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<li id="toc-Precursors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Precursors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Precursors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Precursors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Charles's_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charles's_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Charles's law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charles's_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lord_Kelvin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lord_Kelvin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Lord Kelvin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lord_Kelvin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_absolute_scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_absolute_scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>First absolute scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_absolute_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_absolute_scale" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_absolute_scale"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Modern absolute scale</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_absolute_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Triple_point_standard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triple_point_standard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Triple point standard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triple_point_standard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2019_redefinition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2019_redefinition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>2019 redefinition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2019_redefinition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practical_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practical_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Practical uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practical_uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Practical uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Practical_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Colour_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colour_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Colour temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colour_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kelvin_as_a_unit_of_noise_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kelvin_as_a_unit_of_noise_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Kelvin as a unit of noise temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kelvin_as_a_unit_of_noise_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derived_units_and_SI_multiples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derived_units_and_SI_multiples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Derived units and SI multiples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derived_units_and_SI_multiples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kelvin</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 127 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-127" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">127 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%84%D9%81%D9%86" title="كلفن – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كلفن" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86" title="کلوین – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="کلوین" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="কেলভিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কেলভিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD_(%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F)" title="Кельвін (адзінка вымярэння) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Кельвін (адзінка вымярэння)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Кельвін – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Кельвін" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Келвин – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Келвин" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%81%E0%BD%BA%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8D" title="ཁེལ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཁེལ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Кельвин – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Кельвин" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%84%DA%A4%D9%8A%D9%86" title="كيلڤين – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="كيلڤين" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1_%CE%9A%CE%AD%CE%BB%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BD" title="Κλίμακα Κέλβιν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κλίμακα Κέλβιν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvino" title="Kelvino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kelvino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_(unitatea)" title="Kelvin (unitatea) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kelvin (unitatea)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%86" title="کلوین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کلوین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvinstigin" title="Kelvinstigin – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Kelvinstigin" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_(ienheid)" title="Kelvin (ienheid) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kelvin (ienheid)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceilvin" title="Ceilvin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ceilvin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%95%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%A8" title="કેલ્વિન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="કેલ્વિન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BC%88%EB%B9%88" title="켈빈 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="켈빈" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%A5%D5%AC%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%B6_(%D5%B9%D5%A1%D6%83%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%B8%D6%80)" title="Կելվին (չափման միավոր) – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կելվին (չափման միավոր)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="केल्विन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="केल्विन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grado_Kelvin" title="Grado Kelvin – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Grado Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9F" title="קלווין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קלווין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%8D" title="ಕೆಲ್ವಿನ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಕೆಲ್ವಿನ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Кельвин – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Кельвин" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="კელვინი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კელვინი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Кельвин – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Кельвин" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvini" title="Kelvini – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kelvini" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelven" title="Kelven – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Kelven" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD_(%D0%9A)" title="Кельвин (К) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кельвин (К)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvinus_(unitas)" title="Kelvinus (unitas) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Kelvinus (unitas)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvins" title="Kelvins – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kelvins" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvinas" title="Kelvinas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kelvinas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_(einheid)" title="Kelvin (einheid) – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Kelvin (einheid)" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/kelvo" title="kelvo – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="kelvo" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabwoki_(Keruvin)" title="Nabwoki (Keruvin) – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Nabwoki (Keruvin)" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Келвин – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Келвин" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB" title="കെൽവിൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കെൽവിൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="केल्विन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="केल्विन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%86" title="كيلفين – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="كيلفين" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Кельвин – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Кельвин" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%9A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA%E1%80%97%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ကယ်လ်ဗင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကယ်လ်ဗင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_(eenheid)" title="Kelvin (eenheid) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kelvin (eenheid)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8" title="केल्भिन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="केल्भिन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B1%E3%83%AB%E3%83%93%E3%83%B3" title="ケルビン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ケルビン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Кельвин – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Кельвин" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_(ianhaid)" title="Kelvin (ianhaid) – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kelvin (ianhaid)" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_(o%CA%BBlchov_birligi)" title="Kelvin (oʻlchov birligi) – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Kelvin (oʻlchov birligi)" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A8" title="ਕੈਲਵਿਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕੈਲਵਿਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="کیلون – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="کیلون" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelwin" title="Kelwin – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kelwin" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Келвин – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Келвин" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Кельвин – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Кельвин" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvini" title="Kelvini – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kelvini" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gradu_Kelvin" title="Gradu Kelvin – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Gradu Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A" title="කෙල්වින් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කෙල්වින්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%94%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8A" title="Кєлвинъ – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Кєлвинъ" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szl mw-list-item"><a href="https://szl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelwin" title="Kelwin – Silesian" lang="szl" hreflang="szl" data-title="Kelwin" data-language-autonym="Ślůnski" data-language-local-name="Silesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ślůnski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelfin" title="Kelfin – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Kelfin" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8E%D9%84%DA%A4%D9%86" title="کێلڤن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کێلڤن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Келвин – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Келвин" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="கெல்வின் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கெல்வின்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akilvin" title="Akilvin – Tachelhit" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Akilvin" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="Tachelhit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelven" title="Kelven – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Kelven" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D" title="కెల్విన్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కెల్విన్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="เคลวิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เคลวิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelwin" title="Kelwin – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Kelwin" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD" title="Кельвін – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кельвін" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%88%D9%86" title="کیلون – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="کیلون" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E7%88%BE%E6%96%87" title="開爾文 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="開爾文" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin_(%C3%AAenheid)" title="Kelvin (êenheid) – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Kelvin (êenheid)" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kelvin" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BC%80%E5%B0%94%E6%96%87" title="开尔文 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="开尔文" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%96%8B%E6%B0%8F" title="開氏 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="開氏" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelv%C4%97ns" title="Kelvėns – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Kelvėns" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">SI unit of temperature</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the unit of temperature. For the person, see <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Kelvin_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Kelvin (disambiguation)">Kelvin (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-unit"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above">kelvin</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Temperature-scales-comparison.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Temperature-scales-comparison.svg/250px-Temperature-scales-comparison.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Temperature-scales-comparison.svg/330px-Temperature-scales-comparison.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Temperature-scales-comparison.svg/500px-Temperature-scales-comparison.