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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" 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contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ralph M. Steinman</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 54 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-54" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">54 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="رالف ستاينمان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رالف ستاينمان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralf_Staynman" title="Ralf Staynman – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ralf Staynman" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D9%86" title="رالف استاینمن – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رالف استاینمن" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AB_%E0%A6%8F%E0%A6%AE._%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="রাল্ফ এম. স্টেইনম্যান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রাল্ফ এম. স্টেইনম্যান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84_%D0%A8%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BD" title="Ральф Штэйнмэн – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ральф Штэйнмэн" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Marvin_Steinman" title="Ralph Marvin Steinman – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ralph Marvin Steinman" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Marvin_Steinman" title="Ralph Marvin Steinman – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ralph Marvin Steinman" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D9%86" title="رالف استاینمن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رالف استاینمن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9E%A0%ED%94%84_%EC%8A%A4%ED%83%80%EC%9D%B8%EB%A8%BC" title="랠프 스타인먼 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="랠프 스타인먼" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%AC%D6%86_%D5%8D%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B6%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Ռալֆ Սթայնման – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռալֆ Սթայնման" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Marvin_Steinman" title="Ralph Marvin Steinman – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ralph Marvin Steinman" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A3_%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%9E%D7%9F" title="ראלף סטיינמן – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ראלף סטיינמן" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ральф Стайнман – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ральф Стайнман" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radulphus_Steinman" title="Radulphus Steinman – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Radulphus Steinman" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralfs_Steinmans" title="Ralfs Steinmans – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ralfs Steinmans" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BE%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%8E%E0%B4%82._%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B5%BB%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BB" title="റാൾഫ് എം. സ്റ്റെയിൻമാൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റാൾഫ് എം. സ്റ്റെയിൻമാൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86" title="رالف شتاينمان – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رالف شتاينمان" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D9%86" title="رالف استاینمن – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="رالف استاینمن" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A9%E3%83%AB%E3%83%95%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B9%E3%82%BF%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%9E%E3%83%B3" title="ラルフ・スタインマン – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ラルフ・スタインマン" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%B3%D9%B9%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86" title="رالف سٹائینمین – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="رالف سٹائینمین" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Marvin_Steinman" title="Ralph Marvin Steinman – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ralph Marvin Steinman" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD,_%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84" title="Стайнман, Ральф – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Стайнман, Ральф" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D8%A7%DA%B5%D9%81_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%A4%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%DB%95%D9%86" title="ڕاڵف مارڤین ستاینمەن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕاڵف مارڤین ستاینمەن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%98%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ралф Стајнман – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ралф Стајнман" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Steinman" title="Ralph Steinman – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ralph Steinman" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%83%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D" title="ரால்ஃப் ஸ்டைன்மன் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ரால்ஃப் ஸ்டைன்மன்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ральф Марвін Стейнман – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ральф Марвін Стейнман" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B3%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%86_%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86" title="رالف ایم سٹین مین – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="رالف ایم سٹین مین" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Ralph M. Steinman – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ralph M. Steinman" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E7%88%BE%E5%A4%AB%E5%8F%B2%E5%9D%A6%E6%9B%BC" title="拉爾夫史坦曼 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="拉爾夫史坦曼" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E5%B0%94%E5%A4%AB%C2%B7%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E6%9B%BC" title="拉尔夫·斯坦曼 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="拉尔夫·斯坦曼" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Canadian immunologist and cell biologist</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Ralph M. Steinman</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:RMSt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/RMSt.jpg/220px-RMSt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/RMSt.jpg/330px-RMSt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/RMSt.jpg/440px-RMSt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="614" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">Ralph Marvin Steinman</div><br /><span style="display:none">(<span class="bday">1943-01-14</span>)</span>January 14, 1943<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>, Quebec, Canada</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">September 30, 2011<span style="display:none">(2011-09-30)</span> (aged 68)<sup id="cite_ref-rockefeller_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rockefeller-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>, New York, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a> <small>(B.S., 1963)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> <small>(M.D., 1968)</small></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data">Discovery of <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">dendritic cells</a> and their role in adaptive immunity</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data">Claudia Hoeffel (3 children)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Koch Prize">Robert Koch Prize</a> <small>(1999)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Gairdner_Foundation_International_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Gairdner Foundation International Award">Gairdner Foundation International Award</a> <small>(2003)</small><br /><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> <small>(2011)</small></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cell_Biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell Biology">Cell Biology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_University" title="Rockefeller University">Rockefeller University</a> in New York City</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Hay_(scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Hay (scientist)">Elizabeth Hay</a> (Harvard)<br />James G. Hirsch and <a href="/wiki/Zanvil_A._Cohn" title="Zanvil A. Cohn">Zanvil A. Cohn</a> (Rockefeller University)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ralph Marvin Steinman</b> (January 14, 1943 – September 30, 2011)<sup id="cite_ref-rockefeller_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rockefeller-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a <a href="/wiki/Canadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian">Canadian</a> physician and medical researcher at <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_University" title="Rockefeller University">Rockefeller University</a>, who in 1973 discovered and named <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendritic cells">dendritic cells</a> while working as a postdoctoral fellow in the laboratory of <a href="/wiki/Zanvil_A._Cohn" title="Zanvil A. Cohn">Zanvil A. Cohn</a>, also at Rockefeller University.<sup id="cite_ref-Steinman_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Steinman-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Steinman was one of the recipients of the 2011 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralph_M._Steinman&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ralph Steinman was born into an <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi Jewish">Ashkenazi Jewish</a> family in <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one of four children of Irving Steinman (d. 1995), a <a href="/wiki/Haberdasher" title="Haberdasher">haberdasher</a>, and Nettie Steinman (born Takefman, 1917–2016).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The family soon moved to <a href="/wiki/Sherbrooke" title="Sherbrooke">Sherbrooke</a>, where the father opened and ran a small clothing store, "Mozart's." After graduating from Sherbrooke High School, Steinman moved back to Montreal, where he stayed with his maternal grandparents, Nathan and Eva Takefman.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received a bachelor of science degree from <a href="/wiki/McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a> and received his M.D. (<i>magna cum laude</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-rockefeller_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rockefeller-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1968 from <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Medical_School" title="Harvard Medical School">Harvard Medical School</a>. He completed his internship and residency at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Hospital" title="Massachusetts General Hospital">Massachusetts General Hospital</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards">Awards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralph_M._Steinman&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Awards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On October 3, 2011, the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Committee_for_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine</a> announced that he had received one half of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a>, for "his discovery of the dendritic cell and its role in adaptive immunity". The other half went to <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a>, for "their discoveries concerning the activation of innate immunity".<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the committee was not aware that he had died three days earlier, on September 30, from <a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_cancer" title="Pancreatic cancer">pancreatic cancer</a>. This created a complication, since the statutes of the Nobel Foundation stipulate that the prize is not to be awarded posthumously.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After deliberation, the committee decided that as the decision to award the prize "was made in good faith", it would remain unchanged, and the prize would be awarded.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-guardian_nobel_prize_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian_nobel_prize-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steinman's daughter said that he had joked the previous week with his family about staying alive until the prize announcement. Steinman said: "I know I have got to hold out for that. They don't give it to you if you have passed away. I got to hold out for that."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steinman had received numerous other awards and recognitions for his lifelong work on dendritic cells, such as the <a href="/wiki/Albert_Lasker_Award_For_Basic_Medical_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert Lasker Award For Basic Medical Research">Albert Lasker Award For Basic Medical Research</a> (2007), the <a href="/wiki/Gairdner_Foundation_International_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Gairdner Foundation International Award">Gairdner Foundation International Award</a> (2003), and the Cancer Research Institute <a href="/wiki/William_B._Coley_Award" title="William B. Coley Award">William B. Coley Award</a> (1998). In addition, he was made a member of <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">Institute of Medicine</a> (U.S.; elected 2002) and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> (U.S.; elected 2001). </p><p>In 2016, the city of Sherbrooke, Quebec, where Steinman lived during his childhood, named a new street rue Ralph Steinman, in honor of the only Sherbrooke native ever to win a Nobel Prize.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="List_of_awards">List of awards</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralph_M._Steinman&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: List of awards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>1998 – <a href="/wiki/William_B._Coley_Award" title="William B. Coley Award">William B. Coley Award</a></li> <li>1999 – <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Koch Prize">Robert Koch Prize</a></li> <li>2003 – <a href="/wiki/Gairdner_Foundation_International_Award" class="mw-redirect" title="Gairdner Foundation International Award">Gairdner Foundation International Award</a></li> <li>2006 – <a href="/wiki/Debrecen_Award_for_Molecular_Medicine" title="Debrecen Award for Molecular Medicine">Debrecen Award for Molecular Medicine</a><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>2007 – <a href="/wiki/Albert_Lasker_Award_for_Basic_Medical_Research" title="Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research">Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research</a></li> <li>2009 – <a href="/wiki/Albany_Medical_Center_Prize" title="Albany Medical Center Prize">Albany Medical Center Prize</a> (Shared with <a href="/wiki/Charles_A._Dinarello" title="Charles A. Dinarello">Charles A. Dinarello</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090424/ap_on_he_me/us_med_medical_prize;_ylt=AnjJw3Si2iPB1unZ4X7Xxa3VJRIF">[1]</a>)</li> <li>2010 – <a href="/wiki/Heineken_Prizes" title="Heineken Prizes">Heineken Prizes</a></li> <li>2011 – <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> (shared with <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-Nobel_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nobel-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralph_M._Steinman&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Ralph_M._Steinman" title="Special:EditPage/Ralph M. Steinman">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a> tries to understand resistance to infection. Infections are first resisted by <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate immunity</a>, followed by <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immunity</a>, which has memory and can prevent reinfection. Two questions that immunologists ask: 1) By what mechanisms do innate and adaptive resistance come about? 