academie.fr%2Farticle%2FA9E0727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/electronics">"Definition of ELECTRONICS"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. 21 May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 May</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+ELECTRONICS&rft.date=2024-05-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Felectronics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200010/history.cfm">"This Month in Physics History - October 1897: The Discovery of the Electron"</a>. <i>American Physical Society</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180919171705/https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200010/history.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 19 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Physical+Society&rft.atitle=This+Month+in+Physics+History+-+October+1897%3A+The+Discovery+of+the+Electron&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpublications%2Fapsnews%2F200010%2Fhistory.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuarnieri2012" class="citation journal cs1">Guarnieri, M. (2012). "The age of vacuum tubes: Early devices and the rise of radio communications". <i>IEEE Ind. Electron. M</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 41–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMIE.2012.2182822">10.1109/MIE.2012.2182822</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:23351454">23351454</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Ind.+Electron.+M.&rft.atitle=The+age+of+vacuum+tubes%3A+Early+devices+and+the+rise+of+radio+communications&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-43&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FMIE.2012.2182822&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A23351454%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Guarnieri&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/">"1947: Invention of the Point-Contact Transistor"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210930151529/https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/invention-of-the-point-contact-transistor/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 September 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=1947%3A+Invention+of+the+Point-Contact+Transistor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsiliconengine%2Finvention-of-the-point-contact-transistor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Okamura1994-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Okamura1994_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSōgo_Okamura1994" class="citation book cs1">Sōgo Okamura (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VHFyngmO95YC&pg=PR4"><i>History of Electron Tubes</i></a>. IOS Press. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9051991451" title="Special:BookSources/978-9051991451"><bdi>978-9051991451</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131231220508/http://books.google.com/books?id=VHFyngmO95YC&pg=PR4">Archived</a> from the original on 31 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Electron+Tubes&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=IOS+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-9051991451&rft.au=S%C5%8Dgo+Okamura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVHFyngmO95YC%26pg%3DPR4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBashe1986" class="citation book cs1">Bashe, Charles J.; et al. (1986). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ibmsearlycompute00bash"><i>IBM's Early Computers</i></a></span>. MIT. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ibmsearlycompute00bash/page/386">386</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262022255" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262022255"><bdi>978-0262022255</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IBM%27s+Early+Computers&rft.pages=386&rft.pub=MIT&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0262022255&rft.aulast=Bashe&rft.aufirst=Charles+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fibmsearlycompute00bash&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPughJohnsonPalmer1991" class="citation book cs1">Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ibms360early370s0000pugh"><i>IBM's 360 and early 370 systems</i></a></span>. MIT Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ibms360early370s0000pugh/page/34">34</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262161237" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262161237"><bdi>978-0262161237</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=IBM%27s+360+and+early+370+systems&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0262161237&rft.aulast=Pugh&rft.aufirst=Emerson+W.&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Lyle+R.&rft.au=Palmer%2C+John+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fibms360early370s0000pugh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moskowitz-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Moskowitz_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Moskowitz_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoskowitz2016" class="citation book cs1">Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168"><i>Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0470508923" title="Special:BookSources/978-0470508923"><bdi>978-0470508923</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201105001645/https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA168">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+Materials+Innovation%3A+Managing+Global+Technology+in+the+21st+century&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0470508923&rft.aulast=Moskowitz&rft.aufirst=Sanford+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2STRDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuffRiordan2007" class="citation journal cs1">Huff, Howard; Riordan, Michael (1 September 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/2.F02073IF">"Frosch and Derick: Fifty Years Later (Foreword)"</a>. <i>The Electrochemical Society Interface</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1149%2F2.F02073IF">10.1149/2.F02073IF</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1064-8208">1064-8208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Electrochemical+Society+Interface&rft.atitle=Frosch+and+Derick%3A+Fifty+Years+Later+%28Foreword%29&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=29&rft.date=2007-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1149%2F2.F02073IF&rft.issn=1064-8208&rft.aulast=Huff&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft.au=Riordan%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1149%2F2.F02073IF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFroschDerick1957" class="citation journal cs1">Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2428650">"Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon"</a>. <i>Journal of the Electrochemical Society</i>. <b>104</b> (9): 547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1149%2F1.2428650">10.1149/1.2428650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Electrochemical+Society&rft.atitle=Surface+Protection+and+Selective+Masking+during+Diffusion+in+Silicon&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=547&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1149%2F1.2428650&rft.aulast=Frosch&rft.aufirst=C.+J.&rft.au=Derick%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1149%2F1.2428650&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKAHNG1961" class="citation journal cs1">KAHNG, D. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=Tortoise+of+Transistors+Wins+the+Race+%E2%80%93+CHM+Revolution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Frevolution%2Fdigital-logic%2F12%2F279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eetimes.com/author.asp?section_id=36&doc_id=1334068">"Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/EETimes" class="mw-redirect" title="EETimes">EETimes</a></i>. 