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="338" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Equivalent temperatures in kelvin (K), Celsius (°C), and <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a> (°F)</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">General information</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/System_of_units_of_measurement" title="System of units of measurement">Unit system</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/SI" class="mw-redirect" title="SI">SI</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Unit of</th><td class="infobox-data">temperature</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Symbol</th><td class="infobox-data">K</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Named after</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">2019 definition</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant"><span class="texhtml"><i>k</i><sub>B</sub></span></a> ≝ <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6977138064900000000♠"></span>1.380<span style="margin-left:.25em;">649</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−23</sup></span> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214402035">.mw-parser-output .sfrac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .sfrac.tion,.mw-parser-output .sfrac .tion{display:inline-block;vertical-align:-0.5em;font-size:85%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .num{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.0em 0.1em;border-bottom:1px solid}.mw-parser-output .sfrac .den{display:block;line-height:1em;margin:0.1em 0.1em}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><a href="/wiki/Joules" class="mw-redirect" title="Joules">J</a></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">K</span></span>⁠</span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_scales_of_temperature#Kelvin_scale" title="Conversion of scales of temperature">Conversions</a> </th></tr><tr class="nowrap"><td><span class="calculator-field" id="calculator-field-k" data-calculator-type="number" data-calculator-size="6" data-calculator-min="0">273.15</span> K <i>in ...</i></td><td><i>... is equal to ...</i></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><th colspan="2"> </th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">   </span><a href="/wiki/SI_derived_units" class="mw-redirect" title="SI derived units">SI derived units</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">   </span><span class="calculator-field" id="calculator-field-c" data-calculator-type="plain" data-calculator-formula="round(k-273.15,5)" data-calculator-size="9" data-calculator-nan-text="?">0</span> °C</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">   </span><a href="/wiki/Imperial_units" title="Imperial units">Imperial</a>/<a href="/wiki/US_customary_units" class="mw-redirect" title="US customary units">US</a> units</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">   </span><span class="calculator-field" id="calculator-field-f" data-calculator-type="plain" data-calculator-formula="round((k-273.15)*9/5+32,5)" data-calculator-size="9" data-calculator-nan-text="?">32</span> <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">°F</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><span class="nowrap">   </span>Imperial/US absolute scale</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="nowrap">   </span><span class="calculator-field" id="calculator-field-ra" data-calculator-type="plain" data-calculator-formula="round(k*1.8,5)" data-calculator-size="9" data-calculator-nan-text="?">491.67</span> <a href="/wiki/Rankine_scale" title="Rankine scale">°Ra</a></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p>The <b>kelvin</b> (symbol: <b>K</b>) is the <a href="/wiki/SI_base_unit" title="SI base unit">base unit</a> for <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_System_of_Units" title="International System of Units">International System of Units</a> (SI). The <b>Kelvin scale</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Absolute_scale" title="Absolute scale">absolute</a> <a href="/wiki/Temperature_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperature scale">temperature scale</a> that starts at the lowest possible temperature (<a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>), taken to be 0 K.<sup id="cite_ref-MEP_for_kelvin_2019_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MEP_for_kelvin_2019-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SI_Brochure_9-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BIPM_web_page_for_kelvin_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BIPM_web_page_for_kelvin-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NIST_SI_redefinition_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIST_SI_redefinition-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By definition, the <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a> scale (symbol °C) and the Kelvin scale have the exact same magnitude; that is, a rise of 1 K is equal to a rise of 1 °C and vice versa, and any temperature in degrees Celsius can be converted to kelvin by adding 273.15.<sup id="cite_ref-MEP_for_kelvin_2019_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MEP_for_kelvin_2019-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nist_intro_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist_intro-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 19th century British scientist <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> first developed and proposed the scale.<sup id="cite_ref-nist_intro_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist_intro-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was often called the "absolute Celsius" scale in the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-absoluteC_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-absoluteC-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kelvin was formally added to the International System of Units in 1954, defining 273.16 K to be the <a href="/wiki/Triple_point_of_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Triple point of water">triple point of water</a>. The Celsius, <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rankine_scale" title="Rankine scale">Rankine</a> scales were redefined in terms of the Kelvin scale using this definition.<sup id="cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SI_Brochure_9-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Busting_Myths_about_the_Metric_System_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Busting_Myths_about_the_Metric_System-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NIST_HB44_Appendix_C_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIST_HB44_Appendix_C-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/2019_revision_of_the_SI" title="2019 revision of the SI">2019 revision of the SI</a> now defines the kelvin in terms of energy by setting the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant">Boltzmann constant</a> to <i>exactly</i> <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6977138064900000000♠"></span>1.380<span style="margin-left:.25em;">649</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−23</sup> <a href="/wiki/Joules" class="mw-redirect" title="Joules">joules</a> per kelvin</span>;<sup id="cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SI_Brochure_9-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> every 1 K change of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">thermodynamic temperature</a> corresponds to a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> change of exactly <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6977138064900000000♠"></span>1.380<span style="margin-left:.25em;">649</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−23</sup> J</span>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature#History" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature § History</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Precursors">Precursors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Precursors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melting_ice_thermometer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Melting_ice_thermometer.jpg/250px-Melting_ice_thermometer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Melting_ice_thermometer.jpg/330px-Melting_ice_thermometer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Melting_ice_thermometer.jpg/500px-Melting_ice_thermometer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2536" data-file-height="2204" /></a><figcaption>An ice water bath offered a practical <a href="/wiki/Calibration" title="Calibration">calibration</a> point for <a href="/wiki/Thermometers" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermometers">thermometers</a> (shown here in Celsius) before the physical nature of heat was well understood.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_scales_of_temperature" title="Conversion of scales of temperature">multiple temperature scales</a> were developed,<sup id="cite_ref-NIST_kelvin_history_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIST_kelvin_history-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> notably <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a> and centigrade (later Celsius). These scales predated much of the modern science of <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">kinetic theory of gases</a> which underpin the concept of absolute zero. Instead, they chose defining points within the range of human experience that could be reproduced easily and with reasonable accuracy, but lacked any deep significance in thermal physics. In the case of the Celsius scale (and the long since defunct <a href="/wiki/Newton_scale" title="Newton scale">Newton scale</a> and <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale" title="Réaumur scale">Réaumur scale</a>) the melting point of ice served as such a starting point, with Celsius being defined (from the <a href="/wiki/1740s" title="1740s">1740s</a> to the <a href="/wiki/1940s" title="1940s">1940s</a>) by calibrating a thermometer such that: </p> <ul><li>Water's <a href="/wiki/Freezing_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Freezing point">freezing point</a> is 0 °C.</li> <li>Water's <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a> is 100 °C.</li></ul> <p>This definition assumes pure water at a specific <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> chosen to approximate the natural air pressure at sea level. Thus, an increment of 1 °C equals <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">100</span></span>⁠</span> of the temperature difference between the melting and boiling points. The same temperature interval was later used for the Kelvin scale. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charles's_law"><span id="Charles.27s_law"></span>Charles's law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Charles's law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 1787 to 1802, it was determined by <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Charles" title="Jacques Charles">Jacques Charles</a> (unpublished), <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Dalton_1801_1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dalton_1801_1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dalton_1801_2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dalton_1801_2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac" title="Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac">Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gay-Lussac_1802_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gay-Lussac_1802-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that, at constant pressure, ideal gases expanded or contracted their volume linearly (<a href="/wiki/Charles%27s_law" title="Charles's law">Charles's law</a>) by about 1/273 parts per degree Celsius of temperature's change up or down, between 0 °C and 100 °C. Extrapolation of this law suggested that a gas cooled to about −273 °C would occupy zero volume. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lord_Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Lord Kelvin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg/170px-Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg/255px-Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg/340px-Baron_Kelvin_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1477" data-file-height="1992" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/William_Thomson,_1st_Baron_Kelvin" class="mw-redirect" title="William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a>, the namesake of the unit of measure.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_absolute_scale">First absolute scale</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: First absolute scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1848, William Thomson, who was later <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">ennobled</a> as <a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a>, published a paper <i>On an Absolute Thermometric Scale</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882100–106_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882100–106-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scale proposed in the paper turned out to be unsatisfactory, but the principles and formulas upon which the scale was based were correct.<sup id="cite_ref-Magie_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magie-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in a footnote, Thomson derived the value of −273 °C for absolute zero by calculating the negative reciprocal of 0.00366—the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion#Isobaric_expansion_in_ideal_gases" title="Thermal expansion">coefficient of thermal expansion</a> of an ideal gas per degree Celsius relative to the ice point.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This derived value agrees with the currently accepted value of −273.15 °C, allowing for the precision and uncertainty involved in the calculation. </p><p>The scale was designed on the principle that "a unit of heat descending from a body <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">A</span> at the temperature <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span>° of this scale, to a body <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">B</span> at the temperature <span class="nowrap">(<span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span> − 1)°</span>, would give out the same mechanical effect, whatever be the number <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span>."