2) How do these mechanisms contribute to other fields of medicine such as cancer, allergy, autoimmunity, etc.? In the 20th century, two theories arose: 1) Macrophages contribute to innate resistance through phagocytosis and intracellular killing 2) Antibodies mediate adaptive resistance by neutralizing microbial toxins. </p><p>Steinman discovered that dendritic cells link innate to adaptive immunity, including adaptive T cell-mediated immunity. He studied the initiation of antibody responses in tissue culture in the laboratory. Steinman found that antigens, lymphocytes, and "accessory cells" together create immune responses. Accessory cells contain a new cell type with probing cell process or "dendrites". These cells proved to be the missing link between innate and adaptive immunity. </p><p>Several features were used to identify and purify dendritic cells from mouse spleen. Because dendritic cells were discovered among "adherent" accessory cells (i.e. those that attach to tissue culture surfaces), they had to be distinguished from macrophages, whose hallmarks were persistent phagocytosis and adherence to tissue culture surfaces. However, Steinman found that dendritic cells had a different morphology and expressed different molecules from macrophages. For example, they did not express FcR- receptors, but did express major components of the major histocompatibility complex II and did not adhere to surfaces or exploit phagocytosis. Macrophages, though, showed the opposite characteristics. The study was carried out in collaboration with <a href="/wiki/Zanvil_A._Cohn" title="Zanvil A. Cohn">Zanvil A. Cohn</a>, who studied resistance to infectious diseases, especially the biology of macrophages. </p><p>Some general features of T cell responses that are initiated by dendritic cells (DCs): </p> <ul><li>Adaptive immunity develops in two stages: DCs present antigens and initiate the afferent limb, while the other antigen-presenting cells (APCs) mediate the effectors to eliminate the antigen or infection.</li> <li>In tissue cultures, immunity develops in clusters of DCs and lymphocytes. The onset of adaptive immunity could actually be observed <i>in vitro</i>.</li> <li>DCs were therefore considered "nature's adjuvants" for T cell immunity, meaning they helped induce T cells.</li> <li>DCs can produce protective substances such as cytokines, interferons, chemokines, and antimicrobial peptides.</li> <li>DCs can mobilize innate lymphocytes such as natural killer cells (which in turn produce cytokines or kill target cells upon recognition). However, unlike macrophages, DCs do not phagocytose or kill microbes.</li></ul> <p>DCs capture, process and present antigens: </p> <ul><li>Some receptors such as FcR death receptor can activate or inhibit DC function.</li> <li>Antigen processing and presentation of proteins and lipids seems efficient and can include cross presentation on MHC I and CD1.</li> <li>Uptake and processing are regulated by environmental stimuli.</li> <li><i> In vivo</i>, dendritic cells process antigens to form peptide-MHC complexes in the steady state, especially in lymphoid organs.</li> <li>Most DCs <i>in vivo</i> in the steady state are immature, able to take up and present antigens, but areunable to adaptive T cell immunity.</li> <li>Environmental stimuli, e.g., microbial products, alter or mature DCs and/or act together with DCs to control the formation of different types of helper, cytotoxic, and regulatory types of T cells.</li> <li>Maturing DCs also carry out innate responses, particularly the formation of cytokines and chemokines.</li> <li>Maturation links are innate to adaptive immunity; and control the quality of the response that develops in DCs and lymphocytes that recognize presented antigens.</li> <li>The term "subset" refers to distinct DCs with different receptors for antigen uptake and maturation, and distinct functions in innate and adaptive immunity. They reside in the peripheral organs and induce different forms of antigen-specific peripheral tolerance. Antigens from the periphery are captured by DCs in lymphoid tissues, even in steady (not matured) state. In steady state, DCs induce tolerance so that DC maturation can lead to immunity to microbial antigen, but maturing DCs capture microbial, as well as self dying cells, thus resulting in autoreactivity and chronic inflammation.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralph_M._Steinman&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Jewish Nobel laureates">List of Jewish Nobel laureates</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralph_M._Steinman&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2011/steinman/auto-biography/">"Ralph M. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 10,</span> 2011</span>. <q>The Nobel foundation concluded that the award should stand, saying: "The Nobel prize to Ralph Steinman was made in good faith, based on the assumption that the Nobel laureate was alive."<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Nobel+prize+to+be+awarded+to+dead+scientist&rft.date=2011-10-03&rft.au=Sample%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2011%2Foct%2F03%2Fnobel-prize-awarded-dead-scientist&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARalph+M.+Steinman" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrange2011" class="citation news cs1">Orange, Richard (October 3, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/8804713/Nobel-jury-left-red-faced-by-death-of-laureate.html">"Nobel jury left red faced by death of laureate"</a>. <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>. 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July 6, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 8,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sherbrooke+Record&rft.atitle=Family+calls+new+street+in+honour+of+Ralph+Steinman+%22a+slap+in+the+face%22&rft.date=2016-07-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sherbrookerecord.com%2Ffamily-calls-new-street-in-honour-of-ralph-steinman-a-slap-in-the-face%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARalph+M.+Steinman" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deoec.hu/info.aspx?sp=82&web_id=">"Debrecen Award for Molecular Medicine"</a>. University of Debrecen<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 7,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Debrecen+Award+for+Molecular+Medicine&rft.pub=University+of+Debrecen&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeoec.hu%2Finfo.aspx%3Fsp%3D82%26web_id%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARalph+M.+Steinman" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ralph_M._Steinman&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Ralph_M._Steinman" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Ralph M. Steinman">Ralph M. Steinman</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/40px-Scholia_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/60px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/80px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="104" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia" class="extiw" title="d:Wikidata:Scholia">Scholia</a> has a profile for <a href="https://iw.toolforge.org/scholia/Q105494" class="extiw" title="toolforge:scholia/Q105494"><b>Ralph Steinman <small>(Q105494)</small></b></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-15156342">BBC - "Nobel winner Ralph Steinman's quest to cure cancer - including his own"</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/laureate/863">Ralph M. Steinman</a> on Nobelprize.org <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105494#P8024" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/steinman-ralph.pdf">Carol L. Moberg, "Ralph M. Steinman", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2018)</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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style="width:1%">Biochemistry and Biophysics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff" title="Erwin