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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Worldwide_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Worldwide production</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Worldwide_production-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Worldwide production subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Worldwide_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Utility-grade_stations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utility-grade_stations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Utility-grade stations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utility-grade_stations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Environmental impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotermiese_krag" title="Geotermiese krag – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geotermiese krag" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%87%D8%B1%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="كهرباء حرارية أرضية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كهرباء حرارية أرضية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="ভূতাপীয় শক্তি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="ভূতাপীয় শক্তি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82-%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A7%8E%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="ভূ-তাপীয় বিদ্যুৎশক্তি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূ-তাপীয় বিদ্যুৎশক্তি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%87_%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="الکتریسیته زمین‌گرمایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الکتریسیته زمین‌گرمایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%97%B4_%EB%B0%9C%EC%A0%84" title="지열 발전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지열 발전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%AE_%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൗമ താപോർജ്ജം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൗമ താപോർജ്ജം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%86%B1%E7%99%BA%E9%9B%BB" title="地熱発電 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地熱発電" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%81%D9%85%DA%A9%DB%90_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%AE%DB%90_%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA" title="د ځمکې تودوخې طاقت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ځمکې تودوخې طاقت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiotoermal_ilekchrixiti" title="Jiotoermal ilekchrixiti – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Jiotoermal ilekchrixiti" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektriciteti_gjeotermik" title="Elektriciteti gjeotermik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Elektriciteti gjeotermik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geotermalni_izvor_energije" title="Geotermalni izvor energije – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Geotermalni izvor energije" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="புவிவெப்ப மின்சாரம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புவிவெப்ப மின்சாரம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Геоэлектрика – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Геоэлектрика" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeotermal_elektrik" title="Jeotermal elektrik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Jeotermal elektrik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%86%B1%E8%83%BD%E7%99%BC%E9%9B%BB" title="地熱能發電 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="地熱能發電" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%86%B1%E8%83%BD%E7%99%BC%E9%9B%BB" title="地熱能發電 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="地熱能發電" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3215493#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/16px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/24px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/32px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy portal</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sustainable_energy" title="Template:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sustainable_energy" title="Template talk:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sustainable_energy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sustainable energy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Geothermal power</b> is <a href="/wiki/Electricity_generation" title="Electricity generation">electrical power generated</a> from <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal energy</a>. Technologies in use include dry steam power stations, flash steam power stations and <a href="/wiki/Binary_cycle" title="Binary cycle">binary cycle</a> power stations. Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 26 countries,<sup id="cite_ref-gea2010_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gea2010-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_heating" title="Geothermal heating">geothermal heating</a> is in use in 70 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2019, worldwide geothermal power capacity amounts to 15.4 <a href="/wiki/Gigawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigawatt">gigawatts</a> (GW), of which 23.9% (3.68 GW) are installed in the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Geothermal energy in the United States">United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2019_Capacity_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2019_Capacity-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International markets grew at an average annual rate of 5 percent over the three years to 2015, and global geothermal power capacity is expected to reach 14.5–17.6 GW by 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on current geologic knowledge and technology the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_Energy_Association" title="Geothermal Energy Association">Geothermal Energy Association</a> (GEA) publicly discloses, the GEA estimates that only 6.9% of total global potential has been tapped so far, while the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</a> reported geothermal power potential to be in the range of 35 GW to 2 <a href="/wiki/Terawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Terawatt">TW</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Countries generating more than 15 percent of their electricity from geothermal sources include <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_El_Salvador" title="Geothermal power in El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Kenya" title="Geothermal power in Kenya">Kenya</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_Philippines" title="Geothermal power in the Philippines">Philippines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Iceland" title="Geothermal power in Iceland">Iceland</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a>. <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Indonesia" title="Geothermal power in Indonesia">Indonesia</a> has an estimated potential of 29 GW of geothermal energy resources, the largest in the world; in 2017, its installed capacity was 1.8 GW. </p><p>Geothermal power is considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable</a> source of energy because the heat extraction is small compared with the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_internal_heat_budget" title="Earth's internal heat budget">Earth's heat content</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sustainability_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sustainability-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources">greenhouse gas emissions</a> of geothermal electric stations average 45 grams of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> per kilowatt-hour of electricity, or less than 5% of those of conventional coal-fired plants.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_Annex_II_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_Annex_II-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a source of renewable energy for both power and heating, geothermal has the potential to meet 3 to 5% of global demand by 2050. With economic <a href="/wiki/Incentive" title="Incentive">incentives</a>, it is estimated that by 2100 it will be possible to meet 10% of global demand with geothermal power.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History and development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 20th century, demand for electricity led to the consideration of geothermal power as a generating source. <a href="/wiki/Piero_Ginori_Conti" title="Piero Ginori Conti">Prince Piero Ginori Conti</a> tested the first geothermal power generator on 4 July 1904 in <a href="/wiki/Larderello" title="Larderello">Larderello, Italy</a>. It successfully lit four light bulbs.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later, in 1911, the world's first commercial geothermal power station was built there. Experimental generators were built in <a href="/wiki/Beppu" title="Beppu">Beppu, Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Geysers" title="The Geysers">the Geysers, California</a>, in the 1920s, but Italy was the world's only industrial producer of geothermal electricity until 1958. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Top_5_Geothermal-Electric_Countries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Top_5_Geothermal-Electric_Countries.png/220px-Top_5_Geothermal-Electric_Countries.