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882104_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882104-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, Thomson expressed the amount of work necessary to produce a unit of heat (the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_efficiency" title="Thermal efficiency">thermal efficiency</a>) as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu (t)(1+Et)/E}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>E</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu (t)(1+Et)/E}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f80cb1b804688bb4933b78c8a0c6a71eab35602e" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.416ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu (t)(1+Et)/E}" /></span>, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>t</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" /></span> is the temperature in Celsius, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/4232c9de2ee3eec0a9c0a19b15ab92daa6223f9b" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.776ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E}" /></span> is the coefficient of thermal expansion, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu (t)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu (t)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ce8967bb84997918c0e75d70b4655e6e4b0ec281" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.051ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu (t)}" /></span> was "Carnot's function", a substance-independent quantity depending on temperature,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882187_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882187-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> motivated by an obsolete version of <a href="/wiki/Carnot%27s_theorem_(thermodynamics)" title="Carnot's theorem (thermodynamics)">Carnot's theorem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Magie_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magie-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scale is derived by finding a change of variables <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{1848}=f(T)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1848</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>f</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{1848}=f(T)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fae499d29606fe1bd69ca32e23ef30e956a29604" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:12.7ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{1848}=f(T)}" /></span> of temperature <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}" /></span> such that <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle dT_{1848}/dT}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1848</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle dT_{1848}/dT}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fe3370cfbd8c3b2ddbe03c2d847ce871673cfbe2" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.108ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle dT_{1848}/dT}" /></span> is proportional to <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9fd47b2a39f7a7856952afec1f1db72c67af6161" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.402ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu }" /></span>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CelsiusKelvinThermometer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/CelsiusKelvinThermometer.jpg/250px-CelsiusKelvinThermometer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="383" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/CelsiusKelvinThermometer.jpg/330px-CelsiusKelvinThermometer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/CelsiusKelvinThermometer.jpg/500px-CelsiusKelvinThermometer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2717" data-file-height="4729" /></a><figcaption>Thermometer showing temperature in kelvin and degrees Celsius</figcaption></figure> <p>When Thomson published his paper in 1848, he only considered Regnault's experimental measurements of <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu (t)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu (t)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ce8967bb84997918c0e75d70b4655e6e4b0ec281" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.051ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu (t)}" /></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882193_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882193-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same year, <a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a> suggested to Thomson that the true formula for Carnot's function was<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882212_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882212-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu (t)=J{\frac {E}{1+Et}},}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>t</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo>=</mo> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>,</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu (t)=J{\frac {E}{1+Et}},}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1000692a97b280869e2ee612bcb0a763d2a82d4a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:16.721ex; height:5.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu (t)=J{\frac {E}{1+Et}},}" /></span> where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>J</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/359e4f407b49910e02c27c2f52e87a36cd74c053" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.471ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J}" /></span> is "the mechanical equivalent of a unit of heat",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882186_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882186-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> now referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Specific_heat_capacity" title="Specific heat capacity">specific heat capacity</a> of water, approximately 771.8 foot-pounds force per degree Fahrenheit per pound (4,153 J/K/kg).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882192_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882192-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson was initially skeptical of the deviations of Joule's formula from experiment, stating "I think it will be generally admitted that there can be no such inaccuracy in Regnault's part of the data, and there remains only the uncertainty regarding the density of saturated steam".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882214–215_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882214–215-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson referred to the correctness of Joule's formula as "<a href="/wiki/Julius_von_Mayer" title="Julius von Mayer">Mayer</a>'s hypothesis", on account of it having been first assumed by Mayer.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882213_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882213-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomson arranged numerous experiments in coordination with Joule, eventually concluding by 1854 that Joule's formula was correct and the effect of temperature on the density of saturated steam accounted for all discrepancies with Regnault's data.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882388_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882388-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, in terms of the modern Kelvin scale <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>T</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}" /></span>, the first scale could be expressed as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-display mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math display="block" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{1848}=100\times {\frac {\log(T/{\text{273 K}})}{\log({\text{373 K}}/{\text{273 K}})}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>1848</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>100</mn> <mo>×</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>273 K</mtext> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>log</mi> <mo>⁡</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>373 K</mtext> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>273 K</mtext> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{1848}=100\times {\frac {\log(T/{\text{273 K}})}{\log({\text{373 K}}/{\text{273 K}})}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/5759137ee745eb31a986ef00b7179aea85e3d537" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-display mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:32.836ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{1848}=100\times {\frac {\log(T/{\text{273 K}})}{\log({\text{373 K}}/{\text{273 K}})}}}" /></span> The parameters of the scale were arbitrarily chosen to coincide with the Celsius scale at 0° and 100 °C or 273 and 373 K (the melting and boiling points of water).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this scale, an increase of approximately 222 degrees corresponds to a doubling of Kelvin temperature, regardless of the starting temperature, and "infinite cold" (<a href="/wiki/Absolute_zero" title="Absolute zero">absolute zero</a>) has a numerical value of negative <a href="/wiki/Infinity" title="Infinity">infinity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_absolute_scale">Modern absolute scale</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Modern absolute scale"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Thomson understood that with Joule's proposed formula for <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9fd47b2a39f7a7856952afec1f1db72c67af6161" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:1.402ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu }" /></span>, the relationship between work and heat for a perfect thermodynamic engine was simply the constant <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle J}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>J</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle J}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/359e4f407b49910e02c27c2f52e87a36cd74c053" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.471ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle J}" /></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882190formula_(7)_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882190formula_(7)-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1854, Thomson and Joule thus formulated a second absolute scale that was more practical and convenient, agreeing with air thermometers for most purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106,_232–236_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106,_232–236-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, "the numerical measure of temperature shall be simply the mechanical equivalent of the thermal unit divided by Carnot's function."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882234_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882234-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To explain this definition, consider a reversible <a href="/wiki/Carnot_cycle" title="Carnot cycle">Carnot cycle</a> engine, where <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{H}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{H}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/096b45dea97c14bdb7424f8baa4c4c9bfebd7c39" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.53ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q_{H}}" /></span> is the amount of heat energy transferred into the system, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{C}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{C}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/fa34fa85ab44838da15ab2a5b944c303c5a1e33a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.32ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q_{C}}" /></span> is the heat leaving the system, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle W}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>W</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle W}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/54a9c4c547f4d6111f81946cad242b18298d70b7" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.435ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle W}" /></span> is the work done by the system (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{H}-Q_{C}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{H}-Q_{C}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/1fa5e97d0fe461f4b4f0eabf3fba1f23f54cd704" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.69ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q_{H}-Q_{C}}" /></span>), <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{H}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{H}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/072e25c1da5198b7094eb53f65e5617b6fbc7d1f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.531ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{H}}" /></span> is the temperature of the hot reservoir in Celsius, and <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{C}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{C}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/49a002375dd9cd76417c80746a97d484620c65cd" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.321ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{C}}" /></span> is the temperature of the cold reservoir in Celsius. The Carnot function is defined as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \mu =W/Q_{H}/(t_{H}-t_{C})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>μ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mi>W</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \mu =W/Q_{H}/(t_{H}-t_{C})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/979e832c6767d82c093f4b573e3dfec546b8d131" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:22.292ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \mu =W/Q_{H}/(t_{H}-t_{C})}" /></span>, and the absolute temperature as <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{H}=J/\mu }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>J</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>μ</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{H}=J/\mu }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/2cd5e1abd00f500a89b42daa1a9b42ee88320a8d" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.183ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{H}=J/\mu }" /></span>. One finds the relationship <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{H}=J\times Q_{H}\times (t_{H}-t_{C})/W}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>J</mi> <mo>×</mo> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>×</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>W</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{H}=J\times Q_{H}\times (t_{H}-t_{C})/W}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/df99a58a5e42d9bc33c025e8f2ca14911cc5e7eb" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:29.929ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{H}=J\times Q_{H}\times (t_{H}-t_{C})/W}" /></span>. By supposing <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T_{H}-T_{C}=J\times (t_{H}-t_{c})}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>J</mi> <mo>×</mo> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>−</mo> <msub> <mi>t</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T_{H}-T_{C}=J\times (t_{H}-t_{c})}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/9af48ffc2967d5c889dd5c1b3495f30bb87a9a97" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:25.103ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T_{H}-T_{C}=J\times (t_{H}-t_{c})}" /></span>, one obtains the general principle of an absolute thermodynamic temperature scale for the Carnot engine, <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Q_{H}/T_{H}=Q_{C}/T_{C}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>Q</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Q_{H}/T_{H}=Q_{C}/T_{C}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/352d308a9b78f49ed834590b45a61acf5dd2f20f" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:18.161ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Q_{H}/T_{H}=Q_{C}/T_{C}}" /></span>. The definition can be shown to correspond to the thermometric temperature of the <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas_law" title="Ideal gas law">ideal gas laws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This definition by itself is not sufficient. Thomson specified that the scale should have two properties:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882235_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882235-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The absolute values of two temperatures are to one another in the proportion of the heat taken in to the heat rejected in a perfect thermodynamic engine working with a source and refrigerator at the higher and lower of the temperatures respectively.</li> <li>The difference of temperatures between the freezing- and boiling-points of water under standard atmospheric pressure shall be called 100 degrees. (The same increment as the Celsius scale) Thomson's best estimates at the time were that the temperature of freezing water was 273.7 K and the temperature of boiling water was 373.7 K.