Chargaff">Chargaff</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Brachet" title="Jean Brachet">Brachet</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britton_Chance" title="Britton Chance">Chance</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_de_Duve" title="Christian de Duve">De Duve</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Laurens_van_Deenen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Laurens van Deenen (page does not exist)">Van Deenen</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Klug</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Weissmann" title="Charles Weissmann">Weissmann</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9la_Julesz" title="Béla Julesz">Julesz</a> & <a href="/wiki/Werner_E._Reichardt" title="Werner E. Reichardt">Reichardt</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cech" title="Thomas Cech">Cech</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Leder" title="Philip Leder">Leder</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piet_Borst" title="Piet Borst">Borst</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Berridge" title="Michael Berridge">Berridge</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Nurse</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tony_Pawson_(biochemist)" title="Tony Pawson (biochemist)">Pawson</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">Rothman</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Y._Tsien" title="Roger Y. Tsien">Tsien</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fire" title="Andrew Fire">Fire</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alec_Jeffreys" title="Alec Jeffreys">Jeffreys</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Szostak</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz-Ulrich_Hartl" title="Franz-Ulrich Hartl">Hartl</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titia_de_Lange" title="Titia de Lange">De Lange</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Dobson" title="Chris Dobson">Dobson</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jennifer_Doudna" title="Jennifer Doudna">Doudna</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiaowei_Zhuang" title="Xiaowei Zhuang">Zhuang</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_William_Stillman" title="Bruce William Stillman">Stillman</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medicine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Lauterbur</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_van_Rood" title="Jon van Rood">Van Rood</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvador_Moncada" title="Salvador Moncada">Moncada</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Montagnier</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_de_Wied" title="David de Wied">De Wied</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Marshall</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Kandel</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_J._Selkoe" title="Dennis J. Selkoe">Selkoe</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Blackburn</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary-Claire_King" title="Mary-Claire King">King</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Peto" title="Richard Peto">Peto</a> (2008)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Steinman</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Clevers" title="Hans Clevers">Clevers</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kari_Alitalo" title="Kari Alitalo">Alitalo</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jackson_(scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Jackson (scientist)">Jackson</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Carmeliet" title="Peter Carmeliet">Carmeliet</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Deisseroth" title="Karl Deisseroth">Deisseroth</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Environmental Sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Lovelock" title="James Lovelock">Lovelock</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marko_Branica" title="Marko Branica">Branica</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/BirdLife_International" title="BirdLife International">BirdLife International</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Daly" title="Herman Daly">Daly</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_R._Ehrlich" title="Paul R. Ehrlich">Ehrlich</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Poul_Harremo%C3%ABs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poul Harremoës (page does not exist)">Harremoës</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Thompson" title="Lonnie Thompson">Thompson</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_A._Levin" title="Simon A. Levin">Levin</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Pimm" title="Stuart Pimm">Pimm</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bert_Brunekreef&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bert Brunekreef (page does not exist)">Brunekreef</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._David_Tilman" title="G. David Tilman">Tilman</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_F._Laurance" title="William F. Laurance">Laurance</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jaap_Sinninghe_Damst%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jaap Sinninghe Damsté (page does not exist)">Sinninghe Damsté</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgina_Mace" title="Georgina Mace">Mace</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_D._N._Hebert" title="Paul D. N. Hebert">Hebert</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corinne_Le_Qu%C3%A9r%C3%A9" title="Corinne Le Quéré">Le Quéré</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gay" title="Peter Gay">Gay</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herman_Van_der_Wee" title="Herman Van der Wee">Van der Wee</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Brown_(historian)" title="Peter Brown (historian)">Brown</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heiko_Oberman" title="Heiko Oberman">Oberman</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mona_Ozouf" title="Mona Ozouf">Ozouf</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_de_Vries_(historian)" title="Jan de Vries (historian)">De Vries</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinz_Schilling" title="Heinz Schilling">Schilling</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Le_Goff" title="Jacques Le Goff">Le Goff</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joel_Mokyr" title="Joel Mokyr">Mokyr</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Israel" title="Jonathan Israel">Israel</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosamond_McKitterick" title="Rosamond McKitterick">McKitterick</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Parker_(historian)" title="Geoffrey Parker (historian)">Parker</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aleida_Assmann" title="Aleida Assmann">Assmann</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Herrin" title="Judith Herrin">Herrin</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._R._McNeill" title="J. R. McNeill">McNeill</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Daston" title="Lorraine Daston">Daston</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cognitive Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Anderson_(psychologist)" title="John Robert Anderson (psychologist)">Anderson</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanislas_Dehaene" title="Stanislas Dehaene">Dehaene</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tomasello" title="Michael Tomasello">Tomasello</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Duncan_(neuroscientist)" title="John Duncan (neuroscientist)">Duncan</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_McClelland_(psychologist)" title="James McClelland (psychologist)">McClelland</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Spelke" title="Elizabeth Spelke">Spelke</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Kanwisher" title="Nancy