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Top_5_Geothermal-Electric_Countries.png/330px-Top_5_Geothermal-Electric_Countries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Top_5_Geothermal-Electric_Countries.png/440px-Top_5_Geothermal-Electric_Countries.png 2x" data-file-width="2025" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>Trends in the top five geothermal electricity-generating countries, 1980–2012 (US EIA)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geothermal_capacity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Geothermal_capacity.svg/220px-Geothermal_capacity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Geothermal_capacity.svg/330px-Geothermal_capacity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Geothermal_capacity.svg/440px-Geothermal_capacity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Global geothermal electric capacity. Upper red line is installed capacity;<sup id="cite_ref-Bertani_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bertani-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> lower green line is realized production.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1958, New Zealand became the second major industrial producer of geothermal electricity when its <a href="/wiki/Wairakei_Power_Station" title="Wairakei Power Station">Wairakei station</a> was commissioned. Wairakei was the first station to use flash steam technology.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the past 60 years, net fluid production has been in excess of 2.5km<sup>3</sup>. <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">Subsidence</a> at Wairakei-Tauhara has been an issue in a number of formal hearings related to environmental consents for expanded development of the system as a source of renewable energy.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1960, <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Gas_and_Electric" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Gas and Electric">Pacific Gas and Electric</a> began operation of the first successful geothermal electric power station in the United States at The Geysers in California.<sup id="cite_ref-100years_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100years-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">MW</a> net power.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An organic fluid based binary cycle power station was first demonstrated in 1967 in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a><sup id="cite_ref-100years_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100years-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later introduced to the United States in 1981<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>, following the <a href="/wiki/1970s_energy_crisis" title="1970s energy crisis">1970s energy crisis</a> and significant changes in regulatory policies. This technology allows the use of temperature resources as low as 81 °C. In 2006, a binary cycle station in <a href="/wiki/Chena_Hot_Springs,_Alaska" title="Chena Hot Springs, Alaska">Chena Hot Springs, Alaska</a>, came on-line, producing electricity from a record low fluid temperature of 57 °C (135 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Chena_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chena-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geothermal electric stations have until recently been built exclusively where high-temperature geothermal resources are available near the surface. The development of <a href="/wiki/Binary_cycle_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary cycle power plant">binary cycle power plants</a> and improvements in drilling and extraction technology may enable <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_geothermal_system" title="Enhanced geothermal system">enhanced geothermal systems</a> over a much greater geographical range.<sup id="cite_ref-INEL_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-INEL-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Demonstration projects are operational in <a href="/wiki/Landau-Pfalz" class="mw-redirect" title="Landau-Pfalz">Landau-Pfalz</a>, Germany, and <a href="/wiki/Soultz-sous-For%C3%AAts" title="Soultz-sous-Forêts">Soultz-sous-Forêts</a>, France, while an earlier effort in <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>, Switzerland was shut down after it triggered earthquakes. Other demonstration projects are under construction in <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Australia" title="Geothermal power in Australia">Australia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a> of geothermal electric stations is low, around 7–10%,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because geothermal fluids are at a low temperature compared with steam from boilers. By the laws of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> this low temperature limits the efficiency of <a href="/wiki/Cycle_efficiency" class="mw-redirect" title="Cycle efficiency">heat engines</a> in extracting useful energy during the generation of electricity. Exhaust heat is wasted, unless it can be used directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating. The efficiency of the system does not affect operational costs as it would for a coal or other fossil fuel plant, but it does factor into the viability of the station. In order to produce more energy than the pumps consume, electricity generation requires high-temperature geothermal fields and specialized heat cycles.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factor</a> can be quite large – up to 96% has been demonstrated.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However the global average <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factor</a> was 74.5% in 2008, according to the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resources">Resources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EGS_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/EGS_diagram.svg/220px-EGS_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/EGS_diagram.svg/330px-EGS_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/EGS_diagram.svg/440px-EGS_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption><b>Enhanced geothermal system</b> 1:Reservoir 2:Pump house 3:Heat exchanger 4:Turbine hall 5:Production well 6:Injection well 7:Hot water to district heating 8:Porous sediments 9:Observation well 10:Crystalline bedrock</figcaption></figure> <p>The Earth's heat content is about <a href="/wiki/1_E31_J" class="mw-redirect" title="1 E31 J">1<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>19</sup> TJ (2.8<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>15</sup> TWh)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This heat naturally flows to the surface by conduction at a rate of 44.2 <a href="/wiki/Terawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Terawatt">TW</a><sup id="cite_ref-pollack_et_al_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pollack_et_al-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is replenished by radioactive decay at a rate of 30 TW.<sup id="cite_ref-sustainability_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sustainability-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These power rates are more than double humanity's current energy consumption from primary sources, but most of this power is too diffuse (approximately 0.1 W/m<sup>2</sup> on average) to be recoverable. The <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">Earth's crust</a> effectively acts as a thick insulating blanket which must be pierced by fluid conduits (of <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>, water or other) to release the heat underneath. </p><p>Electricity generation requires high-temperature resources that can only come from deep underground. The heat must be carried to the surface by fluid circulation, either through <a href="/wiki/Magma_conduit" class="mw-redirect" title="Magma conduit">magma conduits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">hydrothermal circulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_well" title="Oil well">oil wells</a>, drilled water wells, or a combination of these. This circulation sometimes exists naturally where the crust is thin: magma conduits bring heat close to the surface, and hot springs bring the heat to the surface. If a hot spring is not available, a well must be drilled into a hot <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a>. Away from tectonic plate boundaries the <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_gradient" title="Geothermal gradient">geothermal gradient</a> is 25–30 °C per kilometre (km) of depth in most of the world, so wells would have to be several kilometres deep to permit electricity generation.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The quantity and quality of recoverable resources improves with drilling depth and proximity to tectonic plate boundaries. </p><p>In ground that is hot but dry, or where water pressure is inadequate, injected fluid can stimulate production. Developers bore two holes into a candidate site, and fracture the rock between them with explosives or <a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_fracturing" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic fracturing">high-pressure water</a>. Then they pump water or liquefied carbon dioxide down one borehole, and it comes up the other borehole as a gas.