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882236_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882236-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>These two properties would be featured in all future versions of the Kelvin scale, although it was not yet known by that name. In the early decades of the 20th century, the Kelvin scale was often called the "absolute <a href="/wiki/Celsius_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Celsius scale">Celsius</a>" scale, indicating Celsius degrees counted from absolute zero rather than the freezing point of water, and using the same symbol for regular Celsius degrees, °C.<sup id="cite_ref-absoluteC_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-absoluteC-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Triple_point_standard">Triple point standard</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Triple point standard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phase-diag2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Phase-diag2.svg/330px-Phase-diag2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="276" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Phase-diag2.svg/500px-Phase-diag2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Phase-diag2.svg/660px-Phase-diag2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>A typical <a href="/wiki/Phase_diagram" title="Phase diagram">phase diagram</a>. The solid green line applies to most substances; the dashed green line gives the anomalous behavior of water. The boiling line (solid blue) runs from the triple point to the <a href="/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)" title="Critical point (thermodynamics)">critical point</a>, beyond which further increases in temperature and pressure produce a <a href="/wiki/Supercritical_fluid" title="Supercritical fluid">supercritical fluid</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1873, William Thomson's older brother <a href="/wiki/James_Thomson_(engineer)" title="James Thomson (engineer)">James</a> coined the term <i><a href="/wiki/Triple_point" title="Triple point">triple point</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to describe the combination of temperature and <a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">pressure</a> at which the solid, liquid, and gas <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">phases</a> of a substance were capable of coexisting in <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_equilibrium" title="Thermodynamic equilibrium">thermodynamic equilibrium</a>. While any two phases could coexist along a range of temperature-pressure combinations (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">boiling point</a> of water can be affected quite dramatically by raising or lowering the pressure), the triple point condition for a given substance can occur only at a single pressure and only at a single temperature. By the 1940s, the triple point of water had been experimentally measured to be about 0.6% of <a href="/wiki/Standard_atmosphere_(unit)" title="Standard atmosphere (unit)">standard atmospheric pressure</a> and very close to 0.01 °C per the historical definition of Celsius then in use. </p><p>In 1948, the Celsius scale was recalibrated by assigning the triple point temperature of water the value of 0.01 °C exactly<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and allowing the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> at standard atmospheric pressure to have an empirically determined value (and the actual melting point at ambient pressure to have a <a href="/wiki/Low-pressure_area" title="Low-pressure area">fluctuating</a> value) close to 0 °C. This was justified on the grounds that the triple point was judged to give a more accurately reproducible reference temperature than the melting point.<sup id="cite_ref-CGPM_9_res_3_(1948)_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGPM_9_res_3_(1948)-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The triple point could be measured with ±0.0001 °C accuracy, while the melting point just to ±0.001 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1954, with absolute zero having been experimentally determined to be about −273.15 °C per the definition of °C then in use, Resolution 3 of the 10th <a href="/wiki/General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures" title="General Conference on Weights and Measures">General Conference on Weights and Measures</a> (CGPM) introduced a new internationally standardized Kelvin scale which defined the triple point as exactly 273.15 + 0.01 = 273.16 degrees Kelvin.<sup id="cite_ref-CGPM_10_res_3_(1954)_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGPM_10_res_3_(1954)-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-res310_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-res310-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1967/1968, Resolution 3 of the 13th CGPM renamed the unit increment of thermodynamic temperature "kelvin", symbol K, replacing "degree Kelvin", symbol °K.<sup id="cite_ref-CGPM_13_res_3_(1967)_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGPM_13_res_3_(1967)-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-res313_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-res313-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Westphal_1952_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westphal_1952-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 13th CGPM also held in Resolution 4 that "The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is equal to the fraction <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num">1</span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">273.16</span></span>⁠</span> of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water."<sup id="cite_ref-NIST_SI_redefinition_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIST_SI_redefinition-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CGPM_13_res_4_(1967)_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGPM_13_res_4_(1967)-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-res413_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-res413-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After <a href="/wiki/Metre#Speed_of_light_definition" title="Metre">the 1983 redefinition of the metre</a>, this left the kelvin, the second, and the kilogram as the only SI units not defined with reference to any other unit. </p><p>In 2005, noting that the triple point could be influenced by the isotopic ratio of the hydrogen and oxygen making up a water sample and that this was "now one of the major sources of the observed variability between different realizations of the water triple point", the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_Weights_and_Measures" class="mw-redirect" title="International Committee for Weights and Measures">International Committee for Weights and Measures</a> (CIPM), a committee of the CGPM, affirmed that for the purposes of delineating the temperature of the triple point of water, the definition of the kelvin would refer to water having the isotopic composition specified for <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Standard_Mean_Ocean_Water" title="Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water">Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NIST_SI_redefinition_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIST_SI_redefinition-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CGPM_23_res_10_(2007)_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGPM_23_res_10_(2007)-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sib2115_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sib2115-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2019_redefinition">2019 redefinition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 2019 redefinition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/2019_revision_of_the_SI" title="2019 revision of the SI">2019 revision of the SI</a></div> <figure class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unit_relations_in_the_new_SI_black_arrows_to_K.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Unit_relations_in_the_new_SI_black_arrows_to_K.svg/280px-Unit_relations_in_the_new_SI_black_arrows_to_K.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Unit_relations_in_the_new_SI_black_arrows_to_K.svg/420px-Unit_relations_in_the_new_SI_black_arrows_to_K.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Unit_relations_in_the_new_SI_black_arrows_to_K.svg/560px-Unit_relations_in_the_new_SI_black_arrows_to_K.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="625" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>2019 SI unit dependencies. The kelvin (K) is now fixed in terms of the Boltzmann constant (<span class="texhtml"><i>k</i><sub>B</sub></span>) and the <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a>. The joule is not shown because it is a <a href="/wiki/SI_derived_unit" title="SI derived unit">derived unit</a> defined by the metre (m), second (s), and kilogram (kg). Those SI base units are themselves defined by the <a href="/wiki/Physical_constant" title="Physical constant">universal constants</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a> (<i><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">c</span></i>), the <a href="/wiki/Caesium_standard" title="Caesium standard">caesium-133 hyperfine transition frequency</a> (<span class="texhtml">Δ<i>ν</i><sub>Cs</sub></span>) and the <a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant">Planck constant</a> (<i><span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">h</span></i>). Black arrows trace the dependencies from these constants to the kelvin.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 2005, the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_for_Weights_and_Measures" class="mw-redirect" title="International Committee for Weights and Measures">CIPM</a> began a programme to redefine the kelvin (along with other <a href="/wiki/SI_base_units" class="mw-redirect" title="SI base units">SI base units</a>) using a more experimentally rigorous method. In particular, the committee proposed <a href="/wiki/2019_revision_of_the_SI#Kelvin" title="2019 revision of the SI">redefining the kelvin</a> such that the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant">Boltzmann constant</a> (<span class="texhtml"><i>k</i><sub>B</sub></span>) would take the exact value <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6977138065049999999♠"></span>1.380<span style="margin-left:.25em;">6505</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−23</sup> J/K</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-draft_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-draft-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The committee hoped the program would be completed in time for its adoption by the CGPM at its 2011 meeting, but at the 2011 meeting the decision was postponed to the 2014 meeting when it would be considered part of a <a href="/wiki/2019_revision_of_the_SI" title="2019 revision of the SI">larger program</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A challenge was to avoid degrading the accuracy of measurements close to the triple point. The redefinition was further postponed in 2014, pending more accurate measurements of the Boltzmann constant in terms of the current definition,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but was finally adopted at the 26th CGPM in late 2018, with a value of <span class="texhtml"><i>k</i><sub>B</sub></span> = <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6977138064900000000♠"></span>1.380<span style="margin-left:.25em;">649</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−23</sup> J⋅K<sup>−1</sup></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-physconst-k_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-physconst-k-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-draft_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-draft-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MEP_for_kelvin_2019_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MEP_for_kelvin_2019-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SI_Brochure_9-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NIST_SI_redefinition_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIST_SI_redefinition-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CGPM_26_res_1_(2018)_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGPM_26_res_1_(2018)-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In fundamental physics, the mapping <span class="texhtml"><var style="padding-right: 1px;">E</var>=<var style="padding-right: 1px;"><i>k</i><sub>B</sub></var><var style="padding-right: 1px;">T</var></span> which converts between the characteristic microscopic energy and the macroscopic temperature scale is often simplified by using <a href="/wiki/Natural_units" title="Natural units">natural units</a> which set the Boltzmann constant to <a href="/wiki/1" title="1">unity</a>. This convention means that temperature and energy quantities have the same <a href="/wiki/Dimension_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimension (physics)">dimensions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kalinin_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalinin-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, the SI unit kelvin becomes superfluous, being defined in terms of joules as <span class="texhtml">1 K = <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6977138064900000000♠"></span>1.380<span style="margin-left:.25em;">649</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−23</sup> J</span></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With this convention, temperature is always given in units of energy, and the kelvin unit is not explicitly needed in formulas.<sup id="cite_ref-Kalinin_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kalinin-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For scientific purposes, the redefinition's main advantage is in allowing more accurate measurements at very low and very high temperatures, as the techniques used depend on the Boltzmann constant. Independence from any particular substance or measurement is also a philosophical advantage. The kelvin now only depends on the Boltzmann constant and <a href="/wiki/Physical_constant" title="Physical constant">universal constants</a> (see 2019 SI unit dependencies diagram), allowing the kelvin to be expressed as:<sup id="cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SI_Brochure_9-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>1 kelvin = <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6977138064900000000♠"></span>1.380<span style="margin-left:.25em;">649</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−23</sup></span></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den">(<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6966662607015000000♠"></span>6.626<span style="margin-left:.25em;">070</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">15</span><span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−34</sup></span>)(<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7009919263177000000♠"></span>9<span style="margin-left:.25em;">192</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">631</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">770</span></span>)</span></span>⁠</span> <span class="texhtml"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><span style="white-space:nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Planck_constant" title="Planck constant"><i>h</i></a><span style="margin-left:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Caesium_standard" title="Caesium standard">Δ<i>ν</i><sub>Cs</sub></a></span></span></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den"><a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant"><i>k</i><sub>B</sub></a></span></span>⁠</span></span></span> ≈ <span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000226666530000000♠"></span>2.266<span style="margin-left:.25em;">6653</span></span> <span class="texhtml"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1214402035" /><span class="sfrac">⁠<span class="tion"><span class="num"><span style="white-space:nowrap"><i>h</i><span style="margin-left:0.25em">Δ<i>ν</i><sub>Cs</sub></span></span></span><span class="sr-only">/</span><span class="den"><i>k</i><sub>B</sub></span></span>⁠</span></span></span>.