Kanwisher">Kanwisher</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Zatorre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Zatorre (page does not exist)">Zatorre</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toon_Verhoef" title="Toon Verhoef">Verhoef</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrie_Bot" title="Marrie Bot">Bot</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carel_Visser" title="Carel Visser">C. Visser</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthijs_R%C3%B6ling" title="Matthijs Röling">Röling</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karel_Martens" title="Karel Martens">Martens</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_van_de_Pavert" title="Jan van de Pavert">Van de Pavert</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guido_Geelen" title="Guido Geelen">Geelen</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aernout_Mik" title="Aernout Mik">Mik</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daan_van_Golden" title="Daan van Golden">Van Golden</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_Koelewijn" title="Job Koelewijn">Koelewijn</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Visser_(artist)" title="Barbara Visser (artist)">B. Visser</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Manders" title="Mark Manders">Manders</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Struycken" title="Peter Struycken">Struycken</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wendelien_van_Oldenborgh" title="Wendelien van Oldenborgh">Van Oldenborgh</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yvonne_Dr%C3%B6ge_Wendel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yvonne Dröge Wendel (page does not exist)">Dröge Wendel</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_van_Lieshout" title="Erik van Lieshout">Van Lieshout</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ansuya_Blom" title="Ansuya Blom">Blom</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239334494">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Template talk:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Laureates_of_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine">Laureates</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1901–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1901: <a href="/wiki/Emil_von_Behring" title="Emil von Behring">Emil Behring</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1902: <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1903: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Ryberg_Finsen" title="Niels Ryberg Finsen">Niels Finsen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1904: <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1905: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1906: <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1907: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Louis_Alphonse_Laveran" title="Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran">Alphonse Laveran</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1908: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff" title="Élie Metchnikoff">Élie Metchnikoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1909: <a href="/wiki/Emil_Theodor_Kocher" title="Emil Theodor Kocher">Emil Kocher</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1910: <a href="/wiki/Albrecht_Kossel" title="Albrecht Kossel">Albrecht Kossel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1911: <a href="/wiki/Allvar_Gullstrand" title="Allvar Gullstrand">Allvar Gullstrand</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1912: <a href="/wiki/Alexis_Carrel" title="Alexis Carrel">Alexis Carrel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1913: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Richet" title="Charles Richet">Charles Richet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1914: <a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3bert_B%C3%A1r%C3%A1ny" class="mw-redirect" title="Róbert Bárány">Róbert Bárány</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1915</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1916</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1917</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1918</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1919: <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bordet" title="Jules Bordet">Jules Bordet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1920: <a href="/wiki/August_Krogh" title="August Krogh">August Krogh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1921</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1922: <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Fritz_Meyerhof" title="Otto Fritz Meyerhof">Otto Meyerhof</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1923: <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Banting" title="Frederick Banting">Frederick Banting</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Macleod_(physiologist)" title="John Macleod (physiologist)">John Macleod</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1924: <a href="/wiki/Willem_Einthoven" title="Willem Einthoven">Willem Einthoven</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1925</span></span></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></span></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1926: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Fibiger" title="Johannes Fibiger">Johannes Fibiger</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1927: <a href="/wiki/Julius_Wagner-Jauregg" title="Julius Wagner-Jauregg">Julius Wagner-Jauregg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1928: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Nicolle" title="Charles Nicolle">Charles Nicolle</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1929: <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Eijkman" title="Christiaan Eijkman">Christiaan Eijkman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1930: <a href="/wiki/Karl_Landsteiner" title="Karl Landsteiner">Karl Landsteiner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1931: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg">Otto Warburg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1932: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Edgar Adrian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1933: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Morgan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1934: <a href="/wiki/George_Whipple" title="George Whipple">George Whipple</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Minot" title="George Minot">George Minot</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_P._Murphy" title="William P. Murphy">William Murphy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1935: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Spemann" title="Hans Spemann">Hans Spemann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1936: <a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Dale</a> / <a href="/wiki/Otto_Loewi" title="Otto Loewi">Otto Loewi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1937: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Szent-Gy%C3%B6rgyi" title="Albert Szent-Györgyi">Albert Szent-Györgyi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1938: <a href="/wiki/Corneille_Heymans" title="Corneille Heymans">Corneille Heymans</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1939: <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1940</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1941</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkgrey">1942</span></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1943: <a href="/wiki/Henrik_Dam" title="Henrik Dam">Henrik Dam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Adelbert_Doisy" title="Edward Adelbert Doisy">Edward Doisy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1944: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Herbert Gasser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1945: <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1946: <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Joseph_Muller" title="Hermann Joseph Muller">Hermann Muller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1947: <a href="/wiki/Carl_Ferdinand_Cori" title="Carl Ferdinand Cori">Carl Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerty_Cori" title="Gerty Cori">Gerty Cori</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_Houssay" title="Bernardo Houssay">Bernardo Houssay</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1948: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hermann_M%C3%BCller" title="Paul Hermann Müller">Paul Müller</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1949: <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rudolf_Hess" title="Walter Rudolf Hess">Walter Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Egas_Moniz" title="António Egas Moniz">António Egas Moniz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1950: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Calvin_Kendall" title="Edward Calvin Kendall">Edward Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tadeusz_Reichstein" title="Tadeusz Reichstein">Tadeusz Reichstein</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philip_Showalter_Hench" title="Philip Showalter Hench">Philip Hench</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1951: <a href="/wiki/Max_Theiler" title="Max Theiler">Max Theiler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1952: <a href="/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1953: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Krebs_(biochemist)" title="Hans Krebs (biochemist)">Hans Krebs</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Albert_Lipmann" title="Fritz Albert Lipmann">Fritz Lipmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1954: <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Huckle_Weller" title="Thomas Huckle Weller">Thomas Weller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Chapman_Robbins" title="Frederick Chapman Robbins">Frederick Robbins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1955: <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Theorell" title="Hugo Theorell">Hugo Theorell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1956: <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Cournand" title="André Frédéric Cournand">André Cournand</a> / <a href="/wiki/Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Werner Forssmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1957: <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Daniel Bovet</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1958: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Tatum" title="Edward Tatum">Edward Tatum</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1959: <a href="/wiki/Severo_Ochoa" title="Severo Ochoa">Severo Ochoa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Kornberg" title="Arthur Kornberg">Arthur Kornberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1960: <a href="/wiki/Macfarlane_Burnet" title="Macfarlane Burnet">Frank Burnet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Medawar" title="Peter Medawar">Peter Medawar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1961: <a href="/wiki/Georg_von_B%C3%A9k%C3%A9sy" title="Georg von Békésy">Georg von Békésy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1962: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1963: <a href="/wiki/John_Eccles_(neurophysiologist)" title="John Eccles (neurophysiologist)">John Eccles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1964: <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Emil_Bloch" title="Konrad Emil Bloch">Konrad Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Feodor_Lynen" title="Feodor Lynen">Feodor Lynen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1965: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Michel_Lwoff" title="André Michel Lwoff">André Lwoff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1966: <a href="/wiki/Francis_Peyton_Rous" title="Francis Peyton Rous">Francis Rous</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Brenton_Huggins" title="Charles Brenton Huggins">Charles B. Huggins</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1967: <a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Granit" title="Ragnar Granit">Ragnar Granit</a> / <a href="/wiki/Haldan_Keffer_Hartline" title="Haldan Keffer Hartline">Haldan Hartline</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Wald" title="George Wald">George Wald</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1968: <a href="/wiki/Robert_W._Holley" title="Robert W. Holley">Robert W. Holley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Har_Gobind_Khorana" title="Har Gobind Khorana">Har Khorana</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Warren_Nirenberg" title="Marshall Warren Nirenberg">Marshall Nirenberg</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1969: <a href="/wiki/Max_Delbr%C3%BCck" title="Max Delbrück">Max Delbrück</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Luria" title="Salvador Luria">Salvador Luria</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1970: <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ulf_von_Euler" title="Ulf von Euler">Ulf von Euler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julius_Axelrod" title="Julius Axelrod">Julius Axelrod</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1971: <a href="/wiki/Earl_Wilbur_Sutherland_Jr." title="Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr.">Earl Sutherland Jr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1972: <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Edelman" title="Gerald Edelman">Gerald Edelman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Robert_Porter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rodney Robert Porter">Rodney Porter</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1973: <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Nikolaas Tinbergen</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1974: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Claude" title="Albert Claude">Albert Claude</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christian_de_Duve" title="Christian de Duve">Christian de Duve</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Emil_Palade" title="George Emil Palade">George Palade</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1975: <a href="/wiki/David_Baltimore" title="David Baltimore">David Baltimore</a> / <a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a> / <a href="/wiki/Howard_Martin_Temin" title="Howard Martin Temin">Howard Temin</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">1976: <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Samuel_Blumberg" title="Baruch Samuel Blumberg">Baruch Blumberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carleton_Gajdusek" title="Daniel Carleton Gajdusek">Daniel Gajdusek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1977: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Guillemin" title="Roger Guillemin">Roger Guillemin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schally" title="Andrew Schally">Andrew Schally</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rosalyn_Sussman_Yalow" title="Rosalyn Sussman Yalow">Rosalyn Yalow</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1978: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Arber" title="Werner Arber">Werner Arber</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Nathans" title="Daniel Nathans">Daniel Nathans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hamilton_O._Smith" title="Hamilton O. Smith">Hamilton O. Smith</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1979: <a href="/wiki/Allan_MacLeod_Cormack" title="Allan MacLeod Cormack">Allan Cormack</a> / <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Hounsfield" title="Godfrey Hounsfield">Godfrey Hounsfield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1980: <a href="/wiki/Baruj_Benacerraf" title="Baruj Benacerraf">Baruj Benacerraf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jean_Dausset" title="Jean