12 December 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190924091622/https://www.eetimes.com/author.asp?section_id=36">Archived</a> from the original on 24 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EETimes&rft.atitle=Transistors+Keep+Moore%27s+Law+Alive&rft.date=2018-12-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eetimes.com%2Fauthor.asp%3Fsection_id%3D36%26doc_id%3D1334068&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chan-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chan_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan1992" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Yi-Jen (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4eAQAAMAAJ"><i>Studies of InAIAs/InGaAs and GaInP/GaAs heterostructure FET's for high speed applications</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>. p. 1. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191220105009/https://books.google.com/books?id=sV4eAQAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 20 December 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2019</span>. <q>The Si MOSFET has revolutionized the electronics industry and as a result impacts our daily lives in almost every conceivable way.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+of+InAIAs%2FInGaAs+and+GaInP%2FGaAs+heterostructure+FET%27s+for+high+speed+applications&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Yi-Jen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsV4eAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grant-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Grant_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrantGowar1989" class="citation book cs1">Grant, Duncan Andrew; Gowar, John (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZiZTAAAAMAAJ"><i>Power MOSFETS: theory and applications</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley</a>. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471828679" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471828679"><bdi>978-0471828679</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200730231805/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZiZTAAAAMAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 30 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 August</span> 2019</span>. <q>The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) is the most commonly used active device in the very large-scale integration of digital integrated circuits (VLSI). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=Who+Invented+the+Transistor%3F&rft.date=2013-12-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fatchm%2Fwho-invented-the-transistor%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Golio-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Golio_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolioGolio2018" class="citation book cs1">Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=SA18-PA2"><i>RF and Microwave Passive and Active Technologies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. p. 18-2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1420006728" title="Special:BookSources/978-1420006728"><bdi>978-1420006728</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200731165610/https://books.google.com/books?id=MCj9jxSVQKIC&pg=SA18-PA2">Archived</a> from the original on 31 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Dr.+Dawon+Kahng%2C+61%2C+Inventor+in+Field+of+Solid-State+Electronics&rft.date=1992-05-28&rft.aulast=Daniels&rft.aufirst=Lee+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1992%2F05%2F28%2Fnyregion%2Fdr-dawon-kahng-61-inventor-in-field-of-solid-state-electronics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Colinge2016-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Colinge2016_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColingeGreer2016" class="citation book cs1">Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. 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McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0077144227" title="Special:BookSources/978-0077144227"><bdi>978-0077144227</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221004155236/https://www.google.com/books/edition/EBOOK_Fundamentals_of_Digital_Logic/8oVvEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=what+do+0+and+1+mean+in+binary+arbitrary+high+voltage&pg=PA78&printsec=frontcover">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Computer+History+Museum&rft.atitle=13+Sextillion+%26+Counting%3A+The+Long+%26+Winding+Road+to+the+Most+Frequently+Manufactured+Human+Artifact+in+History&rft.date=2018-04-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fatchm%2F13-sextillion-counting-the-long-winding-road-to-the-most-frequently-manufactured-human-artifact-in-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://natechnology.in/">"Consumer electronics industry in the year 1960s"</a>. <i>NaTechnology</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210127120812/https://natechnology.in/">Archived</a> from the original on 27 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NaTechnology&rft.atitle=Consumer+electronics+industry+in+the+year+1960s.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnatechnology.in%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-congress_giving_2022_08_03_forbes_com_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Willy_Shih" title="Willy Shih">Shih, Willy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Harvard_Business_School" title="Harvard Business School">Harvard Business School</a>): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/willyshih/2022/08/03/congress-is-giving-billions-to-the-us-semiconductor-industry-will-it-ease-chip-shortages/?sh=3ebd9629de4d">"Congress Is Giving Billions To The U.S. Semiconductor Industry. Will It Ease Chip Shortages?"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230703102256/https://gum.criteo.com/syncframe?origin=publishertag&topUrl=www.forbes.com">Archived</a> 3 July 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> transcript, August 3, 2022, <i><a href="/wiki/Forbes" title="Forbes">Forbes</a>,</i> retrieved September 12, 2022</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org_39-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-strengthening_2022_06_02_csis_org_39-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_Andrew_Lewis" title="James Andrew Lewis">Lewis, James Andrew</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csis.org/analysis/strengthening-transnational-semiconductor-industry">"Strengthening a Transnational Semiconductor Industry"</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220913013518/https://www.csis.org/analysis/strengthening-transnational-semiconductor-industry">Archived</a> 13 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> June 2, 2022, <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Strategic_and_International_Studies" title="Center for Strategic and International Studies">Center for Strategic and International Studies</a> (CSIS), retrieved September 12, 2022</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horowitz,_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Horowitz, Paul">Horowitz, Paul</a>; <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Hill" title="Winfield Hill">Hill, Winfield</a> (1980). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Art_of_Electronics" title="The Art of Electronics">The Art of Electronics</a></i>. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521370950" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521370950">978-0521370950</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMims2003" class="citation book cs1">Mims, Forrest M. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QZP1QgAACAAJ"><i>Getting Started in Electronics</i></a>. Master Publishing, Incorporated. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-945053-28-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-945053-28-6"><bdi>978-0-945053-28-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Getting+Started+in+Electronics&rft.pub=Master+Publishing%2C+Incorporated&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-945053-28-6&rft.aulast=Mims&rft.aufirst=Forrest+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQZP1QgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AElectronics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Electronics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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/></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/School:Electronics" class="extiw" title="v:School:Electronics"> School:Electronics</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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machines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclined_plane" title="Inclined plane">Inclined plane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">Lever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">Pulley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screw_(simple_machine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw (simple machine)">Screw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge_(mechanical_device)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wedge (mechanical device)">Wedge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel_and_axle" title="Wheel and axle">Wheel and axle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">Clocks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_clock" title="Atomic clock">Atomic clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer" title="Marine chronometer">Chronometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendulum_clock" title="Pendulum clock">Pendulum clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz_clock" title="Quartz clock">Quartz clock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">Compressors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">pumps</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injector" title="Injector">Eductor-jet pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_ram" title="Hydraulic ram">Hydraulic ram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">Pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trompe" title="Trompe">Trompe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_pump" title="Vacuum pump">Vacuum pump</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/External_combustion_engine" title="External combustion engine">External combustion engines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">Steam engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stirling_engine" title="Stirling engine">Stirling engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">Gas turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocating_engine" title="Reciprocating engine">Reciprocating engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotary_engine" title="Rotary engine">Rotary engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutating_disc_engine" title="Nutating disc engine">Nutating disc engine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)" title="Linkage (mechanical)">Linkages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantograph" title="Pantograph">Pantograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peaucellier%E2%80%93Lipkin_linkage" title="Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage">Peaucellier-Lipkin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">Turbine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine" title="Gas turbine">Gas turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">Jet engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasiturbine" title="Quasiturbine">Quasiturbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">Steam turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_turbine" title="Water turbine">Water turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind generator">Wind generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">Windmill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Airfoil" title="Airfoil">Aerofoil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sail" title="Sail">Sail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">Wing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Rudder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flap_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flap (aircraft)">Flap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propeller_(aircraft)" class="mw-redirect" title="Propeller (aircraft)">Propeller</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electronics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vehicle" title="Vehicle">Vehicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">Automobile</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecha" title="Mecha">Mecha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robot" title="Robot">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_agricultural_machinery" title="List of agricultural machinery">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed-counting_machine" title="Seed-counting machine">Seed-counting machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vending_machine" title="Vending machine">Vending machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">Wind tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Check_weigher" title="Check weigher">Check weighing machines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riveting_machines" class="mw-redirect" title="Riveting machines">Riveting machines</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Springs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(device)" title="Spring (device)">Spring (device)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electronics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electronic_systems" title="Template:Electronic systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electronic_systems" title="Template talk:Electronic systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electronic systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electronics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electronics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analogue_electronics" title="Analogue electronics">Analogue electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">Digital electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_engineering" title="Electronic engineering">Electronic engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentation" title="Instrumentation">Instrumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microelectronics" title="Microelectronics">Microelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optoelectronics" title="Optoelectronics">Optoelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_electronics" title="Power electronics">Power electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printed_electronics" title="Printed electronics">Printed electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schematic_capture" title="Schematic capture">Schematic capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_management_(electronics)" title="Thermal management (electronics)">Thermal management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Advanced<br />topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_computing_2020%E2%80%93present" title="Timeline of computing 2020–present">2020s in computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomtronics" title="Atomtronics">Atomtronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_emerging_technologies#Electronics" title="List of emerging technologies">List of emerging electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Failure_of_electronic_components" title="Failure of electronic components">Failure of electronic components</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flexible_electronics" title="Flexible electronics">Flexible electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-power_electronics" title="Low-power electronics">Low-power electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_electronics" title="Molecular electronics">Molecular electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanoelectronics" title="Nanoelectronics">Nanoelectronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_electronics" title="Organic electronics">Organic electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photonics" title="Photonics">Photonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piezotronics" title="Piezotronics">Piezotronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_electronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum electronics">Quantum electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spintronics" title="Spintronics">Spintronics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electronic<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">Air conditioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">Central heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothes_dryer" title="Clothes dryer">Clothes dryer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">Computer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Laptop" title="Laptop">Notebook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dishwasher" title="Dishwasher">Dishwasher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freezer" class="mw-redirect" title="Freezer">Freezer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_robot" title="Domestic robot">Home robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_cinema" title="Home cinema">Home cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_theater_PC" title="Home theater PC">Home theater PC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">Information technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_stove" title="Kitchen stove">Cooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">Microwave oven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networking_hardware" title="Networking hardware">Networking hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portable_media_player" title="Portable media player">Portable media player</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_receiver" title="Radio receiver">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">Refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_vacuum_cleaner" title="Robotic vacuum cleaner">Robotic vacuum cleaner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tablet_computer" title="Tablet computer">Tablet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tankless_water_heating" title="Tankless water heating">Water heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game_console" title="Video game console">Video game console</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washing_machine" title="Washing machine">Washing machine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Audio_equipment" title="Audio equipment">Audio equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_electronics" title="Automotive electronics">Automotive electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avionics" title="Avionics">Avionics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">Control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_acquisition" title="Data acquisition">Data acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebook" title="Ebook">e-book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EHealth" title="EHealth">e-health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronics_industry" title="Electronics industry">Electronics industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_system" title="Embedded system">Embedded system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Home appliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_automation" title="Home automation">Home automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Home appliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronics" title="Consumer electronics">Consumer electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_appliance" title="Major appliance">Major appliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_appliance" title="Small appliance">Small appliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_electronics" title="Marine electronics">Marine electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a> technology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> electronics</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimedia" title="Multimedia">Multimedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_electronics" title="Nuclear electronics">Nuclear electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-source_hardware" title="Open-source hardware">Open-source hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radio_navigation" title="Radio navigation">Radio navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio-frequency_engineering" title="Radio-frequency engineering">Radio electronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terahertz_radiation" title="Terahertz radiation">Terahertz technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wire" title="Wire">Wired</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wireless" title="Wireless">Wireless</a> Communications</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Technology_and_related_concepts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Technology_topics" title="Template:Technology topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Technology_topics" title="Template talk:Technology topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Technology_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Technology topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Technology_and_related_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology</a> and related concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Major_technologies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major technologies</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Necessities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">Domestication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grafting" title="Grafting">Grafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_animal" title="Working animal">Working animal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing">Clothing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sewing_machine" title="Sewing machine">Sewing machine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">Cooking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheese" title="Cheese">Cheese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mill_(grinding)" title="Mill (grinding)">Milling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">Wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_storage" title="Food storage">Food storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plumbing" title="Plumbing">Plumbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toilet" title="Toilet">Toilet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">Tool</a> / <a href="/wiki/Equipment" title="Equipment">Equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blade" title="Blade">Blade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammer" title="Hammer">Hammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plough" title="Plough">Plough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedge" title="Wedge">Wedge</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gun" title="Gun">Gun</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculation" title="Calculation">Calculation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">Abacus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lock_and_key" title="Lock