<sup id="cite_ref-INEL_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-INEL-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach is called <a href="/wiki/Hot_dry_rock_geothermal_energy" title="Hot dry rock geothermal energy">hot dry rock geothermal energy</a> in Europe, or <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_geothermal_system" title="Enhanced geothermal system">enhanced geothermal systems</a> in North America. Much greater potential may be available from this approach than from conventional tapping of natural aquifers.<sup id="cite_ref-INEL_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-INEL-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Estimates of the electricity generating potential of geothermal energy vary from 35 to 2000 GW depending on the scale of investments.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This does not include non-electric heat recovered by co-generation, geothermal heat pumps and other direct use. A 2006 report by <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">the Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (MIT) that included the potential of enhanced geothermal systems estimated that investing US$1 billion in research and development over 15 years would allow the creation of 100 GW of electrical generating capacity by 2050 in the United States alone.<sup id="cite_ref-INEL_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-INEL-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The MIT report estimated that over 200<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>9</sup> TJ (200 ZJ; 5.6<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>7</sup> TWh) would be extractable, with the potential to increase this to over 2,000 ZJ with technology improvements – sufficient to provide all the world's present energy needs for several <a href="/wiki/Millennium" title="Millennium">millennia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-INEL_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-INEL-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At present, geothermal wells are rarely more than 3 km (1.9 mi) deep.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upper estimates of geothermal resources assume wells as deep as 10 km (6.2 mi). Drilling near this depth is now possible in the petroleum industry, although it is an expensive process. The deepest research well in the world, the <a href="/wiki/Kola_Superdeep_Borehole" title="Kola Superdeep Borehole">Kola Superdeep Borehole</a> (KSDB-3), is 12.261 km (7.619 mi) deep.<sup id="cite_ref-ICDP_KSDB3_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICDP_KSDB3-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wells drilled to depths greater than 4 km (2.5 mi) generally incur drilling costs in the tens of millions of dollars.<sup id="cite_ref-econ101_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-econ101-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The technological challenges are to drill wide bores at low cost and to break larger volumes of rock. </p><p>Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because the heat extraction is small compared to the Earth's heat content, but extraction must still be monitored to avoid local depletion.<sup id="cite_ref-sustainability_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sustainability-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades, individual wells may cool down or run out of water. The three oldest sites, at Larderello, <a href="/wiki/Wairakei#Geothermal_field" title="Wairakei">Wairakei</a>, and the Geysers have all reduced production from their peaks. It is not clear whether these stations extracted energy faster than it was replenished from greater depths, or whether the aquifers supplying them are being depleted. If production is reduced, and water is reinjected, these wells could theoretically recover their full potential. Such mitigation strategies have already been implemented at some sites. The long-term sustainability of geothermal energy has been demonstrated at the Larderello field in Italy since 1913, at the Wairakei field in New Zealand since 1958,<sup id="cite_ref-Wairakei_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wairakei-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at the Geysers field in California since 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-300years_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-300years-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Power_station_types">Power station types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Power station types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:692px;max-width:692px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:244px;max-width:244px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:305px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_VaporDominatedGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Diagram_VaporDominatedGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg/242px-Diagram_VaporDominatedGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg.png" decoding="async" width="242" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Diagram_VaporDominatedGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg/363px-Diagram_VaporDominatedGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Diagram_VaporDominatedGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg/484px-Diagram_VaporDominatedGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="612" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:242px;max-width:242px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:305px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_HotWaterGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Diagram_HotWaterGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg/240px-Diagram_HotWaterGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Diagram_HotWaterGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg/360px-Diagram_HotWaterGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Diagram_HotWaterGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg/480px-Diagram_HotWaterGeothermal_inturperated_version.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="612" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:200px;max-width:200px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:305px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Geothermal_Binary_System.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Geothermal_Binary_System.svg/198px-Geothermal_Binary_System.svg.png" decoding="async" width="198" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Geothermal_Binary_System.svg/297px-Geothermal_Binary_System.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Geothermal_Binary_System.svg/396px-Geothermal_Binary_System.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="324" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">Dry steam (left), flash steam (centre), and binary cycle (right) power stations.</div></div></div></div> <p>Geothermal power stations are similar to other steam turbine <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_station" title="Thermal power station">thermal power stations</a> in that heat from a fuel source (in geothermal's case, the Earth's core) is used to heat water or another <a href="/wiki/Working_fluid" title="Working fluid">working fluid</a>. The working fluid is then used to turn a turbine of a generator, thereby producing electricity. The fluid is then cooled and returned to the heat source. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dry_steam_power_stations">Dry steam power stations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dry steam power stations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dry steam stations are the simplest and oldest design. There are few power stations of this type, because they require a resource that produces <a href="/wiki/Superheated_steam#Saturated_steam" title="Superheated steam">dry steam</a>, but they are the most efficient, with the simplest facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Solar_and_Geothermal_Energy_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solar_and_Geothermal_Energy-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At these sites, there may be liquid water present in the reservoir, but only steam, not water, is produced to the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Solar_and_Geothermal_Energy_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Solar_and_Geothermal_Energy-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dry steam power directly uses geothermal steam of 150 °C or greater to turn turbines.<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the turbine rotates it powers a generator that produces electricity and adds to the power field.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Then, the steam is emitted to a condenser, where it turns back into a liquid, which then cools the water.