Dausset">Jean Dausset</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Davis_Snell" title="George Davis Snell">George Snell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1981: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Wolcott_Sperry" title="Roger Wolcott Sperry">Roger Sperry</a> / <a href="/wiki/David_H._Hubel" title="David H. Hubel">David H. Hubel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Torsten_Wiesel" title="Torsten Wiesel">Torsten Wiesel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1982: <a href="/wiki/Sune_Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Sune Bergström">Sune Bergström</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bengt_I._Samuelsson" title="Bengt I. Samuelsson">Bengt I. Samuelsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Vane" title="John Vane">John Vane</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1983: <a href="/wiki/Barbara_McClintock" title="Barbara McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1984: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Kaj_Jerne" title="Niels Kaj Jerne">Niels Jerne</a> / <a href="/wiki/Georges_J._F._K%C3%B6hler" title="Georges J. F. Köhler">Georges Köhler</a> / <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1985: <a href="/wiki/Michael_Stuart_Brown" title="Michael Stuart Brown">Michael Brown</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_L._Goldstein" title="Joseph L. Goldstein">Joseph L. Goldstein</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1986: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Cohen_(biochemist)" title="Stanley Cohen (biochemist)">Stanley Cohen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1987: <a href="/wiki/Susumu_Tonegawa" title="Susumu Tonegawa">Susumu Tonegawa</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1988: <a href="/wiki/James_Black_(pharmacologist)" title="James Black (pharmacologist)">James W. Black</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gertrude_B._Elion" title="Gertrude B. Elion">Gertrude B. Elion</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_H._Hitchings" title="George H. Hitchings">George H. Hitchings</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1989: <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Bishop" title="J. Michael Bishop">J. Michael Bishop</a> / <a href="/wiki/Harold_E._Varmus" title="Harold E. Varmus">Harold E. Varmus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1990: <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Murray" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Murray">Joseph Murray</a> / <a href="/wiki/E._Donnall_Thomas" title="E. Donnall Thomas">E. Donnall Thomas</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1991: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Neher" title="Erwin Neher">Erwin Neher</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bert_Sakmann" title="Bert Sakmann">Bert Sakmann</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1992: <a href="/wiki/Edmond_H._Fischer" title="Edmond H. Fischer">Edmond Fischer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edwin_G._Krebs" title="Edwin G. Krebs">Edwin G. Krebs</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1993: <a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Roberts" title="Richard J. Roberts">Richard J. Roberts</a> / <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Allen_Sharp" title="Phillip Allen Sharp">Phillip Sharp</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1994: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_G._Gilman" title="Alfred G. Gilman">Alfred G. Gilman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Rodbell" title="Martin Rodbell">Martin Rodbell</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1995: <a href="/wiki/Edward_B._Lewis" title="Edward B. Lewis">Edward B. Lewis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Christiane_N%C3%BCsslein-Volhard" title="Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard">Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_F._Wieschaus" title="Eric F. Wieschaus">Eric F. Wieschaus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1996: <a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Doherty" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter C. Doherty">Peter C. Doherty</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rolf_M._Zinkernagel" title="Rolf M. Zinkernagel">Rolf M. Zinkernagel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1997: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_B._Prusiner" title="Stanley B. Prusiner">Stanley B. Prusiner</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Furchgott" title="Robert F. Furchgott">Robert F. Furchgott</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_Ignarro" title="Louis Ignarro">Louis Ignarro</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferid_Murad" title="Ferid Murad">Ferid Murad</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">1999: <a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnter_Blobel" title="Günter Blobel">Günter Blobel</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2000: <a href="/wiki/Arvid_Carlsson" title="Arvid Carlsson">Arvid Carlsson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Greengard" title="Paul Greengard">Paul Greengard</a> / <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">2001: <a href="/wiki/Leland_H._Hartwell" title="Leland H. Hartwell">Leland H. Hartwell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tim_Hunt" title="Tim Hunt">Tim Hunt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Paul Nurse</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2002: <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Brenner" title="Sydney Brenner">Sydney Brenner</a> / <a href="/wiki/H._Robert_Horvitz" title="H. Robert Horvitz">H. Robert Horvitz</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Sulston" title="John Sulston">John E. Sulston</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2003: <a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Paul Lauterbur</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Mansfield" title="Peter Mansfield">Peter Mansfield</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2004: <a href="/wiki/Richard_Axel" title="Richard Axel">Richard Axel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linda_B._Buck" title="Linda B. Buck">Linda B. Buck</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2005: <a href="/wiki/Barry_Marshall" title="Barry Marshall">Barry Marshall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robin_Warren" title="Robin Warren">Robin Warren</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2006: <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Fire" title="Andrew Fire">Andrew Fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Craig_Mello" title="Craig Mello">Craig Mello</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2007: <a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martin_Evans" title="Martin Evans">Martin Evans</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Smithies" title="Oliver Smithies">Oliver Smithies</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2008: <a href="/wiki/Harald_zur_Hausen" title="Harald zur Hausen">Harald zur Hausen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7oise_Barr%C3%A9-Sinoussi" title="Françoise Barré-Sinoussi">Françoise Barré-Sinoussi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2009: <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Blackburn" title="Elizabeth Blackburn">Elizabeth Blackburn</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_W._Greider" title="Carol W. Greider">Carol W. Greider</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_W._Szostak" title="Jack W. Szostak">Jack W. Szostak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2010: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Edwards_(physiologist)" title="Robert Edwards (physiologist)">Robert G. Edwards</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2011: <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce Beutler</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ralph