and key">Lock and key</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money" title="Money">Money</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banknote" title="Banknote">Banknote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">Coin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musical_instrument" title="Musical instrument">Musical instrument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">Phonograph</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy" title="Toy">Toy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game" title="Game">Game</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_game" title="Video game">Video game</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">Writing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book" title="Book">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map" title="Map">Map</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">Printing press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Typewriter" title="Typewriter">Typewriter</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(water_supply)" title="Aqueduct (water supply)">Aqueduct</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arch" title="Arch">Arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge" title="Bridge">Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building" title="Building">Building</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)" title="Foundation (engineering)">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scaffolding" title="Scaffolding">Scaffolding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower" title="Tower">Tower</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caisson_(engineering)" title="Caisson (engineering)">Caisson</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonemasonry" title="Stonemasonry">Stonemasonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Tunnel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">Aircraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerostat" title="Aerostat">Aerostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">Airplane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seaplane" title="Seaplane">Seaplane</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevator" title="Elevator">Elevator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horseback_riding" class="mw-redirect" title="Horseback riding">Horseback riding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">Stirrup</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_engine" title="Jet engine">Jet engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle" title="Motor vehicle">Motor vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Railroad" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad">Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Train" title="Train">Train</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_set" title="Scuba set">Scuba set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_station" title="Space station">Space station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">Space suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">Watercraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sailing" title="Sailing">Sailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">Ship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/3D_printing" title="3D printing">3D printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpentry" title="Carpentry">Carpentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casting" title="Casting">Casting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_moulding" title="Injection moulding">Injection moulding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost-wax_casting" title="Lost-wax casting">Lost-wax casting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">Mass production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_line" title="Assembly line">Assembly line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">Interchangeable parts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_tool" title="Machine tool">Machine tool</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">Simple machine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axle" title="Axle">Axle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bearing_(mechanical)" title="Bearing (mechanical)">Bearing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ball_bearing" title="Ball bearing">Ball bearing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belt_(mechanical)" title="Belt (mechanical)">Belt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chain" title="Chain">Chain</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">Lever</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">Catapult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">Crane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadoof" title="Shadoof">Shadoof</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)" title="Linkage (mechanical)">Linkage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cam_(mechanism)" title="Cam (mechanism)">Cam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutch" title="Clutch">Clutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-bar_linkage" title="Four-bar linkage">Four-bar linkage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piston" title="Piston">Piston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rack_and_pinion" title="Rack and pinion">Rack and pinion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendulum" title="Pendulum">Pendulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screw" title="Screw">Screw</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">Archimedes' screw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propeller" title="Propeller">Propeller</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_(device)" title="Spring (device)">Spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valve" title="Valve">Valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel" title="Wheel">Wheel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Block_and_tackle" title="Block and tackle">Block and tackle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flywheel" title="Flywheel">Flywheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gear" title="Gear">Gear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potter%27s_wheel" title="Potter's wheel">Potter's wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulley" title="Pulley">Pulley</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">Wing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machinery" class="mw-redirect" title="Machinery">Machinery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_machinery" title="Agricultural machinery">Agricultural machinery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_appliance" title="Home appliance">Appliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dishwasher" title="Dishwasher">Dishwasher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washing_machine" title="Washing machine">Washing machine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engine" title="Engine">Engine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_motor" title="Electric motor">Electric motor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion" class="mw-redirect" title="Internal combustion">Internal combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbine" title="Turbine">Turbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">Waterwheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">Windmill</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_equipment" title="Heavy equipment">Heavy equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_machinery" title="Hydraulic