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the water is cooled it flows down a pipe that conducts the condensate back into deep wells, where it can be reheated and produced again. At <a href="/wiki/The_Geysers" title="The Geysers">The Geysers</a> in California, after the first 30 years of power production, the steam supply had depleted and generation was substantially reduced. To restore some of the former capacity, supplemental water injection was developed during the 1990s and 2000s, including utilization of effluent from nearby municipal sewage treatment facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flash_steam_power_stations">Flash steam power stations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Flash steam power stations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Flash steam stations pull deep, high-pressure hot water into lower-pressure tanks and use the resulting flashed steam to drive turbines. They require fluid temperatures of at least 180 °C, usually more. This is the most common type of station in operation today.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Flash steam plants use geothermal reservoirs of water with temperatures greater than 360 °F (182 °C). The hot water flows up through wells in the ground under its own pressure. As it flows upward, the pressure decreases and some of the hot water is transformed into steam. The steam is then separated from the water and used to power a turbine/generator. Any leftover water and condensed steam may be injected back into the reservoir, making this a potentially sustainable resource.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Binary_cycle_power_stations">Binary cycle power stations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Binary cycle power stations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Binary_cycle" title="Binary cycle">Binary cycle</a></div> <p>Binary cycle power stations are the most recent development, and can accept fluid temperatures as low as 57 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-Chena_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chena-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The moderately hot geothermal water is passed by a secondary fluid with a much lower boiling point than water. This causes the secondary fluid to flash vaporize, which then drives the turbines. This is the most common type of geothermal electricity station being constructed today.<sup id="cite_ref-EERE1_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EERE1-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both <a href="/wiki/Organic_Rankine_cycle" title="Organic Rankine cycle">Organic Rankine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalina_cycle" title="Kalina cycle">Kalina cycles</a> are used. The thermal efficiency of this type of station is typically about 10–13%.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Binary cycle power plants have an average unit capacity of 6.3 MW, 30.4 MW at single-flash power plants, 37.4 MW at double-flash plants, and 45.4 MW at power plants working on superheated steam.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Worldwide_production">Worldwide production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Worldwide production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Installed_geothermal_energy_capacity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4d/Installed_geothermal_energy_capacity.png/350px-Installed_geothermal_energy_capacity.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4d/Installed_geothermal_energy_capacity.png/525px-Installed_geothermal_energy_capacity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4d/Installed_geothermal_energy_capacity.png/700px-Installed_geothermal_energy_capacity.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Installed geothermal energy capacity, 2022<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Staufen.Cracks.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Staufen.Cracks.jpg/300px-Staufen.Cracks.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Staufen.Cracks.jpg/450px-Staufen.Cracks.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Staufen.Cracks.jpg/600px-Staufen.Cracks.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Cracks at the historic Town Hall of <a href="/wiki/Staufen_im_Breisgau" title="Staufen im Breisgau">Staufen im Breisgau</a> presumed due to damage from geothermal drilling</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puhagan_geothermal_plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Puhagan_geothermal_plant.jpg/300px-Puhagan_geothermal_plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Puhagan_geothermal_plant.jpg/450px-Puhagan_geothermal_plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Puhagan_geothermal_plant.jpg/600px-Puhagan_geothermal_plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a><figcaption>A geothermal power station in <a href="/wiki/Negros_Oriental" title="Negros Oriental">Negros Oriental</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Central_Geot%C3%A9rmica_de_Berl%C3%ADn_05.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Central_Geot%C3%A9rmica_de_Berl%C3%ADn_05.JPG/300px-Central_Geot%C3%A9rmica_de_Berl%C3%ADn_05.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Central_Geot%C3%A9rmica_de_Berl%C3%ADn_05.JPG/450px-Central_Geot%C3%A9rmica_de_Berl%C3%ADn_05.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Central_Geot%C3%A9rmica_de_Berl%C3%ADn_05.JPG/600px-Central_Geot%C3%A9rmica_de_Berl%C3%ADn_05.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Geothermal power center in the <a href="/wiki/Usulut%C3%A1n_Department" title="Usulután Department">Usulután Department</a>, <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/International_Renewable_Energy_Agency" title="International Renewable Energy Agency">International Renewable Energy Agency</a> has reported that 14,438 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">megawatts</a> (MW) of geothermal power was online worldwide at the end of 2020, generating 94,949 <a href="/wiki/GWh" class="mw-redirect" title="GWh">GWh</a> of electricity. <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In theory, the world's geothermal resources are sufficient to supply humans with energy. However, only a tiny fraction of the world's geothermal resources can at present be explored on a <a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">profitable</a> basis.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> said in The Climate Project Asia Pacific Summit that Indonesia could become a super power country in electricity production from geothermal energy.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2013 the publicly owned <a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_India" title="Electricity sector in India">electricity sector in India</a> announced a plan to develop the country's first geothermal power facility in the landlocked <a href="/wiki/States_and_union_territories_of_India" title="States and union territories of India">state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chhattisgarh" title="Chhattisgarh">Chhattisgarh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Canada" title="Geothermal power in Canada">Geothermal power in Canada</a> has high potential due to its position on the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ring_of_Fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Ring of Fire">Pacific Ring of Fire</a>. The region of greatest potential is the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Cordillera" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Cordillera">Canadian Cordillera</a>, stretching from <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Yukon" title="Yukon">Yukon</a>, where estimates of generating output have ranged from 1,550 MW to 5,000 MW.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Japan" title="Geography of Japan">geography of Japan</a> is uniquely suited for geothermal power production. Japan has numerous <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a> that could provide fuel for geothermal power plants, but a massive investment in Japan's infrastructure would be necessary.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Utility-grade_stations">Utility-grade stations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Utility-grade stations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_geothermal_power_stations" title="List of geothermal power stations">List of geothermal power stations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_geo_generation_yearly.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/World_geo_generation_yearly.png/350px-World_geo_generation_yearly.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/World_geo_generation_yearly.png/525px-World_geo_generation_yearly.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/World_geo_generation_yearly.png/700px-World_geo_generation_yearly.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption> Yearly geothermal generation by continent<sup id="cite_ref-eia_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eia-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_geothermal_generation_2021.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/World_geothermal_generation_2021.png/350px-World_geothermal_generation_2021.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/World_geothermal_generation_2021.png/525px-World_geothermal_generation_2021.