M. Steinman</a> (<i>posthumously</i>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2012: <a href="/wiki/John_Gurdon" title="John Gurdon">John Gurdon</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shinya_Yamanaka" title="Shinya Yamanaka">Shinya Yamanaka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2013: <a href="/wiki/James_Rothman" title="James Rothman">James Rothman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Randy_Schekman" title="Randy Schekman">Randy Schekman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Thomas_C._S%C3%BCdhof" title="Thomas C. Südhof">Thomas C. Südhof</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2014: <a href="/wiki/John_O%27Keefe_(neuroscientist)" title="John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)">John O'Keefe</a> / <a href="/wiki/May-Britt_Moser" title="May-Britt Moser">May-Britt Moser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edvard_Moser" title="Edvard Moser">Edvard Moser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2015: <a href="/wiki/William_C._Campbell_(scientist)" title="William C. Campbell (scientist)">William C. Campbell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Satoshi_%C5%8Cmura" title="Satoshi Ōmura">Satoshi Ōmura</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tu_Youyou" title="Tu Youyou">Tu Youyou</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2016: <a href="/wiki/Yoshinori_Ohsumi" title="Yoshinori Ohsumi">Yoshinori Ohsumi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2017: <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Hall" title="Jeffrey C. Hall">Jeffrey C. Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Rosbash" title="Michael Rosbash">Michael Rosbash</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Young" title="Michael W. Young">Michael W. Young</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2018: <a href="/wiki/James_P._Allison" title="James P. Allison">James P. Allison</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tasuku_Honjo" title="Tasuku Honjo">Tasuku Honjo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2019: <a href="/wiki/Gregg_L._Semenza" title="Gregg L. Semenza">Gregg L. Semenza</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Ratcliffe" title="Peter J. Ratcliffe">Peter J. Ratcliffe</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Kaelin_Jr." title="William Kaelin Jr.">William Kaelin Jr.</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2020_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2020 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2020</a>: <a href="/wiki/Harvey_J._Alter" title="Harvey J. Alter">Harvey J. Alter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michael_Houghton_(virologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Houghton (virologist)">Michael Houghton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Rice" title="Charles M. Rice">Charles M. Rice</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2021_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2021</a>: <a href="/wiki/David_Julius" title="David Julius">David Julius</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ardem_Patapoutian" title="Ardem Patapoutian">Ardem Patapoutian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2022_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2022 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2022</a>: <a href="/wiki/Svante_P%C3%A4%C3%A4bo" title="Svante Pääbo">Svante Pääbo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/2023_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">2023</a>: <a href="/wiki/Katalin_Karik%C3%B3" title="Katalin Karikó">Katalin Karikó</a> / <a href="/wiki/Drew_Weissman" title="Drew Weissman">Drew Weissman</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">2024: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Ambros" title="Victor Ambros">Victor Ambros</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gary_Ruvkun" title="Gary Ruvkun">Gary Ruvkun</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="2011_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:2011_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2011 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:2011_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:2011 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:2011_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:2011 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="2011_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">2011 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dan_Shechtman" title="Dan Shechtman">Dan Shechtman</a> (Israel)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/2011_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="2011 Nobel Prize in Literature">2011</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tomas_Transtr%C3%B6mer" title="Tomas Tranströmer">Tomas Tranströmer</a> (Sweden)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a> (<a href="/wiki/2011_Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="2011 Nobel Peace Prize">2011</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Johnson_Sirleaf" title="Ellen Johnson Sirleaf">Ellen Johnson Sirleaf</a> (Liberia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leymah_Gbowee" title="Leymah Gbowee">Leymah Gbowee</a> (Liberia)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawakkol_Karman" title="Tawakkol Karman">Tawakkul Karman</a> (Yemen)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Perlmutter" title="Saul Perlmutter">Saul Perlmutter</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Riess" title="Adam Riess">Adam Riess</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Brian P. Schmidt</a> (Australia/United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Beutler" title="Bruce Beutler">Bruce A. Beutler</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jules_A._Hoffmann" title="Jules A. Hoffmann">Jules A. Hoffmann</a> (France)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ralph M. Steinman</a> (Canada/United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Memorial_Prize_in_Economic_Sciences" title="Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences">Economic Sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_A._Sims" title="Christopher A. Sims">Christopher A. Sims</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Sargent" title="Thomas J. Sargent">Thomas J. Sargent</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></span></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2006_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2006 Nobel Prize winners">2006</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2007_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2007 Nobel Prize winners">2007</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2008_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2008 Nobel Prize winners">2008</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2009_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2009 Nobel Prize winners">2009</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2010_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2010 Nobel Prize winners">2010</a></dd> <dd><b>2011 </b></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2012_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2012 Nobel Prize winners">2012</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2013_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2013 Nobel Prize winners">2013</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2014_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2014 Nobel Prize winners">2014</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2015_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2015 Nobel Prize winners">2015</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:2016_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:2016 Nobel Prize winners">2016</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105494#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105494#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105494#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" 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