machinery">Hydraulics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_cylinder" title="Hydraulic cylinder">Cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_manifold" title="Hydraulic manifold">Manifold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump" title="Pump">Pump</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(engineering)" title="Mechanism (engineering)">Mechanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">Clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Differential_(mechanical_device)" title="Differential (mechanical device)">Differential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicyclic_gearing" title="Epicyclic gearing">Epicyclic gearing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimbal" title="Gimbal">Gimbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyroscope" title="Gyroscope">Gyroscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whippletree_(mechanism)" title="Whippletree (mechanism)">Whippletree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MEMS" title="MEMS">MEMS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatics" title="Pneumatics">Pneumatics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compressor" title="Compressor">Compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackhammer" title="Jackhammer">Jackhammer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivet_gun" title="Rivet gun">Rivet gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_pump" title="Vacuum pump">Vacuum pump</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_arm" title="Robotic arm">Arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leg_mechanism" title="Leg mechanism">Leg</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy_development" title="Energy development">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Control of fire">Fire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charcoal_burner" title="Charcoal burner">Charcoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oven" title="Oven">Oven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">Battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">Heat exchanger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">Heat pump</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_drilling" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil drilling">Oil drilling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fracking" title="Fracking">Fracking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">Refrigeration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">Air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerator" title="Refrigerator">Refrigerator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">Photovoltaics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Material" title="Material">Material</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">Cement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">Concrete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic" title="Ceramic">Ceramic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">Brick</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipped_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Chipped stone">Chipped stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">Glass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hall%E2%80%93H%C3%A9roult_process" title="Hall–Héroult process">Aluminum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze" title="Bronze">Bronze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ironworking" class="mw-redirect" title="Ironworking">Ironworking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">Steel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanomaterials" title="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic" title="Plastic">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rammed_earth" title="Rammed earth">Rammed earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rubber" title="Natural rubber">Rubber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulcanization" title="Vulcanization">Vulcanization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textile" title="Textile">Textile</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">Loom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">Spinning wheel</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_transfusion" title="Blood transfusion">Blood transfusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dentistry" title="Dentistry">Dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing" title="CRISPR gene editing">CRISPR gene editing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">PCR</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">Medication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">Anesthesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosthesis" title="Prosthesis">Prosthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">Chemical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">Detergent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soap" title="Soap">Soap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">Dye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosive" title="Explosive">Explosive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynamite" title="Dynamite">Dynamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks" title="Fireworks">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Gunpowder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TNT" title="TNT">TNT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">Fertilizer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haber_process" title="Haber process">Haber process</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_glassware" title="Laboratory glassware">Laboratory glassware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">Pigment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_process" title="Separation process">Separation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">Distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrometer" title="Spectrometer">Spectrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">Synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnet" title="Electromagnet">Electromagnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optical_disc" title="Optical disc">Optical disc</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens" title="Lens">Lens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eyeglasses" class="mw-redirect" title="Eyeglasses">Eyeglasses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_storage" title="Magnetic storage">Magnetic storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_oven" title="Microwave oven">Microwave oven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">Mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">Optical fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_instrument" title="Optical instrument">Optical instrument</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">Telescope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">Motion picture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">Mobile phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">Telegraph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">Television</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">Electricity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">Circuit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternating_current" title="Alternating current">AC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">Circuit breaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuse_(electrical)" title="Fuse (electrical)">Fuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Switch" title="Switch">Switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_light" title="Electric light">Electric light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescent_lamp" title="Fluorescent