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/World_geothermal_generation_2021.png/700px-World_geothermal_generation_2021.png 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption> Geothermal generation by country, 2021<sup id="cite_ref-eia_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eia-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The largest group of geothermal <a href="/wiki/Power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plant">power plants</a> in the world is located at <a href="/wiki/The_Geysers" title="The Geysers">The Geysers</a>, a geothermal field in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Geothermal energy in the United States">United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GeoEnergy_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GeoEnergy-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2021, five countries (<a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Kenya" title="Geothermal power in Kenya">Kenya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Iceland" title="Geothermal power in Iceland">Iceland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_El_Salvador" title="Geothermal power in El Salvador">El Salvador</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_New_Zealand" title="Geothermal power in New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and Nicaragua) generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources.<sup id="cite_ref-eia_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eia-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following table lists these data for each country: </p> <ul><li>total generation from geothermal in <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt-hour" title="Kilowatt-hour">terawatt-hours</a>,</li> <li>percent of that country's generation that was <a class="mw-selflink selflink">geothermal</a>,</li> <li>total geothermal capacity in <a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">gigawatts</a>,</li> <li>percent growth in geothermal capacity, and</li> <li>the geothermal <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factor</a> for that year.</li></ul> <p>Data are for the year 2021. Data are sourced from the <a href="/wiki/Energy_Information_Administration" title="Energy Information Administration">EIA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-eia_41-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eia-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only includes countries with more than 0.01 TWh of generation. 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.static-row-numbers.sort-under.sortable.wikitable thead tr:only-child::before,html.client-js .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.sort-under-right.sortable.wikitable thead tr:only-child::before,html.client-js .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.sort-under-center.sortable.wikitable thead tr:only-child::before{padding-bottom:1.5em}html.client-js body.skin-timeless .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.sort-under.sortable.wikitable thead tr:only-child::before,html.client-js body.skin-timeless .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.sort-under-right.sortable.wikitable thead tr:only-child::before,html.client-js body.skin-timeless .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.sort-under-center.sortable.wikitable thead tr:only-child::before,html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.sort-under.sortable.wikitable thead tr:only-child::before,html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.sort-under-right.sortable.wikitable thead tr:only-child::before,html.client-js body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .static-row-numbers.sort-under-center.sortable.wikitable thead tr:only-child::before{padding-bottom:1.4em}}}</style> <table class="sortable wikitable sticky-header static-row-numbers sort-under col1left" style="text-align:right"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country </th> <th><abbr title="Generation (Terrawatt-hours)">Gen<br />(TWh)</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Percent of generation from geothermal power">%<br />gen.</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Capacity (Gigawatts)">Cap.<br />(GW)</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Increase in geothermal capacity">% cap.<br />growth</abbr> </th> <th><abbr title="Capacity factor">Cap.<br />fac.</abbr> </th></tr> <tr class="static-row-numbers-norank"> <td><b><span class="flagicon" style="padding-left:25px;"> </span>World</b></td> <td>91.80</td> <td>0.3%</td> <td>14.67</td> <td>1.7</td> <td>71% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power in the United States">United States</a></td> <td>16.24</td> <td>0.4%</td> <td>2.60</td> <td>1.0</td> <td>71% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Indonesia" title="Geothermal power in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td> <td>15.90</td> <td>5.2%</td> <td>2.28</td> <td>6.9</td> <td>80% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_Philippines" title="Geothermal power in the Philippines">Philippines</a></td> <td>10.89</td> <td>10.1%</td> <td>1.93</td> <td>0</td> <td>64% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power in Turkey">Turkey</a></td> <td>10.77</td> <td>3.4%</td> <td>1.68</td> <td>3.9</td> <td>73% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/35px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/46px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_New_Zealand" title="Geothermal power in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td> <td>7.82</td> <td>18.0%</td> <td>1.27</td> <td>0</td> <td>70% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="900" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Iceland" title="Geothermal power in Iceland">Iceland</a></td> <td>5.68</td> <td>29.4%</td> <td>0.76</td> <td>0</td> <td>86% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Italy" title="Geothermal power in Italy">Italy</a></td> <td>5.53</td> <td>2.0%</td> <td>0.77</td> <td>0</td> <td>82% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Kenya.svg/45px-Flag_of_Kenya.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Kenya" title="Geothermal power in Kenya">Kenya</a></td> <td>5.12</td> <td>43.4%</td> <td>0.86</td> <td>0</td> <td>68% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power in Mexico">Mexico</a></td> <td>4.28</td> <td>1.3%</td> <td>1.03</td> <td>0</td> <td>47% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Japan" title="Geothermal power in Japan">Japan</a></td> <td>3.02</td> <td>0.3%</td> <td>0.48</td> <td>0</td> <td>72% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></td> <td>1.60</td> <td>12.6%</td> <td>0.26</td> <td>0</td> <td>70% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/23px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/35px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg/46px-Flag_of_El_Salvador.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1005" data-file-height="567" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_El_Salvador" title="Geothermal power in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></td> <td>1.58</td> <td>23.9%</td> <td>0.20</td> <td>0</td> <td>88% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/23px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/35px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg/46px-Flag_of_Nicaragua.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></td> <td>0.78</td> <td>16.9%</td> <td>0.15</td> <td>0</td> <td>58% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Russia" title="Geothermal power in Russia">Russia</a></td> <td>0.45</td> <td>0.04%</td> <td>0.07</td> <td>0</td> <td>69% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg/20px-Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg/31px-Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg/40px-Flag_of_Papua_New_Guinea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="450" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></td> <td>0.40</td> <td>8.2%</td> <td>0.06</td> <td>0</td> <td>82% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Chile" title="Geothermal power in Chile">Chile</a></td> <td>0.33</td> <td>0.4%</td> <td>0.04</td> <td>0</td> <td>94% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg/23px-Flag_of_Guatemala.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg/35px-Flag_of_Guatemala.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_Guatemala.svg/46px-Flag_of_Guatemala.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a></td> <td>0.32</td> <td>2.2%</td> <td>0.05</td> <td>0</td> <td>73% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg/23px-Flag_of_Honduras.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg/35px-Flag_of_Honduras.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Flag_of_Honduras.svg/46px-Flag_of_Honduras.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power in Honduras">Honduras</a></td> <td>0.31</td> <td>2.6%</td> <td>0.04</td> <td>0</td> <td>91% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Germany" title="Geothermal power in Germany">Germany</a></td> <td>0.25</td> <td>0.04%</td> <td>0.05</td> <td>15.0</td> <td>62% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Portugal" title="Geothermal power in Portugal">Portugal</a></td> <td>0.18</td> <td>0.4%</td> <td>0.03</td> <td>0</td> <td>70% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td>0.13</td> <td>0.03%</td> <td>0.02</td> <td>0</td> <td>95% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_China" title="Geothermal power in China">China</a></td> <td>0.13</td> <td>0.002%</td> <td>0.03</td> <td>0</td> <td>55% </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;text-align:left"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a></td> <td>0.07</td> <td>0.5%</td> <td>0.01</td> <td>0</td> <td>85% </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_impact">Environmental impact</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Environmental impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/300px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/450px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/600px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The 120-<a href="/wiki/MWe" class="mw-redirect" title="MWe">MW<sub>e</sub></a> <a href="/wiki/Nesjavellir_Geothermal_Power_Station" title="Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station">Nesjavellir</a> power station in southwest Iceland</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg/120px-Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg/180px-Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg/240px-Logo_Renewable_Energy_by_Melanie_Maecker-Tursun_V1_bgGreen.