</dd></dl> <p>For practical purposes, the redefinition was unnoticed; enough digits were used for the Boltzmann constant to ensure that 273.16 K has enough <a href="/wiki/Significant_figures" title="Significant figures">significant digits</a> to contain the uncertainty of water's triple point<sup id="cite_ref-codata2017_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-codata2017-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and water still normally freezes at 0 °C<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to a high degree of precision. But before the redefinition, the triple point of water was exact and the Boltzmann constant had a measured value of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6977138064903000000♠"></span>1.380<span style="margin-left:.25em;">649</span><span style="margin-left:.25em;">03</span>(51)<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−23</sup> J/K</span>, with a relative standard uncertainty of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6993370000000000000♠"></span>3.7<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−7</sup></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-codata2017_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-codata2017-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward, the Boltzmann constant is exact and the uncertainty is transferred to the triple point of water, which is now <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002273160000000000♠"></span>273.1600(1) K</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-uncertainty_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uncertainty-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The new definition officially came into force on 20 May 2019, the 144th anniversary of the <a href="/wiki/Metre_Convention" title="Metre Convention">Metre Convention</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CGPM_26_res_1_(2018)_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGPM_26_res_1_(2018)-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MEP_for_kelvin_2019_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MEP_for_kelvin_2019-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SI_Brochure_9-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NIST_SI_redefinition_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NIST_SI_redefinition-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practical_uses">Practical uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Practical uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelvin_Temperature_Chart_Vertical_tightened.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Kelvin_Temperature_Chart_Vertical_tightened.svg/118px-Kelvin_Temperature_Chart_Vertical_tightened.svg.png" decoding="async" width="118" height="390" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Kelvin_Temperature_Chart_Vertical_tightened.svg/177px-Kelvin_Temperature_Chart_Vertical_tightened.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Kelvin_Temperature_Chart_Vertical_tightened.svg/236px-Kelvin_Temperature_Chart_Vertical_tightened.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="1256" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Colour_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour temperature">Colour temperature</a> (right) of various light sources (left)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colour_temperature">Colour temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Colour temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_constant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stefan–Boltzmann constant">Stefan–Boltzmann constant</a></div> <p>The kelvin is often used as a measure of the <a href="/wiki/Colour_temperature" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour temperature">colour temperature</a> of light sources. Colour temperature is based upon the principle that a <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">black body</a> radiator emits light with a frequency distribution characteristic of its temperature. Black bodies at temperatures below about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003400000000000000♠"></span>4000 K</span> appear reddish, whereas those above about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003750000000000000♠"></span>7500 K</span> appear bluish. Colour temperature is important in the fields of image projection and photography, where a colour temperature of approximately <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003560000000000000♠"></span>5600 K</span> is required to match "daylight" film emulsions. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">stellar classification</a> of stars and their place on the <a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a> are based, in part, upon their surface temperature, known as <a href="/wiki/Effective_temperature" title="Effective temperature">effective temperature</a>. The photosphere of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, for instance, has an effective temperature of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003577200000000000♠"></span>5772 K</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zT2HEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA216">[1]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/sunfact.html">[2]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2QBBEAAAQBAJ&dq=5772+K&pg=PA51">[3]</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://arxiv.org/pdf/1605.09788.pdf#">[4]</a> as adopted by IAU 2015 Resolution B3. </p><p>Digital cameras and photographic software often use colour temperature in K in edit and setup menus. The simple guide is that higher colour temperature produces an image with enhanced white and blue hues. The reduction in colour temperature produces an image more dominated by reddish, <a href="/wiki/Color_theory#Warm_vs._cool_colors" title="Color theory">"warmer" colours</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kelvin_as_a_unit_of_noise_temperature">Kelvin as a unit of noise temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Kelvin as a unit of noise temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Noise_figure" title="Noise figure">Noise figure</a></div> <p>For <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, the kelvin is used as an indicator of how <a href="/wiki/Electronic_noise" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic noise">noisy</a> a circuit is in relation to an ultimate <a href="/wiki/Noise_floor" title="Noise floor">noise floor</a>, i.e. the <a href="/wiki/Noise_temperature" title="Noise temperature">noise temperature</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Nyquist_noise" title="Johnson–Nyquist noise">Johnson–Nyquist noise</a> of <a href="/wiki/Resistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistors">resistors</a> (which produces an associated <a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Nyquist_noise#Thermal_noise_on_capacitors" title="Johnson–Nyquist noise"><i>kTC</i> noise</a> when combined with <a href="/wiki/Capacitors" class="mw-redirect" title="Capacitors">capacitors</a>) is a type of thermal noise derived from the <a href="/wiki/Boltzmann_constant" title="Boltzmann constant">Boltzmann constant</a> and can be used to determine the noise temperature of a <a href="/wiki/Electrical_network" title="Electrical network">circuit</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Friis_formulas_for_noise" title="Friis formulas for noise">Friis formulas for noise</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Derived_units_and_SI_multiples">Derived units and SI multiples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Derived units and SI multiples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(temperature)" title="Orders of magnitude (temperature)">Orders of magnitude (temperature)</a></div> <p>The only <a href="/wiki/SI_derived_unit#Derived_units_with_special_names" title="SI derived unit">SI derived unit with a special name</a> derived from the kelvin is the degree Celsius. Like other SI units, the kelvin can also be modified by adding a <a href="/wiki/Metric_prefix" title="Metric prefix">metric prefix</a> that multiplies it by a <a href="/wiki/Power_of_10" title="Power of 10">power of 10</a>: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:0 auto;"> <caption>SI multiples of kelvin (K) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" colspan="3">Submultiples </th> <th scope="col" colspan="3">Multiples </th></tr> <tr style="background:#d4d4d4;"> <th scope="col">Value </th> <th scope="col">SI symbol </th> <th scope="col">Name </th> <th scope="col">Value </th> <th scope="col">SI symbol </th> <th scope="col">Name </th></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−1</sup> K </td> <td>dK </td> <td>decikelvin </td> <td>10<sup>1</sup> K </td> <td>daK </td> <td>decakelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−2</sup> K </td> <td>cK </td> <td>centikelvin </td> <td>10<sup>2</sup> K </td> <td>hK </td> <td>hectokelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−3</sup> K </td> <td>mK </td> <td>millikelvin </td> <td>10<sup>3</sup> K </td> <td>kK </td> <td>kilokelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−6</sup> K </td> <td>μK </td> <td>microkelvin </td> <td>10<sup>6</sup> K </td> <td>MK </td> <td>megakelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−9</sup> K </td> <td>nK </td> <td>nanokelvin </td> <td>10<sup>9</sup> K </td> <td>GK </td> <td>gigakelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−12</sup> K </td> <td>pK </td> <td>picokelvin </td> <td>10<sup>12</sup> K </td> <td>TK </td> <td>terakelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−15</sup> K </td> <td>fK </td> <td>femtokelvin </td> <td>10<sup>15</sup> K </td> <td>PK </td> <td>petakelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−18</sup> K </td> <td>aK </td> <td>attokelvin </td> <td>10<sup>18</sup> K </td> <td>EK </td> <td>exakelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−21</sup> K </td> <td>zK </td> <td>zeptokelvin </td> <td>10<sup>21</sup> K </td> <td>ZK </td> <td>zettakelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−24</sup> K </td> <td>yK </td> <td>yoctokelvin </td> <td>10<sup>24</sup> K </td> <td>YK </td> <td>yottakelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−27</sup> K </td> <td>rK </td> <td>rontokelvin </td> <td>10<sup>27</sup> K </td> <td>RK </td> <td>ronnakelvin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10<sup>−30</sup> K </td> <td>qK </td> <td>quectokelvin </td> <td>10<sup>30</sup> K </td> <td>QK </td> <td>quettakelvin </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to SI convention, the kelvin is never referred to nor written as a <a href="/wiki/Degree_(temperature)" title="Degree (temperature)"><i>degree</i></a>. The word "kelvin" is not capitalized when used as a unit. It may be in plural form as appropriate (for example, "it is 283 kelvins outside", as for "it is 50 degrees Fahrenheit" and "10 degrees Celsius").<sup id="cite_ref-plurals_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plurals-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nist_intro_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist_intro-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The unit's symbol K is a capital letter,<sup id="cite_ref-CGPM_13_res_3_(1967)_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CGPM_13_res_3_(1967)-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> per the SI convention to capitalize symbols of units derived from the name of a person.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is common convention to capitalize Kelvin when referring to Lord Kelvin<sup id="cite_ref-nist_intro_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nist_intro-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the Kelvin scale.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The unit symbol K is encoded in <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> at code point <span class="nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style><span class="monospaced">U+212A</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">K</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">KELVIN SIGN</span>. However, this is a <a href="/wiki/Unicode_compatibility_characters" title="Unicode compatibility characters">compatibility character</a> provided for compatibility with legacy encodings. The Unicode standard recommends using <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><span class="monospaced">U+004B</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">K</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">LATIN CAPITAL LETTER K</span> instead; that is, a normal capital <a href="/wiki/K" title="K">K</a>. "Three letterlike symbols have been given canonical equivalence to regular letters: <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><span class="monospaced">U+2126</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">Ω</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">OHM SIGN</span>, <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><span class="monospaced">U+212A</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">K</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">KELVIN SIGN</span>, and <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734" /><span class="monospaced">U+212B</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">Å</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase; font-feature-settings: 'onum'">ANGSTROM SIGN</span>. In all three instances, the regular letter should be used."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/29px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="29" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/44px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/59px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_temperature_scales" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparison of temperature scales">Comparison of temperature scales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Temperature_Scale_of_1990" title="International Temperature Scale of 1990">International Temperature Scale of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KT_(energy)" title="KT (energy)">kT (energy)</a> – product of the Boltzmann constant and temperature</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_temperature" title="Negative temperature">Negative temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_metrology_and_measurement" title="Outline of metrology and measurement">Outline of metrology and measurement</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-uncertainty-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-uncertainty_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The absolute uncertainty can be calculated as <span class="texhtml">273.16 × <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6993370000000000000♠"></span>3.7<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>−7</sup> K</span></span>, which can be rounded to <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="6996100000000000000♠"></span>0.10 mK</span> for all practical purposes.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-MEP_for_kelvin_2019-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MEP_for_kelvin_2019_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MEP_for_kelvin_2019_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MEP_for_kelvin_2019_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MEP_for_kelvin_2019_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBIPM2019" class="citation web cs1">BIPM (2019-05-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41489682/SI-App2-kelvin.pdf/cd36cb68-3f00-05fd-339e-452df0b6215e?version=1.5&t=1637237805352&download=false">"Mise en pratique for the definition of the kelvin in the SI"</a>. <i>BIPM.