lamp">Fluorescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">Incandescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LED" class="mw-redirect" title="LED">LED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neon_lighting" title="Neon lighting">Neon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Electronics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">Capacitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_board" class="mw-redirect" title="Circuit board">Circuit board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistor" title="Resistor">Resistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductor" title="Inductor">Inductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">Vacuum tube</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning_rod" title="Lightning rod">Lightning rod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimeter" title="Multimeter">Multimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscilloscope" title="Oscilloscope">Oscilloscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diode" title="Diode">Diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">Integrated circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">Transistor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductor">Superconductor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">Computer</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">Hardware</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CPU" class="mw-redirect" title="CPU">CPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GPU" class="mw-redirect" title="GPU">GPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modem" title="Modem">Modem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motherboard" title="Motherboard">Motherboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_mouse" title="Computer mouse">Mouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RAM" class="mw-redirect" title="RAM">RAM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Router_(computing)" title="Router (computing)">Router</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_data_storage" title="Computer data storage">Storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Touchscreen" title="Touchscreen">Touchscreen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_network" title="Computer network">Networking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Client%E2%80%93server_model" title="Client–server model">Client–server model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Email" title="Email">Email</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">Peer-to-peer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_media" title="Social media">Social media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">Programming language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">Software</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">Compiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GUI" class="mw-redirect" title="GUI">GUI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graphics_software" title="Graphics software">Graphics software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operating_system" title="Operating system">Operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spreadsheet" title="Spreadsheet">Spreadsheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">Web browser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_processor" title="Word processor">Word processor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Perspectives" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Perspectives</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">Criticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Low_technology" title="Low technology">Low technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luddite" title="Luddite">Luddite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">Precautionary principle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ecotechnology" title="Ecotechnology">Ecotechnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_technology" title="Clean technology">Clean technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainable engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policy & politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Government_by_algorithm" title="Government by algorithm">Government by algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">Intellectual property</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patent" title="Patent">Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_secret" title="Trade secret">Trade secret</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasive_technology" title="Persuasive technology">Persuasive technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_Technology" title="Strategy of Technology">Strategy of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technorealism" title="Technorealism">Technorealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Techno-progressivism" title="Techno-progressivism">Progressivism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futures studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_forecasting" title="Technology forecasting">Technology forecasting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_utopianism" title="Technological utopianism">Technological utopianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy_movement" title="Technocracy movement">Technocracy movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">Technology transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Social construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">Technological determinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_acceptance_model" title="Technology acceptance model">Technology acceptance model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related_concepts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related concepts</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">Forensics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistics" title="Logistics">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design" title="Design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_tech" title="High tech">High tech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mature_technology" title="Mature technology">Mature technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">Research and development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_lifecycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology lifecycle">Technology lifecycle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Technology" title="Category:Technology"><b>Category</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology"><b>Outline</b></a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology"><b>Portal</b></a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934822z">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11934822z">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561449">Japan</a></span><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00561447">2</a></span></li></ul></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="elektronika"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114454&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007540860605171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10640812">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=17757">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/19px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/29px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Nuvola_apps_ksim.png/38px-Nuvola_apps_ksim.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Electronics" title="Portal:Electronics">Electronics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/17px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" 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