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">Carbon-neutral fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crosswind_kite_power" title="Crosswind kite power">Crosswind kite power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_heating" title="Geothermal heating">Geothermal heating</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geothermal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">Run-of-the-river</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">Micro hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pico_hydro" title="Pico hydro">Pico hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_hydro" title="Small hydro">Small hydro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Marine current power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">Tidal stream generator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_proposed_as_renewable_energy" title="Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy">Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country_and_territory" title="List of renewable energy topics by country and territory">Topics by country and territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Marketing and policy trends</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renewable_energy_sources" title="Template:Renewable energy sources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renewable_energy_sources" title="Template talk:Renewable energy sources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renewable_energy_sources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renewable energy sources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Existing geothermal electric stations, that fall within the <a href="/wiki/Percentile" title="Percentile">50th percentile</a> of all total life cycle emissions studies reviewed by the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</a>, produce on average 45 kg of <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> equivalent emissions per megawatt-hour of generated electricity (kg <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span>eq/<a href="/wiki/Megawatt-hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt-hour">MW·h</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For comparison, a coal-fired power plant emits 1,001 kg of <span class="chemf nowrap">CO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">2</sub></span></span></span> equivalent per megawatt-hour when not coupled with <a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">carbon capture and storage</a> (CCS).<sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_Annex_II_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_Annex_II-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As many geothermal projects are situated in volcanically active areas that naturally emit greenhouse gases, it is hypothesized that geothermal plants may actually decrease the rate of de-gassing by reducing the pressure on underground reservoirs.<sup id="cite_ref-carbneut_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carbneut-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stations that experience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are usually equipped with emission-control systems to reduce the exhaust. Geothermal stations can also inject these gases back into the earth as a form of carbon capture and storage, such as in New Zealand<sup id="cite_ref-carbneut_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carbneut-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the <a href="/wiki/CarbFix" class="mw-redirect" title="CarbFix">CarbFix</a> project in Iceland. </p><p>Other stations like the <a href="/wiki/K%C4%B1z%C4%B1ldere_Geothermal_Power_Plant" title="Kızıldere Geothermal Power Plant">Kızıldere geothermal power plant</a>, exhibit the capability to utilize geothermal fluids to process carbon dioxide gas into <a href="/wiki/Dry_ice" title="Dry ice">dry ice</a> at two nearby plants resulting in very little environmental impact.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace amounts of toxic chemicals, such as <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, and salt.<sup id="cite_ref-toxic_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toxic-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These chemicals come out of solution as the water cools, and can cause environmental damage if released. The modern practice of injecting geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk. </p><p>Station construction can adversely affect land stability. <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">Subsidence</a> has occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Wairakei_field" class="mw-redirect" title="Wairakei field">Wairakei field</a> in New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-utilization_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-utilization-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Enhanced_geothermal_system" title="Enhanced geothermal system">Enhanced geothermal systems</a> can <a href="/wiki/Induced_seismicity" title="Induced seismicity">trigger earthquakes</a> due to water injection. The project in <a href="/wiki/Basel" title="Basel">Basel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> was suspended because more than 10,000 seismic events measuring up to 3.4 on the <a href="/wiki/Richter_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Richter Scale">Richter Scale</a> occurred over the first 6 days of water injection.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The risk of geothermal drilling leading to <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">uplift</a> has been experienced in <a href="/wiki/Staufen_im_Breisgau" title="Staufen im Breisgau">Staufen im Breisgau</a>. </p><p>Geothermal has minimal land and freshwater requirements. Geothermal stations use 404 square meters per <a href="/wiki/Gigawatt-hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigawatt-hour">GW·h</a> versus 3,632 and 1,335 square meters for coal facilities and wind farms respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-utilization_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-utilization-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They use 20 litres of freshwater per MW·h versus over 1000 litres per MW·h for nuclear, coal, or oil.<sup id="cite_ref-utilization_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-utilization-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Local climate cooling is possible as a result of the work of the geothermal circulation systems. However, according to an estimation given by <a href="/wiki/Leningrad_Mining_Institute" class="mw-redirect" title="Leningrad Mining Institute">Leningrad Mining Institute</a> in 1980s, possible cool-down will be negligible compared to natural climate fluctuations.<sup id="cite_ref-Dyadkin_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dyadkin-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While volcanic activity produces geothermal energy, it is also risky. As of 2022<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit">[update]</a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Puna_Geothermal_Venture" title="Puna Geothermal Venture">Puna Geothermal Venture</a> has still not returned to full capacity after the <a href="/wiki/2018_lower_Puna_eruption" title="2018 lower Puna eruption">2018 lower Puna eruption</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-penn20220531_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-penn20220531-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></div> <p>Geothermal power requires no fuel; it is therefore immune to fuel cost fluctuations. However, <a href="/wiki/Capital_cost" title="Capital cost">capital costs</a> tend to be high. Drilling accounts for over half the costs, and exploration of deep resources entails significant risks. A typical well doublet in Nevada can support 4.5 <a href="/wiki/Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">megawatts</a> (MW) of electricity generation and costs about $10 million to drill, with a 20% failure rate.<sup id="cite_ref-econ101_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-econ101-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In total, electrical station construction and well drilling costs about 2–5 million € per MW of electrical capacity, while the <a href="/wiki/Levelised_energy_cost" class="mw-redirect" title="Levelised energy cost">levelised energy cost</a> is 0.04–0.10 € per kW·h.<sup id="cite_ref-Bertani_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bertani-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Enhanced geothermal systems tend to be on the high side of these ranges, with capital costs above $4 million per MW and levelized costs above $0.054 per kW·h in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research suggests in-reservoir storage could <a href="/wiki/100%25_renewable_energy#Intermittency" title="100% renewable energy">increase the economic viability</a> of enhanced geothermal systems in energy systems with a large share of <a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">variable renewable energy</a> sources.