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BIPM.org&rft.atitle=Mise+en+pratique+for+the+definition+of+the+kelvin+in+the+SI&rft.date=2019-05-20&rft.au=BIPM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fdocuments%2F20126%2F41489682%2FSI-App2-kelvin.pdf%2Fcd36cb68-3f00-05fd-339e-452df0b6215e%3Fversion%3D1.5%26t%3D1637237805352%26download%3Dfalse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SI_Brochure_9-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SI_Brochure_9_2-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/SI-Brochure-9-EN.pdf/2d2b50bf-f2b4-9661-f402-5f9d66e4b507">"SI Brochure: The International System of Units (SI) – 9th edition (updated in 2022)"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NIST&rft.atitle=A+Turning+Point+for+Humanity%3A+Redefining+the+World%27s+Measurement+System&rft.date=2018-05-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fsi-redefinition%2Fturning-point-humanity-redefining-worlds-measurement-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nist_intro-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nist_intro_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nist_intro_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nist_intro_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nist_intro_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/si-redefinition/kelvin-introduction">"Kelvin: Introduction"</a>. <i>NIST</i>. 2018-05-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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NIST<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nist.gov&rft.atitle=Handbook+44+%E2%80%93+2022+%E2%80%93+Appendix+C+%E2%80%93+General+Tables+of+Units+of+Measurement&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fsystem%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2F2021%2F11%2F30%2F2022-HB44-Section-Appendix-C.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NIST_kelvin_history-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NIST_kelvin_history_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/si-redefinition/kelvin-history">"Kelvin: History"</a>. <i>NIST</i>. 2018-05-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NIST&rft.atitle=Kelvin%3A+History&rft.date=2018-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fsi-redefinition%2Fkelvin-history&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dalton_1801_1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dalton_1801_1_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDalton1801" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Dalton, John (1801). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3qdJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA595">"Essay II. On the force of steam or vapour from water and various other liquids, both in vacuum and in air"</a>. <i>Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester</i>. 5 part 2: <span class="nowrap">550–</span>574.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Literary+and+Philosophical+Society+of+Manchester&rft.atitle=Essay+II.+On+the+force+of+steam+or+vapour+from+water+and+various+other+liquids%2C+both+in+vacuum+and+in+air&rft.volume=5+part+2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E550-%3C%2Fspan%3E574&rft.date=1801&rft.aulast=Dalton&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3qdJAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA595&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dalton_1801_2-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dalton_1801_2_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDalton1801" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Dalton, John (1801). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3qdJAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA595">"Essay IV. On the expansion of elastic fluids by heat"</a>. <i>Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester</i>. 5 part 2: <span class="nowrap">595–</span>602.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Literary+and+Philosophical+Society+of+Manchester&rft.atitle=Essay+IV.+On+the+expansion+of+elastic+fluids+by+heat&rft.volume=5+part+2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E595-%3C%2Fspan%3E602&rft.date=1801&rft.aulast=Dalton&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3qdJAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA595&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gay-Lussac_1802-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gay-Lussac_1802_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGay-Lussac1802" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Gay-Lussac" title="Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac">Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis</a> (1802), "Recherches sur la dilatation des gaz et des vapeurs", <i>Annales de Chimie</i>, <b>XLIII</b>: 137</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annales+de+Chimie&rft.atitle=Recherches+sur+la+dilatation+des+gaz+et+des+vapeurs&rft.volume=XLIII&rft.pages=137&rft.date=1802&rft.aulast=Gay-Lussac&rft.aufirst=Joseph+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/gaygas.html">English translation (extract).</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882100–106-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882100–106_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, pp. 100–106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Magie-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Magie_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Magie_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMagie1935" class="citation book cs1">Magie, William Francis (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.449479/page/n251/mode/2up"><i>A Source Book In Physics</i></a>. p. 237.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+In+Physics&rft.pages=237&rft.date=1935&rft.aulast=Magie&rft.aufirst=William+Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.449479%2Fpage%2Fn251%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 104: "If we push the strict principle of graduation, stated above, sufficiently far, we should arrive at a point corresponding to the volume of air being reduced to nothing, which would be marked as −273° of the scale (−100/·366, if ·366 be the coefficient of expansion); and therefore −273° of the air-thermometer is a point which cannot be reached at any finite temperature, however low."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882104-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882104_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882187-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882187_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882193-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882193_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 193.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882212-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882212_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882186-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882186_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882192-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882192_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882214–215-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882214–215_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, pp. 214–215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882213-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882213_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 213.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882388-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882388_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 388.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 105: "The arbitrary points which coincide on the two scales are 0° and 100°"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSaslow2020" class="citation journal cs1">Saslow, WM (2020-01-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7516509">"A History of Thermodynamics: The Missing Manual"</a>. <i>Entropy</i>. <b>22</b> (1). eqn. (36). <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Entrp..22...77S">2020Entrp..22...77S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fe22010077">10.3390/e22010077</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7516509">7516509</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33285852">33285852</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Entropy&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Thermodynamics%3A+The+Missing+Manual.&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=eqn.+%2836%29&rft.date=2020-01-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7516509%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33285852&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fe22010077&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Entrp..22...77S&rft.aulast=Saslow&rft.aufirst=WM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7516509&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882190formula_(7)-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882190formula_(7)_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 190, formula (7).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106,_232–236-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882106,_232–236_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, pp. 106, 232–236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882234-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882234_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWang2020" class="citation book cs1">Wang, Lin-Shu (2020). <i>A treatise of heat and energy</i>. Cham: Springer. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783030057466" title="Special:BookSources/9783030057466"><bdi>9783030057466</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+treatise+of+heat+and+energy&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9783030057466&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Lin-Shu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882235-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882235_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 235.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomson1882236-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThomson1882236_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThomson1882">Thomson 1882</a>, p. 236.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomson1873" class="citation journal cs1">Thomson, James (1873). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044106377062&view=1up&seq=48">"A quantitative investigation of certain relations between the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid states of water-substance"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London</i>. <b>22</b>: 28. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1873RSPS...22...27T">1873RSPS...22...27T</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0370-1662">0370-1662</a>. <q>and consequently that the three curves would meet or cross each other in one point, which I have called the <i>triple point</i>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=A+quantitative+investigation+of+certain+relations+between+the+gaseous%2C+the+liquid%2C+and+the+solid+states+of+water-substance&rft.volume=22&rft.pages=28&rft.date=1873&rft.issn=0370-1662&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1873RSPS...22...27T&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dhvd.32044106377062%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSwinton1967" class="citation journal cs1">Swinton, F. L. (September 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed044p541">"The triplet point of water"</a>. <i>Journal of Chemical Education</i>. <b>44</b> (9): 541. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967JChEd..44..541S">1967JChEd..44..541S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed044p541">10.1021/ed044p541</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9584">0021-9584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=The+triplet+point+of+water&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=541&rft.date=1967-09&rft.issn=0021-9584&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed044p541&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1967JChEd..44..541S&rft.aulast=Swinton&rft.aufirst=F.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.acs.org%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1021%2Fed044p541&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CGPM_9_res_3_(1948)-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CGPM_9_res_3_(1948)_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cg/cgpm/9-1948/resolution-3">"Resolution 3 of the 9th CGPM (1948)"</a>. BIPM<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resolution+3+of+the+9th+CGPM+%281948%29&rft.pub=BIPM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fen%2Fcommittees%2Fcg%2Fcgpm%2F9-1948%2Fresolution-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CGPM_10_res_3_(1954)-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CGPM_10_res_3_(1954)_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cg/cgpm/10-1954/resolution-3">"Resolution 3 of the 10th CGPM (1954)"</a>. BIPM<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bipm.fr/en/CGPM/db/13/3/">the original</a> on 2007-04-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Resolutions+of+the+13th+CGPM&rft.atitle=Resolution+3%3A+SI+unit+of+thermodynamic+temperature+%28kelvin%29&rft.date=1967&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.fr%2Fen%2FCGPM%2Fdb%2F13%2F3%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Westphal_1952-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Westphal_1952_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWestphal1952" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Westphal" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Heinrich Westphal">Westphal, Wilhelm Heinrich</a> (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QaCFBwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA125">"Nox, Dunkelleuchtdichte, Skot"</a>. In Westphal, Wilhelm H. (ed.). <i>Physikalisches Wörterbuch</i> (in German) (1 ed.). Berlin / Göttingen / Heidelberg, Germany: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag_OHG" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag OHG">Springer-Verlag OHG</a>. pp. 125, 271, 389. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-662-12706-3">10.1007/978-3-662-12706-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-12707-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-662-12707-0"><bdi>978-3-662-12707-0</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-03-16</span></span>. pp. 271, 389: <q>Dunkelleuchtdichte. [...] Unter Zugrundelegung dieser Empfindlichkeitskurve hat man 1940 in Deutschland die Dunkelleuchtdichte mit der Einheit <a href="/wiki/Skot_(unit)" title="Skot (unit)">Skot</a> (sk) so festgesetzt, daß bei einem Licht der Farbtemperatur 2360 °<a href="/wiki/Kelvin_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kelvin (unit)">K</a> 1 sk = 10<sup>−3</sup> asb gilt. 1948 ist von der <a href="/wiki/Internationale_Beleuchtungskommission" class="mw-redirect" title="Internationale Beleuchtungskommission">Internationalen Beleuchtungskommission</a> (IBK) die Bezugstemperatur auf 2046 °K, die Erstarrungstemperatur des <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platins</a>, festgesetzt worden. Die Bezeichnung Skot wurde von der IBK nicht übernommen, dafür soll "skotopisches Stilb" gesagt werden. Als höchstzulässiger Grenzwert für die Dunkelleuchtdichte ist in Deutschland 10 Skot festgesetzt worden, um eine Verwendung der Dunkelleuchtdichte im Gebiet des gemischten <a href="/wiki/Photopic_vision" title="Photopic vision">Zapfen</a>- und <a href="/wiki/Scotopic_vision" title="Scotopic vision">Stäbchensehens</a> zu vermeiden, da in diesem Bereich die photometrischen Maßgrößen wegen der allmählich gleitenden Augenempfindlichkeitskurve ihren Sinn verlieren. [...] Skot, abgek[ürzt] sk, Einheit für die Dunkelleuchtdichte, welche für zahlenmäßige Angaben und zum Anschluß der Dunkelleuchtdichte an die normale Leuchtdichte 1940 von der <a href="/w/index.php?title=German_Lighting_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="German Lighting Society (page does not exist)">Deutschen Lichttechnischen Gesellschaft</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Lichttechnische_Gesellschaft" class="extiw" title="de:Deutsche Lichttechnische Gesellschaft">de</a>]</span> geschaffen wurde. Für diesen Anschluß wurde die Strahlung des <a href="/wiki/Black_body" title="Black body">schwarzen Körpers</a> bei <i>T</i> = 2360 °K, d.h. eine Strahlung der Farbtemperatur <i>T</i><sub>1</sub> = 2360 °K vereinbart. Eine Lichtquelle strahlt mit der Dunkelleuchtdichte 1 sk, wenn sie photometrisch gleich einer Strahlung der Farbtemperatur <i>T</i><sub>2</sub> = 2360 °K und der Leuchtdichte von 10<sup>−3</sup> asb (Apostilb) ist. Bei der Farbtemperatur <i>T</i><sub>1</sub> = 2360 °K gilt also die Relation: 1 sk = 10<sup>−3</sup> asb = 10<sup>−7</sup>/π sb.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nox%2C+Dunkelleuchtdichte%2C+Skot&rft.btitle=Physikalisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch&rft.place=Berlin+%2F+G%C3%B6ttingen+%2F+Heidelberg%2C+Germany&rft.pages=125%2C+271%2C+389&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag+OHG&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-662-12706-3&rft.isbn=978-3-662-12707-0&rft.aulast=Westphal&rft.aufirst=Wilhelm+Heinrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQaCFBwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CGPM_13_res_4_(1967)-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CGPM_13_res_4_(1967)_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cg/cgpm/13-1967/resolution-4">"Resolution 4 of the 13th CGPM (1967)"</a>. BIPM<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resolution+4+of+the+13th+CGPM+%281967%29&rft.pub=BIPM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fen%2Fcommittees%2Fcg%2Fcgpm%2F13-1967%2Fresolution-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-res413-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-res413_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070615125646/http://www.bipm.fr/en/CGPM/db/13/4/">"Resolution 4: Definition of the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)"</a>. <i>Resolutions of the 13th CGPM</i>. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 1967. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/en/CGPM/db/13/4/">the original</a> on 2007-06-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Resolutions+of+the+13th+CGPM&rft.atitle=Resolution+4%3A+Definition+of+the+SI+unit+of+thermodynamic+temperature+%28kelvin%29&rft.date=1967&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fen%2FCGPM%2Fdb%2F13%2F4%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CGPM_23_res_10_(2007)-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CGPM_23_res_10_(2007)_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cg/cgpm/23-2007/resolution-10">"Resolution 10 of the 23rd CGPM (2007)"</a>. BIPM<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resolution+10+of+the+23rd+CGPM+%282007%29&rft.pub=BIPM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fen%2Fcommittees%2Fcg%2Fcgpm%2F23-2007%2Fresolution-10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sib2115-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sib2115_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070926215600/http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-1/2-1-1/kelvin.html">"Unit of thermodynamic temperature (kelvin)"</a>. <i>SI Brochure, 8th edition</i>. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures. 1967. Section 2.1.1.5. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter2/2-1/2-1-1/kelvin.html">the original</a> on 2007-09-26<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SI+Brochure%2C+8th+edition&rft.atitle=Unit+of+thermodynamic+temperature+%28kelvin%29&rft.pages=Section+2.1.1.5&rft.date=1967&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.bipm.org%2Fen%2Fsi%2Fsi_brochure%2Fchapter2%2F2-1%2F2-1-1%2Fkelvin.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-draft-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-draft_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-draft_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFIan_Mills2010" class="citation web cs1">Ian Mills (2010-09-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110110104615/http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si_brochure_draft_ch2.pdf">"Draft Chapter 2 for SI Brochure, following redefinitions of the base units"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>BIPM</i>. CCU. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/si_brochure_draft_ch2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2011-01-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-01-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BIPM&rft.atitle=Draft+Chapter+2+for+SI+Brochure%2C+following+redefinitions+of+the+base+units&rft.date=2010-09-29&rft.au=Ian+Mills&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Futils%2Fen%2Fpdf%2Fsi_brochure_draft_ch2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120209175127/http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/Press_release_resolution_1_CGPM.pdf">"General Conference on Weights and Measures approves possible changes to the International System of Units, including redefinition of the kilogram"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Press release). Sèvres, France: <a href="/wiki/General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures" title="General Conference on Weights and Measures">General Conference on Weights and Measures</a>. 2011-10-23. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bipm.org/utils/en/pdf/Press_release_resolution_1_CGPM.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2012-02-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=General+Conference+on+Weights+and+Measures+approves+possible+changes+to+the+International+System+of+Units%2C+including+redefinition+of+the+kilogram.&rft.place=S%C3%A8vres%2C+France&rft.pub=General+Conference+on+Weights+and+Measures&rft.date=2011-10-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Futils%2Fen%2Fpdf%2FPress_release_resolution_1_CGPM.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWood2014" class="citation web cs1">Wood, B. (3–4 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151013174929/http://www.bipm.org/cc/TGFC/Allowed/Minutes/CODATA_Minutes_14-BIPM-public.pdf">"Report on the Meeting of the CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/BIPM" class="mw-redirect" title="BIPM">BIPM</a>. p. 7. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bipm.org/cc/TGFC/Allowed/Minutes/CODATA_Minutes_14-BIPM-public.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2015-10-13. <q>[BIPM director Martin] Milton responded to a question about what would happen if ... the CIPM or the CGPM voted not to move forward with the redefinition of the SI. He responded that he felt that by that time the decision to move forward should be seen as a foregone conclusion.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Report+on+the+Meeting+of+the+CODATA+Task+Group+on+Fundamental+Constants&rft.place=BIPM&rft.pages=7&rft.date=2014-11-03%2F2014-11-04&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fcc%2FTGFC%2FAllowed%2FMinutes%2FCODATA_Minutes_14-BIPM-public.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-physconst-k-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-physconst-k_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/cuu/Value?k">"2022 CODATA Value: Boltzmann constant"</a>. <i>The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty</i>. <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">NIST</a>. May 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+NIST+Reference+on+Constants%2C+Units%2C+and+Uncertainty&rft.atitle=2022+CODATA+Value%3A+Boltzmann+constant&rft.date=2024-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fcuu%2FValue%3Fk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CGPM_26_res_1_(2018)-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CGPM_26_res_1_(2018)_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CGPM_26_res_1_(2018)_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cg/cgpm/26-2018/resolution-1">"Resolution 1 of the 26th CGPM (2018)"</a>. BIPM<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resolution+1+of+the+26th+CGPM+%282018%29&rft.pub=BIPM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fen%2Fcommittees%2Fcg%2Fcgpm%2F26-2018%2Fresolution-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kalinin-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kalinin_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kalinin_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKalininKononogov2005" class="citation journal cs1">Kalinin, M.; Kononogov, S. (2005). "Boltzmann's Constant, the Energy Meaning of Temperature, and Thermodynamic Irreversibility". <i>Measurement Techniques</i>. <b>48</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">632–</span>636. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005MeasT..48..632K">2005MeasT..48..632K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11018-005-0195-9">10.1007/s11018-005-0195-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118726162">118726162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Measurement+Techniques&rft.atitle=Boltzmann%27s+Constant%2C+the+Energy+Meaning+of+Temperature%2C+and+Thermodynamic+Irreversibility&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E632-%3C%2Fspan%3E636&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A118726162%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11018-005-0195-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005MeasT..48..632K&rft.aulast=Kalinin&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Kononogov%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKittelKroemer1980" class="citation book cs1">Kittel, Charles; Kroemer, Herbert (1980). <i>Thermal physics</i> (2nd ed.). San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. p. 41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0716710889" title="Special:BookSources/0716710889"><bdi>0716710889</bdi></a>. <q>We prefer to use a more natural temperature scale ... the fundamental temperature has the units of energy.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Thermal+physics&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pages=41&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0716710889&rft.aulast=Kittel&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Kroemer%2C+Herbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMohrShirleyPhillipsTrott2022" class="citation journal cs1">Mohr, Peter J.; Shirley, Eric L.; Phillips, William D.; Trott, Michael (2022-10-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1681-7575%2Fac7bc2">"On the dimension of angles and their units"</a>. <i>Metrologia</i>. <b>59</b> (5): 053001. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.12392">2203.12392</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Metro..59e3001M">2022Metro..59e3001M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1681-7575%2Fac7bc2">10.1088/1681-7575/ac7bc2</a></span>. <q>The scientific community could have decided to have a unit system in which temperature is measured in joules, but we find it to be more convenient to measure temperature in kelvins.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metrologia&rft.atitle=On+the+dimension+of+angles+and+their+units&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=053001&rft.date=2022-10-01&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2203.12392&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1681-7575%2Fac7bc2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Metro..59e3001M&rft.aulast=Mohr&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Shirley%2C+Eric+L.&rft.au=Phillips%2C+William+D.&rft.au=Trott%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1681-7575%252Fac7bc2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-codata2017-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-codata2017_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-codata2017_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNewellCabiatiFischerFujii2018" class="citation journal cs1">Newell, D B; Cabiati, F; Fischer, J; Fujii, K; Karshenboim, S G; Margolis, H S; de Mirandés, E; Mohr, P J; Nez, F; Pachucki, K; Quinn, T J; Taylor, B N; Wang, M; Wood, B M; Zhang, Z; et al. (Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA) Task Group on Fundamental Constants) (2018-01-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1681-7575%2Faa950a">"The CODATA 2017 values of <i>h</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>k</i>, and <i>N</i><sub>A</sub> for the revision of the SI"</a>. <i>Metrologia</i>. <b>55</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">L13 –</span> <span class="nowrap">L16</span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Metro..55L..13N">2018Metro..55L..13N</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1681-7575%2Faa950a">10.1088/1681-7575/aa950a</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metrologia&rft.atitle=The+CODATA+2017+values+of+h%2C+e%2C+k%2C+and+N%3Csub%3EA%3C%2Fsub%3E+for+the+revision+of+the+SI&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3EL13+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3EL16%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2018-01-29&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1681-7575%2Faa950a&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Metro..55L..13N&rft.aulast=Newell&rft.aufirst=D+B&rft.au=Cabiati%2C+F&rft.au=Fischer%2C+J&rft.au=Fujii%2C+K&rft.au=Karshenboim%2C+S+G&rft.au=Margolis%2C+H+S&rft.au=de+Mirand%C3%A9s%2C+E&rft.au=Mohr%2C+P+J&rft.au=Nez%2C+F&rft.au=Pachucki%2C+K&rft.au=Quinn%2C+T+J&rft.au=Taylor%2C+B+N&rft.au=Wang%2C+M&rft.au=Wood%2C+B+M&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1088%252F1681-7575%252Faa950a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081123043044/http://www.bipm.org/wg/CCT/TG-SI/Allowed/Documents/Updating_the_definition_of_the_kelvin2.pdf">"Updating the definition of the kelvin"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/BIPM" class="mw-redirect" title="BIPM">BIPM</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bipm.org/wg/CCT/TG-SI/Allowed/Documents/Updating_the_definition_of_the_kelvin2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2008-11-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-02-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Updating+the+definition+of+the+kelvin&rft.pub=BIPM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fwg%2FCCT%2FTG-SI%2FAllowed%2FDocuments%2FUpdating_the_definition_of_the_kelvin2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFischerFellmuthGaiserZandt2018" class="citation journal cs1">Fischer, J; Fellmuth, B; Gaiser, C; Zandt, T; Pitre, L; Sparasci, F; Plimmer, M D; de Podesta, M; Underwood, R; Sutton, G; Machin, G; Gavioso, R M; Madonna Ripa, D; Steur, P P M; Qu, J; Feng, X J; Zhang, J; Moldover, M R; Benz, S P; White, D R; Gianfrani, L; Castrillo, A; Moretti, L; Darquié, B; Moufarej, E; Daussy, C; Briaudeau, S; Kozlova, O; Risegari, L; Segovia, J J; Martín, M C; del Campo, D (2018-04-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508687">"The Boltzmann project"</a>. <i>Metrologia</i>. <b>55</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">R1 –</span> <span class="nowrap">R20</span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Metro..55R...1F">2018Metro..55R...1F</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1681-7575%2Faaa790">10.1088/1681-7575/aaa790</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6508687">6508687</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31080297">31080297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Metrologia&rft.atitle=The+Boltzmann+project&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3ER1+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3ER20%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2018-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6508687%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31080297&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1681-7575%2Faaa790&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Metro..55R...1F&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Fellmuth%2C+B&rft.au=Gaiser%2C+C&rft.au=Zandt%2C+T&rft.au=Pitre%2C+L&rft.au=Sparasci%2C+F&rft.au=Plimmer%2C+M+D&rft.au=de+Podesta%2C+M&rft.au=Underwood%2C+R&rft.au=Sutton%2C+G&rft.au=Machin%2C+G&rft.au=Gavioso%2C+R+M&rft.au=Madonna+Ripa%2C+D&rft.au=Steur%2C+P+P+M&rft.au=Qu%2C+J&rft.au=Feng%2C+X+J&rft.au=Zhang%2C+J&rft.au=Moldover%2C+M+R&rft.au=Benz%2C+S+P&rft.au=White%2C+D+R&rft.au=Gianfrani%2C+L&rft.au=Castrillo%2C+A&rft.au=Moretti%2C+L&rft.au=Darqui%C3%A9%2C+B&rft.au=Moufarej%2C+E&rft.au=Daussy%2C+C&rft.au=Briaudeau%2C+S&rft.au=Kozlova%2C+O&rft.au=Risegari%2C+L&rft.au=Segovia%2C+J+J&rft.au=Mart%C3%ADn%2C+M+C&rft.au=del+Campo%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6508687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-plurals-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-plurals_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/pml/special-publication-811/nist-guide-si-chapter-9-rules-and-style-conventions-spelling-unit-names#97">"NIST Guide to the SI | Chapter 9: Rules and Style Conventions for Spelling Unit Names"</a>, <i>NIST SP 811</i>, 2016-01-28, <q>A derived unit is usually singular in English, for example, the value 3 m<sup>2</sup>·K/W is usually spelled out as 'three square meter kelvin per watt', and the value 3 C·m<sup>2</sup>/V is usually spelled out as 'three coulomb meter squared per volt'. However, a 'single' unit may be plural; for example, the value 5 kPa is spelled out as 'five kilopascals', although 'five kilopascal' is acceptable. If in such a single-unit case the number is less than one, the unit is always singular when spelled out; for example, 0.5 kPa is spelled out as 'five-tenths kilopascal'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NIST+SP+811&rft.atitle=NIST+Guide+to+the+SI+%7C+Chapter+9%3A+Rules+and+Style+Conventions+for+Spelling+Unit+Names&rft.date=2016-01-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpml%2Fspecial-publication-811%2Fnist-guide-si-chapter-9-rules-and-style-conventions-spelling-unit-names%2397&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/kelvin">"Definition of KELVIN"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+KELVIN&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fkelvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translation-council-support-group.web.cern.ch/sites/default/files/styles/large/CERN%20TM%20English%20language%20style%20guide.pdf"><i>CERN English Language Style Guide</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>. 2022. p. 64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=CERN+English+Language+Style+Guide&rft.pages=64&rft.pub=CERN&rft.date=2022&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftranslation-council-support-group.web.cern.ch%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fstyles%2Flarge%2FCERN%2520TM%2520English%2520language%2520style%2520guide.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/pml/owm/writing-si-metric-system-units">"Writing with SI (Metric System) Units"</a>. <i>NIST</i>. 2010-01-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NIST&rft.atitle=Writing+with+SI+%28Metric+System%29+Units&rft.date=2010-01-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpml%2Fowm%2Fwriting-si-metric-system-units&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBradySenese2008" class="citation book cs1">Brady, James E.; Senese, Fred (2008-01-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zS1EX-e7kPQC&pg=PA15"><i>Chemistry, Student Study Guide: The Study of Matter and Its Changes</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-18464-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-18464-6"><bdi>978-0-470-18464-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%2C+Student+Study+Guide%3A+The+Study+of+Matter+and+Its+Changes&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008-01-28&rft.isbn=978-0-470-18464-6&rft.aulast=Brady&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft.au=Senese%2C+Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzS1EX-e7kPQC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1">"22.2". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/ch22.pdf"><i>The Unicode Standard, Version 8.0</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Mountain View, CA, USA: The Unicode Consortium. August 2015. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-936213-10-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-936213-10-8"><bdi>978-1-936213-10-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161206230132/http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/ch22.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2016-12-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-09-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=22.2&rft.btitle=The+Unicode+Standard%2C+Version+8.0&rft.place=Mountain+View%2C+CA%2C+USA&rft.pub=The+Unicode+Consortium&rft.date=2015-08&rft.isbn=978-1-936213-10-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2Fversions%2FUnicode8.0.0%2Fch22.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBureau_International_des_Poids_et_Mesures2019" class="citation web cs1">Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/SI-Brochure-9-EN.pdf">"The International System of Units (SI) Brochure"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 9th Edition. International Committee for Weights and Measures<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-04-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+International+System+of+Units+%28SI%29+Brochure&rft.series=9th+Edition&rft.pub=International+Committee+for+Weights+and+Measures&rft.date=2019&rft.au=Bureau+International+des+Poids+et+Mesures&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bipm.org%2Fdocuments%2F20126%2F41483022%2FSI-Brochure-9-EN.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomson1882" class="citation book cs1">Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin) (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mathematicalphys01kelv"><i>Mathematical and physical papers: Volume I</i></a>. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+and+physical+papers%3A+Volume+I&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=William+%28Lord+Kelvin%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmathematicalphys01kelv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/120px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/kelvin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/kelvin">kelvin</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomson1848" class="citation web cs1">Thomson, William (October 1848). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080201095927/http://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_an_absolute_thermometric_scale.html">"On an Absolute Thermometric Scale founded on Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat, and calculated from Regnault's Observations"</a>. <i>zapatopi.net</i>. Philosophical Magazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_an_absolute_thermometric_scale.html">the original</a> on 2008-02-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-02-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=zapatopi.net&rft.atitle=On+an+Absolute+Thermometric+Scale+founded+on+Carnot%27s+Theory+of+the+Motive+Power+of+Heat%2C+and+calculated+from+Regnault%27s+Observations&rft.date=1848-10&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzapatopi.net%2Fkelvin%2Fpapers%2Fon_an_absolute_thermometric_scale.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFThomson1851" class="citation web cs1">Thomson, William (March 1851). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zapatopi.net/kelvin/papers/on_the_dynamical_theory_of_heat.html">"On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule's equivalent of a Thermal Unit, and M. Regnault's Observations on Steam"</a>. <i>zapatopi.net</i>. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=zapatopi.net&rft.atitle=On+the+Dynamical+Theory+of+Heat%2C+with+numerical+results+deduced+from+Mr+Joule%27s+equivalent+of+a+Thermal+Unit%2C+and+M.+Regnault%27s+Observations+on+Steam&rft.date=1851-03&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzapatopi.net%2Fkelvin%2Fpapers%2Fon_the_dynamical_theory_of_heat.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelvin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/SI_derived_unit" title="SI derived unit">Derived units <br />with special names</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">degree Celsius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farad" title="Farad">farad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_(unit)" title="Henry (unit)">henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katal" title="Katal">katal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumen_(unit)" title="Lumen (unit)">lumen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lux" title="Lux">lux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">ohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">pascal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radian" title="Radian">radian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siemens_(unit)" title="Siemens (unit)">siemens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steradian" title="Steradian">steradian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">tesla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weber_(unit)" title="Weber (unit)">weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-SI_units_mentioned_in_the_SI" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-SI units mentioned in the SI">Other accepted units</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">astronomical unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">dalton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day" title="Day">day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decibel" title="Decibel">decibel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">degree of arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronvolt" title="Electronvolt">electronvolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hectare" title="Hectare">hectare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hour" title="Hour">hour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litre" title="Litre">litre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minute" title="Minute">minute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minute_and_second_of_arc" title="Minute and second of arc">minute and second of arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neper" title="Neper">neper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_units" title="Conversion of units">Conversion of units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metric_prefix" title="Metric prefix">Metric prefixes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_definitions_of_the_SI_base_units" title="Historical definitions of the SI base units">Historical definitions of the SI base units</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_revision_of_the_SI" title="2019 revision of the SI">2019 revision of the SI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_of_units_of_measurement" title="System of units of measurement">System of units of measurement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:SI_units" title="Category:SI units">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="CGS_units120" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:CGS_units" title="Template:CGS units"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:CGS_units" title="Template talk:CGS units"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:CGS_units" title="Special:EditPage/Template:CGS units"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="CGS_units120" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Centimetre%E2%80%93gram%E2%80%93second_system_of_units" title="Centimetre–gram–second system of units">CGS units</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Base units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centimetre" title="Centimetre">centimetre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gram" title="Gram">gram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">second</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Derived non EM units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barye" title="Barye">barye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dyne" title="Dyne">dyne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erg" title="Erg">erg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gal_(unit)" title="Gal (unit)">gal</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">kelvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poise_(unit)" title="Poise (unit)">poise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayser_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayser (unit)">kayser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phot" title="Phot">phot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stilb_(unit)" title="Stilb (unit)">stilb</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Derived EMU units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abampere" title="Abampere">abampere</a> (<a href="/wiki/Biot_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biot (unit)">biot</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abcoulomb" title="Abcoulomb">abcoulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhenry" title="Abhenry">abhenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abmho" title="Abmho">abmho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abohm" title="Abohm">abohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abvolt" title="Abvolt">abvolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauss_(unit)" title="Gauss (unit)">gauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(unit)" title="Gilbert (unit)">gilbert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_(unit)" title="Maxwell (unit)">maxwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oersted" title="Oersted">oersted</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Derived ESU units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statampere" title="Statampere">statampere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statcoulomb" title="Statcoulomb">statcoulomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statmho" title="Statmho">statmho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statohm" title="Statohm">statohm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statvolt" title="Statvolt">statvolt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&oldid=1280111448">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kelvin&oldid=1280111448</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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