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geothermal power is highly scalable: a small power station can supply a rural village, though initial capital costs can be high.<sup id="cite_ref-small_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-small-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most developed geothermal field is the Geysers in California. In 2008, this field supported 15 stations, all owned by <a href="/wiki/Calpine" title="Calpine">Calpine</a>, with a total generating capacity of 725 MW.<sup id="cite_ref-calpine_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-calpine-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/28px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" 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href="/wiki/Thermal_battery" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal battery">Thermal battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_hydrogen#Midcontinent_Rift_System" class="mw-redirect" title="White hydrogen">Renewable white hydrogen</a> - <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Renewable energy in the United States">renewable</a> hydrogen produced from using the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-gea2010-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gea2010_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geothermal Energy Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geo-energy.org/pdf/reports/GEA_International_Market_Report_Final_May_2010.pdf">Geothermal Energy: International Market Update</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170525165514/http://www.geo-energy.org/pdf/reports/GEA_International_Market_Report_Final_May_2010.pdf">Archived</a> 25 May 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> May 2010, p. 4-6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBassamMaegaardSchlichting2013" class="citation book cs1">Bassam, Nasir El; Maegaard, Preben; Schlichting, Marcia (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uP4eGFt4c_AC&pg=PA187"><i>Distributed Renewable Energies for Off-Grid Communities: Strategies and Technologies Toward Achieving Sustainability in Energy Generation and Supply</i></a>. Newnes. p. 187. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-397178-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-397178-4"><bdi>978-0-12-397178-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210511095838/https://books.google.com/books?id=uP4eGFt4c_AC&q=international+Geothermal+Association+10%2C715+megawatts&pg=PA187">Archived</a> from the original on 11 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Distributed+Renewable+Energies+for+Off-Grid+Communities%3A+Strategies+and+Technologies+Toward+Achieving+Sustainability+in+Energy+Generation+and+Supply&rft.pages=187&rft.pub=Newnes&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-12-397178-4&rft.aulast=Bassam&rft.aufirst=Nasir+El&rft.au=Maegaard%2C+Preben&rft.au=Schlichting%2C+Marcia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuP4eGFt4c_AC%26pg%3DPA187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeothermal+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-IPCC-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_3-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_3-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-IPCC_3-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFridleifssonBertaniHuengesLund2008" class="citation conference cs1">Fridleifsson, Ingvar B.; Bertani, Ruggero; Huenges, Ernst; Lund, John W.; Ragnarsson, Arni; Rybach, Ladislaus (11 February 2008). O. Hohmeyer and T. Trittin (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eartheclipse.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Fridleifsson_et_al_IPCC_Geothermal_paper_2008.pdf"><i>The possible role and contribution of geothermal energy to the mitigation of climate change</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. IPCC Scoping Meeting on Renewable Energy Sources. Luebeck, Germany. pp. 59–80<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=The+possible+role+and+contribution+of+geothermal+energy+to+the+mitigation+of+climate+change&rft.place=Luebeck%2C+Germany&rft.pages=59-80&rft.date=2008-02-11&rft.aulast=Fridleifsson&rft.aufirst=Ingvar+B.&rft.au=Bertani%2C+Ruggero&rft.au=Huenges%2C+Ernst&rft.au=Lund%2C+John+W.&rft.au=Ragnarsson%2C+Arni&rft.au=Rybach%2C+Ladislaus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eartheclipse.com%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2016%2F03%2FFridleifsson_et_al_IPCC_Geothermal_paper_2008.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeothermal+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2019_Capacity-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2019_Capacity_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRichter2020" class="citation news cs1">Richter, Alexander (27 January 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/">"The Top 10 Geothermal Countries 2019 – based on installed generation capacity (MWe)"</a>. Think GeoEnergy - Geothermal Energy News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126085813/https://www.thinkgeoenergy.com/the-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Top+10+Geothermal+Countries+2019+%E2%80%93+based+on+installed+generation+capacity+%28MWe%29&rft.date=2020-01-27&rft.aulast=Richter&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thinkgeoenergy.com%2Fthe-top-10-geothermal-countries-2019-based-on-installed-generation-capacity-mwe%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeothermal+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geo-energy.org/reports/2015/Int'lMarketataGlanceMay2015Final5_14_15.pdf">"The International Geothermal Market At a Glance – May 2015"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. GEA—Geothermal Energy Association. May 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211006155451/http://geo-energy.org/reports/2015/Int%27lMarketataGlanceMay2015Final5_14_15.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 6 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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London: ICE Publishing. pp. 41–42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780727763983" title="Special:BookSources/9780727763983"><bdi>9780727763983</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180821191853/https://www.icebookshop.com/Products/Geothermal-Energy,-Heat-Exchange-Systems-and-Energ.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 21 August 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Proceedings of the International Conference on National Development of Geothermal Energy Use. Slovakia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716082354/http://pangea.stanford.edu/ERE/pdf/IGAstandard/ISS/2009Slovakia/I.1.Bertani.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 16 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Calpine+Corporation+%28CPN%29+%28NYSE+Arca%29+Profile&rft.pub=Reuters&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Ffinance%2Fstocks%2FcompanyProfile%3Frpc%3D66%26symbol%3DCPN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeothermal+power" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geothermal_power&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/articles-renewable-energy-transmission/geothermal.shtml">Articles on Geothermal Energy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201026130618/https://www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/articles-renewable-energy-transmission/geothermal.shtml">Archived</a> 26 October 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/21320">The Geothermal Collection by the University of Hawaii at Manoa</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geothermal-library.org/">GRC Geothermal Library</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Geothermal_energy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geothermal_power" title="Template:Geothermal power"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geothermal_power" title="Template talk:Geothermal power"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geothermal_power" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geothermal power"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geothermal_energy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal energy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Geothermal energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_gradient" title="Geothermal gradient">Geothermal gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_heating" title="Geothermal heating">Geothermal heating</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geothermal power</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/120px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/180px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg/240px-NesjavellirPowerPlant_edit2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Armenia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Australia" title="Geothermal power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Canada" title="Geothermal power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Chile" title="Geothermal power in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_China" title="Geothermal power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Denmark" title="Geothermal power in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_El_Salvador" title="Geothermal power in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Germany" title="Geothermal power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal power in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Iceland" title="Geothermal power in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Indonesia" title="Geothermal power in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Italy" title="Geothermal power in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Japan" title="Geothermal power in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Kenya" title="Geothermal power in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy_in_Lebanon" title="Geothermal energy in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Geothermal_Demonstration_Plant" title="Klaipėda Geothermal Demonstration Plant">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Mexico#Geothermal_power" title="Energy in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_New_Zealand" title="Geothermal power in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_Philippines" title="Geothermal power in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Portugal" title="Geothermal power in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Romania" title="Geothermal power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Russia" title="Geothermal power in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy_in_Turkey" title="Geothermal energy in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Ukraine" title="Geothermal power in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Geothermal power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Geothermal energy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">Aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Binary_cycle" title="Binary cycle">Binary cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_desalination" title="Geothermal desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enhanced_geothermal_system" title="Enhanced geothermal system">Enhanced geothermal system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_dry_rock_geothermal_energy" title="Hot dry rock geothermal energy">Hot dry rock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Energy concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Base_load" title="Base load">Base load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_return_on_investment" title="Energy return on investment">Energy return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">Energy subsidy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Geothermal_energy" title="Category:Geothermal energy">Category</a></b></li> <li><b>Portals:</b> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Renewable_energy_by_country_and_territory" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renewable_energy_by_country_and_territory" title="Template:Renewable energy by country and territory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renewable_energy_by_country_and_territory" title="Template talk:Renewable energy by country and territory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renewable_energy_by_country_and_territory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renewable energy by country and territory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Renewable_energy_by_country_and_territory" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_topics_by_country_and_territory" title="List of renewable energy topics by country and territory">Renewable energy by country and territory</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Africa" title="Renewable energy in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Ethiopia" title="Renewable energy in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Kenya" title="Renewable energy in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Morocco" title="Renewable energy in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Seychelles" title="Renewable energy in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_South_Africa" title="Renewable energy in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Asia" title="Renewable energy in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Afghanistan" title="Renewable energy in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Bangladesh" title="Renewable energy in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Bhutan" title="Renewable energy in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Brunei" title="Renewable energy in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_China" title="Renewable energy in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_India" title="Renewable energy in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Indonesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Kazakhstan" title="Renewable energy in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Malaysia" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Nepal" title="Renewable energy in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Pakistan" title="Renewable energy in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Palestine" title="Renewable energy in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Philippines" title="Renewable energy in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Taiwan" title="Renewable energy in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Thailand" title="Renewable energy in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Vietnam" title="Renewable energy in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.3em;padding-right:0.3em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_European_Union" title="Renewable energy in the European Union">European Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Austria" title="Renewable energy in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Renewable energy in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Cyprus#Renewable_energy" title="Energy in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Denmark" title="Renewable energy in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Finland" title="Renewable energy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_France" title="Renewable energy in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Germany" title="Renewable energy in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Greece" title="Renewable energy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Hungary" title="Renewable energy in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Renewable energy in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Italy" title="Renewable energy in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Lithuania" title="Renewable energy in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Luxembourg" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Malta" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Netherlands" title="Renewable energy in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Portugal" title="Renewable energy in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Spain" title="Renewable energy in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Sweden">Sweden</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.3em;padding-right:0.3em;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Albania" title="Renewable energy in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Armenia" title="Renewable energy in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Belarus" title="Renewable energy in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Iceland" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Renewable energy in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Norway" title="Renewable energy in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Russia" title="Renewable energy in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Switzerland#Renewable_energy_in_Switzerland" title="Energy in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Turkey" title="Renewable energy in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Ukraine" title="Renewable energy in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Renewable energy in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Scotland" title="Renewable energy in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Canada" title="Renewable energy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Costa_Rica" title="Renewable energy in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Honduras" title="Renewable energy in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Mexico" title="Renewable energy in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_United_States" title="Renewable energy in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Australia" title="Renewable energy in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_the_Cook_Islands" title="Renewable energy in the Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_French_Polynesia" title="Renewable energy in French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_New_Zealand" title="Renewable energy in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Tuvalu" title="Renewable energy in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" 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